Notes Introduction 1. This is the nickname accorded to the Eiffel Tower by Parisians, according to the authors of a collectively-signed letter to Le Temps protesting against it. ‘Les artistes contre la tour Eiffel’, Le Temps, 14 February 1887, pp. 2–3 (p. 2). 2. ‘Les artistes contre la tour Eiffel’, p. 2. 3. ‘L’âme de la France, créatrice des chefs-d’oeuvre, resplendit parmi cette floraison auguste de pierres.’ [‘The soul of France, creator of masterpieces, is resplendent within this majestic flowering of stone.’] ‘Les artistes contre la tour Eiffel’, p. 2. 4. As John Joseph reminds us, ‘the word genius itself is etymologically connected to genesis and genetic, all having to do with origin’. For Romantic thinkers, ‘there are within any given people certain rare individuals whom we identify as “geniuses”, the original sense of this having been that such individuals somehow embody that originary essence of their people and culture’. Language and Identity: National, Ethic, Religious (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 45–6. 5. ‘Les artistes contre la tour Eiffel’, p. 3. 6. Blaise Cendrars and Sonia Delaunay, La prose du transsibérien et de la petite Jehanne de France, facsimile edn. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010). 7. Cendrars presents the Eiffel Tower as a truly global image and writes: ‘C’est toi qui à l’époque légendaire du people hébreu / Confondis la langue des hommes / O Babel!’. Du monde entier au coeur du monde: poèmes de Blaise Cendrars (Paris: Denoël, 1987), pp. 82–3. 8. Michael North, Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 58. 9. John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology (New York: Henry Holt, 1922), pp. 82–3. Cited in North, Reading 1922, p. 58. 10. See also Rebecca Beasley’s argument that ‘the aesthetic and ideology of European modernism arises not simply from its internationalism (Kenner), nor in response to the differentiation of linguistic registers (Jameson), but in reaction against the increased experience of the diversity of national languages.’ Rebecca Beasley, ‘Modernism’s Translations’, in The Oxford Handbook of Global Modernisms, ed. Mark Wollaeger and Matt Eatough (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 551–70 (p. 555). 11. For a succinct summary of the ‘transnational turn’ in modernist studies, see Douglas Mao and Rebecca L. Walkowitz, ‘The New Modernist Studies’, PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, 123 (2008), 737–48. 12. Steven G. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism: Gender, Politics, Language (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. 6. 13. George Steiner, Extraterritorial (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), p. 10. 180

Notes to Introduction 181 14. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, p. 6. 15. Daniel Katz, American Modernism’s Expatriate Scene: The Labour of Translation (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007). 16. Steven G. Kellman (ed.), Switching Languages: Translingual Writers Reflect on Their Craft (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), p. ix. 17. The full text of the poem, with annotations, is reproduced in Julia Briggs, ‘Hope Mirrlees and Continental Modernism’, in Gender in Modernism: New Geographies, Complex Intersections, ed. Bonnie Kime Scott (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007), pp. 261–303. 18. Marjorie Perloff, ‘English as a “Second” Language: Mina Loy’s “AngloMongrels and the Rose”’, Jacket Magazine, 5 (1998) [accessed 1 December 2010]. 19. M. M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Michael Holquist and Caryl Emerson (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), p. 68. It is important to maintain the distinction between intra- and interlingual diversity in Bakhtin which, as Rainier Grutman has argued, is obscured in the translation of ‘raznorecˇie’ as ‘heteroglossia’ in English and, even more misleadingly, ‘plurilinguisme’ in French. As he points out, Bakhtin’s term is in fact ‘an archaism [turned] into a neologism by giving it an entirely new meaning, which can more readily be subsumed under the heading of “internal (regional, social etc.) variation” than under that of “external variation” (bi- or multilingualism). The usual translations are thus misleading since they are constructed on the etymons glossa and lingua, which both mean “language” in its plainest sense, as in polyglot or bilingual.’ ‘Mono Versus Stereo: Bilingualism’s Double Face’, Visible Language, 27 (1993), 206–27 (p. 212). 20. The narrator, at the outset of the novel, emphasises the narrative’s basis in ‘documentary evidence’, and presents himself as purely the translator of already-recorded events: the narrative is ‘based on a document; all I have brought to it is my knowledge of the Russian language’. Joseph Conrad, Under Western Eyes (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1957), p. 11. 21. Ford Madox Ford, The Good Soldier, ed. Martin Stannard, Norton Critical Edition (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), p. 5. 22. Ford Madox Ford, Joseph Conrad: A Personal Remembrance (London: Duckworth, 1924). Rhys recalls Ford’s advice that ‘if you weren’t sure of a paragraph or statement, translate it into another language’. Pierrette M. Frickey (ed.), Critical Perspectives on Jean Rhys (Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1990), p. 24. 23. Daniel Karlin, Proust’s English (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 7. 24. Victor Llona, ‘Foreigners Writing in French’, transition, 2 (1927), 169–74 (p. 169). 25. W. T. Elwert, ‘L’emploi de langues étrangères comme procédé stylistique’, Revue de littérature comparée, 34 (1960), 409–37 (pp. 409–10). Leonard Forster, The Poet’s Tongues: Multilingualism in Literature (London: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 6–7. William Mackey, ‘Literary Diglossia, Biculturalism and Cosmopolitanism in Literature’, Visible Language, 27 (1993), 41–66 (p. 48). Steven G. Kellman, The Translingual Imagination (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), p. 8. Kenneth Haynes, English Literature and Ancient Languages (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 1. 26. John R. Edwards, Multilingualism (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 1.

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27. See, for example, Lawrence Alan Rosenwald, Multilingual America: Language and the Making of American Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Werner Sollors (ed.), Multilingual America: Transnationalism, Ethnicity, and the Languages of American Literature (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Joshua L. Miller, Accented America: The Cultural Politics of Multilingual Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011). Another recent study, Brian Lennon’s In Babel’s Shadow: Multilingual Literatures, Monolingual States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), although not only about American literature, uses multilingual literature to scrutinise and challenge the monolingualism of the US publishing industry. 28. George Steiner, After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation, 3rd edn. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 1–50. 29. Jacques Derrida, Le monolinguisme de l’autre (Paris: Galilée, 1996). 30. Édouard Glissant, Introduction à une poétique du divers (Paris: Gallimard, 1996), p. 112. 31. Kellman, The Translingual Imagination, p. 4. Forster, The Poet’s Tongues, p. 3. Haynes, English Literature and Ancient Languages, p. 1. 32. Dirk Delabastita and Rainier Grutman, for example, in their introduction to a collection of essays on fictional representations of translation and multilingualism, write that they, as editors, have favoured ‘a very open and flexible concept which acknowledges not only the “official” taxonomy of languages but also the incredible range of subtypes and varieties existing within the various officially recognised languages, and indeed sometimes cutting across and challenging our neat linguistic typologies’. ‘Introduction: Fictional Representations of Multilingualism and Translation’, Linguistica Antverpiensa, New Series, 4 (2005), 11–34 (p. 15). Ton Hoenselaars and Marius Buning (eds.), English Literature and the Other Languages (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999) presents a similar approach, and includes an ‘Afterword’ by N. F. Blake (pp. 323–41) that directly discusses inter- and intralingual diversity. 33. Rosenwald, Multilingual America, p. 6. 34. Steiner, Extraterritorial, p. 19. 35. Kellman, The Translingual Imagination, p. 31. Jean Weisgerber (ed.), Les avantgardes et la tour de Babel: interactions des arts et des langues (Lausanne: L’Age d’homme, 2000), p. 9. 36. Samuel Beckett, ‘Dante ... Bruno. Vico .. Joyce’, in Our Exagmination Round his Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress (London: Faber, 1929), p. 14.

1 Modernism and Babel 1. Hugo von Hofmannsthal, ‘Ein Brief’, in Sämtliche Werke, ed. Christoph Perels and others (Frankfurt: Fischer Verlag, 1991), 45–55 (p. 49). 2. Hugo von Hofmannsthal, ‘The Letter of Lord Chandos’, in Selected Prose, trans. Mary Hittinger, Tania Stern and James Stern (New York: Pantheon Books, 1952), pp. 129–41 (p. 134). 3. Hofmannsthal, ‘Ein Brief’, p. 49. 4. Hofmannsthal, ‘The Letter of Lord Chandos’, p. 134.

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5. Hofmannsthal, ‘Ein Brief’, p. 54. 6. Hofmannsthal, ‘The Letter of Lord Chandos’, pp. 140–1. 7. David E. Wellbery, Judith Ryan and Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht (eds.), A New History of German Literature, Harvard University Press Reference Library (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2004), p. 655. 8. The letter and Hofmannsthal’s reply are reproduced in Sämtliche Werke, ed. Christoph Perels et al., p. 286. Hofmannsthal’s reply confirms that he has read some of Mauthner’s work, but denies any direct influence in the story. 9. For an analysis of the impact of bilingualism on the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein, see Michael North, Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 34–64. For North, ‘there is no doubt that [Wittgenstein’s] philosophy took shape through a process of bilingual conversation’ (p. 34). 10. Fritz Mauthner, Beiträge zu einer Kritik der Sprache, 3rd edn. (Stuttgart: Cotta, 1921), p. 176. 11. See Gershon Weiler, Mauthner’s Critique of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 59–60. 12. Linda Ben-Zvi, ‘Samuel Beckett, Fritz Mauthner, and the Limits of Language’, PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, 95 (1980), 183–200 (p. 183nn13–14). 13. William M. Johnston, The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), p. 197. Gershon Weiler describes Mauthner’s complex linguistic upbringing: ‘His mothertongue was German and with the servants he spoke Czech. He also had to study Czech in the gymnasium as a second living language, and being Jewish, he was subjected to the rudiments of Hebrew, even though it is unlikely that he ever passed beyond the point of mastering the alphabet. Born in a linguistic border-area and growing up at the time of the rising Czech nationalism, awareness of his own Jewish background necessarily made him question his own identity and belonging.’ Weiler, Mauthner’s Critique of Language, p. 332. 14. António Sousa Ribeiro indicates the significance of Hofmannsthal’s 1926 essay ‘Das Schrifttum als geistiger Raum der Nation’ [‘Literature as the Spiritual Space of the Nation’] in which he asserts ‘that beyond the spirit of the language there lies the spirit of nation’. ‘A Center That Can Hold: The Figure of Empire in Portuguese and Austrian Modernism’, in Modernism, ed. Ástráður Eysteinsson and Vivian Liska (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2007), pp. 561–72 (p. 566). 15. Emilie Morin, ‘Samuel Beckett, the Wordless Song and the Pitfalls of Memorialisation’, Irish Studies Review, 19 (2011), 185–205. 16. Weiler, Mauthner’s Critique of Language, pp. 273–4. 17. As Morin argues, this is an important facet of his influence upon Beckett’s French prose. See Morin, ‘Samuel Beckett, the Wordless Song and the Pitfalls of Memorialisation’. 18. Umberto Eco, The Search for the Perfect Language, trans. James Fentress (London: Fontana, 1997), pp. 317–36. See also Morag Shiach, ‘“To Purify the Dialect of the Tribe”: Modernism and Language Reform’, Modernism/ Modernity, 14 (2007), 21–34. 19. See North, Reading 1922, pp. 58–61.

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20. ‘Ostranenie’ is most commonly translated into English as ‘defamiliarisation’, which has now entered our critical vocabulary as a general term to define processes of ‘making strange’ in broader terms. As Benjamin Sher argues in his translator’s introduction to Theory of Prose, however, ‘defamiliarisation’ is a flawed translation of the specific connotations of Shklovsky’s ‘ostranenie’, which ‘is not a transition from the “familiar” to the “unknown” (implicitly). On the contrary, it proceeds from the cognitively known (the language of science), the rules and formulas that arise from a search for an economy of mental effort, to the familiarly known, that is, to real knowledge that expands and “complicates” our perceptual process in the rich use of metaphors, similes, and a host of other figures of speech.’ Viktor Shklovsky, Theory of Prose, trans. Benjamin Sher (Elmwood Park, IL: Dalkey Archive Press, 1990), p. xix. I therefore favour Sher’s translation of ‘ostranenie’ as ‘enstrangement’, which also takes into account the neologistic nature of the Russian term. Where I do use the term ‘defamiliarisation’, I am referring to more general modernist tendencies, in keeping with the broader connotations that the word has acquired. 21. Stéphane Mallarmé, ‘Crise de vers’, in Igitur, Divagations, Un coup de dés (Paris: Gallimard, 1976), pp. 239–52 (p. 244). 22. Stéphane Mallarmé, ‘Crise de vers’, in Mallarmé: The Poet and his Circle, trans. Rosemary Lloyd (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1999), pp. 227–33 (p. 230). 23. Mallarmé, ‘Crise de vers’ (Igitur), pp. 244–5. 24. Mallarmé, ‘Crise de vers’ (trans. Lloyd), p. 230. 25. Mallarmé, ‘Crise de vers’ (Igitur), p. 240. 26. Stéphane Mallarmé, ‘Les Mots anglais’, in Oeuvres complètes II, ed. Bertrand Marchal (Paris: Gallimard, 2003), pp. 937–1100. 27. Jean-Michel Rabaté, The Ghosts of Modernity, Crosscurrents (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996), p. 104. 28. Mallarmé, ‘Les Mots anglais’, p. 1025. 29. See Rabaté, The Ghosts of Modernity, p. 104, for a discussion of the metalinguistic function that English serves for both Mallarmé and Verlaine. 30. Rabaté notes that ‘the strange mannerisms that distinguish Mallarmé’s prose style often come from an imitation of English idioms’ and provides some examples of such effects. Rabaté, The Ghosts of Modernity, pp. 103, 116. 31. Samuel Beckett, Molloy (Paris: Minuit, 1951), p. 66. Samuel Beckett, Molloy, Malone Dies, The Unnamable (London: Calder, 1959), p. 50. 32. Eugene Jolas and others, ‘Inquiry About the Malady of Language’, transition, 23 (1935), 144–74 (p. 153). 33. C. K. Ogden, trans., ‘James Joyce’s “Anna Livia Plurabelle” in Basic English’, transition, 21 (1932), 259–62. 34. As Beckett explains to one enquirer, his reason for writing in French was ‘le besoin d’être mal armé’ [‘the need to be ill equipped’ but also, punningly, ‘the need to be Mallarmé’]. The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume II: 1941–1956, ed. George Craig and others (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 462, 464. See Chapter 5 of this book for a discussion of Beckett’s statement. 35. Shklovsky, Theory of Prose, p. 6. 36. Shklovsky, Theory of Prose, p. 6.

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37. Viktor Shklovsky, ‘The Resurrection of the Word’, in Russian Formalism: A Collection of Articles and Texts in Translation, ed. Stephen Bann and John E Bowlt, trans. Richard Sherwood (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1973), p. 46. 38. Shklovsky, Theory of Prose, p. 12. 39. Michael North, The Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language, and TwentiethCentury Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 16–18. Such anxieties are also manifest in responses to the literature of American expatriate writers, as Daniel Katz has demonstrated. Wyndham Lewis, for example, critiques Hemingway’s use (under the influence of Gertrude Stein) of an American vernacular which is being ‘debased’ through the impact of immigrant speech on the language (and whose potential influence on English language and letters Lewis also fears). Daniel Katz, American Modernism’s Expatriate Scene: The Labour of Translation (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), pp. 101–10. 40. Jolas and others, ‘Inquiry About the Malady of Language’, p. 144. 41. The article contains responses by 29 writers to the following questions: ‘I. Do you believe that, in the present world-crisis, the Revolution of Language is necessary in order to hasten the re-integration of the human personality? II. Do you envisage this possibility through a re-adaptation of existing words, or do you favour a revolutionary creation of new words?’ Jolas and others, ‘Inquiry About the Malady of Language’, p. 144. 42. Jolas and others, ‘Inquiry About the Malady of Language’, pp. 146, 147, 157, 149–50. 43. As Jolas writes in 1933: ‘With this issue, transition enters upon a new policy of tri-lingual publication. The crisis of language is now going on in every part of the Occident. It seems, therefore, essential to retain the linguistic creative material intact, and to present constructive work, as much as possible, in the original.’ ‘Glossary’, transition, 22 (1933), 177. 44. See Steven G. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism: Gender, Politics, Language (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). As Yao writes, ‘The sheer abundance of translations produced during the period gives concrete, textual expression to interest on the part of Modernist writers, both in England and the United States, in foreign cultures and, most especially, languages as sources of both instruction and inspiration for renewing their own culture and expanding the possibilities of expression in English’ (p. 5). 45. Craig Monk, ‘Eugene Jolas and the Translation Policies of transition’, Mosaic: a Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature, 32 (1999), 17–34. 46. See Eugene Jolas, ‘The Revolution of Language and James Joyce’, transition, 11 (1928), 109–16. 47. Walter Benjamin, Illuminationen: Ausgewählte Schriften (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1961), p. 67. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (London: Pimlico, 1999), p. 80. 48. Benjamin, Illuminationen, p. 65. 49. Benjamin, Illuminations, p. 79. 50. Benjamin, Illuminationen, p. 60. Benjamin, Illuminations, p. 73. 51. Benjamin, Illuminationen, p. 68. 52. Benjamin, Illuminations, p. 81.

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53. ‘Je weniger Wert und Würde seine Sprache hat, je mehr es Mitteilung ist, desto weniger ist für die Übersetzung dabei zu gewinnen, bis das völlige Übergewicht jenes Sinnes, weit entfernt der Hebel einer formvollen Übersetzung zu sein, diese vereitelt. Je höher ein Werk geartet ist, desto mehr bleibt es selbst in flüchtigster Berührung seines Sinnes noch übersetzbar.’ [The lower the quality and distinction of its language, the larger the extent to which it is information, the less fertile field it is for translation, until the utter preponderance of content, far from being the lever for a translation of distinctive mode, renders it impossible. The higher the level of a work, the more does it remain translatable even if its meaning is touched upon only fleetingly.] Benjamin, Illuminationen, p. 68. Benjamin, Illuminations, p. 81. 54. Benjamin, Illuminationen, p. 66. 55. Benjamin, Illuminations, p. 79. 56. Benjamin, Illuminationen, p. 64. Benjamin, Illuminations, p. 78. 57. Lawrence Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 99–118. 58. Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility, p. 187. 59. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, p. 13. 60. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, pp. 8, 13. 61. Yao cites, as examples of this, Joyce’s translation of Vor Sonnenaufgang with ‘at best a tenuous grasp of German’, Yeat’s translation of Oedipus Rex and Oedipus at Colonus with no knowledge of Greek at all, H.D.’s contested knowledge of Greek and Pound’s complete lack of knowledge of Chinese when he embarked upon Cathay. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, pp. 11–12. 62. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, pp. 6–7. 63. Victor Llona, ‘Foreigners Writing in French’, transition, 2 (1927), 169–74 (p. 169). 64. Johann Gottfried von Herder, Werke Band I: Herder Und Der Sturm Und Drang 1764–1774 (München: Hanser, 1984), p. 81. 65. Johann Gottfried von Herder, Philosophical Writings, ed. Michael N. Forster, trans. Michael N. Forster, Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 50. 66. Herder, Werke Band I, p. 82. 67. Herder, Philosophical Writings, p. 51. 68. Forster writes in his introduction to his translation of Herder’s writings that Herder’s insistence on the importance of national groupings does not equate to nationalism for a number of reasons: his political position is not one of asserting Germany’s national superiority (unlike Fichte), is not defined by race, does not involve a ‘centralised or militaristic state’, and is accompanied by ‘the strongest denunciations of military conflict, colonial exploitation, and all other forms of harm between nations’. Indeed, it is precisely this latter feature of his thought that defines his insistence on national groupings: ‘[Herder] believes that the deep diversity of values between nations entails that homogenization is ultimately impracticable, only a fantasy; that it also entails that, to the extent that homogenization is practicable, it cannot occur voluntarily but only through external coercion; that in practice attempts to achieve it, for example by European colonialism, are moreover coercive from, and subserve, ulterior motives of domination and

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69. 70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75. 76. 77. 78.

79.

80. 81.

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exploitation; and, furthermore, that real national variety is positively valuable, both as affording individuals a vital sense of local belonging and in itself.’ Herder, Philosophical Writings, p. xxxii. Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Reden an die deutsche Nation (Leipzig: Felix Meiner, 1919), p. 207. Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Fichte: Addresses to the German Nation, ed. Gregory Moore, trans. Gregory Moore, Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 166. M. M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Michael Holquist and Caryl Emerson (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), p. 68. Emilie Morin notes the ‘conceptual proximity’ of the Irish Literary Revival ‘to nationalist projects in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe’, and writes that the Revival ‘is generally envisaged as a culturally orthodox, antimodern phenomenon, shaped by the nationalism of Yeats’s early writings […]. When issuing guidelines to Irish writers in the 1890s, Yeats associated the idea of a national literature with stylistic and thematic homogeneity, gradually imposing an understanding of Irish writing that was largely defined by its proximity to folk myth and legend.’ Revivalist writers, despite their differences, shared a ‘desire to find modes of representation through which the nation might be awakened to a sense of its own cultural specificity’. Samuel Beckett and the Problem of Irishness (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp. 25–6. Eugene Jolas, Man from Babel, ed. Andreas Kramer and Rainer Rumold (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), p. 10. See also ‘Logocinéma of the Frontierman’, a trilingual poem which expresses his own trilingual poetic development, but which ends with a nightmarish articulation of his ‘triwords’ as being in ‘chaosnight’. Eugene Jolas, ‘Logocinéma of the Frontierman’, transition, 23 (1935), 187–91. As Robert Chodat has argued, languages in The Waste Land ‘stand […] as mutually exclusive, discrete, independent of one another’. Robert Chodat, ‘The Many Uses of Dialogue: Eliot, Stevens, and the Foreign Word’, English Language Notes, 41 (2004), 50–63 (p. 56). Theodor W. Adorno, ‘Wörter aus der Fremde’, in Noten zur Literatur (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1981), pp. 216–32. T. S. Eliot, Collected Poems, 1909–1962 (London: Faber, 1974), p. 81. Eliot, Collected Poems, p. 86. T. S. Eliot, The Waste Land: a Facsimile and Transcript of the Original Drafts Including the Annotations of Ezra Pound, ed. Valerie Eliot (London: Faber, 1971), p. 149. In later editions, Eliot deletes this judgement of the translation, describing the English phrase as ‘our equivalent to this word’. It is significant that Eliot, in this revised version, does not describe the English specifically as a translation at all. Nico Israel, ‘Geography’, in A Companion to Modernist Literature and Culture, ed. David Bradshaw and Kevin J. H. Dettmar (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006), pp. 128–9. Israel, ‘Geography’, p. 129. Rebecca L. Walkowitz, Cosmopolitan Style: Modernism Beyond the Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), p. 22.

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82. Walkowitz, Cosmopolitan Style, p. 22. 83. F. R. Leavis, ‘Joyce and “the Revolution of the Word”’, Scrutiny, 2 (1933), 193–201. 84. Leavis, ‘Joyce and “the Revolution of the Word”’, pp. 199, 195. 85. Leavis, ‘Joyce and “the Revolution of the Word”’, pp. 195–6. 86. Unlike Eliot’s deliberate separation of languages as distinct shards and fragments, Joyce’s portmanteau idiom explores creolising processes and interlingual complementarity. As Derek Attridge puts it, the Wake ‘shatters any illusion that the systems of difference in language are fixed and sharply drawn’, and a significant aspect of this is a ‘blurring’ of ‘edges between languages, dialects, registers, idiolects’. Derek Attridge, Peculiar Language: Literature as Difference from the Renaissance to James Joyce (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 204. Even as Joyce’s language emphasises plurality and difference, it brings languages together in harmony as well as discord. As Laurent Milesi has demonstrated, the ‘miscegenated portmanteau word […] aptly reconciles, as it were through a process of at-one-ment, estranged languages and cultures they represent into a localized, transcultural synthesis’. Laurent Milesi, ‘Joyce, Language and Languages’, in Palgrave Advances in James Joyce Studies, ed. Jean-Michel Rabaté (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 144–61 (p. 154). 87. Leavis, New Bearings in English Poetry: A Study of the Contemporary Situation (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), pp. 77–8. 88. Leavis, ‘Joyce and “the Revolution of the Word”’, p. 197. 89. Leavis, ‘Joyce and “the Revolution of the Word”’, p. 200. 90. Jolas, ‘The Revolution of Language and James Joyce’. This essay was republished in Samuel Beckett and others, Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress (London: Faber, 1929). 91. Eugene Jolas and others, ‘Proclamation’, transition, 16/17 (1929), 13. 92. Jolas and others, Proclamation’, p. 13. 93. Jolas, ‘The Revolution of Language and James Joyce’, p. 115. 94. Jolas, ‘The Revolution of Language and James Joyce’, pp. 112, 114. 95. Jolas, ‘The Revolution of Language and James Joyce’, p. 114. 96. Eugene Jolas, ‘The King’s English Is Dying – Long Live the Great American Language’, transition, 19/20 (1930), 141–6 (p. 146). 97. Eugene Jolas, ‘Logos’, transition, 16/17 (1929), 25–30 (p. 28). Jolas celebrates American English in particular. He argues that ‘[i]n the crucible of the immense racial fusion of indigenous and immigrant America there is occurring today an astounding creation that ultimately will make the American language, because of its greater richness and pliancy and nearness to life, the successor of British English […] It is in the immigrant development of the new America that the possibilities for a fundamental revolution of the word are inherent.’ Jolas, ‘The King’s English Is Dying – Long Live the Great American Language’, p. 146. 98. As Jolas writes: ‘the manifesto was simply an aphoristic expression of my own convictions, an echo of my own concrete experiences. I had been caught in the labyrinth of idiomatic interfusions and transformations since early childhood. I had lived in a climate of word-interpolations before emigrating to America. In my boyhood I had heard not only two major tongues at war, but also a blending of their patois. In city-rooms I had experienced

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99. 100.

101. 102.

103. 104. 105. 106. 107.

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intimately the American language, as well as the numerous languages of the melting-pot: alloyages of assimilated nouns and verbs in the crucible of New York, the speech of mill-towns, southern types of Anglo-Saxon English, Creole English, Afro-American. Nor should it be forgotten that I had participated in the linguistic reorientation of Alsace-Lorraine since the end of the First World War.’ Jolas, Man from Babel, p. 108. Carola Giedon-Welcker, ‘Work in Progress: A Linguistic Experiment by James Joyce’, transition, trans. Eugene Jolas, 19/20 (1930), 174–83 (p. 179). As Leonard Bloomfield wrote in 1933, ‘the creolized language has the status of an inferior dialect of the masters’ speech. It is subject to constant levelling-out and improvement in the direction of the latter.’ Cited in Lawrence Alan Rosenwald, Multilingual America: Language and the Making of American Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 17. North, The Dialect of Modernism, p. 80. Marjorie Perloff cites James’s warning to students at Bryn Mawr College that the new immigrants were turning the American language into ‘a mere helpless slobber of disconnected vowel noises’ akin to ‘the grunting, the squealing, the barking, or the roaring of animals’. ‘“Logocinéma of the Frontiersman”: Eugene Jolas’s Multilingual Poetics and Its Legacies’, in Differentials: Poetry, Poetics, Pedagogy (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004), pp. 82–101 (p. 83). Jolas, Man from Babel, p. 110. Giedon-Welcker, ‘Work in Progress’, pp. 182, 179. Jolas, ‘The King’s English Is Dying – Long Live the Great American Language’, p. 145. Jolas, ‘Logos’, p. 29. Laurent Milesi (ed.), James Joyce and the Difference of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 14.

2 Representing Languages in Modernist Fiction 1. Meir Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, Poetics Today, 2 (1981), 221–39. I am indebted to Lawrence Rosenwald’s excellent book, Multilingual America: Language and the Making of American Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), for drawing my attention to this important article. 2. Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, p. 222. 3. M. M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Michael Holquist and Caryl Emerson (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), p. 12. 4. F. R. Leavis, New Bearings in English Poetry: A Study of the Contemporary Situation (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), pp. 77–8. 5. Sternberg writes that there is a crucial difference between the mimetic ‘object-sensitive reporting’ of polylingual discourse and ‘the gratuitous alternation or arbitrary blending of linguistic vehicles in multilingual literature’. Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, p. 222. 6. As Sternberg writes, vehicular matching ‘far from avoiding linguistic diversity or conflict, accepts them as a matter of course, as a fact of life and a

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10. 11.

12.

Notes to Chapter 2 factor of communication, and sometimes even deliberately seeks them out – suiting the variations in the representational medium to the variations in the represented object’. The examples he cites include scholarly works, the proceedings of international conferences, and in art, Jean Renoir’s bilingual film La grande illusion and Shaw’s Pygmalion. ‘Homogenizing convention’, on the other hand, ‘retains the freedom of reference while dismissing the resultant variations in the language presumably spoken by the characters as an irrelevant, if not distracting, representational factor’. His examples include the speech of animals in Alice in Wonderland and La Fontaine’s fables, and the ‘anti-historical Englishing of the polylingual discourse held in the world of Romans and Egyptians’ in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. Sternberg also includes a further category, ‘referential restriction’, which avoids representing a polylingual reality altogether, ‘confining the scope of the represented world to the limits of a single, linguistically uniform community whose speech-patterns correspond to those of the implied audience, sometimes to the point of excluding interdialectical as well as interlingual tensions, as in the novels of Jane Austen’. Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, pp. 223–4. Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, pp. 225, 227, 230, 231. Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, p. 226. Sternberg defines this as ‘intratextual “dual-language” rendition, where either the heterolingual source or its narratorial translation is parenthetically superadded: the sequence “source → translation” often implies a lower standard of bilingual competence than the sequence “translation → source”’. Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, p. 227. Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, p. 222. D. H. Lawrence, Women in Love, ed. David Farmer, Lindeth Vasey and John Worthen (London: Penguin, 2007), p. 406. Subsequent page references to the novel will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation WL. As Bethan Jones writes, the poem ‘Strife’ is indicative of Lawrence’s preoccupation with the ‘creative tension of contraries’. The Last Poems of D. H. Lawrence: Shaping a Late Style (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010), p. 103. When strife is a thing of two each knows the other in struggle and the conflict is a communion a twoness. But when strife is a thing of one a single ego striving for its own ends and beating down resistances then strife is evil, because it is not strife. (D. H. Lawrence, The Complete Poems of D. H. Lawrence, ed. Vivian de Sola Pinto and Warren Roberts (London: Penguin, 1993), p. 714)

13. Fiona Becket, D. H. Lawrence: The Thinker as Poet (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), p. 156. 14. Fiona Becket makes a compelling argument for the presence of this conceptual structure in the very language and style of Women in Love, in what she calls its

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15.

16.

17. 18. 19. 20.

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‘oxymoronic mode’ (as epitomised, for example, in Birkin’s use of the phrase ‘star-equilibrium’ to encapsulate his ideal. As Becket writes: ‘In “star-equilibrium” Lawrence makes the hyphenated construction bear a great deal of the “metaphysical” weight […]. Crucially, in this example the metaphor and the idea it embodies radically, if crudely, coincide. They do so in this way: in “starequilibrium” two normally unrelated (verbal) elements are brought into a specific relationship which is concretized by the graphic presence of the hyphen. However, in bringing these elements into mutual proximity the hyphen also simultaneously holds them apart. We see the verbal elements neighbouring each other without yet understanding the logic of the construction. “Starequilibrium” is not an oxymoron, yet in its own internal logic (the proximity of the two verbal elements), the structure of oxymoron is imitated. Hence, there is a profound homology, of which Lawrence does not have to be conscious, between the structure of oxymoron and the structure of “star-equilibrium” as Rupert Birkin’s way of talking about “love”. This makes “star-equilibrium” a linguistic structure that resembles the central “metaphysical” idea it describes. It does so by bringing two elements into the relation described and simultaneously holding them apart so that each retains a separateness in relation to the other.’ Becket, D. H. Lawrence: The Thinker as Poet, p. 161. Howard J. Booth, ‘Lawrence in Doubt: A Theory of the “Other” and Its Collapse’, in Modernism and Empire, ed. Howard J. Booth and Nigel Rigby (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), pp. 197–223 (p. 203). D. H. Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Literature, ed. Ezra Greenspan, Lindeth Vasey and John Worthen, The Cambridge Edition of the Works of D. H. Lawrence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 17. Neil Roberts, D. H. Lawrence, Travel and Cultural Difference (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p. 19. Roberts, D. H. Lawrence, Travel and Cultural Difference, p. 7. See Roberts, D. H. Lawrence, Travel and Cultural Difference, p. 8. See Booth, ‘Lawrence in Doubt: A Theory of the “Other” and Its Collapse’, for a useful overview of Lawrence’s changing theories of racial otherness. Whereas the encounters with European cultures in Lawrence’s work are primarily represented as interlingual encounters, the languages of non-European cultures (and racial ‘others’) are notably absent. We see this in Women in Love, for example, where European languages are very much present, but African culture is effectively silent, entering the book in the form of sculptures displayed in Halliday’s flat. Birkin’s appropriative modernist perception of such African ‘primitivism’ is so effectively and transformationally other because it is purely visual, non-verbal. Moreover, the discourse of Halliday’s Hindu servant Hasan, who appears in the same scene, is repeatedly undermined: his imperfect English is described in terms of non-verbal ‘grinning’ and ‘murmuring’, and his talking is described as a ‘confused sound’ (WL 73). As Michael North tells us, the representation of non-European languages in non-verbal terms – as noise – forms a tradition stretching back to the time of Herodotus. Conrad’s descriptions of non-European languages form part of this tradition – in the ‘murmur, rumor, mutter, or tumult’ used to evoke speech in the Indies, in the ‘uncouth babbling noise’ made by the Africans in ‘An Outpost of Progress’ or the ‘steady droning sound’ of those in Heart of Darkness. Such representation of speech ‘is one way of representing European

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22.

23. 24. 25.

26.

27. 28. 29.

30. 31. 32. 33.

34.

35. 36.

Notes to Chapter 2 incomprehension, but taken literally such words simply deny that a foreign language is a language at all’. Michael North, The Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language, and Twentieth-Century Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 42. Dorothy Richardson, likewise, negates the linguistic presence of African or Indian languages in Pilgrimage, as we will see. Dorothy Miller Richardson, Pilgrimage 1: Pointed Roofs, Backwater, Honeycomb (London: J. M. Dent, 1967), p. 49. Subsequent references will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation P1. Dorothy Miller Richardson, Pilgrimage 4: Oberland, Dawn’s Left Hand, Clear Horizon, Dimple Hill, March Moonlight (London: J. M. Dent, 1967), p. 25. Subsequent page references will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation P4. It reflects an adjectival exercise, e.g. ‘simple, simpler, simplest’. Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, p. 223. As Grutman notes, multilingual texts are often homogenised in translation. Rainier Grutman, ‘Multilingualism and Translation’, in Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, ed. Mona Baker and Kirsten Malmkjaer (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 157–60 (p. 160). Attempting to teach French pronunciation to Mrs Bailey’s untalented daughter, Sissie, Miriam baulks at the idea that one day English should gain supremacy as a universal language, and that ‘the world would be ruled by the kind of English people who could never get the sound of a foreign word and who therefore had all sorts of appalling obliviousness’. Dorothy Miller Richardson, Pilgrimage 2: The Tunnel, Interim (London: J. M. Dent, 1967), p. 343. Subsequent references will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation P2. Cited in G. M. Hyde, D. H. Lawrence and the Art of Translation (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble, 1981), p. 5. Hyde, D. H. Lawrence and the Art of Translation, pp. 36–72. See, for example Hyde, D. H. Lawrence and the Art of Translation, and Avrom Fleishman, ‘He Do the Polis in Different Voices: Lawrence’s Later Style’, in D. H. Lawrence: A Centenary Consideration, ed. Peter Balbert and Phillip L. Marcus (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), pp. 162–79. Rainier Grutman, ‘Mono Versus Stereo: Bilingualism’s Double Face’, Visible Language, 27 (1993), 206–27 (p. 211). Deborah L. Parsons, Streetwalking the Metropolis: Women, the City and Modernity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 85. Parsons, Streetwalking the Metropolis, pp. 86, 105. As Parsons writes, ‘[t]he Jewish immigrant […] embodied racial “otherness”, just as the New Woman was the embodiment of gendered “otherness”’. Parsons, Streetwalking the Metropolis, p. 102. See, for example, Judith Ruderman, ‘An “Englishman at Heart”? Lawrence and the National Identity Debates’, in D. H. Lawrence: New Worlds, ed. Keith Cushman and Earl G. Ingersoll (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; London: Associated University Presses, 2003), pp. 50–67 (p. 58). See Rebecca L. Walkowitz, Cosmopolitan Style: Modernism Beyond the Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), p. 22. As Booth demonstrates, this perspective is particularly apparent in Lawrence’s 1924 novel St Mawr, which ‘captures the ennui of modern cosmopolitan

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38.

39.

40.

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life’. Booth, ‘Lawrence in Doubt: A Theory of the “Other” and Its Collapse’, pp. 213–14. The novel’s initial representation of the German characters immediately sets Loerke apart from the other German guests: the professor’s daughters, for example, are described as ‘tall, clear-skinned, athletic […] with their rather long, strong necks, their clear blue eyes and carefully banded hair, and their blushes’, and Loerke’s companion is a ‘large fair young man’ (thus reflecting stereotypical representations of Germanic strength, health, height and blondness); Loerke, on the other hand, is ‘small, dark-skinned’, ‘odd’, ‘like a troll’, and ‘detached’ from his companions (WL 405). Loerke’s effeminacy, degeneracy and perceived sexual deviance are key aspects of anti-Semitic stereotypes of the time. See Ruderman, ‘An “Englishman at Heart”? Lawrence and the National Identity Debates’, p. 57, and Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (eds.), Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters: A Critical Survey (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007), p. 204. We might argue, in the light of how Lawrence represents Loerke, that this is a further marker of the difficulty of ‘placing’ him in cultural terms. Loerke is represented by Lawrence as being racially, culturally and linguistically distinct from the other German characters; the mode of representing his German speech in idiomatic English accordingly avoids emphasising Germanic linguistic and cultural qualities. See, for example, Loerke’s explanation to Ursula and Gudrun of how he became a sculptor: “How did I become a sculptor—” he paused. “Dunque—” he resumed, in a changed manner, and began to speak French—“I became old enough— I used to steal from the market-place. Later, I went to work—I imprinted the stamp on clay bottles, before they were baked. […] There I began making models. One day, I had had enough. I lay in the sun and did not go to work. Then I walked to Munich—then I walked to Italy—begging, begging everywhere. […] “Dunque, adesso—maintenant—I earn a thousand pounds in a year, or I earn two thousand—.” (WL 426)

The English representation of Loerke’s French here is stylistically similar to the sort of bilingual interference that occurs in error (i.e. of a foreigner speaking English), and thus carries connotations of hesitant speech. Those connotations are heightened by the disjointed punctuation and jerky switching between French and Italian that we find here. Imperfect English here seems to suggest that Loerke is speaking hesitant, imperfect French. 41. Loerke and Gudrun’s conversations sound distinctly Joycean, and indeed Lawrence’s implicit critique of their linguistic mixing recalls Leavis’s critique of Joyce’s Work in Progress that I examined in Chapter 1: this is cosmopolitan linguistic artifice, language ‘uprooted’ from its cultural ‘essence’, that masks rather than reveals, and which manifests a perversion or corruption of language to match Loerke’s own social corruption.

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42. Michael Cronin, Across the Lines: Travel, Language, Translation (Cork: Cork University Press, 2000), p. 46. 43. When, for example, Miriam sees Shatov as having ‘the chubby upright determination of a baby’ and sees in his eyes a melancholy that ‘was like the melancholy of a puppy’, his declaration that ‘It is one of my heartmost dreams of England to find myself in midst of all these leeter-aytchoors’ appears, at best, as a comic childlike naivety. During this early encounter with Shatov, Miriam herself finds him funny: she has to stifle her own laughter when he declares that he is ‘very intelligent’, a statement that is implicitly undermined by the inadequacies of his English represented within the text. (His claim is, however, ratified by his demonstrable intelligence in later episodes [Dorothy Miller Richardson, Pilgrimage 3: Deadlock, Revolving Lights, The Trap (London: J. M. Dent, 1967), pp. 25, 28]. Subsequent references will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation P3.) 44. This succinct summary of the complex resonances within Shatov’s English succeeds in making it sound like legitimate deviation rather than error, not least because Miriam, in her labelling of his ‘Norman English’ is recalling a legitimate and ‘correct’ preference for Latinate forms in English, as well as reminding us of the intrinsically heterogeneous nature of the language. 45. Miriam takes Shatov to the British Library, where the librarian assumes a ‘self-conscious superior English smile’ in reaction to Shatov’s imperfect command of English. Shatov, however, is represented as resistant to such assumed superiority: ‘He stood beautiful, the gentle unconsciously reproachful prey of English people unable to resist their desire to be effective. They stood conquered, competing in silent appreciation, as he bent, writing his way into their forgotten library’ (P3 58). 46. Howard Finn, ‘Oberland: “a Charming Light Interlude”?’, Pilgrimages: A Journal of Dorothy Richardson Studies, 1 (2008), 97–123 (pp. 115–16). 47. The assumption that the accented speech must be that of an Irishman is in itself revealing of the colonial dimension of such prejudice. As Cronin writes, ‘[t]he notion that foreigners speaking one’s language are irresistibly funny is, of course, common to many languages. However, in the Irish case, differences in language and expression became equated not only with the comic but with the inept. If Irish people after the conquest of the country were to become English speakers, then the same standards would be applied to them as to other English speakers. If they expressed themselves in strange or unusual ways or used different modes of intentionality, then they were classed with children and the insane as quaint but dim. Paddy the Irishman is above all the archetype of mistranslation.’ Michael Cronin, Translating Ireland: Translation, Languages, Cultures (Cork: Cork University Press, 1996), p. 144. I would argue that ineptness is a feature of the ‘funny foreigner’ in general, but that it is more marked in the colonial context. Certainly, Miriam’s comic representation of the Hindu man follows the same pattern as Cronin’s definition of Irish linguistic stereotyping. In her story, the man’s drunkenness makes him hopelessly inept, and his strange English is a feature of his helplessness: when he falls over, his calls for help are apparently ignored (this is, implicitly, because his English is so ‘funny’ that nobody takes his cries seriously) (P2 294–5). 48. Jane Garrity demonstrates that in Richardson’s review of the first all-black sound film Hearts in Dixie, she undermines her own argument for racial

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inclusivity. By expressing her preference for moments in the film where the performers are ‘acting, moving, walking, singing, dancing, living’ but arguing that ‘the certainty of intermittent dialogue ruined the whole’, Richardson is effectively ‘dismissing black speech and […] celebrating the black body only when it is in motion’. Jane Garrity, Step-Daughters of England: British Women Modernists and the National Imaginary (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), p. 98. 49. Celena E. Kusch, ‘Disorienting Modernism: National Boundaries and the Cosmopolis’, Journal of Modern Literature, 30 (2007), 39–60 (p. 45). 50. Shatov shows Miriam a French translation of the book, and the implication is that she will work from the French, and that he will work from knowledge of the original Russian text. The text itself is described but not named within Pilgrimage, but George Thomson provides information about both the original and the French translation that they read in Notes on Pilgrimage: Dorothy Richardson Annotated (Greensboro: ELT Press, 1999), p. 155. 51. We do not see any of this particular translation within the text, but Pointed Roofs does give us one tantalising example of a translation by Miriam which anticipates her later experience, and which illustrates one way in which she appropriates the process of translation into a form of ‘diary’. During a Saturday letter-writing session at the school, she transcribes and translates a poem by Theodor Storm: Miriam was scribbling down the words as quickly as she could: Ein Blatt aus sommerlichen Tagen Ich nahm es so im Wandern mit Auf dass es einst mir möge sagen Wie laut die Nachtigall geschlagen Wie grün der Wald den ich—durchtritt— durchtritt—durchschritt—she was not sure. It was perfectly lovely—she read it through translating stumblingly: A leaf from summery days I took it with me on my way, So that it might remind me How loud the nightingale had sung, How green the wood I had passed through. (P1 67–8) Though she bemoans the fact that she ‘has no leaf, nothing to remind her of her summer days’ (P1 68), it is the poem itself – and her translation of it – which acts as a trigger for her English memories of childhood: ‘“Wie grün der Wald.” She remembered one wood […] only that wood, at the very beginning, someone carrying Harriett—and green green, the brightest she had ever seen, and anemones everywhere, she could see them distinctly at this moment—she wanted to put her face down into the green among the anemones’ (P1 68). The foreign language leads to a defamiliarised – and hence revivified – perception of the familiar, and the German poem leads Miriam to relive an intensely visual memory from early childhood (as well as allowing her to relive the newness of the child’s perception of things). 52. The artist Mark Gertler is the model for Lawrence’s Loerke and also for aspects of Mansfield’s Duquette (although Duquette is primarily based

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53.

54.

55.

56.

57. 58.

Notes to Chapter 2 on the French writer Francis Carco). The similarities between Loerke and Duquette are numerous: in addition to their polyglot cosmopolitanism and lack of distinct national identity, we find in both characters a concern with surface over substance in both art and life, bisexuality and sexual degeneracy, the exploitation of young women, a callous selfishness towards friends and lovers, and an effeminate and childlike appearance. Boehmer uses Homi Bhabha’s concept of ‘difference within’ to examine Mansfield’s colonial modernism. ‘Mansfield as Colonial Modernist: Difference Within’, in Celebrating Katherine Mansfield: A Centenary Volume of Essays, ed. Gerri Kimber and Janet Wilson (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. 57–71. Cited in Claire Drewery, Modernist Short Fiction by Women: The Liminal in Katherine Mansfield, Dorothy Richardson, May Sinclair and Virginia Woolf (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011), p. 25. Mansfield was sent by her mother to Bad Wörishofen, Bavaria in 1909 following her pregnancy by an affair with Garnet Trowell and short-lived marriage to George Bowden. She miscarried while in Germany. See Claire Tomalin, Katherine Mansfield: A Secret Life (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988), pp. 68–71. Her responses to the German characters are often non-verbal: a smile, a shrug of the shoulders, a ‘bright’ look, or an expression of humility. See, for example, Katherine Mansfield, The Collected Stories (London: Penguin, 2007), pp. 619, 712, 688. (Subsequent references to the stories from In a German Pension will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation CS.) And when, on the odd occasion, she actually voices the kind of satirical comment that otherwise peppers her narrative, that comment remains unheard (e.g. CS 759). Overall the impression is of the protagonist’s own silence, and of her being talked at – an impression that is heightened by a narrative avoidance of presenting her speech directly even when she does speak. In ‘Frau Fischer’, for example, some of her responses to Frau Fischer are represented through formulations such as ‘I replied with the utmost conviction’ (CS 701) or ‘I admit the fact’ (CS 702). Petra Rau, English Modernism, National Identity and the Germans, 1890–1950 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009), p. 123. Of course, there will be similarities between a foreignising translation from German to English and the way a German person might speak English: in both, elements of the German language enter into – and distort – the English language. In practice, however, the methods of stylisation used by writers to represent each of these different processes are significant: the more the author wants to undermine the foreign character, the more they are likely to make their character’s English conform to stereotypes of ‘bad’ English. It does not necessarily follow, however, that foreignised English always looks like a foreigner’s ‘bad’ English. Compare, for example, Mansfield’s German characters’ dialogue (‘bad’ English) to Lawrence’s translational mimesis of the French character Madame Rochard’s speech in The Lost Girl: “Ah!” she cried suddenly in French, “the ungrateful, the animal! He shall suffer. See if he shall not suffer. The low canaille, without faith or feeling. My Max, thou wert right. Ah, such canaille should be beaten, as dogs are

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beaten, till they follow at heel. Will no one beat him for me, no one?— Yes. Go back. Tell him before he leaves England he shall feel the hand of Kishwégin, and it shall be heavier than the Black Hand. Tell him that, the coward, that causes a woman’s word to be broken against her will. Ah, canaille, canaille! Neither faith nor feeling, neither faith nor feeling. Trust them not, dogs of the south.” D. H. Lawrence, The Lost Girl, ed. John Worthen, The Cambridge Edition of the Letters and Works of D. H. Lawrence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 157.

59.

60. 61.

62.

This is stilted, unidiomatic language that is lexically and grammatically marked by its fictional French ‘origins’: we have the incursion of insults in French (‘canaille’), literal translations (‘dogs of the south’, which also retains French word-order), the use of ‘ungrateful’ as a noun rather than an adjective (a literal translation of the French ‘l’ingrat’), and so on. This, however, does not sound like a French person speaking Gallicised English, not least because some of the Gallicisms are simply not the kind of errors a French person would make when speaking English. The most marked example here would be the use of ‘thou’ to indicate the French informal mode of address (‘tu’): this, in English, although archaic, would indicate not error but a superior historically informed knowledge of the language. As in his translations of Verga, Lawrence here is using translational processes in order to emphasise the differences between French and English, and to retain elements of that difference within English. There is no trace here of the ‘funny foreigner’ and this is very clearly meant to be recognised as ‘translational’ discourse (even down to the explicit attribution of ‘she cried suddenly in French’). As Michael Cronin writes, ‘[t]he comic Verfremdung of translation has two modes of operation in modern literary travel accounts. The first is selfdirected and the second is other-directed. In the first mode, the translator is a picaresque hero or heroine whose cultural knowledge and linguistic assuredness are undermined or relativised by interlingual travelling. […] In the other-directed mode, it is the speaker of the foreign language rather than the traveller who emerges as the figure of translation fun.’ As Cronin continues, within the second mode it is ‘extremely common in literary travel narratives’ to find the procedure whereby ‘it is the foreigners who translate themselves into the language of the narrator’. Across the Lines, pp. 45–6. Although Cronin focuses here on the representation of foreigners speaking English, and does not bring in examples of how foreigners’ speech has been translated into English, his point is nonetheless relevant to Mansfield’s representation, which indeed implicitly invokes the processes that he is writing about here (i.e. making her own travel narrative look like those narratives that mock the foreigners’ use of English even though that is not what is actually happening). Boehmer, ‘Mansfield as Colonial Modernist: Difference Within’. German characters in these stories eat too much, talk about bodily functions all the time, are humourless and materialistic, militaristic and aggressive, and maintain a misogynistic patriarchal culture that values women only for how many babies they can produce and how well they can look after their men. In 1922, Mansfield wrote that it would be ‘very unwise’ to republish In a German Pension, adding that it is ‘a most inferior book’. Cited in Tomalin,

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64.

65. 66.

67.

68.

69.

Notes to Chapter 2 Katherine Mansfield: A Secret Life, p. 209. Although, as Tomalin suggests, this reluctance to republish may well have been motivated by a fear that the indebtedness of her story ‘The Child-Who-Was-Tired’ to Chekhov would be discovered, the clear differences between the representation of national cultures in the German Pension stories and the later stories gives credence to the fact that Mansfield’s judgement on her earlier work was genuinely felt. In citing these two stories, I refer to Katherine Mansfield, Selected Stories, ed. Angela Smith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) which is based on the text of Antony Alpers’s scholarly edition and commentary of Mansfield’s stories (now out of print). In particular, this edition presents ‘Je ne parle pas français’ in its original, unbowdlerised form (Mansfield was made to make changes to the story for its publication in the Constable volume of Mansfield stories edited by John Middleton Murry in 1945, and on which the Penguin edition of Mansfield’s Collected Stories is based). Subsequent references to the Selected Stories will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation SS. See, for example: Angela Smith, Katherine Mansfield and Virginia Woolf: A Public of Two (New York: Clarendon Press, 1999); Drewery, Modernist Short Fiction by Women; and William Atkinson, ‘Mrs. Sheridan’s Masterstroke: Liminality in Katherine Mansfield’s “The Garden Party”’, English Studies: A Journal of English Language and Literature, 87 (2006), 53–61. In 1915, Mansfield travelled to the French war zone to visit Francis Carco. Tomalin, Katherine Mansfield: A Secret Life, pp. 133–5. The narrator tells us that she dons ‘my age-old Burberry’ – a typically English coat – before immediately revealing the deceptiveness of that statement: ‘(That Burberry was very significant. It did not belong to me. I had borrowed it from a friend. My eye lighted upon it hanging in her little dark hall. The very thing! The perfect and adequate disguise—an old Burberry. […] An old Burberry seems to me the sign and the token of the undisputed venerable traveller, I decided […])’ (SS 60). Already the narrator is signalling that her account of events cannot entirely be trusted, that her narrative might itself be part of the ‘performance’. ‘Viser’ has been turned into the past participle through the addition of the English suffix ‘-ed’ (the French past participle is ‘visé’). We find the word in one of Mansfield’s letters: ‘At 1.30 I went to get my baggage registered, waited for one hour in a queue for my ticket and then was told I could not have one until my passport was vise’d.’ Katherine Mansfield, The Letters of Katherine Mansfield Volume I, ed. John Middleton Murry (London: Constable, 1928), p. 94. Indeed, this is a recurrent feature of Mansfield’s own use of French in her letters and journals. In a letter of 1915, for example, we see an example of her use of code-mixing for comic potential that is very similar to that of the narrator of ‘An Indiscreet Journey’ when she writes of her ‘despair’ at a French book: ‘I nearly sautéd from the fenêtre with rage.’ Mansfield, The Letters of Katherine Mansfield Volume I, p. 38. The setting is French and the woman is French, so we presume that the narrator would address her in French. Moreover, the English is subtly Gallicised (e.g. Mansfield uses ‘remarked’ instead of ‘noticed’) thus suggesting that this is indeed a ‘translation’ of what the narrator might have said in French. Gerri Kimber notes the biographical resonances in the story: that Mansfield admitted that Carco was a subject for Duquette, and that Carco was

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70. 71.

72.

73.

74.

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76. 77.

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79.

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‘constantly on hand’ during Mansfield and Murry’s ‘disastrous attempt at living in Paris’. Gerri Kimber, Katherine Mansfield: The View from France (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2008), pp. 72, 65. Kimber, Katherine Mansfield: The View from France, p. 65. Carco in his memoirs wrote that ‘Je me reconnais avec elle [Mansfield] et son futur mari, John Middleton Murry. […] Pour moi, c’est un peu comme un conte que j’aurais pu écrire et que je n’écrirai jamais. Les trois portraits y ont un air étrange, si frappant qu’il semble presque halluciné. Dans cette nouvelle, Souris est Katherine Mansfield.’ [‘I recognised myself along with her [Mansfield] and her future husband, John Middleton Murry. […] For me, it is a bit like a story that I could have written but would never write. The three portraits seem strange, so striking as to seem almost hallucinatory. In this story, Mouse is Katherine Mansfield.’] Cited in Kimber, Katherine Mansfield: The View from France, p. 73. Perry Meisel, ‘What the Reader Knows; or, The French One’, in Katherine Mansfield: In From the Margin, ed. Roger Robinson (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994), pp. 112–18 (p. 117). As Duquette tells us: ‘I hate whisky. Every time I take it into my mouth my stomach rises against it, and the stuff they keep here is sure to be particularly vile. I only ordered it because I am going to write about an Englishman’ (SS 149). Congratulating himself on his writing style, Duquette comments: ‘That’s rather nice, don’t you think, that bit about the Virgin? It comes from the pen so gently; it has such a “dying fall”’ (SS 144). This apparent contrast between Duquette as ‘fake’ and Mouse as ‘real’ is borne out by Mansfield’s own criticism of the French and of the French language at the same time as she was writing this story. She scribbled on the manuscript ‘But Lord! Lord! how I do hate the French’ (Kimber, Katherine Mansfield: The View from France, p. 74) and, at around the same time, wrote a critique of the ‘dishonesty’ of the French language, dismissing its ‘charming’ words as ‘pretty little kickshaws’ that cannot satisfy her ‘appetite for the real thing’. The English language, on the other hand, she describes as ‘damned difficult but […] also damned rich and so clear and so bright that you can search out the darkest places with it’ (Kimber, Katherine Mansfield: The View from France, p. 74). (The implication being that English is ‘the real thing’.) This critique might equally be applied to Duquette himself and his writing: superficially attractive and charming, but showy, not ‘the real thing’, and unable to illuminate the ‘darkest places’ (the irony being that a writer as superficial as he is would claim to write about ‘the submerged world’). Kimber, Katherine Mansfield: The View from France, p. 16. It is not only this phrase that indicates her ability to speak French: Dick himself addresses her in French (SS 156) and affirms that ‘Of course she does [speak French]’ (SS 157). Indeed, the stories themselves invite such comparison: in ‘An Indiscreet Journey’, the narrator wears a borrowed coat in order to meet French stereotypes of ‘Englishness’; Mouse, Duquette observes, ‘wore a long dark cloak such as one sees in old-fashioned pictures of Englishwomen abroad’ (SS 158). Cited in Cronin, Across the Lines, pp. 104–5.

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Notes to Chapter 3

3 Writing in Translation: Jean Rhys’s Paris Fiction 1. Jean Rhys, The Collected Short Stories (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), p. 126. Subsequent page references to the stories will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation CS. 2. As Andrew Thacker writes, Rhys’s work ‘exhibits a passage through modernity that constantly subverts any discourse of place as settled attachment’. In addition to the motif of the voyage that is central to the fiction, Rhys’s protagonists are often to be found in liminal spaces (cafés, restaurants, hotels) and ‘appear to hover between inner and outer spaces, in a state of geographic ambivalence’. The Rhys heroine ‘never really occupies anywhere, never “dwells”, in Heidegger’s sense: a hotel room is only ever a kind of temporary halt’. Andrew Thacker, Moving Through Modernity: Space and Geography in Modernism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), pp. 192–3. 3. A. Alvarez, ‘The Best Living Novelist’, The New York Times Review of Books, 17 March 1974, pp. 6–7 (p. 6). 4. Jean Rhys, After Leaving Mr Mackenzie (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971), p. 28. Subsequent page references to the novel will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation ALM. 5. ‘Édouard de Nève’ was Rhys’s husband Jean Lenglet’s literary pseudonym. For clarity, I will continue to refer to Lenglet by his pseudonym, except where the biographical context requires me to use his real name. 6. Unsurprisingly, Rhys was furious about the misappropriation. See Carole Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work (London: André Deutsch, 1990), p. 164. 7. Édouard de Nève, Barred, trans. Jean Rhys (London: Desmond Harmsworth, 1932). 8. De Nève writes, in the preface, of his difficulties in getting the French manuscript published, and states that in order to increase his chances of publication, ‘j’ai écrit cette histoire en anglais’ [‘I wrote this story in English’]. He even attributes Rhys’s many amendments to the story to himself, stating that ‘il m’a fallu changer un peu l’intrigue dans la version anglaise’ [‘I had to make slight changes to the plot in the English version’]. Édouard de Nève, Sous les verrous (Paris: Librairie Stock, 1933), p. 9. 9. See Steven G. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism: Gender, Politics, Language (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) and Lawrence Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 187–208. 10. In the case of Perversity, the attribution of Ford was finally resolved as having been an error on the part of the publishers. See Jean Rhys, Jean Rhys: Letters 1931–1966, ed. Francis Wyndham and Diana Melly (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), pp. 294–5. However, it is clear to see the potential commercial advantage of naming a well-known writer instead of a then-unknown translator. Indeed, the text on the dust jacket of the first edition is positively emphatic about Ford’s role as translator, going even so far as to ‘quote’ from him directly: ‘Ford Madox Ford is discriminating; he does not trade in glittering generalities. So, when he called PERVERSITY a second Madame Bovary, he was not talking hokum. Of course, Mr. Ford is the translator and well – he may feel a bit indulgent. Not a bit of it! Indefatigable man of letters that he is, he ranged through modern French literature until he happened onto PERVERSITY. “By Jove, this

Notes to Chapter 3

11.

12.

13. 14.

15. 16. 17. 18.

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must be translated.” So he went to it, and at length wrought a translation as admirable in its way as his works of creation are in theirs.’ Francis Carco, Perversity, trans. Jean Rhys (Chicago: Pascal Covici, 1928). According to Angier, de Nève’s articles were: ‘“My House”, about ([Rhys] said) “a house in the country where he longed to live”; “The Chevalier of the Place Blanche”; and a piece called “The Poet”’ (Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, p. 129). It is curious that Rhys, in Smile Please, recalls articles about a poet and about a house, but claims that ‘I don’t remember the third’, despite the fact that a revised version of ‘Chevalier’ was published in 1976. Jean Rhys, Smile Please: An Unfinished Autobiography (London: Deutsch, 1979), p. 153. Rhys, in Smile Please, writes that Mrs Adam, although not interested in the de Nève articles, asks her if she has ever written anything herself, and expresses an interest in seeing her work. Rhys, Smile Please, p. 54. It is as a result of this encounter that Ford was sent an edited version of Rhys’s journals, Suzy Tells (Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, pp. 129–30) which led to his encouragement of Rhys as a writer, their affair, and his facilitation of the publication of The Left Bank. See Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, pp. 129–75, 151–2. Angier dismisses the possibility that Mrs Adam was interested in Rhys’s writing just on the basis of these articles, arguing that Rhys’s account in Smile Please is not accurate: Rhys had known Mrs Adam well before this encounter and that is why Mrs Adam asks to see more work by Rhys (Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, pp. 129–30). However, it is quite possible, bearing in mind the nature of Rhys’s translations, including ‘Chevalier’ itself, that their style was striking enough to merit Mrs Adam’s interest. Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, p. 135. Rhys tells Mary Cantwell that she read ‘Contemporary French novels […]. And I loved Maupassant, Anatole France, Flaubert.’ Pierrette M. Frickey (ed.), Critical Perspectives on Jean Rhys (Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1990), p. 24. This has a direct impact upon her fiction – see, for example, Judith Kegan Gardiner on the importance of Rhys’s wide reading to Good Morning, Midnight, including French writers such as Rimbaud, Verlaine, Anatole France and Colette. Judith Kegan Gardiner, ‘Good Morning, Midnight; Good Night, Modernism’, Boundary 2: A Journal of Postmodern Literature and Culture, 11 (1982), 233–51. See also Helen Carr, who argues for the particular significance of the ‘French connection’ to Rhys’s politics, demonstrating Rhys’s sympathy with ‘a French tradition of anti-bourgeois, anti-establishment alignment of the writer with those despised by respectable society’. Helen Carr, Jean Rhys (Plymouth: Northcote House, 1996), p. 44. Elaine Savory, Jean Rhys (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 40–1. Frickey (ed.), Critical Perspectives on Jean Rhys, p. 24. Rhys, Jean Rhys: Letters, p. 281. Martien Kappers affirms that Rhys ‘did not acknowledge de Nève’s authorship’ of ‘The Sidi’. Martien Kappers, ‘A Case of Borrowed Plumes: Édouard De Neve, Jean Rhys and Aan Den Loopenden Band’, Jean Rhys Review, 6 (1994), 2–10 (p. 6). However, Rhys wrote to Francis Wyndham in 1964, acknowledging that ‘“The Sidi” in the “Left Bank” was a story he [de Nève] told me about the Santé but it was of course his experience and his life.’ Rhys, Jean Rhys: Letters, p. 283.

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19. Kappers, ‘A Case of Borrowed Plumes: Édouard De Neve, Jean Rhys and Aan Den Loopenden Band’, p. 6. 20. Martien Kappers writes that ‘there is substantial evidence of a high degree of “literary collaboration” between Rhys and Lenglet, from the early twenties to the late thirties, that is, right through and even after their marriage, separation and divorce. From criticizing, editing, translating, and finding outlets for each other’s work, it was surely only a short step to agreeing to let the other use what each had written – as long as it made money for their daughter. Indeed, that daughter has stated that: “After the Ford episode […] the financial situation of both was quite miserable. Jean Rhys was very generous and more than once wrote short pieces that Ed. de Nève would then publish under his own name.” He, “on the other hand, supplied her with themes.”’ Kappers, ‘A Case of Borrowed Plumes: Édouard De Neve, Jean Rhys and Aan Den Loopenden Band’, p. 6. 21. Angier speculates that de Nève ‘probably had contributed some ideas (not to speak of his life) to The Left Bank and Quartet’. Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, p. 289. 22. See Martien Kappers-den Hollander, ‘A Gloomy Child and Its Devoted Godmother: Jean Rhys, Barred, Sous les verrous, and In De Strik’, in Critical Perspectives on Jean Rhys, ed. Frickey, pp. 43–53. The essay as a whole provides a detailed analysis of the many changes that Rhys made to de Nève’s text. 23. Kappers, ‘A Case of Borrowed Plumes: Édouard De Neve, Jean Rhys and Aan Den Loopenden Band’, p. 6. 24. Lori Chamberlain, ‘Gender and the Metaphorics of Translation’, Signs, 13 (1988), 454–72 (p. 455). 25. Chamberlain, ‘Gender and the Metaphorics of Translation’, p. 456. 26. Chamberlain, ‘Gender and the Metaphorics of Translation’, p. 467. 27. Chamberlain, ‘Gender and the Metaphorics of Translation’, p. 466. 28. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, p. 81. 29. See Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, pp. 79–80. 30. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, p. 82. 31. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, p. 82. 32. R. B. Le Page and Andrée Tabouret-Keller, Acts of Identity: Creole-Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 49. Le Page and Tabouret-Keller note that the Windward Islands, Dominica, St Lucia and Grenada, ‘remained culturally Creole French until the [twentieth] century in spite of the gradually growing influence of an English-speaking administration and English as the medium of education in the schools. Grenada is today the most completely Anglicized (and Anglo-creolized) of the Windward Islands; St. Lucia and Dominica the least so’ (pp. 133–5). 33. As she tells Teresa O’Connor, ‘I was not really bilingual, but in Dominica the people used to speak a French “patois”, and so of course I heard it all my childhood, also a lot of nuns at the convent I went to were French so I was used to the sound of the language, but I can’t say that I was fluent.’ Teresa O’Connor, Jean Rhys: The West Indian Novels (New York: New York University Press, 1986), p. 16. 34. ‘Jean had been told by English people from her childhood on that she had an “accent”, a nasty, sing-song nigger’s voice; it was part of her reason for

Notes to Chapter 3

35.

36.

37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

42. 43.

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wanting to come to the school of acting (“They’ll teach me to drop my voice and everything”).’ Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, p. 46. Savory writes that Rhys’s marriage to Lenglet led to a deepening of ‘the linguistic complexity she had known as a child in Dominica […]. For several crucial years, whether she was with Lenglet in Holland, Austria or France, Rhys’s linguistic world was truly European. She lived and thought as much in French as in English, and her husband thought and wrote in French and Dutch.’ Savory, Jean Rhys, p. 42. Georgette’s dialogue reads much more idiomatically if translated literally back into French. In particular, ‘my rabbit’ is a direct translation of the French term of endearment ‘mon lapin’, and ‘You have not looked at me well’ is a literal translation of ‘tu ne m’as pas bien regardé’ (which an idiomatic English translation would render as ‘you don’t know me well’). See, for example, the conversation where Fifi attempts to comfort Roseau (CS 84–5). Paula Le Gallez, The Rhys Woman (London: Macmillan, 1990), p. 12. Le Gallez, The Rhys Woman, p. 13. Savory, Jean Rhys, p. 44. The poem, unattributed within the story, is from Marguerite BurnatProvins’s 1907 volume, Le Livre pour toi, a married woman’s eulogy to her lover, which caused a scandal at the time. Marguerite Burnat-Provins, Le Livre pour toi (Paris: Éditions de la différence, 1994). Rhys, Jean Rhys: Letters, p. 295. One of the more conventional popular functions of multilingualism in fiction is to add a foreign ‘flavour’, to present a text that is exotically ‘foreign’ for the Anglophone reader. Such multilingualism tends to take a form of selective reproduction, where, as Sternberg explains, interjections (e.g. the French ‘Parbleu!’) function as ‘mimetic clichés’ which ‘denote otherness by way of opposition’. Meir Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, Poetics Today, 2 (1981), 221–39 (p. 226). Such a technique would usually be characterised by the author’s use of expressions and interjections in the foreign language that are stereotypical markers of that nationality. A translated novel such as Perversity, with its focus on the Paris underworld, on sexual deviance and prostitution, would itself have been read by many readers seeking a scandalous representation of the moral laxity of Parisian society and for whom a stylised ‘Frenchness’ (as opposed to a naturalised domesticating translation) would have had its appeal. Rhys herself is critical of such a perspective on Paris: her story ‘Tout Montparnasse and a Lady’, for example, presents a satirical portrait of an American ‘Lady’ in Paris who, in her desire for salacious scandal, insultingly interprets an artist’s tiredness as the effects of a life of drug-addled dissolution (CS 16–19). Nonetheless, Perversity can, in part, be seen to pander to such an impulse, particularly in its retention of words and interjections such as ‘voyons!’, ‘He la’, ‘allons!’, ‘Tiens!’, ‘Parbleu!’, ‘hein?’, ‘nom de Dieu!’, which are just the sort of stereotypically ‘French’ expressions that frequently appear in exoticising Anglophone representations of French people. Indeed, Rhys can even be seen to heighten such stereotyping effect: she repeatedly changes, for example, the original French interjection ‘Oh! la, la’ into ‘ou-la-la’, a formulation that corresponds more closely to the common English stereotype of Frenchness. However, as

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44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

50. 51. 52.

53.

54. 55. 56. 57.

58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

63. 64.

Notes to Chapter 3 my analysis of Perversity demonstrates, Rhys’s Gallicised English is, overall, too foreignising, and contains too many unusual (and non-stereotypical) Gallicisms, to pander effectively to such exoticising impulses – the overall effect is far too unsettling for that. Francis Carco, Perversité (Paris: J. Ferenczi et Fils, 1925), p. 28. Francis Carco, Perversity, trans. Jean Rhys (Black Mask, 2005), p. 14. Carco, Perversité, p. 10. Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 4. ‘type’ in French is roughly equivalent to ‘fellow’ or ‘chap’, but is slightly pejorative. Peter Newmark defines translationese as ‘the area of interference where a literal translation of a stretch of the source language text (a) plainly falsifies (or ambiguates) its meaning, or (b) violates usage for no apparent reason’. Peter Newmark, About Translation (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1991), p. 78. Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 73. Carco, Perversité, p. 139. Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 73. This is a literal translation of ‘Tu l’as bien arrangé’ (Carco, Perversité, p. 139). The French phrase ‘arranger quelqu’un’ means ‘to beat someone up’. Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 207. This is a literal translation of ‘Ah! tu vas fort quand même! T’exagères!’ (Carco, Perversité, p. 207), which really means something like ‘that’s going a bit far!’ Carco, Perversité, p. 39. Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 19. ‘Délicat’ in the French means ‘thoughtful’ or ‘sensitive’ rather than ‘delicate’. Carco, Perversité, p. 117. Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 61. ‘Figure!’ here is short for ‘figuretoi!’, meaning ‘Imagine!’ (‘Ugly face!’ presumably derives from the fact that ‘figure’ can also mean ‘face’.) Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 61. Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 79. Carco, Perversity (Black Mask, 2005), p. 43. This means ‘life got back to normal’ (literally: ‘life got back on course’). Carco, Perversité, p. 149. Literally: ‘you must not go mouldy at this table’. Newmark writes that translationese ‘is an error due to ignorance or carelessness which is common when the TL [target language] is not the translator’s language of habitual use’. Newmark, About Translation, p. 78. Rhys, Jean Rhys: Letters, p. 281. Édouard Glissant, Introduction à une poétique du divers (Paris: Gallimard, 1996), p. 45. I would argue that it would not be appropriate to celebrate all forms of translation in such terms, and that Glissant is no doubt prioritising a Benjaminian perspective whereby translation causes the target language to be fundamentally affected – and estranged – by the source language and text. In such cases, translation puts into play both source and target languages, with the final effect of a language that grows out of and gestures towards both languages. Such forms of translation could indeed be conceived of as creolising, in that, instead of seeking to eliminate the source language within the translation, they make creative use of interlingual effects and produce new linguistic and stylistic forms in the process.

Notes to Chapter 3 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

72. 73.

74. 75.

76. 77. 78. 79.

80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89.

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Glissant, Introduction à une poétique du divers, p. 45. Kappers-den Hollander, ‘A Gloomy Child and Its Devoted Godmother’. Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, p. 287. Martien Kappers-den Hollander, ‘Jean Rhys and the Dutch Connection’, Journal of Modern Literature, 11 (1984), 159–173 (p. 167). Kappers-den Hollander, ‘Jean Rhys and the Dutch Connection’, p. 167. de Nève, Barred. In his preface to Sous les verrous, de Nève states that, having failed to find a publisher for the French text, ‘j’ai écrit cette histoire en anglais, puis en hollandais’ [‘I wrote this story in English, then in Dutch’]. de Nève, Sous les verrous. The preface to In de Strik again fails to name Rhys as translator, stating simply that ‘Dit boek heb ik in Amsterdam geschreven in drie talen – Engelsch, Fransch en Hollandsch’ [‘I wrote this book in Amsterdam in three languages – English, French and Dutch’]. Curiously, the order of languages here implies an order of composition which would place the English version as the original. de Nève, In De Strik (Amsterdam: Andries Blitz, 1932), p. 5. Kappers-den Hollander, ‘A Gloomy Child and Its Devoted Godmother’, p. 45. As Kappers demonstrates, de Nève plagiarised a number of Rhys’s stories in his Dutch collection An den Loopenden Band (1934), borrowed parts of Quartet for his novel Schuwe Vogels (1937), and even claimed joint authorship of The Left Bank, Quartet, and After Leaving Mr Mackenzie. Kappers, ‘A Case of Borrowed Plumes: Édouard De Neve, Jean Rhys and Aan Den Loopenden Band’. See also Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, pp. 287–9, for a more forgiving perspective on de Nève’s ‘borrowings’. Rhys, Jean Rhys: Letters, p. 283. Angier suggests that the date of completion of Sous les verrous is before January 1932, when Rhys takes the novel back to London to translate it. Angier, Jean Rhys: Life and Work, p. 287. This presumably is Kappers’s conclusion. de Nève, Sous les verrous, pp. 122–7. de Nève, Sous les verrous, pp. 55–6. de Nève, Sous les verrous, p. 58. It is worth noting that Rhys, in Barred, chooses to further emphasise the rhythms of the prisoners’ tapping: she breaks up de Nève’s text, placing the ‘tap, tap, tap …’ at the end of two distinct paragraphs. de Nève, Barred, p. 61. de Nève, Sous les verrous, p. 122. de Nève, Barred, p. 125. de Nève, Sous les verrous, p. 126. In Barred, the dialogue is omitted altogether, suggested only by ellipses: ‘A voice exclaims loudly …’ de Nève, Barred, p. 129. de Nève, Sous les verrous, pp. 125–6. de Nève, Barred, p. 128. de Nève, Barred, p. 128. Eugene Jolas, Man from Babel, ed. Andreas Kramer and Rainer Rumold (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), p. 151. Mary Lou Emery, Jean Rhys at “World’s End”: Novels of Colonial and Sexual Exile (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), pp. 144–72. Carr, Jean Rhys, p. 48. Savory presents evidence for Sasha’s ‘encoded’ Caribbean identity in the memories that are triggered by Serge’s playing of Martiniquan music – ‘a sure

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90. 91. 92.

93.

Notes to Chapter 4 code [for those familiar with Rhys’s texts] of the coastline of Dominica and Sasha’s inheritance of memory of the island’. Savory, Jean Rhys, p. 117. Rachel Bowlby, Still Crazy After All These Years: Women, Writing and Psychoanalysis (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 42. Emery, Jean Rhys at “World’s End”, p. 8. Emery notes the significance of the fact that Mr Blank interrogates Sasha on her knowledge of German, the language of the Nazis, and that Sasha ‘instead recalls the poetry of the Jewish Heine, identifying with Germans victimized by Germans and with a poet who makes “little songs” out of his pain’. Emery, Jean Rhys at “World’s End”, p. 8. The literal translation is: ‘from my great pain / I make little songs’

4 Protean Mutations: James Joyce’s Ulysses 1. Meir Sternberg, ‘Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis’, Poetics Today, 2 (1981), 221–39 (p. 222). 2. Laurent Milesi, ‘L’idiome babelien de Finnegans Wake: recherches thématiques dans une perspective génétique’, in Genèse de Babel: Joyce et la Création, ed. Claude Jacquet (Paris: Éditions du CNRS, 1985), pp. 155–213 (p. 173). 3. F. R. Leavis, ‘Joyce and “the Revolution of the Word”’, Scrutiny, 2 (1933), 193–201 (pp. 199–200). 4. Leavis, ‘Joyce and “the Revolution of the Word”’, p. 197. 5. James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 159. 6. Richard Ellmann, James Joyce, rev. edn. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 397. 7. Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, p. 159. 8. Leavis, ‘Joyce and “the Revolution of the Word”’, p. 194. 9. See especially Laurent Milesi, ‘Introduction: Language(s) with a Difference’, in James Joyce and the Difference of Language, ed. Laurent Milesi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 1–27; ‘Joyce, Language and Languages’, in Palgrave Advances in James Joyce Studies, ed. Jean-Michel Rabaté (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 144–61; ‘L’idiome babelien de Finnegans Wake: recherches thématiques dans une perspective génétique’; ‘Finnegans Wake: The Obliquity of Translations’, in Joyce in the Hibernian Metropolis: Essays, ed. Morris Beja and David Norris (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1996), pp. 279–89. 10. Milesi, ‘Introduction: Language(s) with a Difference’, p. 3. 11. Stephen G. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism: Gender, Politics, Language (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. 201. 12. The exact extent of Joyce’s influence on Rhys is uncertain, but earlier assumptions of Rhys’s ignorance of modernist writers (she is reported to have ‘admitted, with no sign of great regret, that she hadn’t read Balzac, Proust, Fielding, Trollope, George Eliot, James, Conrad, Joyce’ [cited in Veronica Marie Gregg, Jean Rhys’s Historical Imagination: Reading and Writing the Creole (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 59]) have been resolutely challenged in later critical assessments of the literary allusiveness

Notes to Chapter 4

13. 14. 15. 16.

17.

18. 19. 20. 21.

22. 23.

24. 25. 26.

27. 28. 29.

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of Rhys’s texts, and especially Good Morning, Midnight, whose ending, for example, is now recognised to be a response to Molly Bloom’s final words in Ulysses. See Judith Kegan Gardiner, ‘Good Morning, Midnight; Good Night, Modernism’, Boundary 2: A Journal of Postmodern Literature and Culture, 11 (1982), 233–51 and Helen Carr, ‘Jean Rhys: West Indian Intellectual’, in West Indian Intellectuals in Britain, ed. Bill Schwarz (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), pp. 93–113. Stéphane Mallarmé, ‘Crise de vers’, in Igitur, Divagations, Un coup de dés (Paris: Gallimard, 1976), pp. 239–52 (p. 239). Ellmann, James Joyce, p. 397. Eric Bulson, ‘An Italian Tongue in an Irish Mouth: Joyce, Politics, and the Franca Lingua’, Journal of Modern Literature, 24 (2000), 63–79 (p. 68). Ferenc Takács, ‘“Impulsory Irelitz”: James Joyce, the Berlitz School, and the Unlearning of the English Language’, in Építész a köfejtöben: Dávidházi Péter hatvanadik születésnapjára—Architect in the Quarry: Studies Presented to Péter Dávidházi on his Sixtieth Birthday, ed. Sándor Hites and Zsuzsa Török (Budapest: rec-iti, 2010), pp. 546–55 (p. 555). Claire Kramsch, The Multilingual Subject: What Foreign Language Learners Say About Their Experience and Why It Matters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 13, 27–44. Rosa Maria Bollettieri Bosinelli, ‘Joyce Slipping Across the Borders of English: The Stranger in Language’, James Joyce Quarterly, 38 (2001), 395–409 (p. 396). Fritz Senn, Joyce’s Dislocutions: Essays on Reading as Translation, ed. John Paul Riquelme (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), p. 49. Senn, Joyce’s Dislocutions, pp. 39, 26. See Lawrence Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (London: Routledge, 1995) for a critique of ‘the illusion of transparency’ in Anglo-American translation culture. Senn, Joyce’s Dislocutions, p. 3. A full translation of ‘Agenbite of inwit’ is ‘remorse of conscience’. Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, Ulysses Annotated: Notes for James Joyce’s Ulysses (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), p. 22. Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 15. Roman Jakobson, ‘On Linguistic Aspects of Translation’, in Selected Writings Volume II: Word and Language (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), pp. 260–6. As Gifford and Seidman point out, these are all ‘“National” exclamations’ which translate as follows: ‘hoch, German (“high, noble, sublime”; a toast wishing a long life); banzai, Japanese (“May you live ten thousand years” – a battle cry and salutation to the emperor); éljen, Hungarian (“May he live long”); zivio, Serbo-Croatian (“Hail, may you live long”); chinchin, pidgin English (to salute ceremoniously, to greet or converse with polite inquiries; “I salute you”); polla kronia, modern Greek (literally, “Have many times”; or “Long life”); hiphip, American; vive, French (“long live”); Allah, Arabic (“God”)’. Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 336. Katie Wales, The Language of James Joyce (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 7–25. Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, pp. 316, 329, 332, 333, 340. Stuart Gilbert, James Joyce’s Ulysses: A Study (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 38.

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30. As Gifford and Seidman note, the first parodic passage of ‘Cyclops’ ‘lampoons the style of works such as Lady Gregory’s Gods and Fighting Men (1904)’. Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 316. 31. As Cronin explains, ‘A certain translation tradition in Celtic scholarship in the nineteenth century prided itself on a forbidding literalism that saw exactness, not felicity, as the reward of erudition.’ In such translations, ‘[t]he original is sacrosanct, and deviation in matters of translation or orthography is suspect. The scholarly attention that was brought to bear on the original in the translated texts of the period was formidable. In John O’Donovan’s seven-volume translation of the Annals of the Four Masters published in 1851, many footnotes run on for pages, dwarfing the text and its translation on the printed page.’ Translating Ireland: Translation, Languages, Cultures (Cork: Cork University Press, 1996), pp. 133, 135, 136. 32. See Cronin, Translating Ireland, pp. 139–40. 33. Joyce’s schemata define the ‘technique’ of this chapter as ‘embryonic development’. Gilbert, James Joyce’s Ulysses: A Study, p. 38. 34. James H. Maddox Jr., Joyce’s Ulysses and the Assault Upon Character (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1978), p. 173. 35. See, for example, Marc A. Mamigonian and John Noel Turner, ‘A Parallel Paraphrase of the Opening of “Oxen of the Sun”’, James Joyce Quarterly, 39 (2002), 337–45, and John Noel Turner, ‘A Commentary on the Closing of “Oxen of the Sun”’, James Joyce Quarterly, 35 (1997), 83–111. Harry Blamires, The New Bloomsday Book: A Guide Through Ulysses, 3rd edn. (London: Routledge, 1996), also provides a ‘translation’ of sorts with its commentary on ‘what happens’ over the novel as a whole – the very existence of this useful guide indicates that Maddox’s comments about ‘Oxen’ are also to some degree applicable to the whole novel. 36. See Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 411. 37. James Joyce, Letters of James Joyce Volume III, ed. Stuart Gilbert and Richard Ellmann (London: Faber, 1966), p. 16. 38. Mamigonian and Turner, ‘A Parallel Paraphrase of the Opening of “Oxen of the Sun”’, pp. 337–8. 39. Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 409. 40. James Joyce, Letters of James Joyce Volume I, ed. Stuart Gilbert, rev. edn. (New York: Viking Press, 1966), pp. 138–9. 41. According to John Noel Turner, ‘Parleyaree, based on Italian, was the lingua franca of actors in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and of costermongers and showmen in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.’ Turner, ‘A Commentary on the Closing of “Oxen of the Sun”’, p. 101n. 42. Mamigonian and Turner, ‘A Parallel Paraphrase of the Opening of “Oxen of the Sun”’, p. 337. 43. Maddox Jr., Joyce’s Ulysses and the Assault Upon Character, p. 183. 44. Maddox Jr., Joyce’s Ulysses and the Assault Upon Character, p. 183. 45. Cited in Senn, Joyce’s Dislocutions, p. 3. 46. Michael North, The Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language, and TwentiethCentury Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 32. 47. Translators of Joyce need to strive in particular against two tendencies that are apparent in the process of translation: the tendency to homogenise the source text, especially where the target language is present as an embedded language within the source text (see Rainier Grutman, ‘Multilingualism and

Notes to Chapter 4

48.

49.

50. 51. 52.

53.

54.

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Translation’, in Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, ed. Mona Baker and Kirsten Malmkjaer [London: Routledge, 1998], pp. 157–60 [p. 160]), and the tendency to correct ‘errors’ in the source text. As Fritz Senn notes, ‘[a]pparent flaws are ironed out in translations; arrangements become more orderly. […] Errors are prone to being inertly rectified.’ Fritz Senn, ‘Transmutation in Digress’, James Joyce Quarterly, 47 (2010), 537–52 (p. 537). Where ‘error’ and/or linguistic deviation in Joyce derive specifically from interlingual effects, as in many of the passages examined in this chapter, the two tendencies are related: to correct is to homogenise. Bosinelli, for example, argues for the importance of studies of Joyce and translation in the context of the developing discipline of translation studies. Rosa Maria Bollettieri Bosinelli, ‘From Translation Issues to Metaphors of Translation’, James Joyce Quarterly, 41 (2003), 47–56 (pp. 48–50). Fritz Senn and Bosinelli have both written frequently on the topic of Joyce and translation. See also: Rosa Maria Bollettieri Bosinelli and Ira Torresi (eds.), Joyce and/in Translation, Joyce Studies in Italy (Rome: Bulzoni, 2007), and the following journal issues, which are focused on Joyce and translation: James Joyce Quarterly, 41 (2003), James Joyce Quarterly, 47 (2010), and Scientia Traductionis, 8 (2010). Patrick O’Neill develops a ‘macrotextual’ approach to translations of Joyce, which views all the translations of a work that exist in all languages as part of a constantly shifting system that constitutes a ‘single and coherent object of study’, effectively viewing translations of Joyce as part of an evolving work in progress. Patrick O’Neill, Polyglot Joyce: Fictions of Translation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005). As Steiner writes: ‘The teeming plurality of languages […] embodies a move away from unison and acceptance – the Gregorian homophonic – to the polyphonic, ultimately divergent fascination of manifold specificity. Each different tongue offers its own denial of determinism. “The world”, it says, “can be other.” Ambiguity, polysemy, opaqueness, the violation of grammatical and logical sequences, reciprocal incomprehensions, the capacity to lie – these are not pathologies of language but the roots of its genius.’ George Steiner, After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation, 3rd edn. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 234–5. John McCourt, The Years of Bloom: James Joyce in Trieste, 1904–1920 (Dublin: Lilliput Press, 2000), p. 54. McCourt, The Years of Bloom, p. 54. McCourt notes, for example, the polyglottism of many of Trieste’s citizens, as well as examples of interlingual play in the press. McCourt, The Years of Bloom, p. 51. As Nicholas Fargnoli and Michael P. Gillespie point out, ‘[f]or some years it has been a critical commonplace that the Eumaeus episode, with its emphasis on clichés and exhausted language, reflected the fatigue that Joyce must have felt after the enormous effort of composing the Circe episode’. Nicholas Fargnoli and Michael P. Gillespie, James Joyce A–Z: An Encyclopedic Guide to His Life and Work (London: Bloomsbury, 1995), p. 68. Marisa Gatti-Taylor points out some inaccuracies in Gifford and Seidman’s translation of this passage, and offers the following translation: ‘Whore of a Blessed Virgin, let him give us the money! Am I right? Degenerate opportunist, literally, broken arse!’ / ‘Let’s understand each other. Half a sovereign more …’ / ‘So he says, however’ / ‘Scoundrel! Damn his dead!

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55.

56. 57.

58. 59.

60. 61. 62.

63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72.

Notes to Chapter 4 literally, His evil dead ones!’. As she comments, such language still ‘elicits shock among most Italians’. Marisa Gatti-Taylor, ‘It Loses Something in Translation: Italian and French Profanity in Joyce’s Ulysses’, in Joyce, Modernity, and Its Mediation, ed. Christine van Boheemen, European Joyce Studies, 1 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), pp. 141–9 (p. 142). Gifford and Seidman suggest that Bloom’s Italian is incorrect (Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 538). However, as Marissa Gatti-Taylor points out, ‘Poetria’ is in fact ‘an archaic term for “poesia”’, which ‘is equivalent to the English word “poesy”’ (Gatti-Taylor, ‘It Loses Something in Translation: Italian and French Profanity in Joyce’s Ulysses’, p. 143). Nevertheless, as she suggests, Bloom’s use of the archaic term is probably unintentional. We might also add that this error is likely to be the result of an Anglicisation of Italian (i.e. the assumption that ‘poetria’ is the correct translation of ‘poetry’). Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 539. This is Hugh Kenner’s argument in Joyce’s Voices (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), pp. 130–1. Derek Attridge argues, however, that this notion ‘has always seemed to me to attribute both too little and too much to him (he would be capable neither of the dreadful pomposity on the surface nor of the brilliant parody and verbal play that underlies it)’. Derek Attridge, Peculiar Language: Literature as Difference from the Renaissance to James Joyce (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 174. Although I agree with Attridge’s judgement, it is worth noting that as far as the use of foreign languages is concerned, there are notable similarities between the narrator’s style and Bloom’s represented dialogue in the chapter. See Attridge, Peculiar Language, pp. 174–8. Onno Kosters, ‘“Getting Rid of Voluble Expressions”: Eumaeun Language in Dispute’, in English Literature and the Other Languages, ed. Ton Hoenselaars and Marius Buning (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999), pp. 145–56 (p. 149). Kosters’s article usefully documents the use of foreign words and the issue of italicisation in ‘Eumaeus’ in some detail. See Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, pp. 534–63. Cited in McCourt, The Years of Bloom, p. 200. As Gifford and Seidman point out, Stephen, in the line ‘Und alle Schiffe brücken’ ‘mistakes brücken for “broken” in an attempt at Johannes Jeep’s line “Welches das Schiff in Ungluck bringt” (Which brings the ship into misfortune)’. Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 562. Gilbert, James Joyce’s Ulysses: A Study, p. 38. Gilbert, James Joyce’s Ulysses: A Study, p. 38. Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism, p. 202. Frank Budgen, James Joyce and the Making of Ulysses (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1960), p. 55. Cited in Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, p. 45. Budgen, James Joyce and the Making of Ulysses, p. 54. Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, p. 159. Bosinelli, ‘Joyce Slipping Across the Borders of English: The Stranger in Language’, p. 398. Senn, Joyce’s Dislocutions, p. 54. Sebastian D. G. Knowles (ed.), Bronze by Gold: The Music of Joyce (New York: Garland, 1999), p. xxvii.

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73. Gifford and Seidman, Ulysses Annotated, pp. 300, 292, 306, 292. 74. Roman Jakobson, ‘Linguistics and Poetics’, in Selected Writings Volume III: Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry, ed. Stephen Rudy (The Hague: Mouton, 1981), pp. 18–51 (p. 43). 75. Steiner, After Babel, pp. 234–5. 76. Ellmann, James Joyce, p. 630.

5 French (De)composition: Samuel Beckett’s Trilogy 1. Richard Ellmann, James Joyce, rev. edn. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 630. 2. This would have been an accepted meaning of ‘petit nègre’ when Beckett was writing, although its inherent racism renders it offensive in the context of current polite usage. 3. Samuel Beckett, Molloy (Paris: Minuit, 1951), p. 32. Subsequent references will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation M. 4. Samuel Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume I: 1929–1940, ed. Martha Dow Fehsenfeld and others (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 514. 5. Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume I: 1929–1940, p. 518. 6. Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume I: 1929–1940, p. 516. Viola Westbrook’s recent translation of the letter to Kaun in this volume brings to light, for the Anglophone reader, the full sense of violence and violation against language that Beckett desires, and that Martin Esslin’s earlier translation had elided: Esslin translates Beckett’s desire as being for a time when language is being ‘most efficiently misused’ (Samuel Beckett, Disjecta: Miscellaneous Writings and a Dramatic Fragment [London: John Calder, 1983], pp. 171–2) whereas Westbrook renders this as ‘most efficiently abused’. And what Esslin had translated in implicitly playful terms – ‘sinning willynilly against a foreign language’ (Beckett, Disjecta, p. 173) – becomes in Westbrook’s translation the expression of ‘being allowed to violate a foreign language […] involuntarily’. 7. Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume I: 1929–1940, p. 520. 8. Samuel Beckett, Watt (London: Calder, 1963), p. 78. 9. Beckett, Disjecta, p. 170. 10. Chiara Montini has examined closely the development of Beckett’s bilingualism not as a radical and sudden shift, but as a gradual genesis. She usefully defines three periods within this genesis: the first period (1929–37) as ‘monolinguisme polyglotte’ [polyglot monolingualism], the second (1939–45) as ‘bilinguisme anglophone’ [Anglophone bilingualism], and the third (1946–53) as ‘bilinguisme francophone’ [Francophone bilingualism]. Chiara Montini, “La Bataille du soliloque”: Genèse de la poétique bilingue de Samuel Beckett (1929–1946) (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007). The turn to French that characterises this third period has been dated by James Knowlson as occurring in March 1946, when Beckett, having begun a short story in English, draws a line down the page, and writes the rest in French (the story, ‘Suite’, was later renamed ‘La Fin’). James Knowlson, Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett (London: Bloomsbury, 1996), p. 358. See

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11. 12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Notes to Chapter 5 Sinéad Mooney, A Tongue Not Mine: Beckett and Translation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 81–2, 99–100 for a more detailed account of the significance of the story in the context of Beckett’s use of French. Knowlson, Damned to Fame, p. 358. In an early study of Beckett’s bilingualism, Brian T. Fitch writes that ‘[i]n whichever of the two languages Beckett happens to be writing at a given moment, there is always the presence of the other language with its wholly different expressive potential hovering at his shoulder, always at arm’s reach and within earshot’. Brian T. Fitch, Beckett and Babel: An Investigation into the Status of the Bilingual Work (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988), p. 156. Fitch is referring here to the bilingual writer’s linguistic consciousness, whereby both languages ‘take on […] something of the strangeness that characterizes any foreign language’ because, regardless of which language he is working in, ‘there remains ever present, ever available, ready to hand, the other alternative language’. Fitch, Beckett and Babel, p. 160. Later critical studies, however, find translational processes to be more directly related to composition. Charles Krance, for example, finds an increasing degree of ‘transtextual confluence’ in Beckett’s work, whereby in later works, translation becomes integral to processes of textual composition and revision. See his introduction to Samuel Beckett, Samuel Beckett’s “Company/Compagnie” and “A Piece of Monologue/Solo”: A Bilingual Variorum Edition, ed. Charles Krance (New York: Garland, 1993) and ‘Traces of Transtextual Confluence and Bilingual Genesis: A Piece of Monologue and Solo for Openers’, in Beckett in the 1990s, ed. Marius Buning and Lois Oppenheim (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1993), pp. 133–8. Most recently, Mooney argues for translation as entirely integral to the trilogy, not only in the ‘ontological homelessness’ indicated in the French text by a ‘mismatch of Irish proper names and French language’, but in the fact that the trilogy, in both ‘original’ and ‘translated’ form, ‘bears traces of an entire spectrum of incompatible translation strategies familiar to Beckett from his own translation work’. Mooney, A Tongue Not Mine, pp. 134, 135. See also Emilie Morin, Samuel Beckett and the Problem of Irishness (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp. 55–95, for a useful exploration of translation as ‘principle of composition’, particularly in relation to Irish Revivalist debates. Emilie Morin, ‘Samuel Beckett, the Wordless Song and the Pitfalls of Memorialisation’, Irish Studies Review, 19 (2011), 185–205 (p. 188). Morin, ‘Samuel Beckett, the Wordless Song and the Pitfalls of Memorialisation’, pp. 190–2. William Butler Yeats, The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Vol. V: Later Essays, ed. William H. O’Donnell (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1994), pp. 211–12. Yeats, Collected Works, pp. 211–12. Yeats, in the same essay, expresses the conflict between the intense hatred aroused in him by the historical persecution of the Irish, and the linguistic and literary heritage of English: ‘I remind myself that, though mine is the first English marriage I know of in the direct line, all my family names are English and that I owe my soul to Shakespeare, to Spenser and to Blake, perhaps to William Morris, and to the English language in which I think, speak and write, that everything I love has come to me through English; my hatred tortures me with love, my love with hate.’ Yeats, Collected Works, p. 211.

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18. Samuel Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume II: 1941–1956, ed. George Craig and others (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 462, 461, 465, 464. As Morin observes, ‘Beckett remained at a remove from the debates surrounding the revival of the Irish language; as a young man, he was amused by the frantic Gaelicisation of names in the Irish Free State, and, in a letter of 1933 to Thomas MacGreevy, he joked about the climate of hypocrisy and intellectual snobbery that surrounded the revival of Gaelic.’ Morin, Samuel Beckett and the Problem of Irishness, p. 87. 19. As Beckett told Ludovic Janvier, he began writing in French after the war ‘avec le désir de m’appauvrir encore davantage’ [‘with the desire to impoverish myself even more’]. Cited in Ludovic Janvier, Samuel Beckett par lui-même (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1969), p. 18. 20. Niklaus Gessner, Die Unzulänglichkeit der Sprache: Eine Untersuchung über Formzerfall und Beziehungslosigkeit bei Samuel Beckett (Zürich: Verlag, 1957), p. 32. 21. Richard N. Coe, Beckett (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1964), p. 14. 22. Morin highlights the significance of Beckett’s turn to French in the context of Irish revivalist writing: ‘French was, for Beckett, a virgin idiom that enabled him to “cut away the excess” and “strip away the colour”. Without doubt, “excess” and “colour” were stylistic flaws that Beckett associated with the stylised language characteristic of many Revivalist writers, a result of what he called “Anglo-Irish exuberance and automatisms”.’ Morin, Samuel Beckett and the Problem of Irishness, p. 72. See Montini, “La Bataille du soliloque”, for a detailed examination of the stylistic shift that accompanies (and precedes) the turn to French. 23. Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume II: 1941–1956, p. 462. 24. Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume II: 1941–1956, p. 464. 25. Beckett could be disparaging about Mallarmé, for example, telling Tom McGreevy that he could not like his work ‘because it’s Jesuitical poetry’. Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume I: 1929–1940, p. 134. However, he continued to read Mallarmé’s work throughout his life (see Knowlson, Damned to Fame, p. 653). 26. The argument that Beckett turned to French to elude the influence of Joyce is a critical commonplace in Beckett studies, but as Daniel Katz argues, ‘to simply accept the conventional wisdom that writing in French allowed Beckett to reject both his former master Joyce and the latter’s over emphasis on the “apotheosis of the word” […] in favor of a leaner and more modest, ultimately cleaner style, is to miss an obvious yet crucial irony: such a program is itself already entirely Joyce’s. It is Joyce who, in the figure of Stephen Dedalus, suggested that the recipe for artistic liberation or even self-engenderment is relocation to Paris and rejection of Irish or even Anglophone parochial standards, and it is Joyce who, lest we forget, described the style of his first great work, Dubliners, as one of “scrupulous meanness”. Thus, Beckett’s gestures of the forties, notably the turn to French, can be seen as much as a fulfilment of the Joycean project as its rejection.’ Daniel Katz, ‘Beckett’s Absent Paris: Malone Dies, Céline, and the Modernist City’, Études anglaises, 59(1) (2006), 7–17 (p. 8). 27. For a discussion of the significance of Mallarmé’s engagement with the English language, see Jean-Michel Rabaté, The Ghosts of Modernity, Crosscurrents (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996), pp. 102–21.

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28. Georges Duthuit, ‘Notes About Contributors’, Transition Forty-Eight, 48 (1948), 146–52 (pp. 146–7). 29. Transition, which Duthuit edited, was a later incarnation of Eugene Jolas’s transition, which I discussed in Chapter 1. The earlier transition in particular favoured the publication of avant-garde work (including some of Beckett’s early work) that was linguistically innovative, often multilingual, and that displayed a singular disregard for the dictates of linguistic ‘correctness’. The ‘Revolution of the Word’ manifesto in transition 16/17, for example, explicitly declares the right of the ‘literary creator’ to ‘disintegrate the primal matter of words imposed on him by text-books and dictionaries’, and to ‘disregard existing syntactical and grammatical laws’. Eugene Jolas and others, ‘Proclamation’, transition, 16/17 (1929), 13. 30. Michael Edwards, ‘Beckett’s French’, Translation & Literature, 1 (1992), 68–83 (p. 69). 31. Mooney, A Tongue Not Mine, p. 75. 32. For a discussion of the performative function of language in the trilogy in relation to Beckett’s French, see my article ‘“Pidgin Bullskrit”: The Performance of French in Beckett’s Trilogy’, in Historicising Beckett/Issues of Performance, ed. Marius Buning and others, Samuel Beckett Today/Aujourd’hui: An Annual Bilingual Review/Revue Annuelle Bilingue, 15 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005), pp. 211–23. 33. Dan Gunn, in his introduction to Volume II of Beckett’s letters, describes the letters to Duthuit as ‘the single most intense – if relatively short-lived – surge of letters Beckett ever offers’, arguing that they are fuelled partly by ‘the possibility of letting go in a foreign tongue’. The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume II: 1941–1956, pp. lxxxix–xci. 34. Steven Connor, ‘Beckett and the Loutishness of Learning’, in Samuel Beckett: Debts and Legacies, ed. Erik Tonning and others, Samuel Beckett Today/Aujourd’hui: An Annual Bilingual Review/Revue Annuelle Bilingue, 22 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010), pp. 255–73 (p. 264). 35. Knowlson, Damned to Fame, p. 374. See Connor, ‘Beckett and the Loutishness of Learning’, for a more detailed examination of this shift. 36. Hill, for example, notes ‘the ludic awareness of rhetorical conventions and formal rules’ that specifically characterises Beckett’s French prose, but argues that language-learning in Beckett’s time was characterised by a focus on translation, which therefore becomes the focus of his analysis. Leslie Hill, Beckett’s Fiction: In Different Words (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 43. Indeed, other studies of Beckett’s bilingualism tend likewise to note linguistic formalism, but to consider in more detail Beckett’s practice as a translator: most recently, for example, both Mooney and Montini have noted the formalism of the language of Mercier et Camier, but with Mooney focusing her analysis on the implicitly translational ‘nomadic’ disjunction between French language and Irish context in the novel (Mooney, A Tongue Not Mine, pp. 101–6), and Montini engaging in a detailed comparative analysis of English and French texts (Montini, “La Bataille du soliloque”, pp. 177–247). 37. Knowlson, Damned to Fame, p. 461. 38. Knowlson, Damned to Fame, pp. 26, 31, 41, 47–54. 39. Knowlson, Damned to Fame, pp. 77–9, 88–9, 120–6.

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40. Vladimir Nabokov, Strong Opinions (New York: Vintage International, 1990), p. 172. 41. Knowlson, Damned to Fame, pp. 361–2. 42. Beckett, Watt, p. 154. 43. Beckett, The Letters of Samuel Beckett Volume I: 1929–1940, p. 648. 44. Samuel Beckett, Premier amour (Paris: Minuit, 1970), p. 10. 45. Beckett, Premier amour, pp. 9–10. As Morin notes, the phrase thus produces a secondary meaning: ‘Hereunder lies the one who escaped as long as he has now escaped.’ Morin, ‘Samuel Beckett, the Wordless Song and the Pitfalls of Memorialisation’, p. 195. 46. The significance of French to such grammatical formalism is reflected in the English translation of the story, ‘First Love’ (completed much later, in 1973), which omits references to the foreignness of the language used by the narrator. The English translation of the epigram, in particular, replaces the explicitly grammatical focus of the original text with a greater emphasis on semantic opposition: ‘Hereunder lies the above who up below / So hourly died that he survived till now’. Samuel Beckett, The Complete Short Prose 1929–1989, ed. S. E. Gontarski (New York: Grove Press, 1995), p. 26. 47. Claire Kramsch, The Multilingual Subject: What Foreign Language Learners Say About Their Experience and Why It Matters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 60–6. 48. Gershon Weiler, Mauthner’s Critique of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 332. 49. The French-Romanian Ionesco himself worked as a French teacher for a number of years in Bucharest, and repeatedly highlights the absurdities of language pedagogy in his work. See in particular La Leçon, which dramatises the violence of pedagogical principles (a violence that reaches its peak in the teaching of absurd philological principles), and the dialogues that Ionesco contributed to Michel Benamou’s 1969 French textbook Mise en train, which, as Benamou explains, parody both Ionesco’s own work (especially La Cantatrice chauve) and ‘the lethal pabulum mouthed by our students (from Latin studiosus pronounced stooges), in the so-called “audio-lingual” programs of the sixties’. Indeed, for Benamou, ‘[t]he bond between literature and pedagogy is perhaps the nexus of Ionesco’s method’. Michel Benamou, ‘Philology Can Lead to the Worst’, in The Two Faces of Ionesco, ed. Rosette C. Lamonte and Melvin J. Friedman (Troy, NY: Whitston Publishing Company, 1978), pp. 75–7 (pp. 75, 76). 50. Eugène Ionesco, ‘La Tragédie du langage’, in Notes et contre-notes (Paris: Gallimard, 1962), pp. 155–60 (p. 156). 51. Ionesco, ‘La Tragédie du langage’, p. 157. 52. Ionesco, ‘La Tragédie du langage’, pp. 158–9. 53. Ionesco, ‘La Tragédie du langage’, p. 159. This form of conversation appears in La Cantatrice chauve as the dialogue between M and Mme Martin. 54. Ionesco, ‘La Tragédie du langage’, p. 156. 55. Joseph Conrad, Under Western Eyes (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1957), p. 11. 56. Anthony Cordingley, ‘Beckett’s “Masters”: Pedagogical Sadism, Foreign Language Primers, Self-Translation’, Modern Philology, 109 (2012), 510–43 (pp. 518–19). 57. Cordingley, ‘Beckett’s “Masters”: Pedagogical Sadism, Foreign Language Primers, Self-Translation’, p. 519.

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58. Cordingley, ‘Beckett’s “Masters”: Pedagogical Sadism, Foreign Language Primers, Self-Translation’, p. 522. 59. Within the trilogy, see, for example, Lousse’s parrot in Molloy (M 49), Jackson’s parrot in Malone meurt (MM 72), and the unnameable narrator’s complaint, in the context of his own linguistic compulsions and the otherness of the language he uses, that ‘[u]n perroquet, ils sont tombés sur un bec de perroquet’ (I 82) (‘A parrot, that’s what they’re up against, a parrot’ [T 338]). 60. It is notable that, as Nabokov recognised when he distinguished between Beckett’s ‘schoolmaster’s French’ and the ‘spreading live roots’ of the English prose, the impact of Beckett’s own learning of French is often most palpable in the French version of his texts. In Premier amour, for example, the references to the grammatical function of the narrator’s epitaph, as well as his indication that he is not French, are both omitted from the English translation; likewise, in the trilogy, some of the references to the otherness of language that we find in the French are omitted from the English text. For example, Molloy’s ‘Quelle langue’ (M 15) is rendered in English as ‘What rigmarole’ (T 13), and Malone’s reference to ‘votre langue’ (MM 46) is omitted altogether. Certainly, when writing in an acquired language, Beckett tends to bring to the fore the forms and functions of language to a greater extent than when writing in English. (This is the case in languages other than French too, and in Beckett’s earliest experiments with using another language: as Mark Nixon observes, in Beckett’s translation of the poem ‘Cascando’ into German in 1936, ‘the spurned love of the English version is replaced by a focus on “words”’. Mark Nixon, Samuel Beckett’s German Diaries 1936–1937 [London: Continuum, 2011], p. 111.) 61. Phil Baker, ‘Beckett’s Bilingualism and a Possible Source for the Name of Moran in Molloy’, Journal of Beckett Studies, 3 (1994), 81–83 (p. 81). Baker is tentative in suggesting the possibility that Beckett took the name ‘Moran’ from this source, but the evidence he presents is persuasive. 62. As Anthony Cordingly argues, this would have been Beckett’s own experience of learning Latin and French at school. At the Portora Royal School, ‘Beckett’s masters of foreign language appear to have strayed little from the accepted path of coercive language learning.’ Indeed, Cordingley argues that when Beckett himself became a teacher, he is likely to have ‘assumed the role of disciplinarian when instructing French grammar’. Cordingley, ‘Beckett’s “Masters”: Pedagogical Sadism, Foreign Language Primers, Self-Translation’, pp. 534, 535–6. 63. On the fact that his son shares his name, Moran baldly states that ‘[ç]a ne peut pas prêter à confusion’ (M 125) [‘This cannot lead to confusion’ (T 92)]. 64. Hill, Beckett’s Fiction, p. 53. 65. At one point Moran pauses at the strangeness of his language: ‘Prends ma main, dis-je. J’aurais pu dire, Donne ta main. Je dis, Prends ma main. Bizarre’ (M 173) [‘Take my hand, I said. I might have said, Give me your hand. I said, Take my hand. Strange’ (T 127)]. In French, ‘Prends ma main’ is unidiomatic, and ‘donne ta main’ is grammatically incorrect: the correct formulation is ‘donne-moi la main’. In this context, it appears that Moran has begun to take on a slightly Anglicised French, in that his phrases correlate to the English ‘take my hand’ and ‘give me your hand’. This slight awkwardness is lost in the English translation.

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66. William Wordsworth, Lyrical Ballads, ed. Michael Mason (London: Longman, 1992), p. 82. 67. Hill, Beckett’s Fiction, p. 53. 68. Marina Warner, ‘“Who Can Shave an Egg?”’, Times Literary Supplement, 29 February 2008, pp. 14–17. 69. Beckett translates this into English as ‘I was out of sorts. They are deep, my sorts, a deep ditch, and I am not often out of them’ (T 20). The phrase ‘out of sorts’, though making figurative use of displacement, is far less obviously ridiculous than ‘je n’étais pas dans mon assiette’, but by changing the image of the soup plate into that of a ditch, Beckett renders the English absurd by following the literalised logic of being in or out of one’s ‘assiette’. 70. Samuel Beckett, Malone meurt (Paris: Minuit, 1951). Subsequent references to pages in this work will appear in parentheses with the abbreviation MM. 71. The pun on tête/têtue in the French is, inevitably, absent in English, but is replaced with the pun on hens cutting capers (having had their heads cut off). 72. The pun translates perfectly into English. 73. Again, the pun translates directly back into English. 74. The French phrase plays on the punning meaning of ‘tomber sous le sens’ [‘to be obvious’] and ‘tombe’, meaning ‘grave’. The pun is not carried over into the English. 75. The French plays on ‘à peine’ (hardly) and ‘peine’ (difficulty/pain). Again, the pun is lost in English translation. 76. Beckett’s translation into English loses the depth of idiomatic layering that we find in the French, but brings in connotations of death and endings. 77. Beckett translates this as ‘doing impositions’ (T 190). 78. Cordingley, ‘Beckett’s “Masters”: Pedagogical Sadism, Foreign Language Primers, Self-Translation’, pp. 523–5. 79. As Cordingley explains, the concept of ‘l’ordre naturel’ ‘refers to the order of subject-verb-object in French; in the context of grammatical relations it was a relatively common expression in Beckett’s time and it remains so today. However, the justification for the naturalness of this order grew out of seventeenth century Rationalist philosophy of mind. Its argument most basically states that discourse is the image of thought, and that if thought operates according to the logic of reason, then discourse will itself offer a picture of the mind, and illustrate the laws of reason.’ Anthony Cordingley, ‘Beckett and “L’Ordre Naturel”: The Universal Grammar of Comment c’est/How It Is’, in All Sturm and no Drang: Beckett and Romanticism. Beckett at Reading 2006, ed. Dirk Van Hulle and Mark Nixon, Samuel Beckett Today/Aujourd’hui: An Annual Bilingual Review/Revue Annuelle Bilingue, 18 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007), pp. 185–99 (p. 193). 80. Tom Driver, ‘Beckett by the Madeleine’, Columbia University Forum, 4 (1961), 21–25 (p. 23). 81. Driver, ‘Beckett by the Madeleine’, p. 23. It should be noted that Driver does not necessarily quote Beckett verbatim. As he admits: ‘I reconstruct his sentences from notes made immediately after our conversation. What appears here is shorter than what he actually said but very close to his own words’ (p. 22). Though Driver’s article relays Beckett’s general ideas and opinions, we should be cautious of assuming the exact accuracy of the citations.

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82. One meaning of ‘colle’ is, as Beckett translates it, a difficult question – a ‘poser’ or ‘teaser’ – but it can also mean ‘oral exam’, and ‘detention’. 83. Chris Ackerley and S. E. Gontarski, The Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett: A Reader’s Guide to His Works, Life, and Thought (New York: Grove Press, 2004), p. 431. 84. Michel Foucault, Les Mots et les Choses: Une Archéologie Des Sciences Humaines, Bibliothèque des Sciences Humaines (Paris: Gallimard, 1966), pp. 310–11. 85. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, Routledge Classics (London: Routledge, 2001), p. 324. 86. Émile Benveniste, Problèmes de Linguistique Générale, Bibliothèque des Sciences Humaines (Paris: Gallimard, 1966), p. 263. 87. Émile Benveniste, Problems in General Linguistics, trans. Mary Elizabeth Meek, Miami Linguistics Series, 8 (Coral Gables: University of Miami Press, 1971), p. 227. 88. We might also note echoes of the grammatical subject here in the word ‘sujet’, which further suggests that the speaker is defined by the alien language that he uses. 89. Beckett does not translate this phrase literally, preferring instead a more passive construction whereby the speaker hopes to find the answer ‘somewhere in this churn of words at last’ (T 313). 90. Ann Banfield, ‘Beckett’s Tattered Syntax’, Representations, 84 (2003), 6–29 (p. 16). 91. Banfield takes her terminology here from Joseph Emonds. As she explains: ‘Emonds subdivides the lexicon into an open-class “Dictionary” and a closed-class “Syntacticon”. The closed-class members lack highly specified semantic content, having only cognitive syntactic features.’ Banfield, ‘Beckett’s Tattered Syntax’, p. 17. 92. Beckett’s English translation changes the order of the questions to ‘Where now? Who now? When now?’ (T 293). 93. See Knowlson, Damned to Fame, pp. 397, 418, on the impasse experienced by Beckett in the 1950s.

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Index accented speech, 10, 51, 59–60, 61, 86, 101, 104, 110–11, 127–8, 135, 150–1, 194nn44–5, 194n47, 202–3n34 Adorno, Theodor, 30 Alvarez, A., 81 American English, see English Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich, 62, 65 Angier, Carole, 201n11, 202n21, 202–3n34, 205n75 anti-Semitism, 56, 101, 119–21, 193n38 Apollinaire, Guillaume, 3, 4–5 Aristotle, 23 Arp, Hans, 4, 5 Attridge, Derek, 131, 210n57 Babel, myth of, 1–4, 10–11, 13–14, 15–33, 37–8, 63, 65, 115, 125, 144–5, 164, 178, 179, 180n7 Baker, Phil, 160 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 8, 40 dialogism, 29 heteroglossia, 5, 29, 52, 181n19 polyglossia, 5, 29 Banfield, Anne, 174, 218n90 Basic English, see Ogden, C. K. Baudelaire, Charles, 25, 31 Beasley, Rebecca, 180n10 Becket, Fiona, 46, 190–1n14 Beckett, Samuel, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 18, 22, 24, 29, 107, 126, 145, 146–79, 183n17, 184n34, 211n6, 211–12n10, 213nn18–19, 213n25, 214n33, 214n36, 217–18n80; turn to French, 14–15, 22, 116, 146–154, 167–8, 173–4, 177, 211–12n10, 212n12, 213n22, 213n26 First Love, 215n46, 216n60 L’Innommable, 15, 146, 151, 152, 158, 164–78, 216n59

Malone Dies, 216n60, 217nn70–6 Malone meurt, 162–4, 165, 171, 177, 216nn59–60 Molloy (English), 216n60, 217n69 Molloy (French), 21, 147, 159–61, 162, 165, 167, 177, 216n59, 216–17n65 Premier amour, 153–4, 216n60 The Unnamable, 146, 151–2, 218n88, 218n91 Watt, 147–8, 153 see also translation Benamou, Michel, 215n49 Benjamin, Walter, 10, 24–7, 63, 204n64 Benveniste, Émile, 166–7 Ben-Zvi, Linda, 17 Blake, William, 212–13n17 Blamires, Harry, 208n35 Bloomfield, Leonard, 189n100 Boehmer, Elleke, 66, 70, 196n53 Booth, Howard J., 47, 191n20, 192–3n36 Borges, Jorge Luis, 4, 9 Bosinelli, Rosa Maria Bollettieri, 115, 117, 140, 209n48 Bousquet, Joe, 24 Bowden, George, 196n55 Bowlby, Rachel, 102 Brion, Marcel, 24 Budgen, Frank, 139, 140 Bulson, Eric, 116 Buning, Marius, 182n32 Burnat-Provins, Marguerite, 88–9, 203n41 Cantwell, Mary, 83, 201n14 Carco, Francis, 71, 73–4, 75, 77, 195–6n52, 198–9n69, 199n71 Perversité, 82, 89–92 Perversity, trans Jean Rhys, 82, 89–94, 104, 111, 200n6, 200–1n10, 203–4n43, 204nn52–3, 204n57, 204nn60–1

229

230

Index

Carr, Helen, 101, 201n14 Cendrars, Blaise, 2, 3, 180n7 Chamberlain, Lori, 84–6, 95 Chodat, Robert, 187n74 Cocteau, Jean, 3 code-mixing, 72–3, 87, 198n67 code-switching, 46, 58, 73, 75, 105, 110 Colette, Sidonie-Gabrielle, 83, 201n14 colonialism colonial identity, 12–14, 43, 61, 65–6, 70–1, 77, 79, 80, 113, 194n47 imposition of language, 10, 149, 194n47 Connor, Stephen, 152 Conrad, Joseph, 33, 206n12 ‘An Outpost of Progress’, 191–2n20 Heart of Darkness, 191–2n20 Under Western Eyes, 5–6, 159, 181n20 Cordingley, Anthony, 152, 159, 216n62, 217n78 cosmopolitanism, 5, 6, 11, 12, 19, 32–5, 37–8, 43, 48, 55–8, 60–1, 65, 71, 75–6, 78, 80–1, 100, 104, 114, 178, 192–3n36 Cournos, John, 18 creole languages, 10, 11, 36, 86, 125, 145, 146, 178, 189n98, 189n100, 202n32 creolisation, 8, 13, 36, 37, 46, 48, 81–2, 86–90, 92–3, 99, 105, 111, 179, 188n86, 204n64 Cronin, Michael, 59, 121, 194n47, 197n59, 208n31 Dante Alighieri, 4, 31, 129 de Nève, Édouard, 82–4, 93–9, 200n5, 201nn11–12, 201n18, 202nn20–2, 205nn73–4 Barred (trans. Jean Rhys), 82–3, 84, 93–5, 96–8, 111, 200n8, 205n71, 205n79, 205n82 In de Strik, 94, 205n71 Sous les verrous, 82, 84, 93–9, 200n8, 205n71, 205n75 defamiliarisation, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18–24, 40, 49, 56, 59, 64, 93, 110–11, 113, 115–19, 122–4, 126,

134, 135, 140–4, 154–8, 184n20, 195n51 see also Shklovsky, Viktor Delabastita, Dirk, 182n32 Delaunay, Robert, 3 Delaunay, Sonia, 2–3 Derrida, Jacques, 8 Dewey, John, 3 dialect, 8–9, 24, 43–4, 120, 124–6, 145, 188n86, 189n100, 189–90n6 dialogism, see Bakhtin, Mikhail Dos Passos, John, 6 Driver, Tom, 165, 217–18n80 Duthuit, Georges, 150–1, 214n33 Edwards, John, 7 Edwards, Michael, 151 Eiffel, Gustave, 2 Eiffel Tower, 1–3, 19, 33, 100, 180n1, 180n3, 180n7 Eliot, T. S., 4, 15, 42 The Waste Land, 5, 10, 12, 30–2, 34, 37, 40, 48, 115, 117, 178–9, 187n74, 187n78 see also translation Elwert, W. T., 7 Emery, Mary Lou, 100–1, 102, 107, 206n92 English language American English, 23, 34–6, 125, 185n39, 188–9nn97–8 heterogeneity of, 10, 11, 13, 20–1, 35–6, 120–6, 131–5, 145, 146, 188n86, 194n44 Hiberno-English, 10, 34, 115, 120–2, 125, 148–9, 160, 194n47, 213n22 as world language, 7, 11, 23, 35–7, 86, 116, 120, 125, 132, 145, 148, 192n26 Englishness, 12, 33, 35–6, 43, 58, 64–8, 70–3, 75–8, 101, 106, 114–15, 122 see also stereotypes, English Esperanto, 9, 18, 127 essentialism, national and linguistic, 2, 12, 18–19, 29–30, 37, 43–48, 53, 55–6, 58, 60–1, 67, 70–1, 78, 114–15, 148

Index Esslin, Martin, 211n6 exile, 11, 39, 99, 113 Fargnoli, Nicholas, 209n53 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 2, 28, 29, 186n68 Finn, Howard, 60 Fitch, Brian T., 212n12 Flaubert, Gustave, 201n14 Ford, Ford Madox, 6, 82–3, 90, 93, 181n22, 200–1n10 foreignness, as concept, 9, 13, 22–3, 41, 45, 54, 60–1, 68, 117, 149 Forster, Leonard, 7, 8 Foucault, Michel, 166 France, Anatole, 201n14 funny foreigner, convention of, 59–61, 68–70, 87–8, 194nn43–5, 194n47, 197n59 Futurism, 3, 4, 6 Gardiner, Judith Kegan, 201n14 Garrity, Jane, 194–5n48 Gatti-Taylor, Marisa, 209–10n54 George, Stefan, 5 Gertler, Mark, 195–6n52 Giedon-Welcker, Carola, 36–7 Gifford, Don, 121, 124, 132, 207n26, 208n30, 210n55 Gillespie, Michael P., 209n53 Glissant, Édouard, 8, 92–3, 204n64 Goll, Ivan, 4, 5, 24 Gregory, Lady Augusta, 121–2, 208n30 Grutman, Rainier, 54–5, 181n19, 182n32, 192n25 Gunn, Dan, 214n33 Haynes, Kenneth, 7, 8 H.D., 4, 85, 186n61 Heine, Heinrich, 107, 206n92 Hemingway, Ernest, 6, 185n39 Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 2, 28, 30, 32, 148, 186–7n68 heteroglossia, see Bakhtin, Mikhail Hiberno-English, see English Hill, Leslie, 160, 214n36 Hoenselaars, Ton, 182n32

231

Hofmannsthal, Hugo von, 18, 183n8 ‘Ein Brief’, 10, 22, 23, 16–18, 157, 179 Hyde, Douglas, 121–2 Hyde, G. M., 54 immigration Jewish, 56–7, 59, 101, 119, 122, 192n33 linguistic impact of, 6, 10, 11, 23, 35–6, 60, 178–9, 185n39, 188–9nn97–8, 189n102 interlanguage, see language learning and teaching interlingual encounters, representation of, see translational mimesis Ionesco, Eugène, 5, 156, 158, 159, 170, 215n49 La Cantatrice chauve, 156–9 see also translation Irish Literary Revival, 114, 121–2, 148–9, 187n72, 213n18, 213n22 Israel, Nico, 32 Jakobson, Roman, 118, 143 Janvier, Ludovic, 213n19 Jewishness representation of, 12, 43, 48, 56–7, 59–61, 78, 101, 119–20, 122, 130, 192n33 wandering Jew, 56–7, 122 see also anti-Semitism; immigration, Jewish; stereotypes, Jewish Jolas, Eugene, 5, 11, 19, 23–4, 29–30, 32–8, 100, 126, 146, 178–9, 185n41–3, 187n73, 188–9n97–8, 214n29 see also transition Jones, Bethan, 190n12 Joseph, John, 180n4 Joyce, James, 7, 9, 10, 17, 29, 33–7, 42–3, 87, 113–45, 150, 154, 186n61, 206–7n12, 208–9n47, 209n48, 213n26 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, 113–16, 149 Dubliners, 113, 160, 213n26

232

Index

Joyce, James – continued Finnegans Wake, 5, 6, 11, 13, 19, 37, 40, 43, 113, 115, 116, 117, 145, 146, 178–9, 188n86 Ulysses, 5, 6, 13, 113–46, 207n26, 209–10n54, 210n55, 210n57, 210n62 Work in Progress, 5, 11, 14, 19, 21, 24, 33–7, 48, 114–15, 145, 193n41 see also translation Kappers, Martien, 84, 93–4, 201n18, 202n20, 202n22, 205n73 Karlin, Daniel, 6 Katz, Daniel, 4, 185n39, 213–14n26 Kaun, Axel, 147, 153, 164, 211n6 Kellman, Stephen G., 5, 7, 8, 9 Kenner, Hugh, 210n57 Kimber, Gerri, 198–9n69 Knowles, Sebastian D. G., 141 Knowlson, James, 211–12n10 Kosters, Onno, 132 Kramsch, Claire, 117 Krance, Charles, 212n12 Kusch, Celena E., 61 language learning and teaching, 5–6, 14–15, 20–1, 49, 50–3, 56, 116–17, 146–7, 150–79, 214n36, 215n49, 216nn60–2, 217n78 interlanguage, 10, 12, 60 Larbaud, Valery, 5 Lawrence, D. H., 6, 11–12, 15, 38, 42, 66, 113, 178, 190n12, 191n20; as translator of Giovanni Verga, 53–4, 197n58 The Lost Girl, 54, 196–7n58 St Mawr, 192–3n36 Women in Love, 10, 29–30, 40, 43–9, 51–9, 65, 71, 75–6, 78, 115, 122, 144, 190–1n14, 191n20, 193nn37–41, 195–6n52 see also translation Le Gallez, Paula, 88 Le Page, R. B., 202n32 Léon, Paul, 145, 146 Leavis, F. R., 40, 178 on James Joyce, 11–12, 19, 32–8, 48, 114–15, 193n41 on T. S. Eliot, 34

Lenglet, Jean, see de Nève, Édouard Lennon, Brian, 182n27 Lewis, Wyndham, 185n39 liminality, cultural and linguistic, 12, 15, 65–6, 71–3, 78, 80, 82, 87, 100–4, 110, 200n2 Llona, Victor, 7, 27 Lowell, Robert, 4 Loy, Mina, 5 Mackey, William, 7 Maddox Jr., James H., 125, 208n35 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 5, 150, 161, 184nn29–30, 184n34, 213n25 ‘Crise de vers’, 10, 19–23, 26, 27, 115 Les Mots anglais, 20–1, 161 Mamigonian, Marc A., 124 Mann, Thomas, 6 Mansfield, Katherine, 11–12, 14, 38, 40, 42–3, 58, 65–79, 113, 199n75 ‘An Indiscreet Journey’, 12, 66, 71–3, 75, 76–7, 78, 87, 198nn65–8, 199n78 In a German Pension, 6, 66–72, 196nn55–6, 197n59, 197–8nn61–2: ‘Germans at Meat’, 67–71, 76, 87–8 ; ‘The Luft Bad’, 70 ‘Je ne parle pas français’, 12, 65–6, 67, 71, 73–8, 80, 195–6n52, 198–9n69, 199n71, 199nn73–8 ‘The Little Governess’, 66 see also translation Mao, Douglas, 180n11 Maupassant, Guy de, 84, 87, 201n14 Mauthner, Fritz, 17–18, 30, 147, 148, 153, 156, 183n13 McCourt, John, 127, 209n52 McGreevy, Thomas, 213n18, 213n25 Meisel, Perry, 74 Milesi, Laurent, 37, 115, 188n86 Mirlees, Hope, 5 mistranslation, see translation modernist crisis of language, 4, 10–11, 13, 16–24, 30, 35, 37, 40, 115–16, 155–9, 178–9, 185nn41–3 Monk, Craig, 24 monolingualism, 7, 8, 99, 117, 182n27

Index Montini, Chiara, 211n10, 213n22, 214–15n36 Mooney, Sinéad, 151, 212n12, 214n36 Morin, Emilie, 18, 148, 187n72, 213n22 Morris, William, 213n17 Murry, John Middleton, 73, 198n63, 198–9n69, 199n71 Nabokov, Vladimir, 4, 9, 153, 216n60 national identity ambiguity of, 12, 37, 43, 48, 56–8, 60, 66, 71–2, 76–9, 101–2, 105, 112, 122, 196n52 performance of, 12, 43, 65–6, 71–2, 78, 80, 102 see also Englishness; essentialism, cultural and linguistic nationalism, 2, 13, 18, 23, 28–9, 53, 100–1, 106, 114, 119–22, 126, 130, 148–9, 183, 186–7n68, 187n72 see also Romanticism, cultural nationalism New Woman, 56, 192n33 Newmark, Peter, 204n49, 204n62 Nixon, Mark, 216n60 North, Michael, 3, 23, 36, 126, 183n9, 191–2n20 O’Connor, Teresa, 86 O’Neill, Patrick, 209n48 Ogden, C. K., 18, 21 onomatopoeia, 21, 141–2 Pannwitz, Rudolf, 25–6 Parsons, Deborah, 56, 192n33 Pelorson, Georges, 24 Perloff, Marjorie, 5, 189n102 pidgins, 10, 36, 124–5, 145, 146, 150–1, 178–9, 207n26 see also creole languages polyglots, representation of, 12, 30, 37, 48, 55–61, 65, 71, 76, 78, 80–1, 100, 105, 115, 178 polylingual reality, representation of, see translational mimesis postcolonialism perspective on creolisation, 8, 36, 92–3

233

postcolonial nation building, 29 postcolonial writing, 6, 14 Pound, Ezra, 4, 85, 186n61 Rabaté, Jean-Michel, 21, 184nn29–30 Rau, Petra, 69 Rhys, Jean, 6, 9, 12–13, 14, 29, 42, 79, 80–112, 113, 115, 126, 148, 178–9, 181n22, 200n2, 201nn11–18, 202nn20–2, 202–3nn33–4, 203n35, 205n73, 206–7n12 After Leaving Mr Mackenzie, 81, 100, 111–12, 205n73 Barred, see de Nève, Édouard Good Morning, Midnight, 13, 14, 81–2, 87, 89, 99–111, 201n14, 206–7n12 Perversity, see Carco, Francis Quartet, 92, 202n21, 205n73 Sleep it off, Lady: ‘The Chevalier of the Place Blanche’, 84, 201n11 Smile Please, 201nn11–12 The Left Bank, 66–7, 81, 84, 86–90, 93, 95–9, 201n12, 202n21, 205n73: ‘La Grosse Fifi’, 84, 87–9, 105, 111, 203n41; ‘Mannequin’, 86–7, 203n36; ‘The Sidi’, 84, 95–9, 111, 201n18, 205n74; ‘Tout Montparnasse and a Lady’, 203n36 ‘Till September Petronella’, 80, 82 see also translation Richardson, Dorothy Miller, 11–12, 14–15, 38, 42–3, 48–52, 59–65, 78, 113, 122, 194–5n48 Pilgrimage, 14, 40, 43, 48–9, 51–2, 56, 57, 59–62, 64–5, 154; Deadlock, 59–65, 194nn43–7, 195n50; Interim, 61, 192n26, 194n47; Oberland, 52, 60, 64–5; Pointed Roofs, 6, 49–52, 59, 62, 64, 66, 154–6, 195n51; Revolving Lights, 61 see also translation Rilke, Rainer Maria, 5 Rimbaud, Arthur, 201n14 Roberts, Neil, 47–8

234

Index

Romanticism cultural nationalism, 2, 11, 18, 19, 27–30, 33–5, 43, 48, 53, 112, 114, 148–9, 153, 180n4 negative perception of linguistic mixing, 28–30, 48 see also Fichte, Johann Gottlieb; Herder, Johann Gottfried von Rosenwald, Lawrence, 8–9, 189n1 Roth, Henry, 6 Savory, Elaine, 83, 88, 101, 203n35, 206n89 Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 26–7 Seidman, Robert J., 121, 124, 132, 207n26, 208n30, 210n55 self-translation, see translation Senn, Fritz, 115, 117–18, 125, 141, 209nn47–8 Shakespeare, William, 33, 75, 114, 115, 190n6, 212n17 Sher, Benjamin, 184n20 Shklovsky, Viktor theory of ‘ostranenie’ (‘enstrangement’), 10, 19, 22–3, 49, 184n20 Soffici, Ardengo, 4 Sousa Ribeiro, António, 183n14 Spenser, Edmund, 212n17 standard language, 8, 15, 21, 36, 44, 52, 86, 92, 116, 125–6, 150, 179 Stein, Gertrude, 4, 185n39 Steiner, George, 4, 8, 9, 126–7, 144, 209n49 stereotypes, 59, 66, 141, 196n58, 203n43 English, 67–8, 70, 72, 76–7, 199n78 French, 55, 203–4n43 German, 55, 69–70, 193n37 Irish, 194n47 Italian, 53 Jewish, 193n38 Sternberg, Meir, 39–42, 52, 113, 189–90nn5–6, 190n9, 203n43 Storm, Theodore, 195n51 Stravinsky, Igor Fyodorovich, 33 Symbolism, 7, 21 see also Mallarmé, Stéphane; Verlaine, Paul

Tabouret-Keller, Andrée, 202n32 Takács, Ferenc, 116–17 Thacker, Andrew, 200n2 Thomson, George, 195n50 Tomalin, Claire, 197–8n62 transition, 5, 11, 21, 23–4, 27, 33, 34–7, 126, 146, 185nn41–3, 214n29 Transition Forty-Eight, 150, 214n29 translation, 5–6, 8, 10, 18, 24–7, 37–8, 42–3, 181n20, 186n61, 192n25, 197n59, 208n31 and Beckett, 14–15, 146, 148, 159, 164, 167–8, 179, 211n6, 212n12, 214–15n36, 216n60, 217nn69– 77, 218n88 and Eliot, 30–2, 187n78 and Ionesco, 158 and Joyce, 21, 115, 117–19, 120–6, 138, 208n35, 208–9n47, 209n48 and Lawrence, 52, 53–5, 196–7n58 and Mansfield, 66, 69–70, 71–9, 198n68 and Rhys, 12–13, 80–112, 113, 181n22, 201nn11–12, 203n36, 203–4n43, 205n71 and Richardson, 43, 51, 62–5, 155, 195nn50–1 as central to modernism, 4, 24, 26–7 domesticating, 43, 62, 64, 123 foreignising, 27, 53, 54, 62, 63, 69, 82, 110, 123–4, 196–7n58, 204n64 mistranslation, 41, 55, 128–9, 194n47 self-translation, 14, 94, 148 translational mimesis, 6, 11–13, 39–60, 65, 67–70, 72–5, 81–2, 86–9, 93, 96–9, 103–6, 109–11, 113, 190n9, 196–7n58, 197n59, 203n43 translationese, 92, 204n49, 204n62 untranslatability, 24, 43, 46 see also Benjamin, Walter, ‘Die Aufgabe des Übersetzers’ travel, representation of, 3, 11, 23, 38, 39, 40, 43, 47–9, 52, 57, 60, 64–5, 66–7, 71, 73, 76–7, 123, 135, 138–9, 148, 178, 197n59, 198n66

Index Trowell, Garnet, 196n55 Turner, John Noel, 124, 208n41 Tzara, Tristan, 4–5 universal languages, 21 English as, 35, 192n26 Finnegans Wake as, 35, 115 see also Basic English; Esperanto Venuti, Lawrence, 26, 82, 207n21 Veressaïef, V., 62 Verga, Giovanni, 53–4 Verlaine, Paul, 21, 184n29, 201n14 Walkowitz, Rebecca L., 32–3, 180n11 Warner, Marina, 161

235

Weiler, Gershon, 18, 156, 183n13 Weinreich, Max, 8 Weisgerber, Jean, 9 Westbrook, Viola, 211n6 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 17, 183n9 Wordsworth, William, 161 World War I, 2, 3, 23, 27, 30, 66, 71 World War II, 29, 100–1 Wyndham, Francis, 90, 201n18 Yao, Steven G., 4, 24, 27, 82, 85, 115, 135, 185n44, 186n61 Yeats, William Butler, 4, 148, 149, 187n72, 212–13n17 Zukofsky, Louis, 4