P O L IS H

ACADEM Y

OF

S C IE N C E S

M E M O R A B I L M E M O R A B IL IA ZO O L .

•

I A

IN S T IT U T E

OF

ZOOLOGY

Z O O L О G I C A

34

3— 12

1981

P R Z E M Y S Ł A W T R O JA N

U R B A N F A U N A : F A U N IS T IC , Z O O G E O G R A P H IC A L A N D EC O L O G IC A L PRO BLEM S ABSTRACT N a tu re is a good model of the environm ent for m an. Tow n-planning norm s bâsed on ecological principles are o f great im portance to the establishm ent of a balance between m an , engineering, and nature. It is possible to design housing estates in which faunistic relationships could be favourable to bo th m an and ecosystem functioning. The determ ination o f the effect of urb an pressure on the fauna of urban green areas on the basis o f zoogeographical, ecological and bionomical analysis enables us to characterize the taxons successfully colonizing u rb a n habitats.

The industrialization o f Poland during the recent 30-year-period was followed by mass m igrations of countryside people to towns. Consequently, the towns have had to be enlarged. The process of the developm ent of large towns raises m any questions on the principles of their construction as spatial, urbanistic, technical and biological units concurrently. Architects, geographers, economists, technicians, and biologists face the problem o f the establishm ent of rules, norm s and measures enabling a p roper control and analysis of the processes occurring as a result of the urbanization o f large areas o f the country. A n im portant goal is to recognize the factors re­ sponsible for relationships within urban structures, and to counteract the negative effects o f urbanization, recorded particularly in the field o f medical, social and biological sciences. The aim of the undertaken actions is to develop a system o f spatial organization as to prom ote the development o f favourable living conditions in housing estates, that is, enable people to enjoy good health, to restore strength rapidly and to m aintain a good fram e of m ind, the being the necessary conditions for the development of good social relations. In recent years these problem s have received m uch attention at m any national and international conferences, the purpose of which was to recognize the main factors responsible for disturbances within urban structures and for negative effects on hum an organisms [1]. Two such conferences were held by bio­ logists. The first one was a symposium on the protection o f urban environ­ m ent, organized by the Agricultural University of Warsaw on 14— 15 N ovem ­ ber, 1975. The second, on a narrow er scale, was centred upon the con-

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ditions for the developm ent o f tree stands and their fauna in Warsaw. It was organized by the Botanical G arden PAS and the Institute o f Zoology PAS in co-operation with the Town G ardening and Cleaning Departm ent. C o-operation o f the groups m ade up o f specialists representing various disciplines and o f activists in the field o f economy yields rather noticeable effects. One o f them is concerned with the general diagnosis o f the urban environm ent, which has been form ulated by P. Z a r e m b a [1] as follows: “A distinct disturbance o f the biological balance is observed in urban eco­ systems; m an is n o t able to ad a p t himself neither biologically nor psycho­ logically to the conditions of life which he created as a result o f the technical progress” ... . “T he aim o f the technique at present should be the restoration o f the disturbed balance am ong the technique, m an and nature. T he results o f the ecological studies conducted so far enable us to conclude th at now there are foundations to speed up this process” . F or a biologist a substantial question arises from these considerations: at which stage o f the developm ent o f biological systems in housing estates this urban-biological unit does begin to have a positive effect on man. Specifying this problem in the categories o f bioindication, we m ay ask if a streetside lawn is sufficient, or if it should be a system in which only chaffinches and sparrow s will occur am ong birds, o r perhaps the threshold o f the “biological co m fo rt” in m a n ’s hab itat is reached only when nightin­ gales can nest in the housing estate. The second effect o f the co-operation discussed is an intensified circula­ tion o f views, hypotheses and w orking concepts am ong disciplines th at ten years ago had alm ost no co n tact with one another. This exchange of scientific thought stimulates research in the direction o f m aking the results useful n o t only for particular disciplines, b ut first o f all for the com m on benefit, th at is, for the recognition o f the principles o f h abitat optim ization in urban areas. The exchange of ideas prom otes still m ore frequently the establishm ent o f research priorities or views on basic problem s concerning urban habitats [2]. N ow adays there is n o d o u b t that the ecological aspect of urban structures, with m an as the d o m in an t com ponent, is o f great im portance to the im pro­ vement of living conditions in towns. Discussion on the perception o f the h ab itat quality by m an is only a t the prelim inary stage. It should be stressed, however, that the social perception o f the quality o f the environm ent or landscape is now very close to the views o f biologists on this m atter. Diversified urban structures w ith large green areas o f m osaic spatial structure and vertical layering, approaching th at occurring under natural conditions o f our geographical zone, are perceived as better than m onotonous systems o f a simplified structure. N a tu re is still a good m odel for m an and his fram e o f mind. The restoration o f his physical and psychic energy depends largely on the quality o f the natu ral environm ent which he confronts every day.

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Faunistic and ecological studies on the animals inhabiting our towns, carried out since 1974 at the Institute o f Zoology PAS in W arsaw, are supposed to answer a num ber of theoretical and practical questions con­ cerning the state and the role of the fauna in urban habitats. The scope o f this work has been established as a result o f the co-operation of a team of workers, including representatives o f the Institute of Environm ental En­ gineering, Institute o f G eography and Spatial Planning PAS, Agricultural University, and Institute o f G eography UW . The study concerned mostly the fauna of urban green areas such as parks, green spaces am ong buildings, and even small pathes o f streetside lawns. The habitat-form ing role o f green spaces is well known at present [3]. Their fauna is a carrier o f regulatory processes [4] in relation to phytophages infesting herbaceous plants, trees and shrubs poisoned by chlorine and heavy metals [5, 6]. Grazing by phyto­ phages is an additional critical factor handicapping the development o f plants in towns. An im portant problem is the recognition o f the role o f fauna in the processes of the development and functioning of soil in towns. Preliminary results show that a considerable reduction in the biological activity o f soil in green areas located near the sources of poison, was caused by engine fumes [7]. Particularly im portant is evaluation of the state of particular ecosystems within urban biocoenoses, because opinions in this subject suggest im proper quantitative relationships am ong producers, consum ers and de­ com posers [8]. W ithin towns also the process o f synanthropization occurs, which leads to the colonization o f urban areas by forms with different ecological specializa­ tions. These form s overcome the ecological barriers acting so far and colonize the direct environm ent of m an. Here they enrich the ecological system, form ing at the same time new values for people themselves. The synanthro­ pization of blackbirds in Poland, a p art of the population adapted to the life in urban parks, nesting even in small gardens around buildings, is perceived as a nice novelty in our environm ent [9]. O ther synanthropic species are m ore annoying to man. Some of them, such as alien to our fauna black-beetles (Blatta orientalis L.) and cockroaches (Blattella germa­ nica L.) or p h arao h ants, represent highly undesirable com ponents in dwellings as consum ers of foodstuff. Others, like bed-bugs (C im ex lectularius L.) and synanthropic flies are carriers o f epidemic diseases as they transm it in­ fectious microbes. An increase in their population is usually followed by an epidemic [10]. The processes o f the colonization of urban areas by the fauna should be systematically recognized, and the patterns of the fauna development in towns determ ined. Factors controlling these processes and influencing the developm ent o f faunistic relationships in urbicoenoses, i.e., ecosystems of urban areas, should be recognized in order to m ake forecasts as to evaluate them in the phase of planning housing estates, and to control them in

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the way m ost convenient for m an and the ecosystem, as there is n o possibility to elim inate the fauna altogether from u rb an areas. The attem pts to eliminate rats failed [11]. N a tu re does not su p p o rt vacuum within u rb an ecosystems. In the town it is n o t possible to use chemicals against undesirable species at such a rate as in crop fields, and even in the latter habitats the efforts o f the plant protection service are only partly successful, the elimination o f pests being a postulate n o t realized so far. M o re prom ising is an optimiza­ tion o f the structure o f u rban fauna so th at it could serve a proper func­ tioning of the ecosystem o f urban green spaces and be n o t to o annoying to m an. This goal seems to be realizable in the nearest future due to developing the plan for the housing estate Białołęka D w orska in W arsaw. This will be a experim ental range for architects, technicians and biologists. Ecological premises o f this project com plem ent urbanistic concepts of the space organization. The faunistic aspect of urban studies is a novelty in zoological literature. Few .contributions on this subject [12, 13] are either fragm entary or w ithout a program m e co-ordinating the efforts o f scientists [14], or the m ethods used d o n ot provide a good basis for com paring results [19], so they are o f a limited value for synthesis concerning the whole urban fauna. In the study carried out and co-ordinated by the Institute o f Zoology PAS, a large n um ber o f anim al groups was analysed, including a m ajor p a rt o f the urban fauna. Q uantitative m ethods o f the m aterial sam pling were used so that the results were com parable [15]. Therefore, the m aterials enable us to draw conclusions on such basic faunistic problem s as: 1. The way in which the pressure o f urbanization o f different degree acts on the possibility of the occurrence o f anim als in tow ns; 2. Faunistic com position of the groups o f anim als successful in the colonization o f u rban ecosystems and becom ing dom inants, as well as the com position o f groups eliminated from urban ecosystems. The answer to these questions is o f basic im portance to the studies on the functioning o f the living world under conditions o f the u rb an environm ent, as it indicates the substance o f which ecological systems are m ade up in different zones o f a town. Specificity o f the faunistic com position is one o f the factors determ ining functional features o f urban ecosystems, determ ining also the conditions o f the ecological balance establishment. M oreover, the faunistic analysis shows which com ponents o f the urban structure are abun­ d an t in animals being a source o f biological diversity, and which urban structures are extremely im poverished as a result o f the urban pressure on the living world. A lso the degree o f the isolation o f particular green areas in a tow n should be analysed, since the suggestions by S . H . F e a t h and T. C. K a n e [16], who argued that the degree o f the isolation of parks was similar to the one observed for oceanic islands, seem highly improbable. The second group of questions concerns a zoogeographical analysis of the species living in urban areas and in their surroundings, in free nature

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[17]. Animals occurring in Poland show a considerable differentiation of ranges, varying from those spread over the whole globe, occurring in all geographical and climatic zones, to those whose distribution is limited to a small p art of Europe where they occupy very specific habitat types, and due to this are extremely rare. In addition, in towns we can observe the species brought over or introduced from other geographical regions. Fre­ quently these are forms n o t occurring in Poland in nature, the distribution of which is limited to hum an settlements. D eterm ination of the contribution of particular zoogeographical elements in zones characterized by different proportions o f urban areas, provides basis for explanation o f the genesis o f urban fauna. This also makes it possible to determ ine the role o f au to ­ chthonous fauna and of the processes of the local species adaptation in the developm ent o f urban fauna. M oreover, it enables us to determ ine the role o f authochthonous species. Their presence in towns testifies both to the specificity o f the urban h abitat which differs significantly from the habitats surrounding towns, and to the degree of the opening of the urban eco­ system which can be described as a nonsaturated system, receiving all new elements coming from outside, enriching its structure. This rule, established for agrocoenoses, seems to be also valid for urban ecosystems [18]. The key to understanding the species com position of the urban fauna is provided by an ecological analysis. It enables us to characterize the species successful or n o t in colonizing urban areas. All contributions presented in this volume are based on a unified system o f ecological analysis worked out at the C entre o f Faunistic D ocum entation of the Institute of Zoology PAS, by Dr. W. M i k o ł a j c z y k . They involve a large range o f ecological features of species, such as the degree of synanthropization, ecological am plitude, expansiveness, abundance, relation to particular types o f the environm ent and to its different structural layers, the range o f food specializa­ tion, and the diet. This set of ecological properties makes it possible to characterize ecological and bionomical features of individual species successful in colonizing the habitats transform ed by the processes of urbanization. The question arises whether the ecological groups of species eliminated by the im pact o f urbanization can be successfuly replaced by other species with different specialization and bionomics, b u t with a similar function in the system as far as regulatory processes in a biocoenosis are concerned. In u rban ecosystems the presence of species controlling the num ber o f phyto­ phages injuring green plant parts is o f particular im portance [4]. This function is perform ed by groups of predators and parasitoids acting concurrently on the populations o f phytophages. The recognition o f relationships am ong these three com ponents represents an im portant field o f the study on urban fauna. It delimitates the possibility and the range o f ecological m anoeuvre which can be planned in urbicoenöses to improve the num ber regulation in these systems. U rb an pressure as a m ajor factor influencing the fauna represents a clearly-

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-cut section of the total im pact o f hum an settlem ent which, in turn, is a p a rt of a complex system o f interactions am ong nature, engineering, abiotic environm ent, and hum an population, all this being called the anthropopressure [20]. In u rb an areas there are five factors contributing to w hat is called the urban pressure on the world o f n atu re: buildings, the system of underground pipes and cables, com m unication system, industry, and people. The effect o f these factors is responsible for the environm ental distinctiveness o f the areas subjected to u rb an and industrial pressures [21]. The im pact o f building on living n atu re lies firstly in the limiting of the area covered by the vegetation, which is either completely eliminates, as it is the case in the centres o f some towns, or form s islands largely isolated from one an o th er [16]. The history of green areas in E uropean towns shows th at they have found their p erm anent place in u rban structures gradually and only in recent years [22]. The density o f buildings in towns influence therm al conditions in u rb an habitats as a result o f b o th the emission of heat from buildings and their exposure to solar radiation. In this way the type o f buildings influences the clim ate o f a town, m odifying n ot only therm al conditions b u t also the internal system o f air circulation [23]. T he system o f pipes, wires and underground devices is coupled with the processes of urbanization. U nderground devices cause deep changes in the structure o f upper soil layers; they go several or even m ore than ten m etres below the ground surface. As a result the geological system is disturbed and, in particular, w ater relations are affected. W ater table is usually lowered m arkedly as a result o f the urbanization o f an area. N atu ral running waters are either buried or included into the urban sewer system, depending on the geom orphology. In W arsaw it was the case o f the P otok Służewiecki and R udaw ka flowing th ro u g h the Bielany W ood. Sometimes troublesom e ru n n in g waters are directed to underground urban channels and as a result they have no m o re influence on w ater relations in the area they drained before. This practice leads to drying up the top soil layers and to deterioration of living conditions for plants since their roots have to use rain waters from u p p er soil layers or reach deeply to use ground waters. The developm ent of com m unication system in m odern towns is coupled with covering large areas w ith asphalt o r concrete pavem ent. This excludes a large part o f the urban areas from the developm ent o f living systems. Only the ant Lasius niger can build nests under the pavem ent and, passing thro u g h crevices, reach streetside trees and pavem ent surface in search of food. Arteries o f traffic in towns are, in addition, a source o f dangerous emissions in the form o f engine fumes floating in the air and polluting the atm osphere o f green areas and buildings, as well as the soil, the latter with salts of heavy metals accom panied by m agnesium chloride and sodium chloride, b o th used in w inter to m ake streets less slippery [24]. This factor acts m ost strongly on the streetside vegetation where the rate and longevity

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o f plan t life are lower than under natural conditions, and the biological activity of soil is markedly reduced. The effect o f industry on the urban habitat depends on the specificity o f production. In m any fields of industry large am ounts of heat are released as a result o f coal and coke com bustion, this being an additional source o f carbon, sulphur and nitrogen oxides or Qther com pounds emitted to the atm osphere. This is accom panied by the emission o f smoke which together w ith the dust generated by traffic and wind-blown soil particles, form above towns an envelope of aerosol modifying atm ospheric processes. The hum an population is a factor acting through its density. All green systems are frequented by m an, their soil being tram pled, animals driven away, and plants damaged. The pressure o f this type eliminates shy species o f birds and m am m als, as well as those plants which are susceptible to soil tram pling. A t the same time these green areas are accessible to synanthropic species, adapted to such a pressure of m an. In winter the presence o f m an improves conditions for the surviving of animals, particularly birds, which at deep snow cover are supplied with food by people. The drying up and the heating o f the urban environm ent m ake the habitats o f green areas similar to xerotherm al ones, and open them to anim als with m ore southern ranges [25]. Im p o rtan t factors attracting synanthropic species to towns are food wastes and the dung of dogs and cats accom panying m an in towns. The whole set of factors accounting for the urbanization pressure acts w ith a different force in particular zones o f a town, m ost strongly in the centre, least strongly in the suburbs. As a result, a double gradient o f the urban pressure on the fauna is formed. The first one w ith an increasing intensity from the suburbs to the centre o f a town, the second one from the sources of pollution to surrounding areas. This system eliminates m any groups of insects [26], b u t at a low pressure enriches species com position o f some groups o f social insects [27]. A detailed analysis o f these processes is the subject of the contributions presented in this volume.

In stytu t Zoologii, Polska A kadem ia N a u k ul. Wilcza 64, 00-679 Warszawa Polska

REFERENCES

1. Z a r e m b a , P. 1978. Postęp techniczny, a rchitektura i ekologia w procesie urbanizacji kraju. N a u k a Polska, 6: 19— 35. 2. A n d r z e j e w s k i , R. 1975. P roblem y ekologicznego kształtow ania środowiska w mieście. Instytut K ształtow ania Środow iska, Warszawa, (ms.).

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3. W y s o c k i , Cz., M ę d r z y c k i , M . 1975. Funkcje ekologiczne układów zieleni w w arun kach wielkich aglomeracji miejskich. Symp. N a u k . “O c hro na środow iska miejskiego” (ms.). 4. D r a b e r - M o ń k o , A., G a r b a r c z y k , H., S a w o n i e w i c z , J., S k i b i ń s k a , E., W e g n e r , E. 1978. K ształtow anie się zależności między fitofagami ko ro n drzew w urbicenozie W arszawy. M a t. Konf. “ W aru n k i rozwoju drzew i ich fauny w W arszawie”, pp. 14— 15. 5. C z a r n o w s k a , K . 1974. The accu m u lation o f heavy m etals in soils an d plants in W arsaw area (exemplified by grasses a n d mosses). Pol. J. Soil. Sei., 7/2: 117-122. 6. C z a r n o w s k a , K ., C z e r w i ń s k i , Z. 1975. W pływ m iasta na zaw artość metali ciężkich i m akro e le m en tów w roślinach. Symp. N a u k . “ O c h ron a środow iska miejskiego” (ms.). 7. Ż u k o w s k a - W i e s z c z e k , D . 1975. W pływ skażenia środow iska n a aktyw ność biologiczną gleb zieleńców W arszaw y. Sym p. N a u k . “ O c h ro n a Ś rodow iska M iejskiego” (ms.). 8. Z i m n y , H. 1975. M ia sto j a k o układ ekologiczny. Symp. N a u k . “O c h ron a Środow iska M iejskiego” , (ms.). 9. S t r a w i ń s k i , S. 1970. P rob lem aty ka b a d a ń nad aw ifauną miast. Przegl. Zool., 14: 125— 131. 10. G ó r s k a , D. 1977. M uchów ki synantropijne j a k o wskaźnik stanu środowisk zurbanizow a­ nych. VII Int. Sym p. E n to m o fa u n a o f M iddle E urope, (ms.). 11. M y l l m ä k i , A. 1969. A n early a p p ro a c h to a rat-free tow n in Finland. Schriftenr. Ver. Wiss. Boden L ufthyg., H, 32: 161— 166. 12. P i s a r s k i , В. 1977. Stan b a d a ń n a d fa u n ą bezkręgowców terenów zurbanizow anych. Wiad. Ekol., 23: 389— 398. 13. F r a n k i e , G. W., E h l e r , L. E. 1978. Ecology o f insects in urb a n environm ents. Ann. Rev. Entm ol., 23: 367— 387. 14. Rastitelnost i zhiv otnoe naselenije M oskvy i Podm oskoviya. Moskva. 15. C z e c h o w s k i . W .. M i k o ł a j c z y k , W. 1981. M ethods for the study o f urban fauna. M em o rabilia Z ool., 34; 49— 58. 16. F e a t h , S. H., K a n e , T. C. 1978. City p arks as islands for Diptera a n d Coleoptera. O ecologia (Berl.), 32: 127 -133. 17. S c h w e i g e r , H. 1953. Versuch einer zoogeographischen G liederung de r rezenten F a u n a des W iener Stadtgebietes. Oesterr. Zool. Z., 4: 556— 586. 18. T r o j a n , P. 1976. H o m eostaza agroekosystem ów a perspektywy walki biologicznej ze sz kodnikam i. W iad. Ekol., 22, 3: 238— 242. 19. N a t u r a l h i s t o r y of the B uckingham Palace G ard en s Proc. Trans. Soc. Lond. Entom ol. N a t. Hist. Soc., 1963, pp. 55— 98. 20. A n d r z e j e w s k i , R. Impresje n a tem at antropopresji. W iad. Ekol., (in press). 21. P a s z y ń s k i , J., H o r n i g , A., K l u g e , M ., K o e h l e r , W., S o k o ł o w s k a , M ., W o l a k , J. 1970. Śro dow isko miejskie i przemysłowe. M a t. Sesji N a u k . Probl. Środ. Człow., (ms.). 22. K ü h n e l t , W. 1978. Les espaces verts urbaines et leur faune. Neuf, 13: 33— 39. 23. R ó ż a ń s k i , S. 1959. Budowa m iasta i jeg o klim at. Wyd. Arkady. W arszawa. 24. C a m p b e l l , H . E. 1967. The a u to m obile as an environm ental factor. J. Environ. Sei., 30: 41— 46. 25. P i s a r s k i , В., T r o j a n , P. 1976. Z oocenozy obszarów zurbanizow anych. W iad. Ekol., 22: 338— 344. 26. P i s a r s k i , В., T r o j a n , P. 1976. W pływ urbanizacji na entom ofaunę. In: “ Entom ologia a o chro na śro dow iska” (ed. by H. Sandner), P W N W arszawa, pp. 65— 75. 27. B a n a s z a k , J., C z e c h o w s k i , W ., P i s a r s k i , B., S k i b i ń s k a , E. 1978. Ow ady społeczne w środow isku z u rbanizo w an ym . K osm os, A, 27: 173— 180.

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F A U N A M IA S T : P R O B L E M F A U N IS T Y C Z N Y , Z O O G E O G R A F IC Z N Y I E K O L O G IC Z N Y STRESZCZENIE

O statnie trzydziestolecie w Polsce charakteryzuje się silnym rozwojem aglomeracji miej­ skich. O pracow anie zasad, norm i mierników pozwalających prawidłow o kształtować i oceniać zjawiska związane z urbanizacją, stanowi ważne zadanie nauki, w tym również biologii. Szczególne znaczenie m a z arów no eliminowanie czynników decydujących o negatywnym o d ­ działywaniu urbanizacji na człowieka, rośliny i zwierzęta, jak też stwarzanie w arunk ów p o ­ zytywnie oddziaływujących n a organizm ludzki. Głów nym celem techniki, zgodnie z twier­ dzeniem urbanistów , jest obecnie przywracanie zachwianej równowagi między człowiekiem techniką i n aturą. Ekologiczny aspekt struktur urbanistycznych m a duże znaczenie przy program o w an iu po praw y w arunk ów życia człowieka w mieście. A u to r stawia pytanie: przy jakim stopniu rozwoju układów biologicznych w obrębie zabudow y osiedli mieszkaniowych rozpoczyna się pozytywne oddziaływanie układów urbanistyczno-przyrodniczych na człowieka. Zróżnicow ana strukturalnie przyrod a pozostaje wciąż d obrym modelem środowiska dla człowieka, zaś jego sam opoczucie i regeneracja sił zależą w znacznej mierze od jakości środowiska z jak im się styka. Badania nad faun ą zieleni miejskiej m ają duże znaczenie w problem atyce ekologii miast, poniew aż zwierzęta stanow ią główny nośnik procesów regulacji biocenotycznej i odgrywają zasadniczą rolę w procesach glebotwórczych. W ażnym zadaniem jest ustalenie sta n u p o ­ szczególnych podsystem ów w obrębie biocenoz zieleni miejskiej, ponieważ stan zatrucia tych środowisk sugeruje wadliwe stosunki ilościowe między producentam i, konsum entam i i destruentam i. Procesy synantropizacji fauny obejmują szczególnie miasta. Niosą one za so bą zarów no zjawiska pozytywne, jak i negatywne. Istniejące zróżnicowanie fauny w różnych u kładach zieleni miejskiej pozwala na planow anie osiedli w ten sposób, aby stosunki faunistyczne kształtowały się korzystnie dla człowieka i ekosystemu miejskiego. Badania pro w ad zo ne w Instytucie Zoologii P A N m ają na celu ustalenie: 1) ja k działa presja urbanizacyjna na występowanie zwierząt w m iastach, 2) które grupy zwierząt uzyskały sukces przy opan ow aniu ekosystemów miejskich. Specyfika układu gatunkow ego fauny różnych części m iasta określa elementy, z których z budow ane są m echanizmy regulacyjne ekosystemów miejskich. Analiza zoogeograficzna pozwala określić, jakie elementy m ają przewagę w opanow yw aniu m iast, ja k również udział w nim ga tunków autochtonicznych i allochtonicznych. Analiza ekologiczna pozwala na określenie takich właściwości, jak stopień synantropizacji gatunków , ich plastyczność środow iskową, liczebność i związki z ekosystemami naturalnym i. Właściwości te m o żn a określić zaró w no w odniesieniu d o tych grup, któ re w opanow yw aniu m iast osiągnęły sukces, jak również tych, które zostały z nich wyeliminowane. N a tym tle rysują się także możliwości wyjaśnienia zjawisk zastępowania w układach ekologicznych grup wypartych z miasta przez grupy lepiej wytrzymujące presję urbanizacyjną. Jednym z ostrzej działających systemów antropopresji jest urbanizacja. Składają się na nią: zabu dow a, system przewodów i instalacji podziemnych, układ kom unikacyjny, przem ysł i lu­ dzie. A u to r om aw ia te czynniki w odniesieniu d o fauny miast.

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PRZEMYSŁAW TROJAN

ФАУНА ГОРОДОВ: Ф А У Н И С ТИ Ч Е С К И Е , ЗО О ГЕО ГРА Ф И ЧЕС К И Е И ЭКОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ПРОБЛЕМ Ы РЕЗЮМЕ

П р и р о д а о стается х о р о ш и м м о д е л ем среды д л я человека. Н о р м ы урбанизации, основанны е на при нцип ах экологии, и м е ю т значение д л я установления равновесия между человеком, техникой и природой. М о ж н о так ф о р м и р о в а ть поселения, чтобы фаунистические о т но ш ения бы ли бл а го п р и ятн ы и д л я человека, и д л я ф ункционирова­ ния экосистем. О пределение воздействия урбанистического пресса на фауну городских зелёных насаждений, основанное на зоогеограф ическом , экологическом и биономическом анализе, позволяет о х а р ак т ер и зо в ат ь таксоны , к оторы е им ели успех при заселении городов.

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