Teacher diversity: Do male and female teachers have different self-efficacy and job satisfaction? Lotte Bøgh Andersen Department of Political Science, Aarhus University & Danish Institute of Governmental Research [email protected]

Abstract Managing diversity involves many challenges, and one of these is that the criteria for success can favour one diversity group with adverse consequences for other workforce members’ feelings of self-efficacy, job satisfaction and performance. Utilizing the fact that the Danish school sector is female dominated (but with different gender composition at the school level), this paper investigates whether (and why) female teachers in Danish schools have higher teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction than male teachers. Based on a survey with 3439 teachers from 85 Danish schools, it is shown that female teachers have higher selfefficacy and job satisfaction, and that these gender differences are partly explain by the female teacher’s higher level of empathy. The differences between male and female teachers do not, however, depend on the proportion of female teachers at the specific school or on the gender of the school principal. The main implication of the findings is that future research should look more into the reasons behind gender differences in self-efficacy and job satisfaction in order to be able avoid that certain diversity groups have systematically lower self-efficacy and job satisfaction.

Paper prepared for the 33rd EGPA conference in Bucharest 7-10. September 2011

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Introduction Diversity in organizations has become a prominent theme in social science over the last couple of decades (Bell and Barry, 2007: 21, Shore et al. 2009). Organizational diversity may have positive effects on organizational outcome (Wise and Tschirhart, 2000; Bell and Berry, 2007), but managing diversity still involves many challenges. One of these is that the criteria for success can favour one diversity group with adverse consequences for other workforce members’ feelings of self-efficacy, job satisfaction and performance. Focusing on one specific dimension of diversity, this study investigates whether and why men and women have different self-efficacy and job satisfaction in a specific setting. These two workplace attitudes are highly relevant, because existing research finds that they are positively associated with performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono & Patton, 2001; Caprara, 2006), and because they can be expected to suffer if organizational criteria of success favour one diversity group. To substantiate the claim that criteria for success may be biased, the paper links gender differences in teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction to a personal characteristic, which differs between the genders, namely “empathy” (the ability to spontaneously and naturally tune into another person's thoughts and feelings (Baron-Cohen, 2003)). It also investigates whether the collective mix of men and women in a given organization affects the gender differences in individual self-efficacy and job satisfaction. This is investigated for Danish public schools, because these organizations are very similar and still have variation in the gender composition. The specific research question is whether (and why) female teachers in Danish schools have different teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction than male teachers. Given that primary and lower secondary schools in Denmark on an aggregated level are dominated by women, female teachers are expected to have higher job satisfaction and selfefficacy than male teachers, especially in schools with a high percentage of women or a female school principal. Furthermore, individuals with high empathy are expected to have higher self-efficacy and job satisfaction. A survey from spring 2011 tests these expectations. It includes almost all teachers from 85 Danish schools (n= 3439 teachers). This design allows me to measure the gender of the individual teachers (and their level of empathy, teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction) as well as the collective mix of men and women at the schools. The main contribution of the paper is that it provides knowledge about the relationships between gender, teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction. The literature has shown that 2

self-efficacy is generally positively correlated with job satisfaction and job performance (Judge & Bono, 2001). Specifically, teacher self-efficacy contributes significantly to students’ achievement and teachers’ job satisfaction (Caprara et al. 2006: 485), but little is known about how this depends on gender and gender composition. I therefore hope to contribute both to the diversity literature and to the literature on school achievement. After this introduction, the theoretical framework is presented, resulting in six hypotheses. A section on data and methods then accounts for the research design and operationalizations, followed by a section with the results. The conclusion then discusses the findings and briefly discusses the implications for future research.

Theoretical framework Studies of job satisfaction are widespread in industrial-organizational psychology as well as in Economics and Public Administration. It can be defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke, 1976: 1300), and especially the relationship between job satisfaction and performance has been thoroughly studied. Although the general finding is a positive association (Judge et al. 2001), Caprara et al. (2006) find that school teachers’ job satisfaction in itself does not contribute to students’ learning. They find that a solid sense of competence is of greater consequence, indicating that teacher self-efficacy should be included in the study in addition to job satisfaction. Bandura (1994) defined perceived self-efficacy as “people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives”. Perceived teacher self-efficacy is accordingly the extent to which a teacher believes that she or he can influence students’ behavior and their academic achievement. Teachers with high teacher self-efficacy expect to succeed in teaching and to handle students well, and this influences their interpretation of successes and disappointments (OECD, 2009: 111). Teacher self-efficacy has been found to contribute significantly to teachers’ job satisfaction and student’s academic achievement (controlled for previous achievement) (Anderson et al. 1988, Caprara et al. 2006: 485). This paper focuses on the internal relationship between job satisfaction and teacher self-efficacy and on the antecedents of the two concepts (especially gender), while a later paper will link the two concepts to performance in terms of students’ exam scores.

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A recent study finds that teachers within a school vary markedly in their levels of selfefficacy and job satisfaction, while differences between schools and between countries are rather small (OECD, 2009: 111). This emphasizes the psychological nature of the constructs and call attention to the teachers’ personality and other personal characteristics. The diversity literature has investigated several diversity dimensions linked to the personal characteristics, including race, culture, religion, gender, sexual preference, age and profession (Wise and Tschirhart, 2000: 387), but gender is one of the most fundamental diversity dimensions. It can be expected to affect organizational behaviour, both because men and women have been socialized differently, and because the male and female brain on average differs along relevant dimensions (Baron-Cohen, 2003). Most studies find that females report higher teacher efficacy than males (Anderson, Greene, & Lowen, 1988; Evans & Tribble, 1986: 83; Raudenbush et al., 1992: 162), and Ross et al. (1996: 389) argue that this is because teaching is viewed as a female occupation. Still, other studies (e.g. Lee et al. 1991) find no gender differences, and Klassen and Chiu (2010) even find that female teachers have lower “classroom management self-efficacy” (a sub type of teacher self-efficacy) while there was no gender effect for the other investigated domains of teacher self-efficacy (instructional strategies and student engagement). Following Ross et al´s argument, the reason behind these different results may be that the investigated schools vary in terms of female dominance. High schools are for example generally less dominated by females compared to primary schools. Given that 70 percent of Danish school teachers are women (DLF, 2011), Danish female teachers are expected have higher teacher self-efficacy than their male colleagues (hypothesis 1). Additionally, Ross et al. (1996: 389) argue that female domination in the teaching occupation may also make females more satisfied with teaching than men, and that is expressed in hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 1: Given that the Danish school sector is female dominated, female teachers have higher perceived teacher self-efficacy than male teachers. Hypothesis 2: Given that the Danish school sector is female dominated, female teachers have higher job satisfaction than male teachers. Combined with the expectation that teachers’ personality affects teacher efficacy (OECD 2009: 111) and the argument that success criteria may be biased in favour of the majority diversity group, hypothesis 1 and 2 may imply that job satisfaction and teacher efficacy could be correlated with a personality trait characteristic for women. The existing literature (Krøjer, 2000; Hale, 1999; Bellas, 1999 & Baron-Cohen, 2003) suggests looking at empathy. It is the ability to spontaneously and naturally tune into the other person's thoughts and 4

feelings (Baron-Cohen, 2003), and it has been shown to affect priorities and approaches to students. For example, Nielsen (2010) finds that the level of empathy is significantly associated with high school counsellors’ counselling behaviour. Female counsellors have significantly higher empathic capacity, and counsellors with higher empathic capacities more often seek out students who are not thriving. Although Nielsen (2010) finds a gender difference controlled for empathic capacities, empathy still mediates a large part of the gender effect. Accordingly, it is possible that empathy affects teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction of Danish school teachers and thus helps explain the gender differences in the two concepts. Hypothesis 3 and 4 concern the relationship between empathy, teacher selfefficacy and job satisfaction. Hypothesis 3: Teachers with high empathy have higher perceived self-efficacy than teachers with low empathy. Hypothesis 4: Teachers with high empathy have higher job satisfaction than teachers with low empathy. Although the Danish school sector as a whole is female dominated, the extent of this varies between organizations, depending on the collective mix of male and female teachers and on the gender of the school principal. Organizational criteria for success may, in other words, be biased to a different degree in different schools, and the collective mix of men and women could affect the gender differences in individual self-efficacy and job satisfaction. Hypothesis 5 and 6 concern this interaction effect between individual gender and collective gender composition for teacher efficacy and job satisfaction, respectively. For female teachers, female domination is expected to be positively associated with higher teacher efficacy and job satisfaction (and opposite for male teachers). Hypothesis 5: Female (male) teachers have higher (lower) perceived teachers efficacy on schools with higher proportions of female teachers and/or female school principals compared to female (male) teachers working at schools with a lower proportion of females and/or a male school principal. Hypothesis 6: Female (male) teachers have higher (lower) job satisfaction on schools with higher proportions of female teachers and/or female school principals compared to female (male) teachers working at schools with a lower proportion of females and/or a male school principal.

Data and methods Empirically, the paper is based on a cross-sectional survey among Danish school teachers at municipal primary and secondary schools in Denmark from December 2010 until June 2011. Data was collected at school staff meetings where the school principal agreed to let the

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teachers answer the questionnaire at the meeting. This made the response rate at each school very high, very close to a hundred percent (only a couple of teachers would not answer), and teachers absent from the meetings got a questionnaire and a return envelope. After a review of the data quality, where suspicious entries were deleted, 3439 usable responses from 85 schools were retained. Given that the project focuses on teacher effects controlled for school and student effects, the biggest schools in Denmark were investigated to optimize the number of teachers investigated for the given resources. 40 percent of the contacted schools participated in the study. Most of the remaining 60 percent did not participate, because they did not have a staff meeting within the timeframe where there was time to do the survey. This may introduce a slight selection bias at the school level, but there is no reason to expect that the association between the variables should differ systematically between the investigated schools and all big Danish school. For the most important personal characteristic (gender), the data is not biased, given that 71 % of the respondents are women and the corresponding percentage is 70 for Danish teachers in general (according to statistics from the union which organizes 95 % of the teachers (DLF, 2011a & 2011b)). The data was collected by 10 employees at Danish Institute for Governmental Research and Aarhus University and contains schools from all parts of Denmark. The questionnaire was based on existing empirical research (as discussed below) combined with interviews with a teacher, a school principal and an educational researcher. The final questionnaire was adjusted after a pilot survey of 61 teachers on two schools. Below, the operationalization of the key concepts is discussed. Many different measures of teacher efficacy exist (Tschannen-Moran, M.; A. W. Hoy & W. K. Hoy, 1998, Schwarzer, Schmitz and Daytner, 1999), and given that it has proven to work well both in Denmark (Egelund, 2009) and internationally (OECD, 2010), the items from the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) were used. One more item was added to make sure that the reliability would be acceptable, which it is (Cronbach’s alpha=0.73). Table A1 in the Appendix (a principal axis factoring analysis of the five items intended to measure self-efficacy) shows the wording of the specific items (both in Danish and English). Only one factor with an Eigen value above 1 was extracted. An additive index was constructed so that it goes from 0 (minimum) to 100 (maximum) self-efficacy. Missing values on the index were replaced by the mean among all respondents for the specific item if respondents had at least three valid answers on the items measuring teacher efficacy.

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Three questions from the Empathy Quotient Test (see http://glennrowe.net/BaronCohen/ EmpathyQuotient/EmpathyQuotient.aspx) measures empathy. The three items were chosen, because they had previously been found to work well in a Danish context (Nielsen unpublished). It has high reliability (Cronbach’s alpha=0.75), and the factor analysis (table A2 in the appendix) shows that only one factor with an Eigen value above 1 was extracted. Table A2 also shows the wording of the items (in both Danish and English). An additive index was constructed so that it goes from 0 (minimum) to 100 (maximum) empathy. Missing values on the index were replaced by the mean among all respondents for the specific item if respondents had at least two valid answers on the items. A single item measures overall job satisfaction, asking the respondents “All in all, how satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your current job on a scale from 0 (very unsatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied)?”. The analyses in this paper is ordinary least square (OLS) regressions, but the robustness of all the regressions was tested by performing Tobit regressions (because both dependent variables are censored, that is, the values are clustered at the upper thresholds). The OLS and Tobit regressions give very similar results, and only the OLS regressions are therefore presented. School dummies for each of the investigated schools are controlled for, but they are not shown in the tables. Due to this, it is only necessary to include control variables related to the individual teacher. Tenure is included in the tables, because it may affect both self-efficacy and job satisfaction, and alternative analyses with age instead of tenure were also produced (but not shown) and gave similar results (including both variables at the same time leads to problems with multicollinearity). A variable measuring whether the teachers have a standard teacher education or a credit education is also included. The credit education takes 2.05 or 2.65 years, depending on the qualifications of the students, who must have a master or bachelor degree or a trade education combined with 2 years experience (and be 25 years old). The ordinary teacher education is a 4-year bachelor programme.

Results Table 1 presents four OLS regressions of teacher self-efficacy. Models 1.1 and 1.2 show that female teachers have higher teacher self-efficacy than male teachers as expected in hypothesis 1, and model 1.2 shows that this gender difference is still significant when empathy is included, although the size of the coefficient is approximately halved. Empathy is 7

strongly correlated with teacher self-efficacy; both indexes are measured on a scale from 0 to 100, and teachers with 1 unit higher empathy are estimated to have 0.29 unit higher teacher self-efficacy. The coefficient is highly significant, supporting hypothesis 3, which expects that teachers with high empathy have higher perceived self-efficacy than male teachers. There is a small positive association between tenure and teacher self-efficacy in model 1.2, and this model explains 14.6 percent of the variance in self-efficacy (adj. R2). Model 1.3 and 1.4 test hypothesis 5, which expects that female teachers on schools with higher proportions of female teachers and/or female principals have higher perceived teachers efficacy, while it is opposite for male teachers. None of the interaction terms are significant, and analyses (not shown) without the interaction terms but with female proportion/gender of school principal, do not find significant effects for these variables. An analysis also combined female proportion and gender of school principal in a formative index (not shown), but this measure of female dominance did not affect the relationship between gender and self-efficacy either. In model 1.3, the coefficient for gender is negative, but given that it is estimated for a female proportion = 0, it is not meaningful, although the signs of this variable and the interaction between female proportion and individual gender is as should be expected (but they are not, as mentioned, statistically significant). The main results in table 1 are thus that gender is both directly and indirectly (through empathy) associated with teacher self-efficacy. Women have higher empathy and consequently higher self-efficacy, but a female teacher with the same level of empathy as a given male teacher is still estimated to have higher self-efficacy. The results thus support both hypothesis 1 and 3. [TABLE 1 here] Table 2 presents five OLS regressions of job satisfaction. Model 2.1 shows that female teachers on average have higher job satisfaction, supporting hypothesis 2. This is also the case when controlling for empathy and school dummies in model 2.2, although the coefficient decreases a bit from model 2.1 to model 2.2. Empathy is strongly and significantly related to job satisfaction, supporting hypothesis 4. Model 2.3 includes teacher efficacy, and empathy is not related to job satisfaction controlled for teacher efficacy. It thus seems that teacher efficacy mediates the effect of empathy on job satisfaction (although causal inference cannot be made for this cross-sectional data). Model 2.4 and 2.5 include interactions between individual gender and female proportion (model 2.4) and gender of the school principal (model 2.5). None of the interaction terms are significant, although they have the expected signs. Figure 1 illustrates that there might be a very small interaction,

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given that the association between female proportion and job satisfaction is a negative for men, while there is no association for women. Still, this interaction is both statistically and substantially insignificant, and hypothesis 6 cannot be said to be supported. [TABLE 2 here] [Figure 1 here] The main results from the analysis of job satisfaction are that gender is both directly and indirectly (through empathy and teacher self-efficacy) associated with job satisfaction. Female teachers, teachers with high empathy, and teachers with high self-efficacy thus tend to have high job satisfaction. Hypothesis 2 and 4 are thus supported, while hypothesis 6 concerning the interaction between individual gender and female dominance at the specific school is not supported. Finally, the expected positive association between teacher selfefficacy and job satisfaction is also found for Danish teachers.

Conclusion This paper has investigated whether (and why) female teachers in Danish schools have different teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction than male teachers. Female Danish teachers do, as expected given the (numerical) dominance of women in Danish schools, have both higher teacher efficacy and higher job satisfaction. Additionally, individuals with high empathy have higher self-efficacy and therefore higher job satisfaction, so gender differences in this personal (female) characteristic explain parts of the differences. This indicates that the criteria of success in Danish schools may be biased, favouring women, but any firm conclusions on this account must await more evidence. Like for other teachers, there is a positive association between self-efficacy and job satisfaction for Danish teachers, and that makes it even more relevant to link both concepts to performance in future studies. Still, the most important finding is that female teachers see themselves as more efficient and are more satisfied than male teachers, and the gender difference in empathy in part explains this. Although the investigated schools have varying proportions of female teachers (and some of the schools have male school principals while others have female principals), no statistically significant interaction between individual gender and the organizational mix of men and women can be identified. This may indicate that the general female dominance in the sector rather than the gender composition at each school is important. It would, however, be 9

highly interesting to compare the school sector to a similar sector which was male dominated to see whether opposite gender differences in self-efficacy and job satisfaction could be identified there. In any case, attention on male teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction seems to be warranted. The proportion of female teachers is increasing, not only in Denmark, but also in many other countries (National Education Association, 2010; Wylie, 2000), and this decreasing diversity calls attention to the conflict perspective within the diversity literature (e.g. Pelled, 1996). If more women mean that men’s teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction decrease, it may already have become a vicious spiral, where men leave the profession and fewer men want to be teachers, leading again to further feminization of the schools. The main implication of this paper for future research is therefore that gender is very relevant in relation to self-efficacy and job satisfaction, and that we should continue to study diversity dimensions such as gender, so that we can help make diversity an asset in public organizations. Otherwise, we might well be moving towards an increasingly (gender) segmented labour marked, because dominance of one diversity group may decrease selfefficacy and job satisfaction of other groups.

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Table 1: OLS regressions of Teacher Efficacy. Unstandardized regression coefficients with p-values in brackets. Intercept Gender (1= woman) Tenure

Model 1.1 80.019*** (0.000) 3.396*** (0.000) 0.007 (0.721)

Credit education Empathy

Model 1.2 57.323*** (3.045) 1.679*** (0.000) 0.041* (0.027) -0.720 (0.397) 0.292*** (0.000)

Female proportion at school Female proportion at school * individual gender (female) Female school principal Female school principal * individual gender (woman) N Adjusted R2

2950 0.035

2950 0.146

Model 1.3 57.695 (0.000) -0.644 (0.871) 0.037 * (0.040) -1.291 (0.121) 0.297 *** (0.000) 0.481 (0.917) 3.313 (0.569)

2950 0.134

Model 1.4 57.711 (0.000) 2.227 *** (0.000) 0.038 * (0.036) -1.287 (0.122) 0.297 *** (0.000)

0.896 (0.236) -1.542 (0.095) 2950 0.133

Note: * p