Cornell University ILR School

DigitalCommons@ILR CAHRS Working Paper Series

Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS)

1-1-1990

Aging, Job Satisfaction, and Job Performance Olivia S. Mitchell Cornell University

Phillip B. Levine Cornell University

Silvana Pozzebon Cornell University

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Aging, Job Satisfaction, and Job Performance Abstract

The national trend to earlier retirement is surprising in light of conventional wisdom holding that older workers are healthy, satisfied and productive employees -- sometimes even more so than their younger counterparts. This paper examines whether conventional wisdom is wrong by reviewing existing studies and noting some of their most important shortcomings. New empirical evidence is provided on the links between aging, job satisfaction, and job performance using data from a nationally representative survey of workers. Keywords

CAHRS, ILR, center, human resource, job, worker, advanced, labor market, satisfaction, employee, work, manage, management, training, HRM, employ, model, industrial relations, labor market, health care, economy, aging, performance, job satisfaction, job performance, productivity, retirement Disciplines

Business | Human Resources Management Comments

Suggested Citation Mitchell, O. S., Levine, P. B., & Pozzebon, S. (1990). Aging, job satisfaction, and job performance (CAHRS Working Paper #90-02). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies. http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cahrswp/367

This article is available at DigitalCommons@ILR: http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cahrswp/367

AGING, JOB SATISFACTION, JOB PERFORMANCE

AND

Working Paper 90-02

OLIVIA S. MITCHELL with the assistance of Phillip B. Levine and Silvana Pozzebon

Prepared for the March 1988 Conference on "The Aging Workforce" sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor and Wayne State University. The author is an Associate Professor with the Department of Labor Economics at Cornell University's New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, and a Research Associate with the National Bureau of Economic Research. Special thanks are due to Gene Dykes and Vivian Fields for excellent computer programming assistance. Tove Hammer, John Owen and Roben Smith provided useful suggestions on an earlier version of the paper. Opinions expressed herein remain solely the responsibility of the author. This paper has not undergone formal review or approval of the faculty of the ILR School. It is intended to make the results of Center research, conferences, and projects available to others interested in human resource management in preliminary form to encourage discussion and suggestions.

J J'

Aging.

Job

Satisfaction.

and

Job

Performance

Abstract

The national light

of conventional

healthy, so than

satisfied their

conventional noting evidence and

trend

some

wisdom of their

job performance

survey

wisdom

holding

and productive

younger

is provided

to earlier

counterparts. is wrong most

using

links

data

of workers.

Olivia S. Mitchell Department of Labor Economics New York State School of Industrial & Labor Relations Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853 607/255-2743

that

This

is surprising

older

employees

by reviewing

important

on the

retirement

workers

-- sometimes

paper

examines

existing

shortcomings. between

aging,

from a nationally

are even

more

whether

studies New

in

and

empirical

job satisfaction, representative

.J'

~inq. In 1950, lab~r

force

quarters more age

Job almost

of that

decline

after

World

The drop

workers

than

correlated

their

with

younger

counterparts?

trend

toward

early

three

to four The plan

previous

regarding empirically

were

in the .

threework.

occurred

An even among

about

fifty

workers

is

men

among

older

wisdom

healthy,

holding

is wrong

studies,

question

and productive

This

examines

lack

the

several

fact that

controls

these

for variables

statistical is:

are older

workers

job than

are their

on the

If so, the evidence

retirement

paper

by correcting

posed

less productive

older

satisfied

including

data,

that

may help

in the US economy

explain

over

the

the

last

decades. of the paper

studies

satisfaction,

than

from

and use inappropriate

and/or

fewer

attachment

counterparts.

wisdom

The overall

satisfied,

55-64

or seeking

one-fifth

attachment

younger

age,

age

II.

unrepresentative

methodology. less

to only

of previous

analyze

force

if not more

conventional

shortcomings

Today,

of conventional

are equally

whether

often

in market

of men

are working

in labor

War

in light

employees

States.

-- down

and Job Performance

percent

age bracket

65 and older

surprising

ninety

in the United

stunning

percent

Satisfaction.

which

and

these

have

is as follows: examined

job performance,

relationships.

in a second

section

the

a first links

and presents

section

between

reviews

aging,

job

new hypotheses

These

hypotheses

using

a nationally

are then

tested

representative

2

data

set known

section

offers

A Review

as the Quality

of Employment

discussion

conclusions.

of Previous

T. Job Satisfaction There indeed,

a decade

studies

focuses

only

attention

satisfaction

of literature

ago,

Locke

on the

set of hypotheses

quantified.

profiles

We then

change

to be tested

a brief

with

in further

age,

three

review

we limit

of this much

with

over

the present

profiles,

subset

We begin

has been

job satisfaction

Because

satisfaction

literature.

on job satisfaction;

(1976) enumerated

subject.

to a particular

job satisfaction how

Studies

deal

on age/job

here

A final

and Aging

is a great

over

thousand

and

Survey.

our

larger

job

discussion review

of how

findings

and conclude

empirical

on

with

a

analysis

below.

A. What

is Job Satisfaction

Many appeared

very

elaborate

in the

literature

Organ and Hamner's easily the

grasped

course

person's

the

concept

often

and perhaps

of our

attitude

definition

(1982)

belies

review: toward

and How Is It Measured?

definitions (Locke,

ask individuals

have

On the other

hand,

1976).

definition offers little detail yet is the most

complete

"Essentially, his

job."

the difficulty

empirically.

of job satisfaction

researchers

their

found

job satisfaction

The simplicity

In industrial

to assess

definition

have

relations own

in

is a

of this had pinning studies,

job satisfaction,

down

surveys

./

3

usually

using

one or a combination

a simple,

direct

evaluation

a single

question

such

of three

of overall

methods.

The

job satisfaction,

as the one in the National

first

is

based

on

Longitudinal

Survey: "How do you feel about the job you have now?

Do you like

it very much, like it fairly well, dislike it somewhat, or dislike The second method is also a global measure of

it very much?"

overall job satisfaction, pertaining

to job aspects,

Individuals' degree

scaled

of worker

scales")

employees

A third to rate

termed

above.

the

1976; widely

assessment

conclusion

many

there

report

concur,

that

advocate

three

are

roughly

themselves

identifying

job

an attitude 1965;

generally

measures

is perhaps

(e.g.

scale

Locke,

accepted

and

of job

because

and as such

across

evidence

workers

of the

asks

are

selfsomewhat

individuals.

differences

that most

at an overall

(Hulin & Smith,

This

"attitude

job satisfaction

is no single

across

(termed

the

one of the approaches

subjective,

is measured,

(l974) note

consistently

Index

query.

indicating

or components

some authors

are

questions

to arrive

using

1979).

to interpret

satisfaction

(l978)

facets

for any of these

measures

overview

or dissatisfaction

etc.)

1978),

(Borjas,

Despite

et al.

pace,

scale

satisfaction

to these

questions

detailed

a single

of measuring

Job Descriptive

used

difficult

method

Though

Muchinsky,

than

or averaged

specific

supervision,

described

responses

summed

several

rather

satisfaction

are then

assessment.

pay,

but uses

the

studies

in the way

seems

to point

satisfied

with

80 percent

to the

their

jobs.

Quinn

of all workers

as satisfied. least

job

satisfied

Wright workers

and Hamilton as those

4

under from

age thirty,

on the

1 and 2 summarize

empirical

1 focuses

linkages

on overall

are examined

1982;

Hulin

indicates

are still

fairly

low--

other

this

factors

and Klein,

1970;

Six specific industrial

satisfaction

psychology with

work,

have

might

labelled

satisfaction

is associated

promotion,

"intrinsic"

supervisory

to be that

Early (Bourne,

and

1965;

most

linear Gibson

frequently These

supervision,

a positive

is generally

pay,

examined

promotions,

work

including

be positive

(Cohn, 1979).

and

"extrinsic"

job facets

1975).1

been

Having

Table

research

(Hulin and Smith,

conditions, itself

co-workers.

profile

subsequent

literature pay,

literature

job satisfaction.

profile

and Saul,

job facets

appears

age-satisfaction

are controlled

and Hunt

individual

consensus

However,

U-shaped

recent

job satisfaction.

measures;

to overall

1965).

from the

age and

2. The general

a U-shaped

& Smith,

that

between

related

suggested

findings

satisfaction

in Table

is positively

analysts

the

levels

and Job Satisfaction

Tables

when

discontent

14 to 25%.

B. Age

age

where

with

feeling

relationships,

are:

working toward

satisfaction, tangible

in

the

while

job rewards and working

lprevious studies are not unanimous in their conclusions since some report no significant differences in satisfaction by age (Holley et al., 1978; Phillips et al., 1978; Cohn, 1979). However, these conclusions are weakened because those studies utilize broad age groups as compared to other research where the age variable is more narrowly defined. For example, Phillips et al. (1978) define the old as those over age 47, and the young as those under age 47. In general, prior studies do seem to concur that age is positively related to overall job satisfaction.

1..

TABU or

SUMMARY

ItlLAfIOJfSlflP

"

BEt'WEF.HAct MD OYtItALL JOB SAflsrACTIOIf

\

\

Clft.on & Uoln

STUDt

(1970)'

quinn. et 81. (1'74)

Hunt & Saul (1975)

Glenn. at al. (1977)

ShenaI' (1'75)

Holloy. at d.

Coh" (1979)

(1978)

J.na.", Marti"

1982

SA.'I'LI

Tve ....,10.: (I) 385 blue-e.ll.r

,_..ltau ..lnly we..".

1 "atlonal .u..v.".

US8-1'73

..u...l South

(2) 1682 b1uoCOUll.. .01.. dr4Vft (..0. bl~le.. pop. of

3H3 _10'550

Cit..

f..a1. "hitocolla.. workor. fo... la..co

pubH.h~d

DOLOCY 1001tc'"for I , 2:

/,a..tlsl

cor...I.tlon

fn 2 .IIUf....nt .~. & tOtn.... lrevP.

I" ..ch ...,10)

tllbuhtlon. (% oathfted

"..k.u .och

Ahba..

verko...:

Extendon Se..vlc.

la..co plant

...Iot.d. blue-collar worker.

populaUon fo.. 1972/73'74

. MulttplOt

'I.plo

Z.ro-orde..

rellre.8Ion onaI".h

tabulatlon.

cor..elotlon

fenu..o

Ifone

Ifon.

Ono Clue.tlon

Attitude

.e.lo

Uno.,.

ErrECT or ACE ON J.S.

6 of 7 ,u""')"; . Sner...lne rolatlon.hlp

Attitude

.c.le

sun

.

of u.s.

f-te.to

oc.

JS NU- One Clueetlon

MUD

...plo

utelor,)

Ifon.

71 bluoeolIaI'

fo:....1..;

.I:ud" of

In

OI'IrlR '0...1'. con.OL yAltIAILES

!STI-

362 fo..l0 ,.1'.profo..lona18;

,..ob.bIUt,

Au.t...oHan cov.rn..nt o..conlz.tlon

'1..,1.

1080 whito _1../461 vhlto

lorco 00plo. auto-

18 plant.; dh-. ,",uo locatio" JI!'I1IO- ~"lIly~l. of ".1'1-

un-

MALlS rrJfA1.!S +

18S

.

On" quo.tlon

Attitude

.cale

NALlS PlMAL!S ItS + COrr.

Unear

lone

+

eo..r.

auto

ropo..ted ...e .t.t1.tlcally

.lcnlfle.nt

unl...

othe....l.o Indluted.

IS .llnlfle. not

.ale.

21-64 f..08 .

16-64

Q!S 1972-111

.....1. of US5 vo..lto...

IncU"ldual

.st.,10

Analyd.

data:. cor..olotlon; ,roup data' onol"oh of "o..lanco

tabu tlon.

of

"o..tane.

tt_a (d.rlyetlo"o frea 8r.nd .." of J.S. aco..o)

lduc.tlon renuro

lono

lone

Ifone

Job De.erlptiY.

On. qu..Uon

1-

.1...1.

t"ul-

'

At tI tlld. .eal.

dau:185;

.

G..ou,

lit ..t Ie-

Index IncU"ldual dot.1

.

difforoneo

Ifodiff.

r.etton

In

botween '.0 l"OUp'

...tf.-

fection

All eff.ct.

Sub....lo of .al0. naUon.l .0.,10

bo-

tveen ,ounl (S41) 8ind old ()47)

,IOf! I

QU 1972-73;

AttJ tud.

.e.lo

.

21-'4/35..,4S-S41 5S-64

.I,nlflc.nt. V1

rAiu S",!,!Allf or ItlLATJON"II. IfUDf

HuU". S.1th t965)

185 ..I. I 75 f...l. r.ndo. ..8pl. of ".v In,l.nd, .lft~tronl~. ..nuf~~turln, vork.r. (..rlfl.d r..ult. on . ...pl. of 700 fro. 4 c08p."I.. I.. !e.t

IMPLI

. HI"-.t)

R8ltlpl. r.,r...IOII

IIETIIDDOLOCt

.n.I,...

Glbeon . Itlftln (1910)

rvo ...pl..:

(I) 385 bluft-~oll.r vorker., ."'nl1' vo~n. rur.l South (2) 1682 blu,,~oll.r .elee dr.vn pop. fro. bll."r of 18 plente; dl.pene lo~etton

An.I,.I. of V.rl.ne. for 1 2; p.rtl.1 ~orrftl.tlon "

3338 ..1. I 579 fft..1" vhlt.-eoll.r vorker. fro. l.r.ft Au.tr.11~n lov"rn_nt or.entzetion

Hultlpl. r.lr...lon .naly.l.

AI.: Job ~08p8..,

t.nure: t.nur.; Job

'ArlSrAClIOlf1

Holl"" .t .1. (1978)

ft..

.,.

"

Hu~ht"h, (1978)

prohuton.l; Aleba.. Ixtftndon S.rvle.

.htllVid. public utUlt)'

r-tft.h

S~h.ff. t..t

Sub...,I.

of

-1811 21-64 fro. a national

...pl.

ehftek. for dlff.

And)'.h v.rtanc.

in ...n .cor.. bfttv...n a,. ,roup.

t.nur.)

Coh.. ( 1979>

I.

362f...l. par.- .9. vork...;

96 ..1. I 177 f...l. Hldv..t blu.-~oll.r oper.tl... froa on.

'.rtlal ~orr.latlOll.(eorr.et. for .vltleollln..rlty b.tvft.n

... . t.nur. ,roup. OI'IID COIITaoI. YAA.lAlLU

.

Sehveb Hene..n (1971) "

Hunt" SlIul (l?7~

for 2 (dlft.rftnt In .uh

~

1!1'W£!H AGJ! AIID .108 rACU

of

u8pl.)

r.nur.

Tenur.

renurft

Ifon.

Iton.

Iton.

On. Qn.tion

Ona Qu..tion

JDI2

On. Qu..tion

JDI

On. Qu..don

18-29 .... ..thfhd than

21-34 ....

1...1; ..I.r,; ..I.ry d..lr" alnu. ..I.r, rft~.I..d

.I.,.

Ill!ASUU

Job De.~rtpth. I tId.. (JDJ)

ItlSULrs: IIALU

wu

. U

r

nHALI!S liS

. liMer

IS

PIIONCJUOIIS

IS

IfS

""EItYJ 1108

..

IfS

_rIG

ItS

IS

PAY

+ U

+; not ~o8Pl.t.l, II...ar; flat to 40, lin.ar aft.r 40

th.n ...d.

to 50,

off

COlIDlTIOWS

c;o..woauu

lot..,

tAli .ffecta

report"

are .tatl.tlcall,

of Relatlon.hlp

HALlS + Un.ar

r

+; IIn.ar

If.tur.

.I,nlfica"t

nHALlS + Un..r

of Aa. .nd Job Satl.f.etlon HALlS +

nHALlS IfS

IS

- U".ar

HS

ItS

- Un.ar

-

ItS

ItS

curvlUn..u

ItS

ItS

ItS

cvrviUn".r

IfS

cur.l11n.u

IfS

unl...

Un.ar

ItS

Vith

ItS

~S7 8Or. .athU.d tha" ~47

UO

uti.fi.d ~35

- 8Onotonie

IS

- _notonic NS

NS

ItS

~50I... ..thfhd

oth.rvi..

Indicat.d.

ItS .I,nlfl..

th.n

(50

not .i,nifleant.

2rhl. atud1' 81.. v." the Hlnn..ot. Satl.f.ctlon qu..tlonnalr. .nd conelud.. th.t a,. I. not .llnlfleantl, r.lat.d to .n .xtrln.Ie ure for both ..x... AI. I. po.ltl..l, r.l.t.d to Intrln.lc vork ..tl.factlon for both ..1". .nd f...l.., and th" co.fflel"nt.

..pUiea..t.

thae

C\

.ati.f.ctlon ar. .t.tl.t1call)'

7

conditions. instead

1977)

In addition,

of those

based

on single

measures

components

are sometimes (Schwab

used

and Heneman,

.

A review studies

of Table

regarding

variables.

appears

2 indicates

positively

and

employees.

There

job facets

and age

Part

linearly

is no other for men,

satisfaction differ

from

a few firms,

and/or

white

collar

workers,

insignificant

results

constant

experience, observed

may

pattern

and for women

evidence

itself

to age among

male

discernable

between

no significant

results

lack

be due to the

something

rather

fact that

since

are usually

they

only

or males

a subset

The

important

an additional

Finally,

conclusion

different

potential

than

that

explain

many

explanation

job facet

do overall

to one

the

and

for the

is also

questions

measure

job satisfaction

or or

studies

such as pay

the evidence

are

(e.g. blue

also

fact that

job

samples

specific

of workers

variables,

and

job facet

Data

This may

only).

for females.

other

the

on aging

to the next.

of agreement.

with

in the research

one analysis

cover

offers

compatible

queries.

regular

job facet

from the

of the work

related

among

for any measures.

nonrepresentative,

not hold

can be drawn

the content

of the inconsistency

component measures

with

pattern

age and individual

one generalization

satisfaction

are discerned

no consistent

the link between

Only

reviewed:

also

aggregate

do

8

c. Limitations This specify

overview

the

between

problems

satisfaction,

tend

and though

they

limit

methodology

to simple

without age

methodological

studies

is the

move

job incumbents out of more

those

older

satisfied

workers

they

employed.

Most

nationally

representive.

sectional the

use

surveys,

same workers

Finally, render

each

comparisons

case

the

corrects

across

studies

at

techniques,

accumulate

group.

of the

are

that

likely

to be

Another samples

far from being on cross-

job satisfaction

thoroughly

"young"

difficult.

A

.

if workers

the data

reliance

age and

are

seniority,

jobs are more

which

and

which

all existing

Indeed,

sample.

has not been "old"

tests

and education)

has to do with

link between

studies.

for the possibility

in their

Because

defines

variables

characterizing

studies,

over time

paper

for other

experience,

studies

job

limitation.

statistical

are a self-selected

of existing

across

to statistical

jobs as they

remaining

fully

(e.g. zero-order

are a nonrandom

demanding

because

shortcoming

none

not

of interest,

a serious

do employ

limitation

does

patterns.

noncornparable

is also

controlling

fact that

variable

ones

(e.g. pay,

research

jOb satisfaction

is made

themselves

related

older

no appeal researchers

with

existing

results

some

correlations) correlated

age and

to render

instances,

all,

that

in the dependent

of sophisticated

In several

Research

indicates

links

Measurement

Lack

of Previous

for

assessed.

differently.

These

;'

9

D. Research

Implications

Though that -

than

older

the

workers

do younger

phenomenon workers

is termed

remaining

only

finer

between

occupational

(1978) examine

occupational

(for instance, occupation correlation empirical examination

of this

breakdowns

Janson

and industry between controversy

controlling

hypothesis

collar

have

age and

1982)

little

older This

view

of this

on job there

should

but

Wright

recent

be no

model.

as a whole,

More

a focused and

and no

research

finds that controls on

discernable

job satisfaction.

underscores

ones.

for instance,

are given.

and Martin,

age because

did demonstrate

workers

j~bs

for this

job satisfaction,

groupings;

white

their

in a job satisfaction

age and

suggest

One implication

and industry,

age effects

analyses

with

do younger

hypothesis".

occupation

correlation

on broad

Hamilton

like

rises

after

with

explanation

jobs than

testable:

systematic

empirical

positive

cycle

it does

satisfied

A possible

attractive

"life

complete,

more

job satisfaction

is directly

characteristics

Early

employees.

more

the

is far from

are generally

is that

have

theory

evidence

the value

impact

on the

The ongoing of a further

of the evidence.2

2 A variant on this hypothesis is consistent with recent research in labor economics on long term contract theory (c.f. Hutchens, 1986; Lazear, 1979). In this view, some firms find it advantageous to underpay workers when they are young in exchange for overpayments when the workers grow older. Such a "backloaded" compensation scheme has the effect of raising productivity by tying workers to their jobs, with a consequent reduction in turnover, search and hiring costs. An older worker in this setting may thus report himself as satisfied with his job because at that firm his pay exceeds marginal product (and his pay at that firm is also greater than he could expect to draw at some alternative firm where wage would equal his marginal product).

10

A competing between

aging

hypothesis. likely most

explanation

and This

to remain

likely

job satisfaction view with

to have

appear

higher

simply

because

tested

on the basis

satisfaction controlling Using propose positive

holds their

long

for older tenure

link

to test

that

workers

satisfied

when

of its prediction decrease

relationship

are

job satisfaction is not held

age.

that

This

may constant,

theory

the positive

those

can be

age/job

after

job.

these between

are more

workers

(if not disappear)

set to be described

between

workers

tenure with

link

"self-selection"

and older

Hence,

is correlated

should

empirical

we call the

employer,

tenure.

for time ,on the a data

for the positive

in more

two alternative age and

detail

below,

explanations

job satisfaction.3

we for the

The data

.~, To eliminate this possibility it would be necessary to control for productivity differences across firms due to backloaded pay schemes. Unfortunately productivity is only imperfectly represented by the other control variables usually available in most data sets. Nevertheless, such a spurious age/job satisfaction relationship should be lessened once tenure is controlled, since a Lazear-style long term contract should apply to long-term employees rather than older workers, per se. 3Two other social and psychological explanations for the age/job satisfaction link have been mentioned in the literature, but are not directly testable with available data. One is the "cohort theory", which holds that today's young workers are less satisfied because they are the product of a different, less materialistic generation which seeks more fulfillment from its employment than did the earlier cohort. (Aronowitz, 1973, advanced this notion, among others.) One reason that this hypothesis is impossible to test directly is that no available data sets contain the necessary longitudinal information on several different cohorts. An indirect test by Janson and Martin (1982) employs proxy variables to control for factors like education which vary by cohort, and rejects the hypothesis. A different view, termed by some the "grinding down hypothesis", holds that older workers are more satisfied with their jobs because the proces of aging lowers youthful expectations. A direct test of this hypothesis is also impossible

~

11

set we use and

contains

job characteristics,

distinguish

II. Aging

between

using

data

of workplace scientists.

examined

which

health

and

reveal

age/job

A. Measuring There physiological Brousseau,

on aging

confirmation

longitudinal

social

job satisfaction,

many

of the variables

tenure, needed

to

the theories.4

and productivity

set of analyses,

empirical

measures

providing

studies One

types.

direct

of workers'

and Job Performance

Existing two

measures

on worker

Therefore,

is a large

However,

seeks

with

age

unavailable

on factors problems,

of

direct

set of studies

evidence

are

to

is also like

workers'

to further

linkages.

Changes

literature

and psychological 1981;

first,

changes

are typically

due to health

performance

Productivity

output.

a second

indirect

job limitations

we examine

of productivity

performance

contains

which

profiles

and Coates

With on the

Age impact

functioning

and Kirby,

1982).

of age on

(c.f. Bourne, Many

1982;

analysts

argue

at present, since longitudinal data are not available on how job satisfaction changes with age for a given worker, holding other factors constant. Lacking longitudinal data, previous studies have compared older and younger workers' expectations, and conclude that aspirations are generally similar (Wright and Hamilton, 1978). Hence this hypothesis is not supported with available data. 4Self selection may affect empirical job satisfaction measures for older workers in another way as well -older workers who are unhappy with their jobs may be more likely to retire. The data set analyzed below also excludes retirees, so this possibility cannot be directly addressed here either. Future research should address this issue in more depth.

12

that

age has a "decremental"

capabilities

on average,

effect

though

on physical

some

have

variability

in individual

capabilities

Age-related

physiological

changes

sensory

functions

strength, Kaplan, these

(hearing

and bone 1980;

structure

and Riley

issues)

There

.

and Foner,

Psychomotor

with

speed)

in the mid-twenties

Bourne's

overview

anxious,

exhibit

age.

greater

decisions

as compared

increased

task

between

constraints Kaplan, controls

1980).

been

.

found

productivity indicate

that

effects

hand,

skills

longitudinal

(via education)

not decline

pertain

may

other

until

and information constant

most

to overall

studies

which

older

workers

general

functioning

to performance were

conducted

perform,

and

is

as time Fleisher

analysis

age 70

with

to be more

peoples'

indicates

processing

or increase

of these

not be relevant

around

in mental

new tasks

1978;

on

to make

older

to learn

and

thereafter.

Time pressure

to reduce

the ability

studies

tend

longer

(c.f. Baugher,

Unfortunately,

and thus

people

imposed

to remain

performance

people.

Fleisher

by response

slowly

as long

for cohort

Verbal

(measured

older

muscular

of declines

and the old,

On the

does

skill

tend

age. in

several

the young

are not

intelligence

1981)

also

1982;

review

and take

to younger

For example,

efficiency. comparable

caution,

complexity

and Kirby,

that

with

capacity,

and declines

(1982) reports

the

a deterioration

lung

1968,

that

increases

some evidence

capabilities peaks

include

(Coates

is also

suggested

also

and vision),

and mental

and which

that

(Brousseau, capacity

have

age.

findings

on age and

in laboratory on the

job.

settings

A few

at the workplace

on the whole,

as well

as

/

13

their

younger

counterparts.

experience,

training

performance

(Brousseau,

Sonnenfeld,

1978).

Nonetheless,

and

conclusions

profiles

based

produced

per

on these

labor

common

for instance

solely

on an individual

jobs.

In addition,

too data

ranking the

like.

further

1983)

These

worker's

has been

productivity

approaches

refinement

essays,

are also prone

is currently

being

but

here

evaluation. rating

and

checklists,

to error,

attempted

does

The method

of jobs using job content

of

of

self-reports,

is performance

interpretations

rates

method

to be problematic.

depend

minority

piece

A different

practitioners

descriptive

scales

a tiny

using

on worker

One

a practice

But pay

in only

(output

to quantify.

piece-rates,

industry.

proven

productivity

difficult

output

relies

to draw

job productivity

uses

constant.

greater

1980;

it difficult

First,

output

their

in superior

of age/job

is inherently

output

observers'

and

however,

(Gibson

and

et al.,

.

Because productivity, variables

a second

groups

inherent

of analysts

productivity

of absenteeism,

the data

reasons

of the difficulties

to reveal

indicators Here

studies.

measuring

by personnel

schemes,

shape

cases,

and Kaplan,

make

in the garment

worker

It involves

the

of output

accuracy

preferred

Fleisher

to measuring

quality

in some

resulted

problems

hour)

approach

quantifying

1981;

about

direct

not hold

judgement

several

reliable

Indeed,

changes

turnover,

in measuring has chosen with

illness,

show

that

older

workers

of illness

less

often

than

age.

worker to use proxy

These

and accident

tend to be absent

the young,

include

but

for

experience

rates.

/ ~

14

longer

recovery

illness

occurs

therefore workers

periods (Coates

appear

196B;

of age-linked

terms

degree

of injury

classfied

fatality.

Most

studies

accidents

report

that

of their finds when

lack

that

into

the

examining

evidence

data,

remains

a matter

to whether other

are older

information files, New

finds

York

under

age

data,

25 have

are more

Root,

with

incidence

Dillingham

the highest

workers,

falls

(1940)

with

age

workers.

(1981)

support

of the relationship an open

age,

(1979, 1981a) rates,

question

or whether 1977

Workers'

of injuries

injury

or

by virtue

Kossoris

who tabulates

30 states'

severity

to be

and Austrian

it is still

smoothly

the

and worker

1981a) and Root shape

measure

likely

injury

in

period

disability,

aging

Swiss

of

received;

For instance,

the exact

from

a declining

and

expressed

hand,

and permanent

(1979,

is prevalent.

State

an injury

of occupational

decline

collected

per time

or prime-age

of controversy;

injuries

pattern

with

on American,

However

conclusion.

Riley

indicators

usually

on the other

employees

Later studies by Dillingham his

1983;

on frequency

of injury,

experience.

frequency

of older

are alternative Data

temporary

young

of work

et al.,

on the link between

job than

when

problems

attachment

per worker

associated

is usually

on the

problems.

of injuries

of impairment

injured

Giniger

the probability

Severity

Health

market

and injuries

productivity

of the number

per year

1978).

accidents

indicate

exposed.

1982;

Sonnenfeld,

workdays

1982).

the labor

and Kirby,

On-the-job

accidents

and Kirby,

to affect

(Coates

Foner,

and lose more

as

some

u.S.

Compensation with finds

with

the

age.

Using

that males rate

for

/

15

those

over

research

25 only

study

rise

it is for the younger

1988)

significant

controlling appear

what

(Mitchell,

statistically after

half

is one of the very

differences

for other

group.

in injury

variables.

to rise with

age only

the

shows

few to test

frequency

In general,

for those

My own

by. age

injury

workers

age

for

rates

65 and

older. Though injuries, more

it has been

serious

concluded sustain higher

rates that

than

that

recovery

temporary

Dillingham's

among

that

older

(1979) work that

when

injured

workers'

jOb-related

supports

likely

prevalent

among

inferences

disability

and have to the

and disability

In addition,

these

to

as compared

death

are

Kossoris

disabled,

and death,

fewer

injuries

point,

are more

if temporarily

are more

do suffer

On this

employees.

permanent

workers

older

workers'.

disability

disabilities

he argues

older

that

period

(1981) agrees

are higher

though

workers

of permanent

Root

that

conjectured

are younger

older

a longer rates

young.

evidence

rates

he notes the young.

in general, are highest

among

the under-25. As with

the

age/severity detects Swiss

and U.S.

their

fifties,

is the

disabilities

greatly

for permanent still

subject

severity

on injury

with

the exact

in the severity

where

and permanent

conditional

but

trend

data,

rates

The pattern

rates,

relationship

a positive

of deaths

clear

frequency

suggestive.

shape

are somewhat increased

of injury

In contrast,

with

higher

injuries. for workers

for those

while

age

in

as the proportion

thousand

rates

disabilities,

Kossoris

of controversy.

is defined per

of the

similar,

evidence

over

Death in age

60.

is less

from New York

16

state

shows

U-shaped

age 25 suffer 45 and over per.manent

the highest

have

(1981)

None

of these

each

study,

but

as well

the percentage

cuts,

vary

1988)

.

over

indicate

across

that

retirement

often

while

death

those

and

year

olds.

reply

their

source,

affected,

Generally

same.

heart

attacks than

and

he

suffering older

fractures,

do the young.

However

these

no statistical

general

patterns

tests

are

and age patterns

health

to retirees their

(U.S. Bureau

My calculations more

blue-collar

health

(Mitchell

for leaving

is offered

leaving

health

adrninstered

reasons

1985).

poor

the nature,

and industries

1982,

that

the

on poor

poor

by men

injury

or not.

surveys

health

with

in all age brackets

age.

whether

include

1980, poor

with

occupations

that

deals

of the body

and burns,

evidence

For instance,

Statistics,

about

rise

statistically

they

occupation

under

significant

he examines

hernias,

to indicate

is also

(1981),

of workers

lacerations,

due to falls

There

Both

for the 25-44

as the part

more

are provided

quarter

Though

seem to have

significant

rates,

rates.

for statisically

by Root

appears

Injuries

imply

that

of injury

fewer

fatality

Workers

by age.

by age.

of injury

that

workers

disability

are lowest

tests

in severity one

kind

rates

studies

characteristics and type

permament

1979).

finds no distinct pattern between age and severity.

differences Only

(Dillingham,

the highest

impairment

Root

notes

profiles

induced

often

them

et al., age

55 and

previous of Labor

using

these

as a reason

occupations

as

data

for

(about one-

to leave)

as compared

to white-collar males (only 15% of the group cited poor health) .

17

A positive

relationship

corroborated sectional -

58-63

by studies

data;

with

Schwab

of longest

(e.g. craftsmen,

health-related

collar

occupations

clearly leave

shows

the

a given

white-collar Very

that

blue-collar

are those

managers,

clerical

workers

far more

is stronger

(1985).

often

with

than

whether

has more

by

employees likely

health

to

in whiteand

sales) .5

as well

While

age

as more

the evidence

limitations

do white-collar

health

in blue-collar among

cross-

of mep

are more

(1977) reports

and Steinmeier

than

limitations

than

Andrisani's

limitation

work

limitations

powerfully

for work

rather

laborers)

blue-collar

force

more

health

finds

is

nonfarm

it is not yet clear

productivity distaste

that

labor

employees,

job, and

with

and age

the percentage

health-imposed

work

by Gustman

health

use longitudinal

(professionals,

is compatible work

poor

(1974) computes

operatives,

report

recent

which

self-reported

occupation

This

between

limitations

jobs,

blue-collar

or whether

employees,

of a deterrent

hinder

effect

so that than

for

workers.6 little

information

in job risk

by age.

1985),

(1981)

Root

The U.S.

exists

on intersectoral

Department

and Dillingham

(1979)

of Labor show

that

differences (1980,

1982,

blue-collar

5Since Schwab's data sample includes workers and non-workers, this analysis is less likely to be subject to sample selection problems described elsewhere. 6In addition to these indirect studies of age/productivity profiles, there is some direct evidence gathered from case studies of white-collar workers (e.g. scholars, scientists and artists; managers; sales and clerical workers, and paraprofessionals), and blue-collar workers (e.g. manual laborers and printing press workers). See Mitchell et al., (1988).

~

18

jobs are more particularly

in the

Dillingham lower

for older

generally

risk

in blue-collar

groups,

relative

(Mitchell,

linked

further for women

investigating absence

necessary have

measure

that

of injury

of injury age

(2) injury

groupings; fatality

of temporary

and

is also

highest

in corresponding

among

age and injury

in

age

My own regression

risk

25, among severity

absolute

age and occupational

is

analysis status

are the

Dillingham

males. rates

are positively

workers.7

of Previous problem

Research

confronting

how productivity

patterns

no survey productivity

to using

productivity

researchers

representative

Because

to assess

resorted

workers

jobs,

industries.

than

as fatalitites,

confixms

that

other

occupational

frequency

workers.

of nationally

information.

The

as well

claims

jobs;

the highest

to other

detexminants

A serious

with

for blue-collar

1988)

Limitations

service

younger

for all three

jobs.

disabilities, terms

(1981b)

age

than

(1) the frequency

for those

and

is associated

absolute

B.

with

texms

and manufacturing

that

than

white-collar

(3) aging

primary

finds

workers

worsens

permanent

in absolute

construction

(1983) also

blue-collar,

and

dangerous

other

indirectly.

data

contains patterns

types

change

interested with

containing all the

age

Few existing

is the

productivity

information

by age, many

of information

in

which

studies

authors attempt test

for

7Also important is the relationship between age and job-related illness, but data on occupational illness are extremely poor due to the difficulty of collecting such data.

to

19

age effects relevant

using

variables.

age groups

makes

risk patterns on the

associated

with

While indicate

risk.

older

risk profile,

on health,

workers

are often

than

or rather

ones,

occupations

are more

between

and performance

controlled.

life

more

health

among

cycle

closely

statistical

workers

may

do not

for the negative

age/job

be reflecting workers

hypothesis

as compared and different

is that

should like

when

occupation

that

injured,

to health

relationship

and perhaps and

industry

workers

though

age. More

be the result

the

to further

older

in

One testable

.

decline

be useful

to fall with

a "life

are employed

to be supervisors)

it would

simply

and are

studies

older

(1979) finding

seems

job performance

these

to fewer

problems

repercussions

of injuries

older

exposed

In addition

Dillingham's

incidence

to

more

as productive

and industries

job characteristics

empirically severe

factor

age and

ones,

that

likely

of this

are

Seniority

be informative.

age might

It is known

implication

when

younger

whether

and are thus

(e.g. they

disappear

of

differe~tial

workers.

detailed

would

age is the explanation

different

age

aggregation

it is impossible

is the

studies

phenomenon.

younger

of older

a more

by sector

constant,

for other

to evaluate

so that

Evidently,

frequently

whether

somewhat

subsets

age or inexperience

previous

less

identify

impossible

or control

Implications

that

injured

tools

age is held

controlled,

of age patterns

Research

cycle"

when

for particular

whether

risks

Even

job is rarely

analysis

statistical

it virtually

determine

c.

modern

explore suffer

the

severe

of cumulative

problems

20

exposure

to job risks,

develop

(e.g. those

hazards

in particular

hypothesis" tenure,

has

limitations whether

workers'

that

the effect health

years

to

to environmental

in that

empirically

on the

This

"exp~sure

controlling

for

of age on

would

be moderated

health

job-related

a hypothesis

Empirical

Analysis

how workers'

job change

age exacerbates

exposure,

or

or moderates

problems.

health

which

will

with

age,

also

may

status

as we seek

general

The greater

problems

health

to

and

severity

of

be due to greater

be tested

below.

Employed

To investigate satisfaction (61% males Survey

take

and occupations).

due to poor

work-related

I. Data

exposure

implication,

anticipate

we investigate

and health

older

problems

8

Below,

specific

health

with

industries

problems

eliminated.

determine

many

associated

a testable

one would

productivity

since

information

we focus

(QEg).

for Social

affects

on a sample

and 39% females)

file

Institute

how aging

performance and

1977 Quality

by the University

Research,

on a nationally

of 787 wage

from the

Collected

workers'

the data

salary

job

workers

of Employment of Michigan

set contains

representative

and

sample

extensive

of workers

and

8This assumes that tenure on the job is a reasonable proxy for tenure in the sector. Since this correlation is low for some workers, tenure in the occupation and industry would be more useful. Very few data sets report this datum, however.

./.

~

.-- .-J-

21

their

jobs.

The QES

delving

into

present

purposes,

here

"job

employee

these

Indices

specifics

about

problems

indicates second

set reveals

limitations assessment

on the health

true

health

more

objective

to illness ailments those

measure

("Weeks

(e.g. tiredness,

Finally,

of circulatory, exacerbated

in some

depth.

is continuous,

if the worker content,

and

indicates zero

measures

dissatisfaction

we focus

work

time

muscular

"weeks take with

lost

mentions

on the due

specific

to indicate

or skeletal

these

too are

sick"

variable

on a value

the

of

of breath),

is asked

conditions;

for the

self-

measures

or shortness

respiratory,

by working

otherwise.

1982),

the individual

all outcome

and

Because

If a worker

The

status.

of strain

in the data,

Except

and intrinsic

of productivity

own health

Parsons,

problems

regarding

set of factors

factors.

sick").

back

detail

questions

sort are imperfect

1985;

available

too are noted.

examined which

(Bazzoli,

worker

"Danger",

One

perceptions

of this

t~rmed

a general

perceptions

employees'

or injury

afflictions

indicating

of their

status

the existence

"Fast pace",

job due to health

from

("Pay bad")

perceptions

indices

with

3 provides

detailed

are of two types.

workers'

for

For the

types,

"problems

range

compensation

Variables

useful

definitions.)

to several

("Meaningless",

two main

(Table

and their

a worker's

"Contaminants"). and health

and

job dissatisfaction

("Unsatisfied")

job content

into

variables.

indicator

questions

and performance.

variables,

variables

for

different

are organized

and health"

empirical

many

dissatisfaction

dissatisfaction"

productivity about

contains

of one

job or its

.-'

Table

Indices

Content

of Job Satisfaction

and

and Worker

Productivity

1.

Job

-

Job Satisfaction: Unsatisfied = 1 if somewhat or very unsatisfied with job; 0 else. Meaningless

Satisfaction

22

3.

Variables:

~

= 1 if work is not main satisfaction,

11% 3%

or job meaningless or uninteresting, or job requires little learning, or work

=

Pay' Bad

Job Content: Fast Pace

repetitive;

1 if payor 0 else.

= 1 if worker exposed to dangerous

Contaminants

=

Productivity

Health Weeks

Status: Sick

=

28% 59%

and Health Variables:

number to

29%

0 else.

1 if worker exposed to pollution, fire, chemicals, extreme temperatures indoors; 0 else.

Worker

22%

time to do job; 0 else.

equipment;

II.

fringe benefits are bad;

= 1 if required to work fast or not enough

Danger

0 else.

of weeks away from work due

illness

1.31

or injury.

Tired

= 1 if worker tires in short time; 0 else.

26%

Breath

= 1 if worker has difficulty

19%

breathing;

0 else.

Back Health

=

1 if worker

has

back

trouble;

0 else.

and Job Limitations: = 1 if worker has ailment of circulatory system limiting work; 0 else.

Circulation

36%

1%

=

1 if worker has muscular/skeletal ailment limiting work; 0 else.

3%

Nerves

=

1 if worker has nervous limiting work; 0 else.

2%

Respiratory

= 1 if worker has respiratory

Muscle/ Skeletal

limiting

work;

0 else

disorder problems

.4%

;

23

Before

evaluating

job satisfaction

the

and performance

context,

it is useful

patterns

of outcome

to obtain

variables

presents,

for this

breakdown

of the values

outcomes

that

older

age

dangerous,

regarding

or expose

proves

and younger

workers

breathing

problems,

Table 4

of workers,

a

the

half

age of

the data

of the

show differ

at

fourteen

to be no age difference

about

whether

their

or danger;

by age in the workers' prove

set.

to the questions

to contaminants

also

of the.

under

survey,

for only

with

and performance

those

In this

opinions

Older

difficulties

there

assessment

to be equally with

their

jobs are is

of their

pay.

likely

to

backs,

and with

tired. Where

older

sample

there

no difference

being

impression

representative

reports

aging

in a multivariate

data

levels

them

linking

by age in this

workers'

also

report

a general

55 and over.9

Specifically,

workers

indicators

of job satisfaction

statistical

variables.

theories

in two age groups:

and younger

conventional

among

nationally

for workers

55, and those

specific

responses

workers

compared

to their

With

regard

with

findings

workers

prove

are

do differ to have

younger

statistically

fewer

(rather

counterparts

job satisfaction

elsewhere

in the literature: more

likely

than more)

age groups, complaints

in four out of seven

to a general

statistically

across

index,

the data

specifically,

to be satisfied

with

as

cases.

agree older their

9The QES data analyzed here contains 153 workers under age 25, 241 aged 25-43, 156 aged 35-44, 136 aged 45-54, 88 aged 55-64, and 13 age 65 and over. Analysis of finer age categories is precluded by the relatively small sample sizes at the older end of the age spectrum.

24

Table

4.

Averaqe Values of Satisfaction and Performance Variables by Age Group

Under Aqe 55 I.

Job Content/Satisfaction (%) Unsatisfied (%)

Meaningless (%)

Pay Bad

Fast Pace

(%)

(%)

Danger

Contaminants II.

(%)

Aqe 55 and Older

12

6**

4

0**

22

18

73

60

29

26

59

57

Worker Productivity/Health 1.39 Weeks Sick (#) (%)

Tired

(%)

Breath Back

(%)

Circulation Musc/Skel Nerves

(%)

statistically

19

22

36

40

2

7**

2

1**

0.1

2**

101

686

Total N **Means

32

6**

(%)

(%)

25

0.3

(%)

Respiratory

0.78**

different

at p

~: For variable definitions see Table 3.

=

.05.

/

25

work,

and

compared offers than

far fewer with

younger

no evidence

younger

specific

of older

mixed

and health

being

as meaningless

then, less

in general

the QES

satisfied

or with

8urvey wit,h jobs

regard

lower

of limitations

other

hand,

older

their

unidirectional

to

firm

conclusions

holding

differences

job. Older

workers

off due to sickness,

more

and

On the

conditions.

to being

hampered

and muscular/skeletal

tabulations

link between

suggesting

on the

job

conditions

imply aging,

the importance

that

there

is no

job satisfaction

of further

and

analysis

can be drawn.

Analysis

A multivariate

differ

simple

empirical

II. Multivariate

of time

of worker

peers. the

job performance,

attest

rspiratory,

younger

In general,

rate

on the

due to nervous

workers

due to circulatory,

for the indicators

limitations

rates

that

workers

prevails

lower

while

In general,

either

picture

a significantly

before

job content

facets.

productivity

than

their

workers.

employees,

A more

report

criticize

format

constant

by age. across

is needed

measurable

This

to probe

age differences

job and worker

is accomplished

jobs and workers

characteristics

by controlling

with models

of the

measurable form:

y - f(A, X, e) where

y is the

age terms; random

dependent

X is a vector

disturbance

multinomial

Logit

term. which

variable

of interest;

of other

explanatory

Two empirical takes

into

A is a vector terms;

approaches

account

of

and e is a

are employed:

the fact

that

most

of

26

the the dependent than

variables

continuous,lO

dependent

of interest

and linear

variable

are dichotomous

regression

is continuous

in the one

rather

than

rather

case

where

qualitative

the

("W~eks

.

off")

.

Two

sets

satisfaction

of models

are presented

and content

the age variables

are

variables,

for the

differing

formulated.

Table

as controls,

becomes

more

or less prevalent

with

age,

becomes

more

or less

with

increasing

estimate

of the aging models

respondent workers

is under

between

These

variable

variable

when

age

this

indicates

they

are dissatisfied must

(indicated warrant

appear

as a direct

associated

older with

by one asterisk),

their

indicate

whether

In

coefficient

For

significant

In all

instance

"Unsatisfied", to report

cases

that

coefficient

at at least

(two asterisks)

is

general,

in question. the outcome

the

category

6.

(negative)

likely

the

we also

association

jobs.

in the discussion

way,

To assess

in Table

are less

or 5%

age.

(inverse)

with

workers

the outcome

(the reference

has a positive

statistically

attention

55+

in question

and whether

controls

and the outcome

is negatively that

age

results

be interpreted

that

estimates

binary

in which

age and age-

the outcome

a different

age 25, or age

age 25-54).

should

variables

in which

if an explanatory this

prevalent

whether

job

in the way

5 uses

squared

robustness

indicating

below

the

10%

in order

level to

below.

leather authors who use qualitative variables in the QES data do not employ nonlinear models (c.f. Janson and Martin, 1982; Wright and Hamilton, 1978).

set

27 Table

5.

Age and Other Determinants of Job Satisfaction. Productivity and Health (Standard errors in parens) Meaningless

Unsatisfied (1) AGE

-.02 (.06)

.02 (.06)

( .0001)

(.001)

(

Danger

(4)

.17** -.13** (.04) (.04)

-.002 (.002)

Fast Pace

(3)

.06 LIMIT(.13)

.00004 -.0003

AGESQ

Pay Bad

(2)

.002** .002** (.001) . 001)

.05 (.04)

(5)

.05 (.04)

-.001** -.001 (.0005) (.001)

-.04 (.04)

-.10** (.05)

.0003 .001 (.001) (.001)

TENURE

-.04* (.02)

-.05** (.02)

.03* (.01)

.003 (.02)

UNION

-.27 (.27)

-.21 (.22)

-.07 (.18)

.32 (.20)

FEMALE

.33 (.28)

.21 (.21)

.33* (.20)

-1.13** (.24)

FRSIZE

.0002 (.0001)

-.0004**

-.0002 (.0001)

Industry Controls

xx

xx

xx

xx

Occupation Controls

xx

xx

xx

xx

Log:

-269.89

Chi:

3.3 (2)

-271.

51

23.1 (14)

( . 0001)

-109.79

-401. 09

-411.95

.0002 (.0001)

-467.62 -470.97 -464.94 -468.19

8.9

21.7

80.7

6.7

(2)

(2)

(14)

(2)

30.4 (14)

6.5

207.7

(2)

(14)

28 Table 5. Continued and Other Determinants of Job Satisfaction. Productivity and Health (standard errors in parens)

Age

Contaminants (6)

AGE

- -.05

AGESQ

Weeks

-.09**

(.04) .0004 (.0004)

.27

(.04)

(.27)

.001 (.001)

-.004 (.003)

TENURE

.02 (.01)

UNION

.55** (.19)

IOLS)

Sick (7)

-.06

.24 (.28)

-.09** (.04)

(.04)

-.004

.001*

.001** (.0001)

( .001)

(.003)

-.55** (.19)

FRSIZE

.00004 (.0001)

.01 (.04)

.01 (.05)

.0001 (.001)

.00002 ( .001)

-.02

.01 (.01)

.05 (.09)

FEMALE

Breath (9)

Tired (8)

-.09

(.02)

(1.25)

(.18)

.21 (.21)

-1. 01

.49** (.20)

.54** (.22)

.001 ( .001)

-.0001 (.0001)

-.0002*

.58**

(1.32)

(.0001)

Industry Controls

xx

xx

xx

xx

Occupation

xx

xx

xx

xx

Controls

Log: Chi:

-530.47

-450.66

-532.44

3.9

200.9

(R2 =

(R2

(2)

(14)

.002)

0.02)

=

-452.43 -382.19 -383.34

3.6

25.3

2.33

(2)

(14)

(2)

30.5 (14)

Age

~

Table 5. Continued and Other Determinants of Job Satisfaction. Productivity and Health (standard errors in parens)

Circulatjon (11)

(10)

AGE

-.02 (.04)

AGESQ

-.001 .0004 (.001) (.001)

-.03 (.04)

LIMIT

LIMIT

Musc/Skel (12)

Nerve~ (13)

.04 (.11)

-.01 (.12)

-.06 (.12)

.00003 (.001)

.00003 (.001)

.001 (.002)

TENURE

.01 (.01)

.05* (.03)

UNION

.35** (.17)

.11 (.49)

FEMALE

.51** (.18)

-.93 ( .66)

FRSIZE

-.0001 (.0001)

-.001 (.0004)

Industry Controls

xx

xx

Occupation Controls

xx

xx

Log:

-515.18

-515.76

Chi:

1.2

29.5 (14)

(2)

-100.58 6.7 (2)

-103.91

28.3 (14)

LIMIT

29

Respir