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VOLUME 6
ISSUE 10
JANUARY 2014
EARTH M AT T E R S
Sustainable Transport
Issues and Implementation special highlights
Animal Cops for the Real World Maneka Sanjay Gandhi
Why Save Birds: The Economics of Conservation Sharada Balasubramanian
in conversation Professor Michael Seadle Humboldt University, Berlin
It is time that we launched an informed debate on India’s transport sector and ensured that all stakeholders do their bit
This issue of TerraGreen deals, as usual, with a large number of subjects that are at the core of the challenge that the world and India in particular face in respect of attaining a pattern of development which is genuinely sustainable. However, it is the cover story of this issue that highlights a subject which the world as a whole has neglected, particularly since the invention of the internal combustion engine and mass production of automobiles. In the US, the automobile industry and allied groups, including what is referred to as the highway lobby, and many other sectors have been largely effective in blocking the development and growth of the railways in that country. Indeed, it is illogical to see that traffic between New York and Washington, D.C., as an example, is composed largely of road journeys or by air. The short distance between these two cities could be covered efficiently and in a short period of time if the US had the best railway technology. But reversal of the current trend would require enlightened public policy and perhaps some funding through the government exchequer. India at the time of independence possessed an enviable railway system, which unfortunately has not been developed in keeping with the trends in more enlightened societies, such as France and Japan, where rail transport, through technological innovation and major capital investments, has been able to take care of a large share of traffic, both passenger and freight. More recently, countries like China and the Republic of Korea have come up with similar achievements. In India, the share of rail transport has been progressively declining in the past few decades, and the absence of a forward looking transport policy would only result in the gap between road and rail transportation growing wider over time. The transport sector is a major source of emission of greenhouse gases, and therefore if the world has to mitigate these emissions, transportation will have to become more sustainable and certainly more accessible to all sections of society. In my view, the cover story in this issue should be disseminated to those far beyond the readership of TerraGreen. It is time that we launched an informed debate on India’s transport sector and ensured that all stakeholders do their bit to see that India develops its transport infrastructure and policies in keeping with the objectives of sustainability. The co-benefits of sustainable transport are substantial, because public transport for instance not only occupies much lower space and land area, but as opposed to large scale automobile usage, the problems of congestion and road accidents are also minimized with public transport. I recall a talk given by the Chief Executive of CNRS, the French railway system, in which he pointed to the irony that if there is a railway accident and say 20 deaths take place, it makes big news. On the other hand, in large cities 20 accidents and casualties per day could often be the norm, but these get hardly any attention from the media or the public. The issue of accessibility is also important, because in a country like India, which has a large number of poor people, elite forms of transportation, leave the average person on the street completely neglected in terms of the provision of transport options. All in all therefore we need a vigorous debate to see how we might escape the trap of following a path of development of the transport sector identical with that of developed countries. We need a far more equitable and efficient system, which provides a more inclusive and sustainable option.
R K Pachauri Director-General, TERI terragreen
| january 2014 |
1
Sustainable Transport
Issues and Implementation Sustainable economic development in India, as in many other countries, relies heavily on efficient transport infrastructure. But what happens if this infrastructure is environmentally and financially unsustainable? Arvind Kumar reports on the status of the transport sector in India with an eye on the bigger picture.
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I
t is often said that the sum of the parts is greater than the whole, but this is possible only when each of the parts is a whole in itself. For development to be truly sustainable, all its components need to be sustainable too. And since the engine of economic growth is so often driven by the transport sector (pun intended!), it is essential that this sector be sustainable in order to improve, or at least, maintain our current rate of development.
The 1987 Brundtland Report by the UN World Commission on Environment and Development defines ‘sustainable development’ as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It automatically encompasses long term economic and social development both. Our present and future needs relate most importantly to the basic amenities,
such as sanitation, health, education, and employment. But while all these aspects improve through development, traffic congestion tends to worsen. It is an unfortunate paradox that transport is an economic activity whose outcomes deteriorate as incomes rise, especially in the absence of an integrated transport policy. Sustainable transport is the expression of sustainable development within the
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each mode for what it does best, which typically means greater reliance on nonmotorized means for local travel, increased use of public transit in urban areas, and a reduction (but not elimination) of personal automobiles. On the whole, it seems it is rather difficult to agree on what constitutes sustainable transport. Perhaps then it would be easier to take the reverse view and identify what makes a transport system unsustainable. If we take this approach, the elements which emerge are emissions, fatalities, and congestion.
transport sector. It has thus been defined simply as transport that satisfies the current mobility needs without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet these needs. However, this definition does not specify what these needs are, nor does it talk about the time horizon, that is, how many future generations. From an economic perspective sustainable transport is transportation where the beneficiaries pay their full social costs, including those that would be paid by the future generations. However, it is the externalities — factors such as increasing population
and decreasing availability of fuel, among others — not transportation or travel per se, that undermine the sustainability of the transport system. In layman’s terms, sustainable transport is often described in terms of decreasing dependence on personalized motor transport and fossil fuels, and increasing the share of travel undertaken using public transport, bicycles, and on foot, and integrating transportation and land use planning to cut down the need for travel. The World Bank feels that in essence sustainable transportation requires using
The European Union Ministers of Transport and Communications, at their meeting in Luxembourg in April 2001, outlined the elements of a sustainable transport system as one that: • Allows the basic access and development needs of individuals, companies, and societies to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem health, and promotes equity within and between successive generations; • Is affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers choice of transport mode, and supports a competitive economy, as well as balanced regional development; and • Limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to absorb them, uses renewable resources at or below their rates of generation, and, uses non-renewable resources at or below the rates of development of renewable substitutes while minimizing the impact on the use of land and the generation of noise.
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Implications of unsustainable transport development in India Skewed modal mix of freight transportation In terms of modal share, the composition of India’s freight flows is quite different from those found in larger countries, such as China and the USA, where shipping/ waterways and railroads are of greater relevance. In the absence of more efficient multimodal alternatives, road transport dominates the freight market in India, resulting in excessive economic costs in the long distance market. India’s maritime
From an economic perspective sustainable transport is transportation where the beneficiaries pay their full social costs, including those that would be paid by the future generations.
CO2 Emissions from Various Transport Modes Freight Transport (gm/tKm)
Passenger Transport (gm/pKm)
Rail
160
Passenger cars
175
Road
29
Rail
75
Shipping
31
Airways
229
Source: 12th Plan Document, Volume II, Planning Commission
transport is also limited, especially considering the length of her coastline (7,500 km) and high concentration of the population in coastal regions. The dominance of trucking in freight transport is a major challenge in a country characterized by high logistic costs. India’s transport market, which mainly ships large volumes of low value-to-weight commodities over long distances, suits low cost coastal shipping or rail based options, but trucking clearly dominates. The rail based option is a cost effective one but its market share, excluding a few items (coal and iron ore), is still too low. India transports nearly 57% of its total goods by road, as compared
to 22% in China and 37% in USA. In contrast, the share of rail is only 36% compared to 48% for the US and 47% for China. Despite the fact that a large part of India’s freight traffic comprises bulk material over long distances that can be served efficiently by rail and waterways, the share of shipping through waterways is below 6% as compared to 14% in the US and 30% in China. This imposes a high cost on the economy by way of much higher dependence on fossil fuels and high levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. On the basis of mode-wise share of originating loadings in 2007–08, the indicative carbon dioxide emissions from the major modes are given in the table.
Sustainable Transport
Issues and Implementation
Despite the fact that a large part of India’s freight traffic comprises bulk material over long distances that can be served efficiently by rail and waterways, the share of shipping through waterways is below 6% as compared to 14% in the US and 30% in China. terragreen
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Emissions
Fuel consumption
Developing countries are at a crossroads today as current decisions and investments in the transport sector are set to lock in GHG (CO2) and air pollutant emissions for the coming decades. The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) has analysed the impact of increased urbanization and motorization on CO2, particulate matter (PM), and NOX emissions. Based on a business-as-usual scenario for motorization in India, CO2 emissions from road transport would increase at 7.75% per year — higher than many other Asian countries — from 203 million tonnes in 2005 to 905 million tonnes by 2025. Passenger transport represents 45% and freight transport represents 55% of total CO2 emissions from road transport in 2005. If the current trip mode share is retained, CO2 emissions would increase two- to three-fold between 2008 and 2025 due to a rapid growth in urban population and the number of trips.
The rapid surge in motorization and distances travelled will impact fuel consumption. In 2004–05, petroleum consumption by the transport sector accounted for 28% of India’s total petroleum product consumption (Integrated Energy Policy, Planning Commission, 2006).
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Crash fatalities and injuries Safety is a major issue of concern in road transport. Over 1.3 lakh people die every year in road accidents. This is about 10% of the world’s road accident fatalities, though India’s share of the global vehicle population is 1%. The World Health Organization (WHO) has forecasted a rise in road traffic injuries to become the fifth leading cause of death by 2030.
Higher spending on transportation by households A study by Future Capital Research on
The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) has analysed the impact of increased urbanization and motorization on CO2, particulate matter (PM), and NOX emissions.
20 cities in India has revealed that people spend more on transport than other major expenses. The share of transport in total consumption expenditure of households at 21.3% was higher than on health (7.6%), education (5.2%), and housing (8%) combined.
Delhi: A case of unsustainable motorization We can still choose to avoid an unsustainable transport future if local and national authorities act now. The outcome of uncontrolled motorization is evident in our metros. In Delhi for instance, the number of registered motor vehicles at the end of fiscal year 2011–12 was 7.45 million comprising 2.34 million cars (32% of the total vehicle population), 4.65 million two wheelers (62% of total), 88,216 autos (1.2% of total), 68,965 taxis (0.9% of total) and 34,251 buses (0.5% of total). These figures translate into a much distorted automobile composition. Car ownership and two wheeler ownership per 1,000 population is 140 and 278, respectively, and much higher compared to Singapore’s car ownership and two-wheeler ownership at 117 and 29 per 1,000 population, respectively. This has to be viewed in the backdrop of the fact that per capita income levels in Delhi are less than one-fifth of Singapore.
The other interesting fact is the miniscule presence of public road transport. The number of buses per 1,000 population is just two. Unbridled motorization has also shrunk road length per 1,000 vehicles; it has come down from 8.45 km per 1,000 vehicles in 2000–01 to 4.45 km per 1,000 vehicles in 2011–12 (Delhi Statistical Handbook, 2011–12). Singapore has shown that a shift is possible with good outcomes. Money alone does not buy sustainable transport: the political will must be there to enact strong policies. By introducing electronic road pricing and a premium-based system of certificate of entitlement for prospective car buyers, Singapore has kept growth of personalized motor vehicles under check.
Sustainable Transport
Issues and Implementation
Implementing sustainable transport To alter the sub-optimal outcomes associated with the transport sector, developed countries have adopted a range of instruments that include: Regulatory instruments, e.g., concerning emissions of CO2 and local pollutants; Fiscal instruments, e.g., fuel taxes and road pricing, other disincentives, and also incentives; and Hybrid regulatory–fiscal instruments, e.g., tradable entitlements to emit CO2 from vehicles.
In Delhi for instance, the number of registered motor vehicles at the end of fiscal year 2011–12 was 7.45 million comprising 2.34 million cars (32% of the total vehicle population), 4.65 million two wheelers (62% of total), 88,216 autos (1.2% of total), 68,965 taxis (0.9% of total) and 34,251 buses (0.5% of total). terragreen
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These instruments are used for: Promoting adoption of environmentally friendly modes, fuel efficient modes, etc.; Mobility management; Inducing behavioural change in users/ commuters to opt for sustainable transport; and Raising awareness, information, and education. Regulations are widely used for setting emission standards and limiting values. Use of economic instruments includes fuel and road pricing and providing fiscal incentives. Land use planning is used to reduce commuting distance, promote access to public transit, and avoid suburbanization. These policies are often supported by Transport Demand Reducing Strategies, which can be grouped under four major categories: Urban planning; Transport planning; Car use reduction (public transit); Emission-free/low emission; and Travel modes
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Non-motorized Transport (NMT) Prioritizing investments which benefit non-motorized transport (NMT) along with public transport, and encouraging urban planning to promote ‘avoid-shiftimprove’ approaches could transform Indian cities and allow people to enjoy better mobility and quality of life. Along with walking, cycling (and, for that matter, all NMT) has an important role to play in reducing car use. Cycling and walking provide access to public transport for long trips and provide alternatives to the use of the private car for short local trips. It should be noted, however, that safety (actual and perceived) can be a major barrier to walking and the use of bicycles. Indeed, non-motorized vehicle users are amongst the highest casualty groups in accidents involving motorized transport, particularly in developing countries. If cities are able to increase the current NMT and public transport trip shares coupled with a reduction in the motorized transport share, the CO2 emissions could be contained.
Land use planning is used to reduce commuting distance, promote access to public transit, and avoid suburbanization.
Freight Logistics of Malls/Supermarkets: An Example
Urban sprawl and logistics also impact GHG emissions. Many countries such as the UK and Australia have seen substantial increase in car use for retailing as cities have adopted the American style “mall” concept with large shopping complexes coming up outside city limits. In developing countries, shopping is still conducted at retail outlets or neighbourhood stores. Urban sprawl has the tendency to offset any technological gains made in engine/fuel efficiency. There has been relentless increase in the road freight tonne kilometres. The road freight problem is essentially one of the spatial organizations of production and logistic supply chains. Today logistics is highly sophisticated and organized, manifested by just-in-time delivery, very short lead times, reliability, satellite tracking, etc. This makes it possible, at very low costs, to source a huge variety of raw material and inputs required for a production chain that is fragmented in spatial terms. Essentially, the traditional barriers of the friction of distance and the cost of movement have almost disappeared. One of the best known examples of this process is the case of the yoghurt pot. Boege (1995) made a study of yoghurt production at one factory in Stuttgart, Germany, and found that many different products and sub-products went into making the final consumer product. The final product was very transport intensive. Each 150 gm pot of yoghurt was responsible for moving one lorry 9.2 metres. Similar trends can be observed throughout food retailing. For instance, apples can be purchased at retail outlets in Delhi which are sourced or produced in Chile, Australia, and the USA. The distance intensity of production and food products is growing at an increasing rate, producing more GHG emissions.
Sustainable Transport
Issues and Implementation
Sustainable transportation is not just a pipe dream. It is an achievable reality which can be brought about
Boege, S (1995). The well-travelled yoghurt pot. World Transport Policy and Practice 1(1) pp 7–11
Rebalance modal share freight flows The payoffs of rebalancing the freight transportation matrix from road to other transport modes are high. This modal shift will require a carefully designed investment plan to augment rail capacity, make the main inland waterways navigable, boost coastal shipping, and create incentives for building more intermodal transfer terminals. A more balanced modal transport mix towards water and rail will enable India to influence future energy use and emissions by freight transport. Shifting the heaviest and densest freight currently carried by trucks to rail or waterways would have a positive impact on energy consumption and emissions, all else being equal. Keeping in view the constraints on rail capacity and
experience of countries such as China, and longer and shorter average lead distances for road and rail, respectively, a modal share of 45% for railways, 45% for road, and 10% for water-based modes of conveyance of domestic freight appears to be feasible in the long run.
Integration of transport planning into land use planning Integration of transport planning into land-use planning is central to developing sustainable transport systems. In most cases in India, this integration is absent; as a result, public transit systems, when not completely lacking, are often not compatible with
land use. This leads to the extensive use of private cars and creates car-dependent citizens. When these two key paradigms are integrated, provided that public transport is of high quality, citizens can expect to enjoy the benefits of a seamless transit system starting from their homes, as well as efficient intermodal transfers. Thus, sustainable transportation is not just a pipe dream. It is an achievable reality which can be brought about by citizens and governments working together to create suitable infrastructure and introducing the necessary changes in our lifestyles.# Arvind Kumar (IES Retd) is a former Senior Adviser (Transport Research), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways and Member, Tariff Authority for Major Ports, Ministry of Shipping, Government of India. terragreen
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the mystery of the missing pencil.
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