HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (8 COLLEGE CREDITS): SEPTEMBER INTRODUCTION TO COURSE

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CELLS 4 TISSUE TYPESEpithelium Connective tissue Muscle tissues Nerve tissues Epithelial tissues (epithelium): Characterisrticsavascular, Little matrix Forms glands Lines & covers Forms sheets Epithelium classification: Function Cell shape Cell arrangement Cell types & functionsSimple types: SquamousSecretion, absorption, filtration Locations: Endothelium Mesothelium Glomerular capsule Cuboidal-

OCTOBER TERMINOLOGY: Bilateral symmetry (bisymmetry) Section terms: Longitudinal section terms(Para)Sagittal section Midsagittal section Coronal (frontal) section Oblique section Transverse section termsHorizontal section or cross section Locational terms: Anatomical position Axial & median Lateral & medial Superior (cranial) & Inferior (caudal) Proximal & distal Ventral (anterior) & Dorsal (posterior) Body cavities: Dorsal cavity: Cranial cavity Spinal cavity

NOVEMBER

DECEMBER

JANUARY

FEBRUARY

MARCH

APRIL

MAY

JUNE

ARTICULATIONS Place of union betwee 2 bones or cartilage and bone

NERVOUS SYSTEM: CNS-dorsal brain & nerve cord PNS- nerves

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: Ductless glands, release hormones into spaces around capillaries

BLOOD CharacteristicsColor Thickness Light transmittance Specific gravity Acidity (pH) Salinity Temperature Hemoglobin Hematocrit RBC level WBC level Platelet level

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Heart External anatomy: 4-chambers muscular pump red-brown 4 borders 3 surfaces apex & base

Respiration: Processes of: Gas exchange Gas transport Gas utilization

URINARY SYSTEM Eliminates nitrogenous and other nitrogenous wastes

Synarthrosesimmovable joints: Sutures (Cranial sutures) Synchondrosis (growth plates) Schindylesis (vomer to perpendicular plate of ethmoid) Gomphosis (tooth roots, styloid process) Amphiarthrosesslightly movable joints: Symphysis (pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs) Syndesmosis (distal tibia and fibula) Diarthroses- freely movable joints: Gliding joints (arthrodia, plane joints) -nonaxial Carpals. Sacroiliac Pivot joints (trochoid)-monaxial Atlas to dens, proximal raius & ulna

Composed of neurons & neuroglial cells Glial cells help form blood brain barrier, support neurons, attach neurons, Protect CNS Glial cell types: Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia Ependyma Schwann cells Neurons: Cyton (perikaryon, soma) Dendrites Axon Axis cylinder Axon hillock Axon t erminals Synaptic end bulbs Nissl bodies Neuroplasm Neuroplasmic reticulum Neurolemma Neurofibrils Neurofilaments Myelin sheath Nodes of Ranvier

Hormone release mechanisms: Negative feedback Positive feedbackTropic hormones Hypophysiotropic hormones Hormone classes: Steroids Proteins & peptides Amines Eicosanoids Pineal glandà Serotonin, melatonin, adrenoglomerulotrop. GIF Thymus à thymosin, THF, TF, Thymopoietin Hypophysis (Pituitary gland) Neurohypophysis Pars nervosa & infundibulum (Posterior lobe)à OT & ADH

Blood functions: Transport nutrients Transport gases Transport wastes Transport hormones Protect Acid-base buffer Maintain water & electrolyte levels Blood components: Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets Plasma Chylomicrons Plasma: 91-92% water 7% plasma proteins & NPN 1-1.5% electrolytes: Anions (-) Cations (+) Na, K, Ca, Mg Serum = plasmaclotting proteins

Heart Internal anatomy: 4-chambers 2 atria 2 ventricles Interatrial septum Interventricular septum Right AV valve (Tricuspid valve) Right Ventricle Pulmonary Semilunar valve Left atrium Left AV valve (Bicuspid, Mitral valve) Left Ventricle Aortic Semilunar valve Chordae tendinae Papillary muscles Trabeculae carnae Epicardium Myocardium Endocardium Heart regulatory reflexes: Aortic reflex Carotid Sinus reflex Right heart reflex (Bainbridge reflex)

Steps in respiration: Ventilation External respiration Transportation Internal respiration Cellular respiration Factor affecting ventilation rates: Age Emotions Blood pressure Arterial pH Arterial gas levels Body temperature Sensory stimuli Joint reflexes Breathing at rest changes with age: 1 yr.- 44 per minute 5 yrs.- 26 per minute adult- 14-20 per min. Steps in inspiration (inhaling-1.2 secs): Apneustic ponsà Inspiratory medullaà Diaphragm & External intercostalsà Lung volume increaseà Intrapulmonic pressure decreases from

Digestion Mechanical and chemical processes that physically and chemically breakdown large, insoluble, unusable food particles into smaller, soluble and usable molecules. Mechanical digestion: Uses muscle to physically break apart large bits of food

Urinary system organs: Liver Kidneys Nephrons Renal pelvis Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Urinary system organs:

Liver Detoxifies poisons, drugs, antibiotics, wastes, Detoxifies nitrogen wastes by producing urea Enzymesàsubstrateà H2 NCONH2 (from End product ammonia, carbon dioxide and water), Amylasesàcarbohydrate Adds urea to blood for àsimple sugars removal by kidneys. Chemical digestion: Uses hydrolytic enzymes to cleave bonds

Proteaseà proteinsà amino acids Lipasesà lipidsà fatty acids & glycerol Nucleasesà DNA & RNAà Nitrogen bases Alimentary canal 4-layered, muscular, oneway food tube, extending from mouth to anus, 9m long in adults.

Kidneys 10-12cm x 5-7.5cm x 2.5-3 cm Paired Retroperitoneal Reddish-brown organs cleanse blood Located between 12th thoracic & 3 rd lumbar vertebrae External anatomy: Renal fascia Perirenal fat (adipose capsule)

Secretion Excretion Locations: Renal tubule Glands Nonciliated ColumnarSecretion, Absorption Locations: GI tract Ciliated Columnar (pseudostratified)Secretion and movement of mucus Location: Respiratory tubules Reproductive tubules Stratified types: Squamous (Nonkeratinized)protection waterproofing

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Locations: Entrance and exit of Digestive system Squamous (Keratinized)protection waterproofing Locations: Epidermis Tongue Vaginal lining

Ventral cavity: Orbital cavities Sinus cavities Oral cavity Thoracic cavityPleural cavities Pericardial cavity Mediastinum Abdominopelvic cavityAbdominal cavity Pelvic cavity Cavity Membranes: Pleurae Pericardium Peritoneum & mesentery Membrane surfaces: Parietal surface Visceral surface Abdominal regions: Epigastric region Hypogastric region Umbillical region Iliac region Lumbar region Hypochondriac region SKELETAL SYSTEM: Skeletal system parts: Bone Cartilage Joints

Hinge joints (ginglymus) monaxial fingers, elbow, toes, knee Condyloid joints (ellipsoidal, ovoid joints) -biaxial, Occiptal condyles Radius to carpals Saddle joints Biaxial Proximal 1 st metacarpal to carpal of thumb Ball & Socket joints (enarthrosis, spheroidal joints) triaxial Shoulder, hip J Joint movement determined by: Bone shapes Ligament tightness Muscle position Freely movable joint structure: Joint capsule Joint cavity Synovial membrane Synovial fluid Articular cartilage Articular discs Ligaments Bursal sacs Muscles Review Anatomy of knee, hip, elbow, shoulder

Neuron impulse conduction types: Afferent (sensory) Efferent (motor) Interneuron (internuncial, connective) Neuron types by processes: Unipolar (sensory) Bipolar (special senses) Multipolar (motor, interneurons) Impulse generation: Continuous conduction Saltatory conduction Nerve cross section anatomy: Epineurium Perineurium Fascicle (bundle) Endoneurium Neurolemma Nerve fiber types: A-fibers (largest) B-fibers (medium) C-fibers (smallest) Synapsing Single synapses: Axodendritic Axosomatic Axoaxonic Multisynapses: Divergent Convergent Synpase transmission:

clotting proteins Pars intermedia (Intermediate lobe)à MSH Adenohypophysis (Anterior lobe)à ACTH TSH FSH LH/ICSH PRL (LTH) STH (hGH) Pituitary disorders: Diabetes insipidus Pituitary Dwarfism, Pituitary cachexia (Simmond’s disease), giantism (gigantism), acromegaly) Placentaà HCG HCS HPL Testesà Testosterone Inhibin Ovariesà B-estradiol Estrone Estriol Progesterone Stomachà Gastrin Intrinsic factor Natriuretic peptide Intestinalà Gastrin GIP Secretin

Erythrocytes (RBCs): Red colored No nucleus or ER at maturity Do not reproduce Biconcave disks 7-8 micrometers live 90-120 days produced in red bone marrow at rate of 1.23 million per second RBC functions: Carry Hb Transport oxygen Transport carbon dioxide Chloride shift Erythropoiesis steps: Hemocytoblast à Basophilic erythroblast à Polychromatophilic erythroblast à Normoblast à Reticulocyteà Erythrocyte Requirements for RBC production: Intrinsic factor Extrinsic factor Folic acid Iron Amino acids Copper & cobalt RBC removal: Hemoglobinà Globin & 4 hemes 4 hemesà iron & biliverdin biliverdinàbilirubin bile pigments

Purkinje system: Sinoatrial (SA) node Atrioventricular (AV) node AV Bundle (Bundle of HIS) Bundle branches Purkinje fibers Nervous regulation of the heart rate: (Cholinergic) Cardioinhibitory centeràvagus nervesà SA & AV nodes (Adrenergic) Cardiacceleratory centerà accelerator nervesà Sa & AV nodes & myocardium Blood flow through heart: Right heart flow: (deoxygenated blood) Vena cavaà rt. atrium àrt. ventricle àlungs Left heart flow: (oxygenated blood) lungsàleft atrium à left ventricle Cardiac cycle: Diastole: AV valves closed Atria fill Semilunar valves closed AV valves pushed open

760mm to 757mmHgà Intrapleural pressure decreases from 756mm to 754mmHgà Lungs inflate & expand Steps in exspiration (exhaling-2.6 secs): Pneumotaxic ponsà Expiratory medullaà Abdominals & Internal intercostals (Relax Diaphragm & External intercostals)à Lung volume decreasesà Intrapulmonic pressure increases from 760mm to 763mmHgà Intrapleural pressure increases from 754mm to 756mmHgà Lungs deflate Hering-Breuer (inflation) Reflex: regulates depth & rhythm of respiration Respirometry: Tidal volume Inspiratory reserve Inspiratory capacity Expiratory reserve Expiratory capacity Vital capacity Residual capacity Total lung capacity Functional residual capacity Clinical breathing terms: Eupnea Dyspnea Hypernea

Accessory Organs Assist organs of alimentary canal during digestion: Lips, cheeks, teeth, tongue, salivary glands, Pancreas, liver, gall bladder Mouth Consists of Oral vestibule Buccal (oral) cavity

Renal capsule Renal sinus Renal hilum Internal anatomy: Renal cortex Renal medulla Renal pyramids Renal papillae Renal renal lobe Renal column Renal parenchyma Renal pelvis Major & minor calyces

Buccae (cheeks)

Mouth functions Injestion Mastication Salivation Deglutition Tasting Speech Tongue composed of skeletal muscle and covered with papillae: filiform papillae fungiform papillae foliate papillae circumvallate papillae Dentition (teeth) 20 Deciduous (baby) teeth 32 Permanent (secondary) teeth Tooth functions: Incisors- cutting Cuspids- tearing

Renal blood flow: Abdominal aortaà Renal arteryà Segmental arteryà Lobar arteryà Interlobar arteryà Arcuate arteryà Interlobular arteryà Afferent arterioleà Glomerulusà Efferent arterioleà Peritubular capillariesà Vasa rectaà Peritubular venuleà Interlobular vein à Arcuate vein à Interlobar vein à Lobar veinà Segmental veinà Renal veinà Inferior vena cava Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA): Structure that regulates blood through various

CuboidalProtection Locations: Gland ducts ColumnarProtection Locations: Lactiferous ducts Transitional: Protection from urine Distention (stretching) Locations: Urinary bladder Gland secretion methods Apocrine Holocrine Merocrine Gland duct types Endocrine Exocrine Heterocrine Simple duct types: Tubular Acinar Branched tubular Branched acinar Coiled Tubular Compound duct types: Tubular Acinar Tubuloacinar

Synovial fluid Ligaments Muscles Tendons Skeleton functions: Protection Support Movement Mineral storage Blood production Skeleton maturation changes6 th week skeleton begins 12 th week complete cartilage model formed Fontanels close Sutures harden Face:cranium ratio changes 1:8 to 1:2 Head:body ratio changes 1:4 to 1: 8 Vertebral curves Thoracic changes round to elliptical Pelvis enlarges Trunk:limb proportion changes Growth plates become epiphyseal lines Longitudinal growth stops: Females: 15 years Males:16-17 years Maturation & Remodeling continues until 2122 years

MUSCLE SYSTEM Muscle functions: Posture Body heat Movements Muscle fiber characteristics: Irritability Extensibility Elasticity Impulse conduction Contractility Gross Muscle structures: Origin Insertion Belly (gaster) Tendon sheath Neuromuscular junction: Motor neuron Axon terminal Sole foot Synaptic vesicles Synaptic cleft Motor end plate Synaptic gutter Synaptic fold ACh & Ache Muscle X-section: Fascia Epimysium Perimysium Fascicle (bundle) Endomysium Sarcolemma Myofibril Myofilament

transmission: Acetylcholine (cholinergic) Catecholamine (adrenergic) Peripheral nerve regeneration Reflexes (reflex arcs) Sensory-somatic nervous system: 1 sensory neuron1 motor neuron

CCK Entercrinin Endocrine pancreas Alpha cellsà glucagon Beta cellsà insulin Delta cellsàGHIH F cellsàPP Pancreatic disorders: Hypoglycemia Hyperglycemia Type I and II Diabetes mellitus Adrenal glands:

Autonomic nervous system: 2 motor neurons1 preganglionic1 postganglionic

Adrenal medulla à Epinephrine (adrenaline) Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

àbile pigments Hb formation: 4 hemes + globinà hemoglobin (Hb) Polycythemia thick blood high RBC level Anemia Low RBC level caused by: Blood loss Iron deficiency Pernicious anemia Fragile cells (hereditary) Aplastic anemia Genetic disorders: Sickle-cell anemia Thalassemia

Autonomic NS: Parasympathetic Craniosacral div. Slows down body Terminal ganglia 1 long preganglionic, cholinergic neuron 1 short postganglionic, cholinergic neuron Sympathetic Thoracolumbar division Speeds up body Chain & Collateral ganglia 1 short preganglionic, cholinergic neuron 1 long postganglionic adrenergic neuron

Disorders: Pheochromocytoma Adrenal cortex: Inner zone (Zona reticularis) à Gonadocorticoids: Adnrogens & estrogens Disorders: Gynecomastia Feminizing adenoma Virilism Virilizing Adenoma (bearded lady) Adrenogenital syndrome Pseudo Hermaphroditism

Platelets (thrombocytes): Produced in red bone marrow by “budding off” megakaryocytes Platelet functions: Form platelet plugs Release serotonin Produce coagulation factors Hemostasis Maintain blood volume: Platelet plugs Vascular spasm Blood clotting

Ventricles fill Semilunar valves closed Systole: Atria contract Ventricles overfill Semilunar valves closed AV valves close (1 st heart sound) Ventricles contract Semilunar valves open AV valves closed Ventricles empty Semilunars valves close (2 nd heart sound) Electrocardiogram (EKG): P-wave P-R interval QRS Complex T -wave Q-T interval U-wave Artery characteristics: Direct high pressure & high velocity blood away from ventricles Have pulses Thick-walled (3 tunics) Arterioles (small arteries) major regulators of blood flow

Orthopnea Apnea Tachypnea Bradypnea Cheyne-Stokes respiration Anatomy of respiratory tract: Nose & Nasal cavity: External nares Nasal septum of: Vomer Vomeronasal cartilage Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone Roof by cribiform plate of ethmoid bone Side walls by orbital surface of ethmoid bone Floor by hard & soft palate Paranasal sinuses: Frontal sinus Ethmoidal air spaces Sphenoidal sinus Maxillary sinus (Antrum of Highmore) Pharynx (throat) 3 portions : Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx

Molars- crushing and grinding

blood through various renal vessels

Salivary glands: Minor salivary glands Major salivary glands:

JGA consists of:

Parotid glands secrete serousy saliva through Stenson’s Ducts Submandibular (submaxillary) glands secrete serousy and mucousy saliva through Wharton’s Ducts Sublingual glands secrete mucousy saliva through Ducts of Rivinus

Juxtaglomerular cellsspecial smootjh muscle cells of afferent and efferent arterioles Macula densa Special ascending limb and distal convoluted cells in contact with afferent and efferent arter Nephron 1 million functional units in cortex of each kidney Nephron structures:

Saliva consists of water (99.5%) & mucus bicarbonate chlorides lysozyme salivary amylase (ptyalin) urea & uric acid, etc Saliva functions Dissolve foods Begin starch digestion Bind food particles Keep mouth moist Buffer mouth pH Protect mouth lining

Renal (Malpighian) Corpuscle: Filters everything from blood except RBCs and large proteins Glomerulus Tangled capillary network Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule Surrounds glomerulus Renal tubule:

Salivation regulation: Psychic phase Mechanical phase Chemical phase

Capillaries (ultimate extension of arteries) 8-10 micrometer lumen single layer (endothelium) Larynx (voicebox)

3 Stages of Deglutition (swallowing):

Proximal convoluted tubule Chemical reabsorption Obligatory water reabsorption by passive transport Secretion of chemicals

Glands: Endocrine glands Mucous glands Mammary glands Digestive glands Meibomian glands Ceruminous glands Sebaceous glands Sudoriferous glands Connective tissue:

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6 Bone classeslong bonefemur, tibia & fibula, metatarsals, phalanges, humerus, ulna & radius, metacarpals, phalanges short bonecarpals & tarsals

Characteristics: Vascular, Much matrix Does’nt form sheets 3 fiber types: collagenous (white) elastic (yellow) reticular

irregular bonevertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, auditory ossicles

Connective tissue types:

sesamoid bonepatella

Special Connective Tissue (blood)

wormian bonesutural bones

Loose typesMesenchyme Wharton’s Jelly Areolar tissue Adipose

Long bone parts: Diaphysis Metaphysis Epiphysis Growth plates Medullary canal Compact (hard) bone Spongy (cancellous) bone Red & yellow bone marrow Osteoblasts Osteocytes Osteoclasts

Dense typesDense Irregular Dense Regular Compact typesHyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage Fibrocartilage Compact Bone Spongy Bone Integumentary system-

flat boneskull, ribs, hips, scapula, sternum

OsteonUnit of hard bone

Myofibril structure: Primary myofilament, thick filament, myosin Secondary myofilament Thin filament Actin A-band H-zone M-line I-band Z-line Sarcomere Troponin tropomyosin complex Skeletal muscle: Voluntary Striated Multinucleated Long, cylindrical, etc Cardiac muscle: Involuntary Striated 1 Central nucleus Short,quadrangular Branching, etc Smooth muscle: Involuntary Nonstriated Cigar-shaped nucleus Elongated, thin Etc 7 Principles of Muscle Contraction Types of contractions:

Peripheral NS 31 prs. Spinal nerves ventral root dorsal root dorsal root ganglion trunk cervical plexus brachial plexux lumbar plexus sacral plexus pudenal plexus coccygeal plexus 12 prs. Cranial nerves I-Olfactory II-Optic III-Oculomotor IV-Trochlear V-Trigeminal VI- Abducens VII-Facial VIII-Auditory IX-Glossopharyngeal X-Vagus XI-Accessory XII-Hypoglossal Central NS: Meningesfibrous membranes around CNS Dura mater Arachnoid mater Pia mater Meningitisinflammation of Meninges Spinal cord: Anterior median fissure

Middle zone (Zona fasciculata)à Glucocorticoids Cortisone Corticosterone Hydrocortisone Disorders: Addison’s Disease Cushing’s disease Outer zone (Zona glomerulosa) à Mineralcorticoids Aldosterone Disorder: aldosteronism Thyroid gland Parafollicular cellsà Thyrocalcitonin Principal cellsà: Triiodothyronine Tetraiodothyronine (Thyroxin) Disorders: Hypothyroidism : Hypercalcemia Endemic or simple goiter Myxedema Cretinism Hyperthyroidism: Hypocalcemia Exophthalamic goiter (Grave’s disease) Parathyroid glands Chief cellsàPTH

Clot terminolo gy: Syneresis Thrombus Embolus Clotting time Bleeding time Prothrombin time

Vemules (small veins) connect capillaries & veins usually 3-walled

Hemophilia: Hereditary clotting disorder Hemophilia genetics problems

Vein characteristics: Direct low pressure blood from body back to heart Do not have pulses Some have valves Thin -walled (3 tunics)

Leukocytes (WBCs) Colorless Nucleated Lack Hb Ameboid movement Diapedesis Phagocytosis Chemotaxis Made in red bone marrow & lymph organs Leukopenia too few WBCs Leukocytosis too many WBCs: Acute leukemia Chronic leukemia WBC TYPES: Granulocytes: NeutrophilMost phagocytic (microphage) Build up quickly 54-70% WBCs 8-12 micrometers nucleus 2-5 lobes fine purple garnules

Arterial and venous blood flow schematics Fetal circulation: Umbillical vein Sphincter Ductus venosus Foramen ovale Ductus arteriosus Umbillical arteries In postnatal infant: Round ligament Ligamentum venosum Fossa ovalis Ligamentum arteriosum Internal iliac arteries Hemodynamics: Blood flow Poiseuille’s Law Blood pressure Blood resistance Blood conductance Blood velocity Blood laminar flow Blood turbulent flow Blood volume Stroke volume Cardiac output Cardiac reserve

Anterior to 4 th-6 th cervical vertebrae: 3 unpaired cartilages: epiglottis thyroid cartilage cricoid cartilage 3 paired cartilages: arytenoid cartilages corniculate cartilages cuneiform cartilages BRONCHIAL TREE Trachea (windpipe) Anterior to esophaguss From larynx to 5 th thoracic vertebra: Bronchi & Bronchioles (branches off trachea): Primary (mainstem) bronchi: branch off at sternal angle (5th thoracic vertebra) Secondary (lobar) bronchi: 5 branches off primary bronchi Tertiary (segmental) bronchi: Branches off secondary bronchi that lead to bronchopulmonary lung segments Bronchioles: branches off tertiary bronchi, enter lobules of lung

(swallowing): Buccal stage Pharyngeal stage Esophageal stage Pharynx (throat) 5” long passageway to esophagus Esophagus (gullet) 10” funnel to stomach, ends at cardiac sphincter Stomach (gut) 12” x 4” J-shaped pouch consisting of: 3 muscle layerslongitudinal (outer) circular (middle) Oblique (inner) Cardiac region & sphincter Fundus Body Antrum Pyloric region & sphincter Inner wall of 4 layers: Tunica serosa Tunica muscularis Tunica submucosa Tunica mucosa: Rugae Gastric pits Gastric glands 35 million gastric gland cells of at least 4 types: : Zymogen (Chief) cells secrete pepsinogens Parietal (Oxyntic) cells

Descending Limb of Loop of Henle Chemical reabsorption Obligatory water reabsorption by passive transport No secret ion Ascending Limb of Loop of Henle Chemical reabsorption No water reabsorption No secretion Distal convoluted tubule: Chemicral reabsorption Facultative water reabsorption by active transport Secretion of chemicals Collecting tubules: Chemical reabsorption Facultative water reabsorption by active transport Secretion of chemicals Ureters: Pair of 10-12” long Retroperitoneal tubes Connect kidney to urinary bladder, begin as renal pelvis end at posterior surface of urinary bladder Wall 3-layered: Tunica fibrosa Tunica muscularis Tunica muscosa Urinary bladder: Hollow distensible pouch Holds 700-800 ml urine Detrusor muscle

systemsystem of membranes: Mucous membranes Serous membranes Synovial membranes Cutaneous membranes (skin) Skin functions: Protection Temp. regulation Secretion Excretion Sensation Produce Vitamin D Store food & water Prevent dehydration

Skin embryonic derivatives: HairCuticle Cortex Medulla Ext. root sheath Int. root sheath Dermal papilla Bulb Germinal matrix Arrector pili muscle Fingernails (ungues)Nail body Free edge Nail bed Nail fold Nail groove Lunula Eponychium

Haversian canal Volkmann’s canal Lamellae Lacunae Canaliculi Osteocyte Hydroxyapatite Major crystalline salt of bone matrix

Tonic Isotonic Isometric Convulsion Fibrillation Twitch Tetanic Treppe

Posterior median sulcus

(Parathyroid hormone)

fight acute infection, inflammation, stress

Gray matterCentral canal Anterior Horn Posterior Horn Lateral Horn

Disorders: Hyperparathyroidism (Osteitis fibrosa cystica)

Parts of a twitch: Latent period Contraction period Refractory period Relaxation period

White matterAnt. funiculus Post. Funiculus Lat. Funiculus

EosinophilFights animal parasites & allergies 2-4% WBCs 10-12 micrometers nucleus 2-3 lobes large, red granules lowered by glucocorticoids

Contract ion stimuli: Subminimal (subliminal) Minimal (liminal) Submaximal Maximal Supramaximal Intramembranous ossificationFlat bone or membranous bone formation Bone formation inside fibrous membranes Membranes form Osteoblasts spread bone from Centers of Ossification Endochondral ossificationLong bone or cartilaginous bone formation Bone formation within a cartilage model

Summation: Multiple Motor (treppe) Wave (tetanic) Asynchronous Factors affecting muscle strength: # of motor units Stimulation rate Contraction rate Stimulus strength Amount of load Fiber length Warming up Fiber health Condition Special muscle fiber adaptations for energy: Myoglobin

Cervical enlargement Lumbar enlargement Conus medullaris Cauda equina Filum terminale

VentriclesInternal cavities, circulate CSF 1 st & 2 nd ventricles Foramen of Monro 3 rd ventricle Aqueduct of Sylvius 4 th ventricle Foramen of Magendie Foramina of Luschka Choroid plexes Produce CSF Review CSF flow CSF composition Brain Divisions: Brain stem parts:

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Teste anatomy: Tunica vaginalis Septa Lobules Sertoli cells Interstitial cells Sperm duct system: Seminiferous tubules Tubuli recti Rete teste Ductus efferentia Epididymus Ductus deferens Common Ejaculatory duct Prostatic urethra Membranous urethra Penile urethra Navicular fossa Accessory glands: Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Cowper’s glands (Bulbourethral glands) Scrotum anatomy: Spermatic cord Cremaster muscle Dartos muscle Raphe Septum

BasophilIntensifies inflammation allergies hypersensitivities Dissolve clots ½-1% WBCs 8-12 micrometers nucleus 2 lobes large round, blueblack granules Agranulocytes: MonocyteMost phagocytic Largest WBC (macrophage) Builds up slowly 3-8% WBCs 12-19 micrometers nucleus kidneyshaped no granules fight chronic infection LymphocytesProduce antibodies or become T -cells with immune proteins 10-33% WBCs two sizes: large and small

Fick Principle Law of the Heart (Starling’s Principle) Reticuloendothelial (RE) system Widespread, sessile phagocytic cells that swell up and become plasma cells which secrete antibodies Types of RE cells: Kupffer cells (Liver) Dust cells (Lungs) Microglia (CNS) Splenocytes (Spleen) Bone marrow RE cells Histiocytes (body)

Immunity: Natural (innate) immunity Nonspecific defenses Specific defense: Natural passive immunity Natural active immunity Artificial (adaptive)immunity Artifical passive immunity Artificial active immunity Antigen Antibody Vaccine Primary immune response

Terminal bronchioles: 50-80 branches off bronchioles within lung lobules Respiratory bronchioles: Lead to alveolar ducts and alveoli Alveolar ducts: 2-10 branches off respiratory bronchioles Alveoli (air sacs): Thin -walled distended spaces, Simple squamous epithelium

Lungs Extend from 1.5” above sternal end of 1st rib, enable blood to exchange gases with the air: Base Apex (cupula) Hilus Right lung: Slightly larger than left lung Primary bronchus larger and more vertical 2 fissures 3 lobes 3 secondary bronchi 10 segments 10 tertiary bronchi Left lung: Cardiac notch

Secrete HCl and Intrinsic factor Enteroendocrine cells secrete gastrin Goblet cells secrete mucus Stomach functions: Store and churn food Begin protein & lipid digestion Secrete Intrinsic factor and stomach gastrins Limited absorption Regulation of secretion: Psychic phase Gastric phase Gastrin, nerve reflexes Intestinal phase GIP, CCK, secretin Small inrtestines 1-2” x 18-22 ft. longest part of GI tract movements: peristalsis & segmentation 3 divisions: Duodenum “twelve fingerbreadths” 2” x 10-12” receives most secretions through Hepatopancreatic Ampulla secretes hormones ends at Treitz’s ligament Jejunum 8 feet no secretions very vascular & active

Trigone (Area enclosed by ureter and urethra openings) Upper, internal sphincter Sphincter viscera, circular, smooth muscle Lower, outer sphincter Sphincter urethrae skeletal muscle Urethra Terminal portion of urinary system Conveys urrine from urinary bladder to external urethral meatus

Female urethra 3.8-4 cm x 6 mm posterior to pubic symphysis anterior to vaginal wall Male urethra 20 cm (8”) Consists of 3 regions: Prostatic urethra Membranous urethra Penile urethra Review: Glomerular filtration GFR & GFF Tubular reabsorption Tubular secretion (Tubular excretion) Urine formation: 600 ml blood enters glomerulus per minute

Hyponychium Germinal matrix Sweat glandsMost numerous on palms & back Apocrine glands Eccrine glands

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Sweat composition: 99% water urea uric acid ammonia amino acids NaCl Lactic acid, etc DehydrationLoss of water & important electrolytes Oil glandsMake hair & skin soft & pliable Kills certain bacteria Aging changes to skin: Attacked by over 2000 diseases Burned Loses fat Becomes thin & transparent Age spots forms Elastic fibers snap Wrinkles develop Rule of Nines% of body burned 9% head & neck 9% right arm 9% left arm 18% anterior trunk

model Cartilage models develop covered by perichondrium Capillary invades shaft Medullary canal forms Primary Ossification Centers develop Bone collar spreads Capillaries invade epiphyses Secondary Ossification Centers form Growth plates Bone fracture (Broken bone)

store ATP on myosin more mitochondria creatine phosphate Muscle respiration: Anaerobic phase: (4 ATP) Krebs Cycle: (6 ATP) Aerobic phase: (28 ATP) gain of 36 ATP Muscle fatigue due to lactic acid accumulation Oxygen debtTime required to take in enough oxygen to convert lactic acid to glucose in liver

Fracture healing: Fracture hematoma Granulation tissue Callus formation Maturation Fractures: Displaced Nondisplaced Open (compound) Closed (simple) Complete Incomplete Transverse Longitudinal Spirtal Greenstick

Muscle disorders: Charley horse Muscle cramp Tic Pins & needles 1 st degree sprain 2 nd degree sprain 3 rd degree sprain myalgia myositis fibrosis fibromyositis myosclerosis myomalacia myoma contracture Muscular dystrophy Myasthenia gravis

Medulla oblongata enlargement of spinal cord in cranium, around floor & sides of 4 th ventricle Origin of cranial nerves IX-XII Upper body reflexes

Penis anatomy: Bulb, Crus, Root, Body, Corpus cavernosum Corpus spongiosum Glans penis Corona, Prepuce

Pons varoliiabove medulla, forms upper part of 4 th ventricle Origins of cranial nerves V-VIII Apneustic center Pneumotaxic center

Spermatogenesis 1 Spermatogonium (2N)à 2 Primary spermatocytes (2N)à 4 Secondary spermatocytes (N)à Spermatids (N)à Spermatozoa (N)

Midbrainabove pons, surrounds Aqueduct of Sylvius Origins of cranial nerves III-IV Visual & auditory Relay

Spermatozoa anatomy: Acrosome Head Midpiece Tail Semen composition

Diencephalon: above midbrain Thalamus (4/5) Forms side walls of 3 rd ventricle Relays all sense impulses except smell Hypothalamus (1/5): forms floor & lower walls of 3rd ventricle Relays smell impulses Produces ADH & OT Mind over matter Links endocrine system to CNS

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Ovary structure: Germinal epithelium Tunica albuginea Stroma Medulla, Cortex, Hilum Uterine ligaments Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes) Uterus (womb) Vagina Vaginal orifice

two types: B-cells & T-cells Blood clotting:

response Starts after 7 days Antibodies peak by 10-14 th day

ABO-system: Type A Type B Type AB Type O

Secondary immune response Starts on 1st-2 nd day Antibodies peak by 4 th-7 th day

Transfusion problems

Humoral immunity: Response to fast developing infections: staph, strep, pneumonia Bursal lymphocytesà Committed B-cellsà Plasma cellsà antibodies

Blood genetics: Genotypes: Type A= AA,AO Type B= BB,BO Type AB= AB Type O= OO ABO multiple allele problems & Parentage problems Rh factors Rh complications: Rh-female Rh+ father Rh+ infant “Blue baby” Erythroblastosis fetalis “Hemolytic disease of newborn”

Cellular Immunity: Response to slow developing infections: Organ transplants, cancer, tuberculosis Thymal lymphocytesà Sensitized T-cellsà Killer T-cellsà Killer T-cells with Immune proteins attached Hypersensitivity reaction LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Vessels and glands that regulate fluid in tissue spaces Remove proteins from tissue spaces and return them to blood plasma Interstitial fluidfluid in tissue spaces

One fissure 2 lobes 2 secondary bronchi 8 segments 8 tertiary bronchi Pulmonary (respiratory) membrane: Thin, moist Ave. 540-753 sq. feet 100 times body surface area Factors determining rate of gas diffusion: Membrane moistness Membrane thickness Surface area Gas solubility Gas molecular weight Gas pressure differences Gas Laws: Charle’s Law Dalton’s Law Henry’s Law Boyle’s Law Hemoglobin saturation Utilization coefficient Hb reserve capacity Blood oxygen transport (20 ml. per 100 ml. of blood): 3-5% dissolve in plasma 95-97% on Hb (oxyhemoglobin) Oxygen partial pressures: Arteries- 100 mm Hg Veins- 40 mm Hg Hb oxygen saturation: Arteries- 95-97%

Ileum 12 feet ends at ileocecal valve Intestinal internal wall of 4 layers Paneth cells (intestinal gland cells) produce 2-3 liters of “succus entericus” (int. juice) Small intestines functions: Secrete intestinal juice Regulate release of juices from stomach, pancreas & gall bladder Complete digestion Absorb food end products Large intestine (Colon) 2.5” x 5-6 feet last section of GI tract internal wall of 4 layers haustral pouches taenia coli (muscular bands) epiploic appendages Colon divisions: Cecum & Ascending colon Begins at ileocecal valve extends to hepatic flexure Transverse colon Extends from hepatic flexure to splenic flexure Descending colon Extends from splenic flexure to sigmoid flexure Sigmoid colon Extends from 3rd sacral vertebra to rectum

glomerulus per minute 125 ml of plasma enters glomerular capsule by glomerular filtration 100 ml of water & chemicals reabsorbed into blood, chemicals secreted from blood by proximal convoluted tubule 25 ml of filtrate enters Loop of Henle 7 ml reabsorbed by blood 18 ml enters distal convoluted tubule 12 ml of water & chemicals reabsorbed into blood, chemicals secreted from blood 6 ml of filtrate enters collecting tubules 5 ml of water & chemicals reabsorbed, chemicals secreted from blood 1 ml ultrafiltrate (urine) forms per minute

18% posterior trunk 18% left leg 18% right leg 1% ext. genitalia Skin senses: Free nerve endings Meissner’s Corpuscles Merkel’s discs Pacinian Corpuscles Golgi Corpuscles Krauses’s End Bulb Corpuscle of Ruffini Epidermal regions: S. corneum S. lucidum S. granulosum S. spinosum (S. mucosum) S.germinativum (S. basale) Dermal (corium, true skin, hide, leather) regions: Papillary portionPapilla Arector pili muscles Sebaceous glands Meissner’s corpuscles Capillary tufts Reticular portionHair roots Dermal papillae Sudoriferous glands Pacinian corpusles Fat Hypodermis (Subcutaneous region)

Impacted Comminuted Pathological Colle’s Pott’s Bone disorders: Pituitary dwarfism Pituitary cachexia Giantism (Gigantism) Acromegaly Rickets Osteomalacia Osteopororsis Osteomyelitis Osteitis deformans (Pagets disease) Achondroplasia Arthritis & Gout Bursitis Osteitis fibrosa cystica Scoliosis Kyphosis

system to CNS Regulates: body temperature sleep, wakefulness thirst, hunge r body weight electrolyte and water balances Cerebellumposterior fossa, separated from brain stem by 4th ventricle Surface has parallel grooves Internal folia 3-lobes connects by peduncles coordinates subconscious muscle movements, muscle tone & posture eqiulibrium, balance Cerebrum (7/8 brain)Superior division Contain 1 st & 2 nd ventricles, sulci, gryri, Longitudinal fissure, Transverse fissure, Central sulcus (Sulcus of Rolando) Two hemispheres 5 lobes White matter: Association fibers Commissural fibers Projection fibers Gray matter: Cerebral cortex Basal ganglia

Hymen Fornix Vulva (pudenum): Mons pubis Labia major Labia minor Clitoris Glans clitoris & crus Prepuce Vestibule Bulb of vestibule Ovarian cycle of oogenesis: Oogonia (2N)à Primary oocytes (2N) (Primary follicles)à Secondary oocytes (N) + 1st polar body (Primary follicles)à Follicles enlargeà Secondary oocytes & 2 nd polar bodies (Secondary follicles) Follicles enlargeà Graafian follicle release corona radiata Menstrual cycle: Hormonal and Uterine changes Menstrual phase (Days 1-5) Follicle Phase (Days 6-13) Ovulation (Day 14) Corpus luteum (Days 15-28)

Lymphinterstitial fluid within lymphatic vessels and lymph organs Lymph vessels: Lymph capillaries Afferent lymphatic Efferent lymphatic Thoracic duct (Left lymphatic duct) Right lymphatic duct Thoracic duct drainage: entire lower body & upper left quadrant Right lymphatic duct drainage: only upper right quadrant

Veins- 70%

vertebra to rectum

Carbon dioxide transport in blood (4 ml. per 100 ml.. of blood): 7-10% dissolved in plasma 20-27% on Hb (carbaminohemoglobin) 64-70% bicarbonate ion

Rectum Terminal 5-8” of GI tract

Carbon dioxide partial pressures: Arteries- 40 mm Hg Veins- 45-50 mm Hg

Colon movements: Haustral churning Peristalsis Mass peristalsis Defecation reflex

Hb carbon dioxide saturation: Arteries- 80% Veins- 95-97% Chloride shift

Lymph nodes/glands: Lymph nodes: (Bean shaped) Deep cervical nodes Submandibular nodes Axillary nodes Peyer’s Patches Iliac nodes Lymph node structure: Capsule, Trabeculae Cortex, Cortical sinus, Germinal centers, Nodules, Medulla, Medullary sinus Medullary cords Hilus Tonsils: Aggregation of lymphatic gland tissue in mucus membrane

Clinical terms: Rhinitis Sinusitis Uvulitis Pharyngitis Epiglottis Laryngitis Tracheitis Bronchitis Bronchiolitis Pneumonia Pleurisy Pneumothorax Hemothorax Asphyxia Anoxia Hypoxia Hyperoxia GENERAL METABOLISM All of the chemical reactions of body

Anal canal & Anus 1-3”, ends at anus 6-8 anal columns 2 sphincters: internal-smooth muscle external skeletal muscle

Colon functions: Complete absorption of food, water, electrolytes Produce B vitamins & vitamin K using symbiotic colon bacilli Collect, form and store feces Peritoneum Largest serous membrane Contains large folds: Mesentery Fold encircling most of small intestines connecting it to posterior abdominal wall Transverse mesocolon Fold binding colon to posterior abdominal wall Greater omentum Largest fold Attached to stomach & duodenum Drapes over transverse colon and small intestines

Common substances found in urine: Water Mucin Ammonia Amino acids Urea Uric acid Creatinine Urochrome Urobilinogen Bilirubin Porphyrin Lactic acid Citric acid Vitamins Glucose Sodium Potassium Calcium Sulfate Phosphate Hydrogen Bicarbonate Chloride Enzymes Organic acids (Para)Hippuric acid Ketones Phenols Organic acids Histamines Antibiotics Drugs Clinical urine disorders: Anuria Bacteriauria Diuresis Dysuria Enuresis Glucosuria Hematuria Nocturia

C O N T E N T

Fingerprints Calluses Melanocytes Pigmentation Skin cancer UV light Melanoma

Motor areas Sensory areas Association areas

Mammary glands (Breasts): Lobes Lactiferous ducts Lactiferous sinuses Areola Areolar glands Nipple Hormonal influences: Ovariesàestrogen Ovaryàprogesterone Ant.PituitaryàPRL Post.PituitaryàOT

Pharyngeal tonsils (Adenoids) Palatine tonsils Lingual tonsils Spleen: Largest mass of lymphatic tissue, Ingests bacteria, stores blood, removes dead and wornout RBCs & platelets Spleen structure: Capsule Trabeculae White pulp Germinal center Splenic nodules Red pulp Venous sinus Splenic (Billroth’s) cords

Thymus: Mediastinal gland One of central controls for immunity, largest at puberty, small in adults Thymus st ructure: Capsule, Trabeculae Cortex, Germinal centers, Nodules, Medulla, Thymic corpuscles (Hassall’s corpuscles)

reactions of body

colon and small intestines

Measured by: Volume of oxygen consumed Amount of heat generated

Lesser omentum 2 folds in tunica serosa of stomach and duodenum

Basal metabolism rate (BMR): Energy use by fasting, resting individual, expressed in calories per hour per square meter of surface area.

Exocrine pancreas: 1” x 5-6” Tubuloacinar gland Head, neck, body, tail Releases pancreatic fluids through 2 ducts: Duct of Wirsung (Pancreatic duct) Duct of Santorini Produces pancreatic fluid: Sodium bicarbonate neutralize pH, Stop action of pepsin

BMR is influenced by: Sex, age, height, weight, Body temperature, health, thyroid function, emotions, foods eaten, external environment, pregnancy

Accessory Organs:

Many enzymes to contin ue digestion of all nutrients

Body temperature: Balance of heat gained and heat lost (85% heat lost through skin)

Pancreas secretion release regulation: Nerve reflexes, Secretion, CCK, and Bile

Metabolism increases: Oxygen use increase Food oxidation increases Heat release increases Body temperature rises

Liver: Largest gland Compound tubular gland 3-4 pounds Over 500 functions Produces over 1000 chemicals Produces bile

Hypothalamic heat promoting center causes: Vasoconstriction Shivering & pilerection Metabolism decreases: Oxygen use drops

Liver structure: Glisson’s capsule Many ligaments 4 lobes subdivided into lobules with sinusoids, Bile canaliculi

Oliguria Polyuria Pyuria Uremia Clinical urinary system disorders: UTI Urethritis Cystitis Pyelitis Pyelonephritis Glomerulonephritis Ptosis Renal calculi Renal failure Acute renal failure Chronic renal failure Polycystic kidney disease Incontinence

Food oxidation decreases Heat release descreases Body temperature drops Hypothalamic heat losing center causes: Vasodilation Sweating & panting Heat is lost by a combination of processes: Radiation (60%) Evaporation (22%) Conduction (18%) NUTRITION: Anabolism (build up processes) Catabolism (break down processes) Special metabolism: Lipid metabolism Lipid anabolism: Lipid synthesis Lipogenesis Lipid catabolism: Beta oxidation Glycerol catabolism Carbohydrate metabolism

C O N

Glucose anabolism: Glycogenesis Gluconeogenesis Glucose catabolism: Glycogenolysis

R & L Hepatic ducts Common Hepatic Duct Gall bladder: 3-4” long Shaped like a pear Stores and concentrates bile 10 times Gall bladder structure: Neck Fundus Spiral valve Sphincter of Oddi Bile is an alkaline liquid: Water Cholesterol Lecithin Bile pigments Bile salts Bile functions: Emulsify fats Assist in absorption of: Fatty acids Cholesterol Vitamins A, D, E, K Bile release regulation: Nerve reflexes Fats & proteinsàCCK Acidsàsecretin Bile reabsorption

T E N T

Cellular respiration: Glycolysis Kreb’s cycle Electron transport chain Protein metabolism Protein anabolism: protein synthesis Transamination Protein catabo lism: Protein hydrolysis Deamination Nutrients Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Vitamins Minerals

S K I L L S

To be able to list, describe and locate: Epithelium and Connective Tissues. To be able to describe the components of the Integumentary system and their functions. To be able to describe, locate and identify cranial landmarks

A S S E S S M E N T S

Observation of, diagrams, charts of epithelial tissue cells, connective tissues cells. Matching, definition, fill-in test on epithelium. Matching, definition, fill-in test on connective tissues. Observation and diagram of skin, hair and fingernails. Face lift videotape

To be able to define, explain and correctly use anatomical terms for body sections, locations, cavities and membranes. To be able to describe the growth, development and maturation, disorders and structure of the human skeletal system. To be able to describe, locate and identify cranial and facial and other axial skeleton landmarks Labeling of diagrams of anatomical terminology, cavities and membranes. Multiple choice and matching test on anatomical terms, cavities and membranes. Observation of microscope slides and diagrams of bone cells, long bone cross-section and longitudinal section and osteon model.

To be able to list and describe the structural types, functions, and disorders of human articulations. To be able to explain the structures, functions and disorders of human muscle fibers. To be able to describe, locate and identify vertebral, sacral, coccygeal, sternal and rib landmarks.

Observation of diagrams, transparencies and models of joints. Goniometer demo Matching, listing and definition test on articulations. Observations of muscle cells, muscle cell models, muscle cell diagrams and charts and muscle kymograph readings. Facial Bone lab exercises

To be able to describe the structure and function of the human peripheral nervous system.

To be able to describe the structure, function and disorders of the endocrine system

To be able to describe the structure and function of the human central nervous system.

To be able to describe the structure and function of the human male & female reproductive systems.

To be able to describe, locate and identify appendicular skeleton landmarks.

Observation of microscope slides, diagrams, charts, models and transparencies of neurons and nerves. Observation of diagrams, charts, models and transparencies of vertebral column, spinal cord, dermatomes, meninges, ventricles and brain. Brain dissection Multiple choice & matching tests on PNS and CNS.

To be able to describe the components, disorders and functions of the human blood.

To be able to describe the structure, functions and disorders of the human cardiovascular system.

To be able to describe the structure, functions and disorders of the human respiratory system.

To be able to describe the structure, functions and disorders of the reticuloendothelial and human lymphatic systems.

To be able to describe the human metabolism and nutrient utilization.

Observation and labeling of diagrams of heart and valves, blood vessel routes, fetal circulation, artery & vein models and microscope slides.

Inflatable lung demonstration.

To be able to describe the structure, functions and disorders of the human digestive system.

To be able to describe the structure and function of the organs of the human urinary system, and describe disorders.

Observation and labeling of diagrams, charts and models of digestive system organs: mouth, tongue, teeth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, liver, gall bladder and pancreas.

Observation and labeling of diagrams and models of nephrons, kidneys, urinary system.

To be able to locate, identify, label diagrams and state actions of muscles of the upper extremities, lower extremities and trunk.

Ear and Eye labs and testing

Lower body muscles exam

Cow or sheep eyeball dissection

Upper body muscles lab

Observation of diagrams, charts of endocrine glands, secretions, disorders functions

Trunk muscles lab

Multiple choice & matching test on Endocrine system. Observation of microscope slides, diagrams, charts of male and female reproductive structures & glands,

Trunk & Upper body muscles exam

Cow or sheep heart dissection.

Observation of microscope slides of blood, blood cell & platelet models, hematocrit, charts, blood genetics problems, Hemophilia Punnett Squares, Sickle cell and T halessemia

Labs on: heart sounds, pulse rate, EKG, Blood pressure. Aorta and valve replacement videortape Multiple choice test on cardiovascular

Breathing model demonstration. Reptile CPR demo Frog dissection

Sheep kidney dissection

Fetal Pig dissection

Completion of charts and tables on physiology of digestion.

Wet Spirometry lab to determine Vital Capacity

Cat dissection

Multiple choice and matching question test on respiration. Nutrition/diet chart

Completion of charts and tables of urine formation.

Heart burn repair videotape Liver transplant videotape

Autopsy videotape

exercises Multiple choice, matching, listing and describe integumentary system structures test.

Cranial Bone lab exercises

Cleft Palat e Repair Videotape

Skull bone lab quiz

Matching, definition, listing and comparison test on bone cells, bone and skeletal structure and development, etc.

Vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, sternum, ribs labs.

Cranial Bone lab exercises

Axial Skeleton Lab Examination

Cervical spine fusion videotape

PNS and CNS. Appendicular skeletal labs. Appendicular Skeleton Lab Examination

structures & glands, secretions and functions. Bull teste and Sheep Uterus dissections Vasectomy & tubal ligation videotapes Vasectomy & tubal ligation reversal videotapes Separate multiple choice & matching tests on male and female reproductive systems. Lower body muscles lab

T halessemia problems, clotting time, bleeding time, Hemoglobin measurement, etc. Multiple choice and matching test on blood.

cardiovascular physiology &n hemodynamics. Diagram and matching tests on heart, art eries and veins. Diagrams and identification of lymphatic system structures Multiple choice and matching test on RE and Lymphatic Systems

Fat measurement. Oprah’s Medical Miracles Videotape

Multiple choice and matching test on metabolism, nutrition and digestion.