1

Q8B095 THE FALL OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

20 credits Autumn Semester 2003/4 Convener and lecturer: Dr John Rich Seminar tutors: Dr Doug Lee ([email protected]) Dr John Rich ([email protected])

Please note that the information contained in this booklet is provisional: dates and times of classes in particular may be changed. It is your responsibility to ensure that you are aware of such changes by regular consultation of the noticeboards in the Department of Classics. This module booklet does not repeat information that has been given in the Department of Classics Undergraduate Handbook, available online at http:/nottingham.ac.uk/classics/. Everything in that document, so far as it is relevant, applies to this module, unless it is explicitly superseded here.

MODULE AIMS, CONTENT AND ROLE This 20-credit Level B module is designed for second and third year students in Ancient History, Classical Civilization and Classics, and for students taking other degree courses, for whom some knowledge of Roman history may be an advantage, but is not essential. The module examines the upheavals and eventual collapse of the Roman Republic in the period from c. 133 BC to the outbreak of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey in 49 BC. Attention is paid both to the course of events and to broader topics and longer-term trends. Students taking the module will be expected to study not only modern discussions but also the ancient sources, read in translation. For those who have taken those modules, the module will build on the study of Roman Republican history begun in the Level 1 modules Q81002 Introduction to the Roman World and Q81312 Writing Roman History. (Note. This is the first time that the module has been offered in this 20-credit form. It replaces two 10-credit modules, which were last taught in successive semesters in 1999-2000: Q8B094 The Republic in Crisis: Rome and Italy 151-89 BC and Q8B095 The Fall of the Republic: Rome and Italy 88-49 BC).

2 MODULE OBJECTIVES On successful completion of this module you should have: acquired a sound knowledge of C the Roman political system and its workings in a period of important political change C social developments and social conflicts in the late Roman Republic C the collapse of the Roman Republic and its causes developed skills, including: subject-specific C understanding and evaluation of historical source material C understanding and evaluation of modern historical writing C understanding and analysis of historical issues C oral discussion of historical evidence and issues C exposition in writing of historical evidence and issues transferable C evaluation of evidence C analysis and deployment of data and argument C contribution to discussion in a small group C clear exposition in writing of complex issues

TEACHING AND STUDY METHODS Teaching for the module is by a combination of lectures and seminars. Lectures (Dr Rich): Tuesday 12.00 Economics and Geography A48 Friday 1.00 Portland LTC11 For schedule of lecture topics see below. Seminars: All students will be assigned at the first lecture to a seminar group for which the seminar tutor will be either Dr Lee or Dr Rich (venues and times to be announced). For schedule of seminar topics see below. Attendance at seminars is obligatory. Students who are unable to attend a meeting of their seminar group must get in touch with their seminar tutor to explain their absence. All students must read the designated sources and are recommended to do further appropriate preparatory reading for each session to enable them to participate in the discussion at the seminars (please bring the designated sources with you to the seminars). All students taking this module must own a copy of the following texts: Appian, Civil Wars (Penguin); Plutarch, Roman Lives (Oxford, World’s Classics). Students are also strongly recommended to own their own copies of Sallust, The Jugurthine War and the Conspiracy of Catiline (Penguin) and Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars (Oxford, World’s Classics). Other recommended purchases are listed in the bibliography below. Students who took the module Q81312 Writing Roman History should already possess copies of all the above texts except for Appian.

3 ASSESSMENT The assessment for this module is 50% by an essay and 50% by a two-hour examination. (a) The essay must be on one of the titles listed below and must be submitted by 2.00 p.m. on Monday, 10 November. It should be approximately 3,000 words long; essays over 3,600 words long will be subject to a penalty of 5 marks. Bibliographies listing ancient sources and modern works consulted should be added at the end of the essay. The essay must be word-processed, using double-spacing; the pages must be numbered, and a word-count must be included. The essay will be marked anonymously. A standard cover sheet (available from the table outside the Departmental Secretary=s office) must be completed and attached to the front of the essay. No indication of your identity should be given on the essay except on the sealable flap of the coversheet. The essay must be securely fastened with a staple. Before submitting the essay you must take a copy of it, which you must retain and produce on request. To submit the essay you must deposit it in the essay box in the Departmental Office. (b) The examination will be held sometime in the designated examination period: the exact date, time and place will be announced in due course by the Examinations Office. You will be required to write two essays from a choice of at least six (33.3 marks each) and answer questions on two passages from a choice of six (16.6 marks each). Some of the essay questions will deal with specific events and personalities, and others will be concerned with broad themes and designed to test your knowledge and understanding of the period as a whole: you will be expected to answer one question of each type. A model examination paper is given below. The passages for comment will be taken from the following texts: Appian, Civil Wars 1.7-2.35; Sallust, Jugurthine War 27-43, 63-65, 84-6 (Penguin edn, pp. 63-79, 99-102, 116-22); Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Marius 1-14, 27-46, Sulla 1-10, 30-38, Pompey 1-30, 4259, Caesar 1-14, 21, 28-32; Suetonius, Caesar 1-33; other sources issued on handouts. For further information and advice on all matters relating to coursework and examinations see the Classics Undergraduate Handbook.

ESSAY TITLES All students taking this module must submit an essay on one of the following titles by 2.00 pm on Monday, 10 November. 1

Examine the political significance of the office of tribune of the plebs in the period 133 to 91 BC. What motivated those tribunes who engaged in political activity, and what consequences did their activity have for the Republic?

2

How would you account for the demand for land distribution in the period 133-91 BC? Why were some politicians so keen to gratify it and others to oppose it? How effective

4 were the land distribution measures and what consequences did they have? 3

Examine the part played by the Italian allies in Roman politics in 133-91 BC and the origins of the Social War. What were the rebels’ grievances and aims?

4

Examine the character and political significance of the Roman army in the later second century BC. Was there a manpower shortage?

LECTURE SCHEDULE L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12 L13 L14 L15 L16 L17 L18 L19

Tues 30 Sept Fri 3 Oct Tues 7 Oct Fri 10 Oct Tues 14 Oct Fri 17 Oct Tues 21 Oct Fri 24 Oct Tues 28 Oct Fri 31 Oct 3-7 Nov Tues 11 Nov Fri 14 Nov Tues 17 Nov Fri 21 Nov Tues 25 Nov Fri 28 Nov Tues 1 Dec Fri 5 Dec Mon 8 Dec

Introduction Roman political life in the mid-second century BC Tiberius Gracchus, land and manpower The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus From Tiberius to Gaius Gracchus (132-121 BC) Gracchan issues: the land and the allies, the equites and the courts Marius and the Jugurthine War Marius, the Cimbri and Saturninus The origins of the Social War Social War and civil war (91-82 BC) Classics Reading Week Sulla and his settlement The collapse of the Sullan settlement and the rise of Pompey, 78-67 BC Pompey=s absence and return: Roman politics, 66-60 BC The dominance of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, 59-55 BC The approach to civil war, 54-49 BC Political life in the Late Republic The urban poor The army and the land The fall of the Roman Republic

SEMINAR TOPICS S1

The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus

14-17 Oct

What were the problems which Tiberius Gracchus was seeking to address with his agrarian law, and what were his motives for proposing it? How far was he justified in acting as he did during his tribunate, and how revolutionary was his conduct? Sources: Appian, Civil Wars 1.7-17; Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus; handouts for Lectures 3-4. Modern discussions: bibliography below, sections 3.2-3. S2

The career of Marius to 100 BC

28-31 Oct

5 What sort of background did Marius come from, and what were his personal qualities? How would you account for his rise to his first consulship in 107 and then to successive consulships in 104-100 BC? What was the nature of his relationship with Saturninus? What military innovations did he carry out, and how significant were they? Sources: Plutarch, Marius 1-31; Sallust, Jugurthine War, especially 63-5, 84-6 (Penguin pp. 99102, 116-22); Appian, Civil Wars 1.28-33; handouts for Lectures 7-8. Modern discussions: bibliography below, section 3.5. S3

The Sullan settlement and the rise of Pompey, 83-66 BC

17-21 Nov

What were the aims of Sulla's settlement, and why did it break down? How would you account for the rise of Pompey? Sources: Plutarch, Sulla 31-34, Pompey 1-30; Appian, Civil Wars 1.97-108, 121; handouts for Lectures 11-12. Modern discussions: bibliography below, sections 3.8-9. S4

The career of Caesar to the outbreak of civil war in 49 BC

25-28 Nov

What were the main stages in Caesar’s political advancement and how did he achieve them? What were his political aims and how far did he pursue policies or principles? How far was he responsible for the outbreak of the civil war? Sources: Suetonius, Caesar 1-33; Plutarch, Caesar 1-14, 21, 28-32; Appian, Civil Wars 2.8-33; handouts for lectures 13-15. Modern discussions: bibliography below, sections 3.10-11. S5

Roman political life in the Late Republic

1-5 Dec

How did men succeed in elections in the Late Republic? To what extent and why was political competition becoming more intense? What was meant by the terms optimates and populares and how important was the conflict between them? How important a part did the Roman people play in the political struggles of the Late Republic? Sources: handouts for lectures 16-17. Modern discussions: bibliography below, sections 3.12-13.

6 MODEL EXAMINATION PAPER (adapted from those set for the 10-credit modules Q8B0945 in 2000/1) Answer ONE question from each section. Each question carries equal marks. SECTION A 1

Answer the questions set on TWO of the following passages:

(a)

‘A tribune’, he said, ‘is sacred and inviolable, in so far as he is a dedicated champion of the people. But if he changes, if instead he injures you, the Roman people, checks your strength, and reduces the power of your vote, he has deprived himself of his office by failing to do the job he was appointed to do.’ Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 15.2 How well founded was this justification for Tiberius Gracchus’ conduct?

(b)

Marius enlisted recruits not in the traditional manner nor on the basis of the propertyqualification, but taking any citizen who chose to volunteer, property-less men (capite censi) for the most part. Some said that he did this through lack of good men, others because of a desire to curry favour, since that class had given him honour and rank, and in fact to one who aspires to power the poorest man is the most helpful, since he has no regard for his property, having none, and considers anything honourable for which he receives pay. Sallust, Jugurthine War 86.2-3 What was the significance of this levy, and how satisfactory is Sallust’s account of it?

(c)

In this way, although equestrians and senate were at odds with each other, they were united in their enmity towards Drusus, and only the common people were pleased with the colonies. And even the Italians, in whose interests chiefly Drusus was carrying out these schemes, were apprehensive about the colonial law, because they expected that the land belonging to the Roman state which was still unallocated, and which was being farmed either clandestinely or after forcible seizure, would at once be taken away from them, and that trouble would occur over their own land. Appian, Civil Wars 1.36 What was the younger Drusus trying to achieve and why did he fail?

(d)

Pompey retained command of his army and negotiated to get sent out to help Metellus. Even though Catulus gave him a direct order, he refused to disband his army, but remained under arms near the city, constantly finding new excuses, until the senate ratified a motion proposed by Lucius Philippus and gave him the command. Plutarch, Pompey 17 Discuss the significance of this episode in the rise of Pompey and the light which it sheds on his success.

(e)

When quaestor he made the customary funeral speech from the Rostra in honour of his aunt Julia ..., and, while eulogizing Julia’s maternal and paternal ancestry, did the same for the Caesars too. ‘Her mother,’ he said, ‘was a descendant of kings, namely the Marcii

7 Reges, a family founded by King Ancus Marcius; and her father, of gods - since the Julii (of which we Caesars are a branch) reckon descent from the Goddess Venus.’ Suetonius, Julius Caesar 6 After the death of his aunt Julia, the wife of Marius, he made a brilliant public speech in praise of her in the forum, and was bold enough to display in the funeral procession images of Marius himself. These had not been seen since the time that Sulla came into power, Marius and his friends having been branded as public enemies. Plutarch, Caesar 5 Discuss the significance of this episode for Caesar’s early career in the light of these two versions. (f)

The first - and obvious - point is to cultivate the senators and equites Romani, and the energetic and influential in all the other orders. .... Then you must take stock of the entire city, all the collegia, districts and neighbourhoods; if you enlist their leaders in your friendship you will easily secure the rest of the common people through them. Next see that you keep in your mind and memory the whole of Italy divided up and categorised by tribe, so that you can make sure there is no Italian town ... where you do not have sufficient support; you must look for and search out men from every area, must get to know them, solicit and strengthen their support, and see that they canvass for you in their neighbourhoods and behave almost as candidates on your behalf. Commentariolum Petitionis 29-31 What light does this passage shed on the means by which election success could be achieved in late Republican Rome?

SECTION B 2

Were the Gracchi idealistic reformers?

3

How would you account for the rise of Marius?

4

Why did Sulla’s settlement collapse?

5

‘Caesar could not endure an equal or Pompey a superior’ (LUCAN). How satisfactory is this explanation of the outbreak of the civil war?

SECTION C 6

Were the conflicts between optimates and populares in this period really just struggles for personal advancement?

7

Who were the equites and what role did they play in the political conflicts of this period?

8

How important a part did urban violence play in the collapse of the Roman Republic?

8

BIBLIOGRAPHY Contents page 1

2

3

General 1.1 General histories 1.2 Roman political life 1.3 Biographies 1.4 Other studies

8 9 10 10

Sources 2.1 Late Republican writers 2.2 Later writers 2.3 Other sources, sourcebooks

11 12 12

Topics 3.1 The Roman political system in the second century BC 13 3.2 Agrarian change and manpower problems in the second century BC 14 3.3 The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 BC 15 3.4 From the death of Tiberius Gracchus to the death of Gaius Gracchus 16 3.5 Roman politics, 121-91 BC 16 3.6 The Italian allies, the origins of the Social War and the rebels’ aims in the War 17 3.7 The Equites and the criminal courts 18 3.8 The Civil Wars of the Eighties and the Dictatorship of Sulla 19 3.9 The Rise of Pompey and the Collapse of the Sullan Settlement 19 3.10 Roman Politics in the Sixties BC 20 3.11 From Caesar's Consulship to the Outbreak of Civil War (59-49 BC) 20 3.12 Roman Political Life in the Late Republic 21 3.13 The Urban Plebs in the Late Republic 22 3.14 The Army and the Land 23

Note. The following list is very lengthy. It should be used selectively for general reading for the module and to prepare for seminars, the coursework essay and the exam. Particularly important works are identified by asterisks. Works cited in sections 1-2 are cited in section 3 in abbreviated form.

1 1.1

GENERAL

General histories

The following are good introductory surveys which briefly discuss the period studied in this module in the course of wider accounts of Roman history: J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray, The Roman World (Oxford, 1986) T. Cornell and J. F. Matthews, Atlas of the Roman World (London, Phaidon: 1982)

9 The following are both stimulating short accounts of the period, which is everyone is recommended to read: *P. A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic (London, Chatto: 1971), chs. 4-6 *M. H. Crawford, The Roman Republic (London, Fontana: 2nd edn, 1992), chs. 5-15 H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero (London, Routledge: 5th. edn., 1982), remains a very useful textbook. Chs. 1-7, 9-10 cover the period. D. Shotter, The Fall of the Roman Republic (London, Routledge: 1994) is a rather pedestrian survey. *The second edition of the Cambridge Ancient History, volume IX, The Last Age of the Roman Republic 146-43 BC (1994), is now the standard history of the period. Chs. 1-7, 9-10 cover Roman political history, and there are important studies of aspects of Roman society in chs. 1619. (NB the first edition of this volume (1932) has long been outdated and is now effectively superseded.)

1.2

Roman political life

*M. Beard and M. Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic (London, Duckworth: 2nd edn, 1999) is not a narrative history, but a stimulating introduction to Roman politics and society in the period. *J. R. Patterson, Political Life in the City of Rome (London, Duckworth: 1999) is a good, short introduction to the working of the Roman political system set against the topography of the city of Rome. A. W. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999) is a reliable guide to the workings of the political system. There are two lively essays on the politics of the Late Republic, by T. P.Wiseman and J. Paterson, in T. P. Wiseman (ed.), Roman Political Life 90 BC-AD 69 (Exeter University Press, 1985). L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1964), chs. 1-5 is an excellent account of the workings of the political system in the Late Republic. Chs. 6-8 remain a useful account of the political history of the 60's and 50's. M.I. Finley, Politics in the Ancient World (1983) has many acute remarks about the Roman political system in contrast with those of Greek cities, especialy on popular participation. F. Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (1998) argues for the importance of popular participation in the politics of the Late Republic. For a critique of this view see H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001). For further information on voting and assemblies see E. S. Staveley, Greek and Roman Voting and Elections (1972); L. R. Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies (1973); A. Yakobson, Elections

10 and Electioneering in Rome (1999). On the growth of political violence see A. W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (Oxford, 1968; revised edition, 1999); W. Nippel, Public Order in Ancient Rome (Cambridge, 1995), esp. Ch. 2. T. R. S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (1951-2, 1986) gives a complete listing of the magistrates with summaries of their activities and the sources: this is an invaluable work of reference. See further below topics 3.1, 10

1.3

Biographies

For the earlier part of the period, the following bibliographies are particularly useful: A. E. Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (1967); D. Stockton, The Gracchi (1979); R. J. Evans, Gaius Marius: A Political Biography (1994); A. Keaveney, Sulla: The Last Republican (1982). The best biography of a politician of the Late Republic remains *M. Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman (Eng. trans., 1968), an excellent, detailed narrative account of the period. Also recommended for the Late Republic are: C. Meier, Caesar (1995); T. N. Mitchell, Cicero: the Ascending Years (1979), Cicero: the Senior Statesman (1991); R. Seager, Pompey, A Political Biography (2nd edn, 2002); D. Stockton, Cicero, A Political Biography (1971); W. J. Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999). There are further biographical studies for Cicero (E. Rawson, and others), Crassus (F. E. Adcock, B. Marshall, A. M. Ward), Lucullus (A. Keaveney), and Pompey (J. Leach, P. Greenhalgh).

1.4

Other studies

*K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978), ch.1, 'Conquerors and slaves: the impact of conquering an empire on the political economy of Italy', is a very stimulating account of some of the central themes of the module, which everyone should read. *'The Fall of the Roman Republic', ch. 1 in P. A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays (Oxford, 1988), is a very important discussion of why the Republic fell, which everyone should read before completing the module. The volume also contains several other important studies, notably ch. 5, 'The Army and the Land in the Roman Revolution' and the studies of the Roman political system in chs 6-9. E. S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974) is a very long-winded attempt to minimize the strains in the Roman political system in the Late Republic and to argue that the outbreak of civil war was an accident (cf. the review by M. H. Crawford, in Journal of Roman Studies 66 [1976], 214-7). However, its surveys of various aspects of the period 78-49 BC are

11 often very useful. Also useful for the earlier part of our period is Gruen’s Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts, 149-78 BC (1968). W. V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 BC (Oxford, 1979), chs. 1-2 is good on the role of war and the profits of war in Roman life. P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC-AD 14 (Oxford, 1971, rev. repr. 1987) is the fundamental work of reference on manpower and a host of related issues.

2 2.1

SOURCES

Late Republican writers

*CICERO's letters and speeches are a rich source of contemporary material for the politics of the later part of the period, and his writings contain many allusions to earlier events. Selected works available in various volumes in Penguin Classics volumes (e.g. Selected Letters, Selected Political Speeches) or in Oxford World’s Classics (Defence Speeches). The standard editions and translations of the letters are those by D. Shackleton Bailey. Translations of all Cicero’s works are available in the Loeb Classical Library. Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica (below, 2.3) is a good collection of material from Cicero on Roman politics and society. *SALLUST (prob. 86-35 B.C.) retired from politics to write history from a moralizing and to some extent popularis perspective. His monographs on The Jugurthine War and The Catilinarian Conspiracy are the earliest Roman historical works to survive intact and provide important, though partisan, information on the politics of the period. Available in Penguin Classics; recommended buy. The Penguin edition unfortunately does not include the chapter divisions normally used for reference; they are, however, on the headers at the top of each page. Note the general reflections on Roman politics at Jug. 41-42 (Penguin pp. 77-9, Cat. 37-9 (Penguin pp. 203-5). Sallust’s last work, the Histories, was a large-scale annalistic history of the period from 78 BC to the mid-sixties. Some of the surviving fragments give important information on the politics of the 70's; they include speeches. Selection available in translation in Lactor no. 6; complete two-volume translation by P. McGushin. CAESAR, The Gallic Wars and The Civil Wars are mainly accounts of his military campaigns, but contain some important sections on political developments. The poetry of CATULLUS vividly illuminates upper-class life in the last years of the Republic.

12 2.2

Later writers

For continuous narratives of events we depend on writers living long after the Late Republic, several of them writing in Greek rather than Latin. These writers drew on lost historical accounts: their sources may have included the lost books of Livy’s history and (at least for the fifties BC) Asinius Pollio’s history of the civil wars. However, our sources selected, shaped and interpreted their material in accordance with their own objectives. The following writers are particularly important sources for the period: *APPIAN (mid-2nd century A.D.) was an Alexandrian Greek with a post in the imperial civil service. He wrote a history of Rome in Greek arranged not in the traditional year-by-year fashion, but by regions and wars, including.five books on The Civil Wars. Our period is covered in Civil Wars 1.7-2.33: this forms our main narrative account down to c. 70 BC, and a useful brief narrative thereafter. Everyone must own Appian, Civil Wars (Penguin Classics). *PLUTARCH (c.A.D.50-120). Wrote lives of famous Greeks and Romans in comparative pairs, in Greek. Everyone must own the Oxford World’s Classics volume Plutarch, Roman Lives, which includes the lives of the Gracchi, Marius, Sulla, Pompey and Caesar. (Further lives, such as Cicero, Crassus, available in Penguin Classics editions.) *SUETONIUS (writing in the early second century) wrote biographies of the emperors in Latin, beginning with Julius Caesar. His life of Julius Caesar is a major source for Caesar and the Late Republic (the best available translation is the Oxford World’s Classics volume Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars; recommended buy). CASSIUS DIO (sometimes referred to as Dio Cassius or just Dio) wrote a history of Rome, arranged year by year, in Greek in the early third century AD. Books 36-40 dealing with the period BC 69-50 survive largely intact and are the fullest surviving narrative account of the period. Translation available in Loeb Classical Library edition of Dio's Roman History, vol. 3.

2.3

Other sources, sourcebooks

In addition to the continuous narratives listed above, a wide variety of different source material is available. This is most easily accessed through sourcebooks. The two most important sourcebooks for this period (both good buys) are: *D.L. Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla, in the Lactor series: a very valuable collection of translated sources for 133-80 B.C. *W. K. Lacey and B. W. G. Wilson, Res Publica: Roman Politics and Society according to Cicero (repr. Bristol University Press): an excellent selection of source material (mostly from Cicero) on political and social life in the Late Republic. Other useful sourcebooks include: N. Lewis and M. Reinhold, Roman Civilization, vol. 1: much useful material on the Republic, as also in A. H. M. Jones, A History of Rome through the Fifth Century vol.1. J. Sabben-Clare, Caesar and Roman Politics 60-50 BC: a detailed collection of sources for political developments in the 50's.

13 Lactor no. 7, Roman Politics, another useful collection of source material on political life in the Late Republic. The standard work of reference on the coinage is M. H. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage (Cambridge, 1972). For a good brief account see A. Burnett, Coinage in the Roman World (London, 1987). There are a number of good handbooks on art and architecture, e.g. A. Boethius, Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture (1978). You may also be able to access some of the ancient sources for the period on the internet.

3

TOPICS

Note. Other works cited in the previous two sections will also be found useful for many of these topics. Works already cited there may be referred to here in abbreviated form.

3.1

The Roman political system in the second century BC

Sources: No one should miss the survey of the Roman constitution by a well-informed Greek writing in the mid-second century BC in *Polybius Book 6, especially 11-18, 51-7 (helpful notes in F. W. Walbank's Commentary). On the early career of Scipio see Polybius 31.22-30, 35.4. (Livy, Books 31-45 gives much valuable information on politics in the period 200-167) Bibliography: See also general works on the Roman political system cited at 1.2 above. The following are good discussions of the Roman political system: *A. E. Astin, 'Roman government and politics, 200-134 B.C.', in Cambridge Ancient History VIII, 2nd. edn., ch. 6 (pp. 163-196) *F. G. B. Millar, 'The political character of the classical Roman Republic, 200-151 BC', Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984), 1-19 J. A. North, 'Democratic politics in Republican Rome', Past & Present 126 (1990), 3-21. A. W. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999). On the impact of new wealth see W. V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70

14 B.C., ch. 2. On the question how exclusive the Roman governing class was see Brunt, Journal of Roman Studies 72 (1982), 1-12 and M.K. Hopkins, Death and Renewal (1983), 31-119. The classic study of the Roman governing class, from which Brunt, Hopkins and Millar have recently reacted is M. Gelzer, The Roman Nobility (first published 1912; English trans., 1969). A. E. Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (1967), chs. 2-14 is an excellent discussion of new trends in the mid-second century BC and of the role of Scipio Aemilianus. On the controversial activities of tribunes in the years before 133 see *L.R.Taylor, 'Forerunners of the Gracchi', Journal of Roman Studies 52 (1962), 19 ff.

3.2

Agrarian change and manpower problems in the second century B.C.

Sources: The chief sources on the agrarian crisis are *Appian, Civil Wars 1.7ff; *Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 8ff. They appear to draw on a common (unknown) source. Cato, On Agriculture, the earliest Roman agricultural handbook, is a key document on agrarian change (translation in Loeb Classical Library; well discussed by A.E.Astin, Cato the Censor (1978), ch.11). Extracts from these and other sources: Frank, Economic Survey of Ancient Rome I.158-75, 232-35, Lewis and Reinhold I.227ff, 441ff.; Jones I.103ff; Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla 1-4. Bibliography: **M.K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978), ch.1 is a challenging treatment of the whole problem, which everyone should read. Other valuable treatments of the impact of empire on the free poor are A.E. Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (1967), ch.13: Brunt, Social Conflicts 1-42, 60ff; Crawford, Roman Republic ch.9; D. Stockton, The Gracchi (1979), 6ff., 206 ff.; Cambridge Ancient History , 2nd edn, VIII.232 ff., 495 ff., *IX.53 ff., 600 ff. All these works discuss agrarian change. This topic has been illuminated by field surveys and villa excavations in Etruria and elsewhere. Discussions include: D.W. Rathbone, 'The Development of Agriculture in the "Ager Cosanus" during the Roman Republic: Problems of Evidence and Interpretation', Journal of Roman Studies 71 (1981), 10-23; K. Greene, The Archaeology of the Roman Economy (1986), chs. 4-5; T.W.Potter, Roman Italy (1987), ch.5; G. Barker and J. Lloyd, Roman Landscapes (1992), esp. chs. 16 ff.; N. Morley, Metropolis and Hinterland: The City of Rome and the Italian Economy 200 BC - AD 200 (1996), ch. 4. On the Southern Etruria survey see Potter, The Changing Landscape of Southern Etruria (1979), 120-37. For further discussions of the problems of the levy, taking the view that there came to be a shortage of assidui (men with the property qualification), see E. Gabba, Republican Rome, the Army and the Allies, ch.11; P.A.Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.- A.D.14, ch.22; Harris, War

15 and Imperialism in Republican Rome 44-50. *J.W. Rich, 'The Supposed Roman Manpower Shortage of the late second century B.C.', Historia 22 (1983), 287-331 [further copy in Short Loan Collection], challenges the traditional interpretation of the crisis, arguing that there was no shortage of assidui. In general on agriculture and military service see now N. Rosenstein, ‘Republican Rome’ in K. Raaflaub and N. Rosenstein, War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds (1999), 193216. In general on the army in this period see L. J. F. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army ch. 2. On building at Rome in the second century B.C. see F. Coarelli, Papers of the British School at Rome 45 (1977), 1-23, who explodes the theory of an 'urban crisis' put forward by H.C. Boren, American Historical Review 63 (1958), 89ff. (reprinted in R. Seager (ed.), The Crisis of the Roman Republic).

3.3

The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 BC

Sources: Appian, Civil Wars 1.7-17; Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus; Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla 1-20. Bibliography: *A.E.Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (1967), chs.15-16. *E.Badian, 'Tiberius Gracchus and the Beginning of the Roman Revolution', in H. Temporini (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt I.1.668-731 (copy in Short Loan Collection; important on the constitutional issues) *D.Stockton, The Gracchi (1979), chs.1-4. *Cambridge Ancient History 2nd edn, IX.40-77 (A. W. Lintott). [A.H.Bernstein, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus: Tradition and Apostasy is only to be used with caution. D.C.Earl, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus is unfortunately not in the Library]. M.G.Morgan and J.Walsh, 'Ti.Gracchus, the Numantine affair and the Deposition of M.Octavius', Classical Philology 73 (1978), 200-9. On the issues addressed by Tiberius Gracchus= agrarian law see above section 3. The law is discussed in the context of Roman arrangements for public land by D. J. Gargola, Land, Laws and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (1995), ch. 8.

16

3.4

From the death of Tiberius Gracchus to the death of Gaius Gracchus (132-121 BC)

Sources: Appian, Civil Wars 1.18-28; Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus; Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla 22-57. (The text of an extortion law almost certainly that of Gaius Gracchus, survives. For recent editions with translation and commentary see A. W. Lintott, Judicial Reform and Land Reform in the Roman Republic (1992) 10 ff., 73 ff.; M. H. Crawford, Roman Statutes I.39 ff) Bibliography: *D.Stockton, The Gracchi chs.5-8. *Cambridge Ancient History 2nd edn, IX.77-86 (A. W. Lintott). There are important discussions of various aspects of Gaius' activity in the following works by E.Badian: Foreign Clientelae 174-91, 299-301; Roman Imperialism in the late Republic 44-50; Publicans and Sinners ch.3. *On the corn law see P.Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World (1988), 182-97 or his article (with D.Rathbone) in Journal of Roman Studies 75 (1985), 20-6. On the Italian allies see A. Keaveney, Rome and the Unification of Italy (1987), 47-75 and the other works cited at section 3.6 below. A.N.Sherwin White, 'The Lex Repetundarum and the Political Ideas of Gaius Gracchus', Journal of Roman Studies 72 (1982), 18-31 discusses what can be learned about his political programme from the text of Gaius' extortion law. On the equites and the courts see further section 3.7 below.

3.5

Roman politics, 121-91 BC

Sources: Sallust, Jugurthine War, especially 20-43, 63-65, 84-86 Plutarch, Marius 1-32 Appian, Civil Wars 1.28-33, 55-78 Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla. Some fragments of the laws of the period suggest that Saturninus and Glaucia were more responsible reformers that the literary sources allow. Of these the most impressive is the law about

17 piracy and other matters affecting the eastern provinces: see M. H. Crawford, Roman Statutes I.231 ff. (text, translation and commentary). For the land law of 111 BC see Lintott, Judicial Reform and Land Reform in the Roman Republic 34 ff., 171 ff.; Crawford, Roman Statutes I.39 ff., 113 ff. Bibliography: See also below topics 3.6-7. R. J. Evans, Gaius Marius: A Political Biography (Pretoria, 1994). This supersedes the unsatisfactory earlier biography by T. F. Carney (1961). Cambridge Ancient History 2nd edn, IX.86-103 (A. W. Lintott). . *A.N.Sherwin-White, Journal of Roman Studies 46 (1956), 1-5 is important on Marius' career down to 100 B.C. For important discussions by E. Badian see his Foreign Clientelae, 193-240 and 'Marius and the Nobles' in Durham University Journal 56 (1964), 141ff.. Note also his remarks in Historia 11 (1962), 214-9 (reprinted in Seager, Crisis of the Roman Republic 20-5) and his very speculative account of Marius' political position after 100 B.C. in Historia 6 (1957), 318ff. (reprinted in Badian, Studies in Greek and Roman History (1964), 34-70). In general on political life in this period see the very important paper by F. Millar, 'Politics, Persuasion and the People before the Social War (150-90 BC)', Journal of Roman Studies 76 (1986), 1-11. The account of the period in E.S. Gruen, Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts (1968), chs.4-7, is useful. In general on Marius and the army see L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), chs.1-2. On the significance of the enrolment of capite censi see E. Gabba, Republican Rome, the Army and the Allies, ch.1; P.A. Brunt, Italian Manpower, ch.22; *J.W. Rich, Historia 32 (1983), 287-332, esp. 323ff. (challenging orthodoxy).

3.6

The Italian allies, the origins of the Social War and the rebels’ aims in the war

Sources: The Italian issue in Roman politics: Appian, Civil Wars 1.18 ff, 34ff; Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla 26ff., 115ff. In general on the Italian allies see the source material in *K. Lomas, Roman Italy 338 BC- AD 200 (1996); also Lewis and Reinhold I.76-88, 157, 161-5.

18 Bibliography: The most valuable treatments of the Italian allies, the origins of the Social War and the rebels’ aims in the war are now: *P.A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and related Essays 93-143 (a revised version of his article in Journal of Roman Studies 55 (1965), 90-109). A.N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship (2nd ed. 1973), ch.5. *H. Mouritsen, Italian Unification: A Study in Ancient and Modern Historiography (1998), 109 ff. This is a challenging critique of traditional views, minimizing the extent to which the allies had become romanized or sought the citizenship. See the review by G. Bradley, Journal of Roman Archaeology 15 (2002), 401-6. *M. Pobjoy, ‘The first Italia’, in E. Herring and K. Lomas, The Emergence of State Identities in Italy in the First Millenium BC (2000), 187-211. Other useful discussions include: E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae, chs. 6,8-9 E. T. Salmon, The Making of Roman Italy (1982), chs 3-5. E. Gabba, Republican Rome, Army and the Allies, ch.3. A. Keaveney, Rome and the Unification of Italy (1987), 1-113 (focuses on Roman politics). Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. VIII, chs 7, 13, vol. IX.104 ff. (E. Gabba, J.-P. Morel). J.-M. David, The Roman Conquest of Italy (1994). T.W.Potter, Roman Italy (1987) is a good broad survey of Italy throughout the Roman period. On particular regions see E.T. Salmon, Samnium and the Samnites (1967); W.V. Harris, Rome in Etruria and Umbria (1971); M.W. Frederiksen, Campania (1984); K. Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks 350 BC - AD 200 (1993). On Roman colonization see E.T. Salmon, Roman colonization under the Republic (1969). In general on the Italian alliance in the second century BC see also A. J. Toynbee, Hannibal’s Legacy (1965), vol. 2, esp. ch. 4 (good map of the political organization of Italy in back pocket). On Italian numbers see P.A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.- A.D.14, pp. 44 ff (interpreting the evidence of Polybius 2.23-24). For the possibility that the allies (unlike Roman citizens) may still have had to pay taxes to maintain their troops see C. Nicolet, Papers of the British School at Rome 46 (1978), 1-11. On the ratio of allied to citizen troops see Brunt, Italian Manpower 677-686; Rich, Historia 1983, 321-3.

3.7

The Equites and the criminal courts

*P.A.Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and related Essays chs.3-4, a revised version of his paper in R. Seager (ed.), The Crisis of the Roman Republic 83ff. *E.Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972). A. W. Lintott, Judicial Reform and Land Reform in the Roman Republic (1992), ch. 2.

19

E.S. Gruen, Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts (1968) T.P.Wiseman, 'The Definition of 'Eques Romanus' in the Late Republic and Early Empire', Historia 19 (1970), 67-83.

3.8

The civil wars of the Eighties and the dictatorship of Sulla

Sources: Plutarch, Sulla; Appian, Civil Wars 1.55 ff; select sources in D. L. Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla (Lactor no. 13). Selections from Cicero's speech For Roscius of Ameria, delivered under Sulla's dictatorship in Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica 17-31. *R. Seager, 'Sulla', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 6. E. Badian, Lucius Sulla, the Deadly Reformer (Sydney, 1970). E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae (264 - 70 BC) (Oxford, 1958), 233 ff. A. Keaveney, Sulla, the Last Republican (1982). NB Brunt, Social Conflicts 120 ff on Sulla's reforms.

3.9

The rise of Pompey and the collapse of the Sullan Settlement

Sources: Plutarch, Pompey 1-26; Appian, Civil Wars 1.105-24; Sallust, fragments of the Histories in Lactor no. 7 or in the translation by P. McGushin; Cicero, First Verrine. Selections in Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica 34-70. *R. Seager, 'The rise of Pompey', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 7. R. Seager, Pompey, A Political Biography chs 1-3. Badian, Foreign Clientelae 265-84. E. S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic ch. 1. On Pompey's first consulship see the important discussions by A. N. Sherwin-White, 'Violence in Roman politics', Journal of Roman Studies 46 (1956), 5-9 (reprinted in R. Seager (ed.), The Crisis of the Roman Republic [1973], 155-9) and D. L. Stockton, 'The first consulship of Pompey', Historia 22 (1973), 205-18.

20 3.10

Roman politics in the Sixties BC

Contemporary sources: *Cicero's letters - fewer surviving than for later periods, but there are important letters on his campaign for the consulship and on events in 62-60 (e.g. Penguin Selected Letters nos. 3-4, 7-11). Among Cicero's speeches note those on Pompey's command in 66 and on the agrarian law in 63. The principal sources on Catiline's conspiracy are Sallust's monograph and Cicero's speeches (selections in Lacey and Wilson ch 3). Later sources: *Suetonius, Julius Caesar 1-19; Plutarch's lives, esp. that of Caesar; Dio books 36-37. Sourcebook: good selections in Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica 71-163. *T. P. Wiseman, 'The Senate and the populares, 69-60 BC', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 9. *Gelzer, Caesar ch. 2. Seager, Pompey chs 4, 6-7. Stockton, Cicero chs 3-7. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic 62-90, 416-33 (on Catiline). On the political situation at the start of the year 63 see A. Drummond, >Tribunes and tribunician programmes in 63 BC=, Athenaeum 87 (1999), 121-67. On Catiline see R. Syme, Sallust (1964), chs 6-8.

3.11

From Caesar's consulship to the outbreak of civil war (59-49 BC)

Contemporary sources: *Cicero's letters are a rich source, particularly on events in 57-56 leading up to the conference of Luca and on the lead-up to the civil war from 51 (note especially the letters written by Caelius to Cicero who was absent in Cilicia). A selection in *Penguin, Selected Letters, esp. nos. 23, 25-6, 28, 38, 43, 56, 59-61. Cicero's speeches made after his recall in 57 have much information on events in 58-56, though focused mainly on his own concerns. Caesar's point of view is presented in Gallic Wars 8.49-54 (by his lieutenant Hirtius) and Civil Wars 1.1-11, 85. Later sources: *Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20-33; relevant parts of Plutarch's lives, especially those of Caesar and Pompey; Appian, Civil Wars 2.10-33; Dio, books 38-40. Sourcebook: J. Sabben-Clare, Caesar and Roman Politics 60-50 BC.

21 *T. P. Wiseman, 'Caesar, Pompey and Rome, 59-50 BC', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 10. *Gelzer, Caesar chs. 3-4. R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939), ch 3. Seager, Pompey chs 8-12. On Clodius see Tatum, The Patrician Tribune chs 5-8, and also below section 6. For doubts about the authenticity of the later sources' account of the conference at Luca see A. M. Ward, 'The conference of Luca: did it happen?', American Journal of Ancient History 5 (1980) 48-63. The events leading up to the civil war have generated a huge bibliography. In addition to the works cited above see e.g. *Gruen, Last Generation ch. 11; *D.Stockton, 'Quis iustius induit arma?', Historia 24 (1975) 232-259; R.J.Rowland, 'Caesar's fear of prosecution in 49 B.C.', Liverpool Classical Monthly 2 (1977) 165-6; P. A. Brunt, 'Cicero's Officium in the Civil War', Journal of Roman Studies 76 (1986) 12-32.

3.12

Roman political life in the Late Republic

See also 1.2, 3.1 above. Sources: see Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica chs. 5-6. On elections see above all Cicero's speeches For Murena and For Plancius and the Commentariolum Petitionis, which purports to be a letter to Cicero from his brother Quintus advising him on his campaign for the consulship and is translated as A Short Guide to Electioneering (Lactor no. 3). (Handout to be issued). On optimates and populares see above all Cicero, For Sestius 94 ff. and Sallust, Catilinarian Conspiracy 37-39. *For good modern discussions see works cited in section 1.2 above, especially L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar; Beard and Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic chs 4-5; Wiseman, Roman Political Life chs 1-2; *J. R. Patterson, Political Life in the City of Rome (London, Duckworth: 1999); *Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic ch 1 (and more detailed discussions in chs 6-9). On electoral corruption see A. W. Lintott, 'Electoral bribery in the Roman Republic', Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), 1-16; A. Yakobson, 'Petitio et Largitio: Popular participation in the centuriate assembly of the Late Republic', Journal of Roman Studies 82 (1992), 32-52. In general on elections see A. Yakobson, Elections and Electioneering in Rome (1999), and other works cited in 1.2 above. On the Roman nobility and the sources of their electoral dominance see the classic study by M.

22 Gelzer, The Roman Nobility; but for criticisms of his approach see Brunt, Journal of Roman Studies 72 (1982), 1-12 and in his The Fall of the Roman Republic; M. K. Hopkins, Death and Renewal (1983), ch. 2. On political ideology see C. Wirszubski, Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late Republic and Early Principate (1950), esp. ch 2; Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic chs 1 and 6. On the meaning of the term popularis see R. Seager, Classical Quarterly 22 (1972), 32838. On the city of Rome in the Late Republic see J. E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (1988), ch. 3. On popular participation in politics and on violence in Roman political life see works cited in next section.

3.13

The urban plebs in the Late Republic

*N. Purcell, 'The city of Rome and the plebs urbana in the late Republic', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 17. *P. A. Brunt, 'The Roman Mob', Past and Present 35 (1966), 3ff., reprinted in M.I.Finley (ed.), Studies in Ancient Society (1974), 74-102. Gruen, Last Generation of the Roman Republic 358-65, 433ff. *F. Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (1998) argues for the importance of popular participation in the politics of the Late Republic. For a powerful critique of this view see *H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001). On violence see A. W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (1968; 2nd edn 1999), especially chs. 6 and 12; *W. Nippel, 'Policing Rome', Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984), 20-29, and Public Order in Ancient Rome (1995). On the activity of Clodius see *A. W. Lintott, 'P. Clodius Pulcher - Felix Catilina', Greece and Rome 14 (1967), 157-69; W. Rundell, >Cicero and Clodius: the question of credibility=, Historia 28 (1979), 301-28; W. J. Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999). P. J. J. Vanderbroeck, Popular Leadership and Collective Behaviour in the Late Roman Republic (ca.80-50 BC) (1988) is turgid, but collects useful information. On the living conditions of the poor see Z. Yavetz, 'The Living Conditions of the Urban Plebs in Republican Rome', Latomus 17 (1958), 500-17 (repr. in Seager, The Crisis of the Roman Republic 162-184); A. Scobie, >Slums, sanitation and mortality in the Roman world=, Klio 68 (1986), 399-433.

23 On the problems of the food-supply see *P. Garnsey, Famine and Food-Supply in the GraecoRoman World (1988), ch. 13. On freedmen see S. Treggiari, Roman Freedmen during the Late Republic (1969).

3.14

The army and the land

*P. A. Brunt, 'The army and the land in the Roman Revolution', ch. 5 of his The Fall of the Roman Republic, a revised version of his article in Journal of Roman Studies 52 (1962), 69-86. Gruen, Last Generation of the Roman Republic 365 ff. L. de Blois, The Army and Politics in the First Century BC (1987) (tends to exaggerate the professionalization of the late republican army). On veteran settlement see Brunt, Italian Manpower chs. 18-19; *M. K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves 64ff.; L. J. F. Keppie, Colonization and Veteran Settlement in Italy 47-14 BC (1983). In general on the army in this period see L. J. F. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army ch. 4. On numbers and terms of service see Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC - AD 14 chs. 22ff. On the society and economy of Italy in the late Republic see C. Nicolet in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 16. See also works cited at 3.2 above.