Who: Toussaint L’Ouverture What: Haitian revolutionary Where: Haiti When: 1743(?)-1803 Imperial Opponent: French Francois-Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture was Haitian patriot and martyr. A self-educated slave freed shortly before the uprising in 1791, he joined the black rebellion to liberate the slaves and became its organizational genius. Rapidly rising in power, Toussaint joined forces for a brief period in 1793 with the Spanish of Santo Domingo and in a series of fast-moving campaigns became known as L'Ouverture [the opening], a name he adopted. Although he professed allegiance to France, first to the republic and then to Napoleon, he was whole heartedly devoted to the cause of his own people and advocated it in his talks with French commissioners. Late in 1793 the British occupied all of Haiti's coastal cities and allied themselves with the Spanish in the eastern part of the island. Toussaint was the acknowledged leader against them and, with the generals Dessalines and Christophe, recaptured (1798) several towns from the British and secured their complete withdrawal. In 1799 the mulatto general André Rigaud enlisted the aid of Alexandre Pétion and Jean Pierre Boyer, asserted mulatto supremacy, and launched a revolt against Toussaint; the uprising was quelled when Pétion lost the southern port of Jacmel. In 1801, Toussaint conquered Santo Domingo, which had been ceded by Spain to France in 1795, and thus he governed the whole island. By then professing only nominal allegiance to France, he reorganized the government and instituted public improvements. Napoleon sent (1802) a large force under General Leclerc to subdue Toussaint, who had become a major obstacle to French colonial ambitions in the Western Hemisphere; the Haitians, however, offered stubborn resistance, and a peace treaty was drawn. Toussaint himself was treacherously seized and sent to France, where he died in a dungeon at Fort-de-Joux, in the French Jura. His valiant life and tragic death made him a symbol of the fight for liberty, and he is celebrated in one of Wordsworth's finest sonnets and in a dramatic poem by Lamartine. Source: http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0849165.html
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Who: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla What: Mexican revolutionary Where: Mexico When: 1753-1811 Imperial Opponent: Spanish Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was born at the Corralejo Hacienda in Pénjamo, Guanajuato, on May 8, 1753. He was sent to Valladolid (now Morelia) to study at the San Nicolás Obispo College, where he later taught theology, philosophy and ethics, and eventually became college rector. In 1792, he was ordained (he became a priest) and after working in different parishes, came to practice his ministry at the Parish of Dolores. Of liberal ideas, he joined a group of patriots, who in 1810, conspired in Querétaro in favor of the Independence of Mexico. Although the armed movement was planned to start in October of that year, the conspiracy was discovered and several of its members were arrested. After receiving a warning sent by the wife of the magistrate of Querétaro, Doña Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez, Hidalgo joined with Aldama, Allende, Abasolo and others, and decided to begin the uprising immediately. Thus, at dawn on September 16, 1810, the residents of the village of Dolores, potters, carpenters, blacksmiths and peasants, responded to the summons (the el Grito de Delores speech) of father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla to begin the Independence struggle. In the space of just two weeks, the insurgent army obtained a series of quick and easy victories. From Dolores, they moved on to Atotonilco, San Miguel el Grande (now Allende), Chamucuero, Celaya (where Miguel Hidalgo received the rank of Captain General, and Ignacio Allende was promoted to Lieutenant General), Salamanca, Irapuato and Silao, until reaching Guanajuato. Faced by the insurgent army, the Spaniards took refuge with their families and goods in the Alhóndiga de Granaditas corn exchange in the city of Guanajuato. However, after a bloody struggle in which the furious crowd massacred its defenders, the fortress was finally taken. From Guanajuato, Don Miguel Hidalgo headed towards Valladolid and took the city on October 17, 1810, without a fight. He then stayed in the city for several days to organize his troops before leaving for the viceregal capital, Mexico City. On August 30, Hidalgo won an outstanding victory at Monte de las Cruces in the outskirts of Mexico, when he defeated Trujillo (a Royalist colonel). Unfortunately, Hidalgo did not take advantage of his victory; instead of sending his troops to take Mexico City and capitalize on the confusion his victory has caused among the Spanish ranks, he ordered his army to retreat to Ixtlahuaca, on the road to Toluca. At Puente de Calderón, near Guadalajara, the insurgent army faced the royalist troops commanded by General Félix Calleja; Hidalgo and his men suffered a terrible defeat and were forced to retreat northwards. On May 21, 1811, when Hidalgo, Allende and 27 other comrades reached Acatita de Baján, they were treacherously ambushed by Ignacio Elizondo and taken prisoner. They were brought to Chihuahua, where on June 16, 1811, Allende, Aldama and Jiménez were shot. Just one month later, on July 30 of the same year, Hidalgo was also executed. The viceregal government was convinced that after the execution of its leaders in Chihuahua, the insurgent movement would be ended. However, this was not so. Ignacio López Rayón had remained in Saltillo; he managed to escape from the enemy and marched to the province of Michoacán, where he and his troops would receive help from the local population. Unfortunately for the royalists, military genius José María Morelos was fighting in the southern mountains, in support of the victorious campaigns led by the Galeana and Bravo brothers, Mariano Matamoros and many others. By 1821, the ideals fought for by Miguel Hidalgo and many other Mexicans for over eleven years were finally attained; Mexico was free and independent. Source: http://www.elbalero.gob.mx/kids/history/html/independ/biohidalgo.html
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Who: Simon Bolivar What: South American revolutionary Where: South America When: 1783-1830 Imperial Opponent: Spanish Simon Bolivar led his people’s fight for independence from Spain. He envisioned he formation of a single country extending from present-day Venezuela to modern Bolivia. However, his plans clashed with those of his followers, and the grand nation he dreamed of creating fell apart. Bolivar was born in 1783 to a wealthy family from the colony of Venezuela. His education included several years of study in Europe. While there, he married, but soon after the couple reached South America his wife died of yellow fever. Bolivar then returned to Europe and met with several important thinkers and politicians. One of them told Bolivar that the Spanish-American colonies had vast resources that could make them powerful—if only they could become free of Spanish control. Bolivar returned to South America and joined movement for independence. In 1810, a group of rebels in Venezuela removed the Spanish governor from office and took control. The next year Venezuela declared itself independent. By 1813, Bolivar commanded the army. In 1814, however, the Spanish fought back and defeated his troops, forcing him to flee the country. During Bolivar’s exile, he called for all Spanish colonies to rise against European rule to “avenge three centuries of shame.” In 1814, he wrote a famous call to arms, The Letter from Jamaica, which outlined a plan to create republics reaching from Mexico to Argentina and Chile. Unable to win British or American support, he turned to Haiti. With money and guns from this newly independent republic, he returned to Venezuela to face the largest army Spain had ever sent across the Atlantic. From 1815 to 1817, neither side won any decisive battles. However Bolivar began to build the foundation of victory. He declared the end of slavery to be one of his goals, thus winning wider support. He made alliances with two groups of guerilla soldiers, who harassed the Spanish army. He also hired veteran European troops. Then in 1819, he devised a daring plan to cross the Andes Mountains and surprise the Spanish. His army of 2,000 first had to cross the hot jungles of the Orinoco River and then the freezing mountain passes. Many died but Bolivar’s army was strong enough to defeat the Spanish in four different battles. Bolivar returned to the city of Angostura, Venezuela, and joined a congress working on forming the new government. With his urging, members voted to create the republic of Gran Colombia, which would include modern Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela. “The lessons of experience should not be lost on us”, he said. Europe had too many countries that constantly fought each other. “A single government, “ he argued, “may use its greatest prosperity.” Bolivar was named president and military dictator of the new republic. Bolivar won independence for Venezuela in 1821 and Ecuador in 1822. He freed Peru from Spain in 1824 and Upper Peru in 1825, which renamed itself Bolivia. He was president of Gran Colombia. Peru, and Bolivia. Bolivar hoped that these nations would unite and thus become stronger. Others did not share this vision. Even Bolivar’s closest allies in the fight for independence believed that there should be several countries, not one large one. By 1836, civil war had broken out. Two years later, Bolivar reacted to the crisis by declaring himself military dictator. Opponents attacked his palace and tried to assassinate him. The Liberator was now seen as an enemy of the state. Venezuela withdrew from Gran Colombia, and Ecuador followed. Finally, with his body wracked by tuberculosis and his heartsick over the conflict, Bolivar retired in 1830. He died later that year. Source: McDougal Littell Inc. Unit 2 Chapter 8 Supplemental Materials Copyright © 2011 UC Regents
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