The Water-Soluble Vitamins: B Vitamins and Vitamin C Chapter 10
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The Vitamins – An Overview • Support nutritional health • Differences from energy-yielding nutrients • Structure • Individual units
• Function • No energy yielded
• Food contents
• Similarities with energy-yielding nutrients © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Bioavailability • Amount absorbed and used by body • Differs from amount in food
• Factors influencing bioavailability • • • • •
Efficiency of digestion Nutrition status Method of food preparation Source of nutrient Other foods consumed at same time
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Precursors (Provitamins) • Inactive forms of vitamins • Converted to active form in body
• Organic • Can be destroyed during storage or cooking
• Solubility • Affects absorption, transport, and excretion
• Toxicity • More is not necessarily better • Levels higher than UL © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Dose Levels and Effects
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The B Vitamins • Without B vitamins, the body would lack energy • Help body use macronutrients for fuel
• Coenzymes • Assist enzymes with energy release • Without coenzyme, enzyme cannot function
• RDAs • AIs © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Coenzyme Action
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Thiamin • Part of coenzyme thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP) • Assists in energy metabolism • Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA • TCA cycle
• Nerve activity and muscle activity
• Average intake meets or exceeds recommendations © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Thiamin Deficiency and Toxicity • Malnourished and alcoholics • Beriberi • Dry – affects nervous system • Wet – affects cardiovascular system
• Toxicity • No adverse effects • No UL
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Thiamin in Selected Foods Food (Best Source per kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
Approximate Amount of Thiamin (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
0.10
Cornflakes, fortified
1 oz (110 kcal)
Grains
0.35
Spaghetti pasta
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
Grains
0.12
Tortilla, flour
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
0.35
Broccoli Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal) ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables Vegetables
0.05 0.06
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
0.15
Tomato juice
¾ c (31 kcal)
Vegetables
0.10
Banana
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Fruits
0.07
Orange
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
Fruits
0.12
Strawberries
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
0.01
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Fruits
0.23
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.12
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.13
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.01
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.03
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.18
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.05
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.04
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.07
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.04
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.07
Tuna, canned in water
3 oz (99 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.04
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.04
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources: Pork chop, lean
3 oz broiled (169 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.96
Soy milk
1 c (81 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.40
Squash, acorn
½ c baked (69 kcal)
Vegetables
0.20
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Riboflavin • Serves as coenzyme in energy metabolism • Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) • Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
• Recommendations • Deficiency • Inflammation of membranes
• Destroyed by ultraviolet light and irradiation • Toxicity • No UL © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Riboflavin Coenzyme Illustrated
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Riboflavin in Selected Foods Food (Best Source per kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
Approximate Amount of Riboflavin (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
0.05
Cornflakes, fortified
1 oz (110 kcal)
Grains
0.43
Spaghetti pasta
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
Grains
0.06
Tortilla, flour
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
0.21
Broccoli Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal) ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables Vegetables
0.09 0.03
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
0.04
Tomato juice
¾ c (31 kcal)
Vegetables
0.05
Banana
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Fruits
0.12
Orange
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
Fruits
0.06
Strawberries
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
0.06
Watermelon Milk
1 slice (92 kcal) 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Fruits Milk and milk products
0.07 0.40
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.53
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.18
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.21
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.09
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.08
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.06
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.03
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.15
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.12
Tuna, canned in water
3 oz (99 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.07
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.26
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources: Liver
3 oz fried (184 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
1.70+
Clams, canned
3 oz (126 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.34
Mushrooms
½ c cooked (21 kcal)
Vegetables
0.23
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Niacin • Two chemical structures • Nicotinic acid • Nicotinamide • Major form of niacin in blood
• Two coenzyme forms – metabolic reactions • Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) • Carries hydrogens and their electrons
• NADP (the phosphate form)
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Niacin Needs and Results of Deficiency • Recommendations • RDA stated in niacin equivalents (NE)
• Body manufactures from tryptophan • Only occurs after protein synthesis needs have been met
• Deficiency • Pellagra • Symptoms • Caused deaths in the U.S. south in the early 1900s © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Niacin-Deficiency Symptom – The Dermatitis of Pellagra
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Niacin Toxicity • Naturally occurring sources • No harm
• Supplements or drugs • “Niacin flush”
• Potential health benefits of large doses of nicotinic acid • Food sources • Less vulnerable to food preparation losses than other vitamins © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Niacin in Selected Foods Food (Best Source per kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
Approximate Amount of Niacin (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
1.1
Cornflakes, fortified
1 oz (110 kcal)
Grains
5.1
Spaghetti pasta
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
Grains
1.9
Tortilla, flour
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
3.9
Broccoli Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal) ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables Vegetables
0.8 0.5
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
2.8
Tomato juice
¾ c (31 kcal)
Vegetables
1.3
Banana
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Fruits
0.9
Orange
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
Fruits
0.5
Strawberries
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
0.2
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Fruits
1.0
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Milk and milk products
2.0
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
1.4
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Milk and milk products
2.1
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Milk and milk products
2.8
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
1.8
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
5.7
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
3.2
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
2.8
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
7.6
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
16.7
Tuna, canned in water
3 oz (99 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
15.4
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
1.3
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources: Liver
3 oz fried (184 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
12.2
Peanuts
1 oz roasted (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
4.0
Mushrooms
½ c cooked (21 kcal)
Vegetables
3.5
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Biotin • Coenzyme that carries activated carbon dioxide • Critical in TCA cycle • Delivers carbon to pyruvate to form oxaloacetate
• Gluconeogenesis and fatty acid synthesis • Breakdown of fatty acids and amino acids
• Widespread in food sources • Toxicity • No UL © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Pantothenic Acid • Part of chemical structure of coenzyme A • Roles in body
• Recommendations • AI has been established
• Widespread in foods • Readily destroyed by freezing, canning, and refining processes • Deficiency • Rare © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Vitamin B6 • Three forms • Pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and pyridoxamine
• Conversion to coenzyme PLP • • • •
Amino acid metabolism Carbohydrate and fatty acid metabolism Conversion of tryptophan to niacin or serotonin Synthesis of heme, nucleic acids, and lecithin
• Stored exclusively in muscle tissue © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
More Facts About B6 • Deficiency • Symptoms • Alcohol and isoniazid function as B6 antagonists
• Toxicity • Neurological damage
• Food sources
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Vitamin B6 in Selected Foods Food (Best Source per kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
Approximate Amount of Vitamin B6 (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
0.05
Cornflakes, fortified
1 oz (110 kcal)
Grains
0.51
Spaghetti pasta
½ c cooked (99 kcal)
Grains
0.01
Tortilla, flour
1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains
0.03
Broccoli Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal) ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables Vegetables
0.10 0.08
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
0.42
Tomato juice
¾ c (31 kcal)
Vegetables
0.20
Banana
1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Fruits
0.70
Orange
1 medium raw (62 kcal)
Fruits
0.08
Strawberries
½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits
0.04
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Fruits
0.41
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.10
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.12
Cheddar cheese
1½ oz (171 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.03
Cottage cheese
½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal)
Milk and milk products
0.09
Pinto beans
½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.14
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.15
Sunflower seeds
1 oz dry (165 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.24
Tofu (soybean curd)
½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.07
Ground beef, lean
3 oz broiled (244 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.21
Chicken breast
3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.52
Tuna, canned in water
3 oz (99 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.30
Egg
1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.05
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources: Prune juice
¾ c (137 kcal)
Bluefish
3 o z baked (135 kcal)
Squash, acorn
½ c baked (69 kcal)
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Fruits
0.42
Meats, poultry, seafood
0.41
Vegetables
0.25
Folate • Also known as folacin or folic acid • Primary coenzyme form – THF (tetrahydrofolate) • Transfers 1-carbon compounds during metabolism • Converts vitamin B12 to coenzyme form • Synthesizes DNA • Regenerates methionine from homocysteine
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Folate’s Absorption and Activation
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More Facts About Folate • Bioavailability ranges from 50 to 100 percent • Differences between food sources and supplements • Increased need during pregnancy
• Folate disposal • Secretion by liver into bile • Enterohepatic circulation • GI tract injuries hinder absorption
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Effects of Folate Deficiency • Neural tube defects • Supplement use during pregnancy • One month before conception • Through first trimester
• Fortified grain products
• Congenital birth defects • Folate plays a role in protecting against heart disease • Some cancers © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Spina Bifida – a Neural Tube Defect
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Decreasing Prevalence of NTDs since Folate Fortification
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Other Facts About Folate • Anemia: symptom of deficiency • Most susceptible to drug interactions • Toxicity • Naturally occurring from food sources • Fortified foods or supplements • UL has been established
• Food sources • Heat and oxidation destroy folate © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Folate in Selected Foods Food (Best Source per kclalorie) Bread, whole wheat Cornflakes, fortified Spaghetti pasta Tortilla, flour
Serving Size (kcalories)
1 oz slice (70 kcal) 1 oz (110 kcal) ½ c cooked (99 kcal) 1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Broccoli Carrots Potato Tomato juice Banana Orange Strawberries
½ c cooked (22 kcal) ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) ½ c (31 kcal) 1 medium raw (109 kcal) 1 medium raw (62 kcal) ½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Cheddar cheese 1½ oz (171 kcal) Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources: Lentils ½ c cooked (115 kcal) Asparagus ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Orange juice ¾ c fresh (84 kcal)
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Food Group
Approximate Amount of Folate (micrograms)
Grains Grains Grains Grains
15 100 49 85
Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Fruits Fruits Fruits
40 10 15 38 23 40 15
Fruits
8
Milk and milk products Milk and milk products Milk and milk products Milk and milk products Legumes, nuts, seeds Legumes, nuts, seeds Legumes, nuts, seeds Legumes, nuts, seeds Meats, poultry, seafood Meats, poultry, seafood Meats, poultry, seafood Meats, poultry, seafood
15 25 10 15 158 30 70 55 10 5 5 20
Legumes, nuts, seeds Vegetables Fruits
180 130 56
Vitamin B12 • Vitamin B12 and folate depend on each other for activation • Regeneration of methionine • Synthesis of DNA and RNA
• Individual roles of vitamin B12 • Digestion and absorption • Stomach • Small intestine • Intrinsic factor © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Transportation of Vitamin B12 • Transported in blood by specific binding proteins • Enterohepatic pathway • Deficiency common among elderly • • • • •
Most due to inadequate absorption Pernicious anemia Added risk from vegetarian diets Anemia of folate deficiency Folate masks symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency
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Sources of Vitamin B12 • Food sources • Found almost exclusively from animal products • Bioavailability • Fish and milk
• Toxicity • No adverse effects • No UL
• Destruction © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Choline • Essential nutrient • Commonly grouped with B vitamins
• Used to make lecithin and acetylcholine • Manufactured from methionine in body • Conditionally essential nutrient • Adequate intake (AI)
• Common sources • Impact of deficiency not fully understood © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Nonvitamins • Inositol • Part of cell membrane structures
• Carnitine • Transports long-chain fatty acids for oxidation
• PABA • Bioflavanoids • Others
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B Vitamin Interactions • Each B vitamin coenzyme is involved in energy metabolism • Directly • Indirectly
• Deficiencies • B vitamin deficiencies seldom show up in isolation • Beriberi and pellagra
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The B Vitamins In Concert • Toxicities • Excess eliminated through urine excretion • Homeostasis disruption • Toxicities develop
• Food sources • First choice should be foods rather than supplements
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Vitamin C as an Antioxidant • Defends against free radicals • Loses electrons easily
• Vitamin C recycling • Protects tissues from oxidative stress • Disease prevention
• Enhances iron absorption
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Active Forms of Vitamin C
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Vitamin C as a Cofactor • Cofactor in collagen formation • Matrix for bone and tooth formation • Conversion of proline to hydroxyproline
• Cofactor in other reactions • • • •
Hydroxylation of carnitine Conversion of tryptophan to serotonin Conversion of tyrosine to norepinephrine Making hormones
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Other Roles of Vitamin C • Prevention and treatment of common cold • Slight but consistent shortening of cold duration • Deactivates histamine
• Disease prevention and treatment roles • Being studied
• Stress increases Vitamin C needs • Adrenal glands release Vitamin C and hormones into blood © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Vitamin C Intake • 10 mg prevents overt symptoms of scurvy • Absorption maximum • 200 mg
• Smoking increases need
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Vitamin C Deficiency • Notable signs of deficiency • Gums bleed easily around teeth • Capillaries under skin break spontaneously
• Scurvy • Other physical signs • Psychological signs • Sudden death from massive internal bleeding
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Symptoms of Vitamin C Deficiency
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Vitamin C Toxicity • Supplementation side effects • Diarrhea • GI distress
• UL • Interference with medical regimens • High doses not recommended with certain medical conditions
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Food Sources of Vitamin C • Abundant in fruits and vegetables • Potatoes
• Vulnerable to heat and oxygen • Used as antioxidant by food manufacturers
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Vitamin C in Selected Foods Food (Best Source per kclalorie) Bread, whole wheat
Serving Size (kcalories)
Food Group
1 oz slice (70 kcal)
Grains
Approximate Amount of Vitamin C (milligrams) 0
Cornflakes, fortified Spaghetti pasta Tortilla, flour
1 oz (110 kcal) ½ c cooked (99 kcal) 1 10"-round (234 kcal)
Grains Grains Grains
0 0 0
Broccoli Carrots
½ c cooked (22 kcal) ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal)
Vegetables Vegetables
58 5
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal)
Vegetables
15
Tomato juice Banana
¾ c (31 kcal) 1 medium raw (109 kcal)
Vegetables Fruits
33 11
Orange Strawberries
1 medium raw (62 kcal) ½ c fresh (22 kcal)
Fruits Fruits
70 41
Watermelon
1 slice (92 kcal)
Fruits
28
Milk
1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal)
Milk and milk products
3
Yogurt, plain
1 c low-fat (155 kcal)
Milk and milk products
2
Cheddar cheese Cottage cheese Pinto beans
1½ oz (171 kcal) ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) ½ c cooked (117 kcal)
Milk and milk products Milk and milk products Legumes, nuts, seeds
0 0 2
Peanut butter
2 tbs (188 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.5
Sunflower seeds Tofu (soybean curd)
1 oz dry (165 kcal) ½ c (76 kcal)
Legumes, nuts, seeds Legumes, nuts, seeds
0.5 0
Ground beef, lean Chicken breast
3 oz broiled (244 kcal) 3 oz roasted (140 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood Meats, poultry, seafood
0 0
Tuna, canned in water Egg
3 oz (99 kcal) 1 hard cooked (78 kcal)
Meats, poultry, seafood Meats, poultry, seafood
0 0
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources: Red bell pepper Kiwi
½ c raw chopped (20 kcal) 1 (46 kcal)
Vegetables Fruits
90+ 74
Brussels sprouts
½ c cooked (30 kcal)
Vegetables
47
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Vitamin and Mineral Supplements Highlight 10
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Vitamin and Mineral Supplements, continued • $24 billion a year industry in United States • Taken as dietary insurance • Costly but harmless practice • Costly and harmful to health practice • Mostly self-prescribed
• Physician recommendation • Improving food choices • Preferred course of action © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Arguments for Supplements • Correct overt deficiencies • Support increased nutrient needs • Certain life stages
• Improve nutrition status • Improve body defenses • Reduce disease risks
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Arguments Against Supplements • Toxicity • Supplement users more likely to have excessive intakes • May be unrecognized and unreported
• Life-threatening misinformation • No guarantee of supplement effectiveness
• Unknown needs • False sense of security © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Arguments Against Supplements, continued • Other invalid reasons • Today’s health problems • Overnutrition • Poor lifestyle choices
• Bioavailability and antagonistic actions • Nutrients may interfere with one another’s action • Make dietary modifications first
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Selection of Supplements • Follow directions carefully • Single, balanced vitamin-mineral supplement • U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP) logo • Logo assurances
• Two basic questions • Form • Contents
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Misleading Claims • Organic or natural vitamins • High potency claims • Marketing strategy • Fake vitamins • “Green” pills • Stress relief
• Enzymes • Inactivated in the stomach
• Cost
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Regulation of Supplements • Food and Drug Administration (FDA) • Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 • Enable consumers to make informed choices • Same general labeling requirements as foods • Net effect: deregulation of supplement industry
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An Example of a Supplement Label
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Product name Statement of identity Descriptive terms if product meets criteria Contents or weight Supplement facts panel The suggested dose The name, quantity per tablet, and “% Daily Value” for all nutrients listed; nutrients without a Daily Value may be listed below. All ingredients must be listed on the label, but not necessarily in the ingredient list nor in descending order of predominance; ingredients named in the nutrition panel need not be repeated here. Name and address of manufacturer
Stepped Art
