THE ESC TEXTBOOK OF CARDIOVASCULAR MEDICINE

THE ESC TEXTBOOK OF CARDIOVASCULAR MEDICINE Chapter 35 Psychological factors and heart disease Susanne S. Pedersen, Nina Kupper, and Johan Denollet ...
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THE ESC TEXTBOOK OF CARDIOVASCULAR MEDICINE

Chapter 35 Psychological

factors and heart disease Susanne S. Pedersen, Nina Kupper, and Johan Denollet

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10 APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition – Text Revision (DSM IV-TR), 2000. American Psychiatric Society. 11 Denollet J, Strik JJ, Lousberg R, et al. Recognizing increased risk of depressive comorbidity after myocardial infarction: looking for 4 symptoms of anxiety-depression. Psychother Psychosom 2006; 75: 346–52. 12 Musselman DL, Evans DL, Nemeroff CB. The relationship of depression to cardiovascular disease: epidemiology, biology, and treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 580–92. 13 Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C, et al. The prevalence and persistence of depression and anxiety following myocardial infarction. Br J Health Psychol 2002; 7: 11–21. 14 Pelle AJ, Gidron YY, Szabo BM, et al. Psychological predictors of prognosis in chronic heart failure. J Card Fail 2008; 14: 341–50. 15 Strik JJ, Honig A, Lousberg R, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of observer and self-report questionnaires in major and minor depression following myocardial infarction. Psychosomatics 2001; 42: 423–8. 16 Kop WJ, Appels AP, Mendes de Leon CF, et al. Vital exhaustion predicts new cardiac events after successful coronary angioplasty. Psychosom Med 1994; 56: 281–7. 17 Pedersen SS, Denollet J, Daemen J, et al. Fatigue, depressive symptoms, and hopelessness as predictors of adverse clinical events following percutaneous coronary intervention with paclitaxel-eluting stents. J Psychosom Res 2007; 62: 455–61. 18 Denollet J, Pedersen SS, Daemen J, et al. Reduced positive affect (anhedonia) predicts major clinical events following implantation of coronary-artery stents. J Intern Med 2008; 263: 203–11. 19 de Jonge P, Ormel J, van den Brink RH, et al. Symptom dimensions of depression following myocardial infarction and their relationship with somatic health status and cardiovascular prognosis. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163: 138–44. 20 Dickens C, McGowan L, Percival C, et al. Depression is a risk factor for mortality after myocardial infarction: fact or artifact?. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49: 1834–40. 21 de Jonge P, van den Brink RH, Spijkerman TA, et al. Only incident depressive episodes after myocardial infarction are associated with new cardiovascular events. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 2204–8. 22 Martens EJ, Denollet J, Pedersen SS, et al. Relative lack of depressive cognitions in post-myocardial infarction depression. J Affect Disord 2006; 94: 231–7. 23 Moser DK. “The rust of life”: impact of anxiety on cardiac patients. Am J Crit Care 2007; 16: 361–9. 24 Grace SL, Abbey SE, Irvine J, et al. Prospective examination of anxiety persistence and its relationship to cardiac symptoms and recurrent cardiac events. Psychother Psychosom 2004; 73: 344–52. 25 Strik JJ, Denollet J, Lousberg R, et al. Comparing symptoms of depression and anxiety as predictors of cardiac events and increased health care consumption after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42: 1801–7. 26 Van den Broek KC, Nyklicek I, Van der Voort PH, et al. Shocks, personality, and anxiety in patients with an implantable defibrillator. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2008; 31: 850–7.

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27 Denollet J, Brutsaert DL. Personality, disease severity, and the risk of long-term cardiac events in patients with a decreased ejection fraction after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1998; 97: 167–73. 28 Frasure-Smith N, Lespérance F. Depression and anxiety as predictors of 2-year cardiac events in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008; 65: 62–71. 29 Moser DK, Riegel B, McKinley S, et al. Impact of anxiety and perceived control on in-hospital complications after acute myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med 2007; 69: 10–16. 30 Muller-Tasch T, Frankenstein L, Holzapfel N, et al. Panic disorder in patients with chronic heart failure. J Psychosom Res 2008; 64: 299–303. 31 Bull Bringager C, Arnesen H, Friis S, et al. A long-term follow-up study of chest pain patients: effect of panic disorder on mortality, morbidity, and quality of life. Cardiology 2008; 110: 8–14. 32 Spindler H, Pedersen SS, Elklit A. The role of posttraumatic stress disorder in coronary artery disease: Epidemiology, risk factors, and potential mechanisms. In Sher L (ed.) Psychological factors and cardiovascular disorders: The role of psychiatric pathology and maladaptive personality features, 2008. Hauppague, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 33 Spindler H, Pedersen SS. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the wake of heart disease: prevalence, risk factors, and future research directions. Psychosom Med 2005; 67: 715–23. 34 Gander ML, von Känel R. Myocardial infarction and post-traumatic stress disorder: frequency, outcome, and atherosclerotic mechanisms. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2006; 13: 165–72. 35 Ladwig KH, Baumert J, Marten-Mittag B, et al. Posttraumatic stress symptoms and predicted mortality in patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: results from the prospective living with an implanted cardioverter-defibrillator study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008; 65: 1324–30. 36 Shemesh E, Yehuda R, Milo O, et al. Posttraumatic stress, nonadherence, and adverse outcome in survivors of a myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med 2004; 66: 521–6. 37 Mookadam F, Arthur HM. Social support and its relationship to morbidity and mortality after acute myocardial infarction: systematic overview. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 1514–8. 38 Ruberman W, Weinblatt E, Goldberg JD, et al. Psychosocial influences on mortality after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 552–9. 39 Denollet J, Pedersen SS, Ong AT, et al. Social inhibition modulates the effect of negative emotions on cardiac prognosis following percutaneous coronary intervention in the drug-eluting stent era. Eur Heart J 2006; 27: 171–7. 40 Berry JD, Lloyd-Jones DM, Garside DB, et al. Social avoidance and long-term risk for cardiovascular disease death in healthy men: the Western Electric study. Ann Epidemiol 2007; 17: 591–6. 41 Sapolsky RM, Alberts SC, Altmann J. Hypercortisolism associated with social subordinance or social isolation among wild baboons. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54: 1137–43. 42 Seeman TE, Berkman LF, Blazer D, et al. Social ties and support and neuroendocrine functions: the Macarthur studies of successful aging. Ann Behav Med 1994; 16: 95–106.

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43 Rumsfeld JS. Health status and clinical practice: when will they meet?. Circulation 2002; 106: 5–7. 44 Spertus JA. Evolving applications for patient-centered health status measures. Circulation 2008; 118: 2103–10. 45 Krumholz HM, Peterson ED, Ayanian JZ, et al. Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute working group on outcomes research in cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2005; 111: 3158–66. 46 O‘Brien JL, Moser DK, Riegel B, et al. Comparison of anxiety assessments between clinicians and patients with acute myocardial infarction in cardiac critical care units. Am J Crit Care 2001; 10: 97–103. 47 Ware J, Kosinski M, Keller S. SF-36 Physical and Mental Health Summary Scales: A User’s Manual, 2nd edn., 1994. Boston, MA: The Health Institute, New England Medical Center. 48 Spertus JA, Winder JA, Dewhurst TA, et al. Development and evaluation of the Seattle Angina Questionnaire: a new functional status measure for coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 25: 333–41. 49 Spertus JA, Jones P, McDonell M, et al. Health status predicts long-term outcome in outpatients with coronary disease. Circulation 2002; 106: 43–9. 50 Mommersteeg PMC, Denollet J, Spertus JA, et al. Health status as a risk factor in cardiovascular disease: A systematic review of current evidence. Am Heart J 2009; 157: 208–18. 51 Vaccarino V, Kasl SV, Abramson J, et al. Depressive symptoms and risk of functional decline and death in patients with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 38: 199–205. 52 Rumsfeld JS, Magid DJ, Plomondon ME, et al. Health-related quality of life after percutaneous coronary intervention versus coronary bypass surgery in high-risk patients with medically refractory ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41: 1732–8. 53 Smith TW, MacKenzie J. Personality and risk of physical illness. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2006; 2: 435–67. 54 Razzini C, Bianchi F, Leo R, et al. Correlations between personality factors and coronary artery disease: from type A behaviour pattern to Type D personality. J Cardiovasc Med 2008; 9: 761–8. 55 Chida Y, Steptoe A. The association of anger and hostility with future coronary heart disease: A meta-analytic review of prospective evidence. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 53: 936–46. 56 Denollet J, Sys SU, Stroobant N, et al. Personality as independent predictor of long-term mortality in patients with coronary heart disease. Lancet 1996; 347: 417–21. 57 Steptoe A, Molloy GJ. Personality and heart disease. Heart 2007; 93: 783–4. 58 Denollet J. DS14: standard assessment of negative affectivity, social inhibition, and Type D personality. Psychosom Med 2005; 67: 89–97. 59 Pedersen SS, Denollet J. Is Type D personality here to stay? Emerging evidence across cardiovascular disease patient groups. Curr Cardiol Rev 2006; 2: 205–13. 60 Denollet J, de Jonge P, Kuyper A, et al. Depression and Type D personality represent different forms of distress in the Myocardial INfarction and Depression – Intervention Trial (MIND-IT). Psychol Med 2009; 39: 749–56.

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61 Schiffer AA, Pedersen SS, Widdershoven JW, et al. Type D personality and depressive symptoms are independent predictors of impaired health status in chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2008; 10: 802–10. 62 Al-Ruzzeh S, Athanasiou T, Mangoush O, et al. Predictors of poor mid-term health related quality of life after primary isolated coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Heart 2005; 91: 1557–62. 63 Denollet J, Vaes J, Brutsaert DL. Inadequate response to treatment in coronary heart disease: adverse effects of Type D personality and younger age on 5-year prognosis and quality of life. Circulation 2000; 102: 630–5. 64 Schiffer AA, Pedersen SS, Widdershoven JW, et al. The distressed (Type D) personality is independently associated with impaired health status and increased depressive symptoms in chronic heart failure. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2005; 12: 341–6. 65 Pedersen SS, Holkamp PG, Caliskan K, et al. Type D personality is associated with impaired health-related quality of life 7 years following heart transplantation. J Psychosom Res 2006; 61: 791–5. 66 Pedersen SS, Theuns DAMJ, Muskens-Heemskerk A, et al. Type D personality but not implantable cardioverter-defibrillator indication is associated with impaired health-related quality of life 3 months post-implantation. Europace 2007; 9: 675–80. 67 Aquarius AE, Denollet J, Hamming JF, et al. Role of disease status and Type D personality in outcomes in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Am J Cardiol 2005; 96: 996–1001. 68 Aquarius AE, Denollet J, Hamming JF, et al. Type D personality and ankle brachial index as predictors of impaired quality of life and depressive symptoms in peripheral arterial disease. Arch Surg 2007; 142: 662–7. 69 Aquarius AE, Denollet J, de Vries J, et al. Poor health-related quality of life in patients with peripheral arterial disease: Type D personality and severity of peripheral arterial disease as independent predictors. J Vasc Surg 2007; 46: 507–12. 70 Pedersen SS, Denollet J, Ong AT, et al. Impaired health status in Type D patients following PCI in the drug-eluting stent era. Int J Cardiol 2007; 114: 358–65. 71 Thombs BD, Bass EB, Ford DE, et al. Prevalence of depression in survivors of acute myocardial infarction. J Gen Intern Med 2006; 21: 30–8. 72 Jiang W, Alexander J, Christopher E, et al. Relationship of depression to increased risk of mortality and rehospitalization in patients with congestive heart failure. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 1849–56. 73 van Melle JP, de Jonge P, Spijkerman TA, et al. Prognostic association of depression following myocardial infarction with mortality and cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis. Psychosom Med 2004; 66: 814–22. 74 Rumsfeld JS, Havranek E, Masoudi FA, et al. Depressive symptoms are the strongest predictors of short-term declines in health status in patients with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42: 1811–17. 75 Muller-Tasch T, Peters-Klimm F, Schellberg D, et al. Depression is a major determinant of quality of life in patients with chronic systolic heart failure in general practice. J Card Fail 2007; 13: 818–24.

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76 DiMatteo MR, Lepper HS, Croghan TW. Depression is a risk factor for noncompliance with medical treatment: metaanalysis of the effects of anxiety and depression on patient adherence. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 2101–17. 77 Lespérance F, Frasure-Smith N, Juneau M, et al. Depression and 1-year prognosis in unstable angina. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1354–60. 78 Blumenthal JA, Lett HS, Babyak MA, et al. Depression as a risk factor for mortality after coronary artery bypass surgery. Lancet 2003; 362: 604–9. 79 Parashar S, Rumsfeld JS, Spertus JA, et al. Time course of depression and outcome of myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166: 2035–43. 80 Dickens C, McGowan L, Percival C, et al. New onset depression following myocardial infarction predicts cardiac mortality. Psychosom Med 2008; 70: 450–5. 81 Cherr G, Zimmerman P, Wang J, et al. Patients with depression are at increased risk for secondary cardiovascular events after lower extremity revascularization. J Gen Int Med 2008; 23: 629–34. 82 Parissis JT, Nikolaou M, Farmakis D, et al. Clinical and prognostic implications of self-rating depression scales and plasma B-type natriuretic peptide in hospitalised patients with chronic heart failure. Heart 2008; 94: 585–9. 83 Whang W, Albert CM, Sears SF, Jr., et al. Depression as a predictor for appropriate shocks among patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: results from the Triggers of Ventricular Arrhythmias (TOVA) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45: 1090–5. 84 Barth J, Schumacher M, Herrmann-Lingen C. Depression as a risk factor for mortality in patients with coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. Psychosom Med 2004; 66: 802–13. 85 Rutledge T, Reis VA, Linke SE, et al. Depression in heart failure: a meta-analytic review of prevalence, intervention effects, and associations with clinical outcomes. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 1527–37. 86 Januzzi JL, Jr., Stern TA, Pasternak RC, et al. The influence of anxiety and depression on outcomes of patients with coronary artery disease. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1913–21. 87 Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C, et al. Mortality and quality of life 12 months after myocardial infarction: effects of depression and anxiety. Psychosom Med 2001; 63: 221–30. 88 Tully PJ, Baker RA, Knight JL. Anxiety and depression as risk factors for mortality after coronary artery bypass surgery. J Psychosom Res 2008; 64: 285–90. 89 Pedersen SS, Denollet J, Spindler H, et al. Anxiety enhances the detrimental effect of depressive symptoms on health status following percutaneous coronary intervention. J Psychosom Res 2006; 61: 783–9. 90 Empana JP, Jouven X, Lemaitre R, et al. Marital status and risk of out-of-hospital sudden cardiac arrest in the population. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2008; 15: 577–82. 91 Molloy GJ, Hamer M, Randall G, et al. Marital status and cardiac rehabilitation attendance: a meta-analysis. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2008; 15: 557–61. 92 Steinberg JS, Joshi S, Schron EB, et al. Psychosocial status predicts mortality in patients with life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. Heart Rhythm 2008; 5: 361–5.

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93 Denollet J, Martens EJ, Nyklicek I, et al. Clinical events in coronary patients who report low distress: adverse effect of repressive coping. Health Psychol 2008; 27: 302–8. 94 Pedersen SS, Lemos PA, van Vooren PR, et al. Type D personality predicts death or myocardial infarction after bare metal stent or sirolimus-eluting stent implantation: a Rapamycin-Eluting Stent Evaluated at Rotterdam Cardiology Hospital (RESEARCH) registry substudy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44: 997–1001. 95 Pedersen SS, Denollet J, Ong AT, et al. Adverse clinical events in patients treated with sirolimus-eluting stents: the impact of Type D personality. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2007; 14: 135–40. 96 Denollet J, Holmes RV, Vrints CJ, et al. Unfavorable outcome of heart transplantation in recipients with Type D personality. J Heart Lung Transplant 2007; 26: 152–8. 97 Aquarius AE, Smolderen KG, Hamming JF, et al. Type D personality predicts mortality in peripheral arterial disease: A pilot study. Arch Surg, in press. 98 Chapman BP, Duberstein PR, Lyness JM. The Distressed personality type: replicability and general health associations. Eur J Pers 2007; 21: 911–29. 99 Denollet J, Pedersen SS. Prognostic value of Type D personality compared with depressive symptoms. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 431–2. 100 de Jonge P, Denollet J, van Melle JP, et al. Associations of Type D personality and depression with somatic health in myocardial infarction patients. J Psychosom Res 2007; 63: 477–82. 101 Pelle AJ, Erdman RA, van Domburg RT, et al. Type D patients report poorer health status prior to and after cardiac rehabilitation compared to non-Type D patients. Ann Behav Med 2008; 36: 167–75. 102 Scherer M, Stanske B, Wetzel D, et al. [Psychosocial co-symptoms in primary care patients with heart failure]. Herz 2006; 31: 347–54. 103 Martens EJ, Kupper N, Pedersen SS, et al. Type D personality is a stable taxonomy in post-MI patients over an 18-month period. J Psychosom Res 2007; 63: 545–50. 104 Shlipak MG, Fried LF, Crump C, et al. Elevations of inflammatory and procoagulant biomarkers in elderly persons with renal insufficiency. Circulation 2003; 107: 87–92. 105 Berkman LF, Blumenthal J, Burg M, et al. Effects of treating depression and low perceived social support on clinical events after myocardial infarction: the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease Patients (ENRICHD) Randomized Trial. JAMA 2003; 289: 3106–16. 106 Glassman AH, O‘Connor CM, Califf RM, et al. Sertraline treatment of major depression in patients with acute MI or unstable angina. JAMA 2002; 288: 701–9. 107 Rosmond R, Bjorntorp P. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity as a predictor of cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and stroke. J Int Med 2000; 247: 188–97. 108 Lett HS, Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, et al. Depression as a risk factor for coronary artery disease: evidence, mechanisms, and treatment. Psychosom Med 2004; 66: 305–15. 109 Molloy GJ, Perkins-Porras L, Strike PC, et al. Type D personality and cortisol in survivors of acute coronary syndrome. Psychosom Med 2008; 70: 863–8.

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110 Whitehead DL, Perkins-Porras L, Strike PC, et al. Cortisol awakening response is elevated in acute coronary syndrome patients with Type D personality. J Psychosom Res 2007; 62: 419–25. 111 Sandercock GRH, Brodie DA. The role of heart rate variability in prognosis for different modes of death in chronic heart failure. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2006; 29: 892–904. 112 Rozanski A, Blumenthal JA, Kaplan J. Impact of psychological factors on the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and implications for therapy. Circulation 1999; 99: 2192–217. 113 Carney RM, Blumenthal JA, Stein PK, et al. Depression, heart rate variability, and acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 2001; 104: 2024–8. 114 de Jonge P, Mangano D, Whooley MA. Differential association of cognitive and somatic depressive symptoms with heart rate variability in patients with stable coronary heart disease: findings from the Heart and Soul study. Psychosom Med 2007; 69: 735–9. 115 Carney RM, Blumenthal JA, Freedland KE, et al. Low heart rate variability and the effect of depression on post-myocardial infarction mortality. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 1486–91. 116 Watkins LL, Blumenthal JA, Carney RM. Association of anxiety with reduced baroreflex cardiac control in patients after acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 2002; 143: 460–6. 117 Piccirillo G, Viola E, Nocco M, et al. Autonomic modulation and QT interval dispersion in hypertensive subjects with anxiety. Hypertension 1999; 34: 242–6. 118 Carney RM, Freedland KE, Stein PK, et al. Effects of depression on QT interval variability after myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med 2003; 65: 177–80. 119 Nahshoni E, Gur S, Marom S, et al. QT dispersion in patients with social phobia. J Affect Disord 2004; 78: 21–6. 120 Minoretti P, Politi P, Martinelli V, et al. QT interval duration in apparently healthy men is associated with depressionrelated personality trait neuroticism. J Psychosom Res 2006; 61: 19–23. 121 Smith PJ, Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, et al. Ventricular ectopy: impact of self-reported stress after myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 2007; 153: 133–9. 122 von Känel R. Platelet hyperactivity in clinical depression and the beneficial effect of antidepressant drug treatment: how strong is the evidence?. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2004; 110: 163–77. 123 Aschbacher K, Mills PJ, von Känel R, et al. Effects of depressive and anxious symptoms on norepinephrine and platelet P-selectin responses to acute psychological stress among elderly caregivers. Brain Behav Immun 2008; 22: 493–502. 124 Somberg TC, Arora RR. Depression and heart disease: therapeutic implications. Cardiology 2008; 111: 75–81. 125 Oosthuizen F, Wegener G, Harvey BH. Nitric oxide as inflammatory mediator in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): evidence from an animal model. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2005; 1: 109–23. 126 Verma S, Buchanan MR, Anderson TJ. Endothelial function testing as a biomarker of vascular disease. Circulation 2003; 108: 2054–9.

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127 Broadley AJ, Korszun A, Jones CJ, et al. Arterial endothelial function is impaired in treated depression. Heart 2002; 88: 521–3. 128 Sherwood A, Hinderliter AL, Watkins LL, et al. Impaired endothelial function in coronary heart disease patients with depressive symptomatology. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 46: 656–9. 129 von Känel R, Hepp U, Traber R, et al. Measures of endothelial dysfunction in plasma of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 2008; 158: 363–73. 130 Libby P, Ridker PM, Maseri A. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002; 105: 1135–43. 131 Sukhija R, Fahdi I, Garza L, et al. Inflammatory markers, angiographic severity of coronary artery disease, and patient outcome. Am J Cardiol 2007; 99: 879–84. 132 Denollet J, Schiffer AA, Kwaijtaal M, et al. Usefulness of Type D personality and kidney dysfunction as predictors of interpatient variability in inflammatory activation in chronic heart failure. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103: 399–404. 133 Strike PC, Steptoe A. Systematic review of mental stress-induced myocardial ischaemia. Eur Heart J 2003; 24: 690–703. 134 Bybee KA, Prasad A. Stress-related cardiomyopathy syndromes. Circulation 2008; 118: 397–409. 135 Gianni M, Dentali F, Grandi AM, et al. Apical ballooning syndrome or Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a systematic review. Eur Heart J 2006; 27: 1523–9. 136 Kupper N, Denollet J, de Geus EJC, et al. Heritability of Type D personality. Psychosom Med 2007; 69: 675–81. 137 Middeldorp CM, Birley AJ, Cath DC, et al. Familial clustering of major depression and anxiety disorders in Australian and Dutch twins and siblings. Twin Res Hum Genet 2005; 8: 609–15. 138 McCaffery JM, Frasure-Smith N, Dube M-P, et al. Common genetic vulnerability to depressive symptoms and coronary artery disease: a review and development of candidate genes related to inflammation and serotonin. Psychosom Med 2006; 68: 187–200. 139 DiMatteo MR, Lepper HS, Croghan TW. Depression is a risk factor for noncompliance with medical treatment: meta-analysis of the effects of anxiety and depression on patient adherence. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 2101–7. 140 Broström A, Strömberg A, Mårtensson JAN, et al. Association of Type D personality to perceived side effects and adherence in CPAP-treated patients with OSAS. J Sleep Res 2007; 16: 439–47. 141 Marcuccio E, Loving N, Bennett SK, et al. A survey of attitudes and experiences of women with heart disease. Women’s Health Issues 2003; 13: 23–31. 142 Schiffer AA, Denollet J, Widdershoven JW, et al. Failure to consult for symptoms of heart failure in patients with a Type D personality. Heart 2007; 93: 814–8. 143 Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C, et al. Predictors of attendance at cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction. J Psychosom Res 2001; 51: 497–501. 144 Grace SL, Gravely-Witte S, Brual J, et al. Contribution of patient and physician factors to cardiac rehabilitation enrollment: a prospective multilevel study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2008; 15: 548–56.

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145 Lespérance F, Frasure-Smith N, Koszycki D, et al. Effects of citalopram and interpersonal psychotherapy on depression in patients with coronary artery disease: the Canadian Cardiac Randomized Evaluation of Antidepressant and Psychotherapy Efficacy (CREATE) Trial. JAMA 2007; 297: 367–79. 146 van Melle JP, de Jonge P, Honig A, et al. Effects of antidepressant treatment following myocardial infarction. Br J Psychiatry 2007; 190: 460–6. 147 Denollet J, Pedersen SS, Vrints CJ, et al. Usefulness of Type D personality in predicting five-year cardiac events above and beyond concurrent symptoms of stress in patients with coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol 2006; 97: 970–3. 148 Appels A, Bar F, van der Pol G, et al. Effects of treating exhaustion in angioplasty patients on new coronary events: results of the randomized Exhaustion Intervention Trial (EXIT). Psychosom Med 2005; 67: 217–23. 149 Pedersen SS, Van den Broek KC, Sears J, et al. Psychological intervention following implantation of an implantable defibrillator: a review and future recommendations. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2007; 30: 1546–54. 150 Carney RM, Blumenthal JA, Freedland KE, et al. Depression and Late Mortality After Myocardial Infarction in the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease (ENRICHD) Study. Psychosom Med 2004; 66: 466–74. 151 van Dixhoorn J, White A. Relaxation therapy for rehabilitation and prevention in ischaemic heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2005; 12: 193–202. 152 Linden W, Phillips MJ, Leclerc J. Psychological treatment of cardiac patients: a meta-analysis. Eur Heart J 2007; 28: 2972–84. 153 Blumenthal JA, Sherwood A, Babyak MA, et al. Effects of Exercise and Stress Management Training on Markers of Cardiovascular Risk in Patients With Ischemic Heart Disease: A Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA 2005; 293: 1626–34. 154 Moravec CS. Biofeedback therapy in cardiovascular disease: rationale and research overview. Cleve Clin J Med 2008; 75(Suppl.2): S35–S38. 155 Denollet J, Brutsaert DL. Reducing emotional distress improves prognosis in coronary heart disease: 9-year mortality in a clinical trial of rehabilitation. Circulation 2001; 104: 2018–23. 156 Culic V, Eterovic D, Miric D, et al. Triggering of ventricular tachycardia by meteorologic and emotional stress: protective effect of beta-blockers and anxiolytics in men and elderly. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 160: 1047–58. 157 Thombs BD, Ziegelstein RC, Whooley MA. Optimizing detection of major depression among patients with coronary artery disease using the Patient Health Questionnaire: data from the Heart and Soul study. J Gen Intern Med 2008; 23: 2014–7. 158 Beck AT, Steer RA, Garbin MC. Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: twenty-five years of evaluation. Clin Psychol Rev 19998; 8: 77–100. 159 Zigmond AS, Snaith RP. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1983; 67: 361–70.

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