Key Stage 3 Science

Teaching Animal, Human and Plant Behaviour Notes, lesson plans and resources for classroom use

Adrian Tebbutt, David Glenn and Mike Land Norfolk County Council Children’s Services Professional Development Centre Woodside Road Norwich Norfolk NR7 9QL Tel: 01603 433276 Email: [email protected] January 2008 www.schools.norfolk.gov.uk

Section 1

Simple Animal Behaviour • • • • •

Introduction Suitable organisms Ideas for experiments Lesson plans Additional resources

Introduction The new programme of study for KS3 includes the following in the Range and Content section: • Behaviour is influenced by internal and external factors and can be investigated and measured. • This includes human and animal behaviour (psychology and ethology). (Ethology is defined as: The Study of animal behaviour. It is a combination of laboratory and field science. The modern science of ethology is considered to have arisen as a discrete discipline with the work in the 1920s of Nikolaas Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz.) This provides the ‘missing link’ to the sudden introduction of the nervous system and the reflex arc in the core GCSE science. These notes, suggestions and lesson plans provide more ideas than you will need - we think 7-9 lessons would be an absolute maximum for this topic - but they do provide opportunities for more engaging practical work in all key stages. The lesson plans have an emphasis in skills, processes and how science works. Studying animal (and plant) behaviour is an ideal opportunity for practical work and use of live subjects. The organisms mentioned in the materials are all easily available and present no significant health and safety issues. In all cases refer to the appropriate CLEAPSS guidance. It is also an opportunity to consider the care and treatment of live organisms together with any ethical issues.

Background The behaviours likely to be encountered include:

Taxes Taxes are directional responses to directional stimuli e,g, moving along a concentration gradient, moving away from a source of light.

Kinesis Kinetic responses involve changes in the amount of movement, and often turning, observed in the organism.

Tropism Directional response to a unilateral stimulus in plants. Taxes, Kinesis and tropisms can all be described as negative - movement reduced as a result of, or away from, a stimulus, or positive - movement increased as a result of, or towards, a stimulus.

Reflex Pre-programmed pattern of behaviour that are rapid and often involve only part of an organism. Reflexes can be protective e.g. blinking, or form part of complex actions e.g. knee-jerk as part of walking.

Instincts Pre-programmed patterns of behaviour that involve longer time scales and the whole organism.

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Suitable organisms Woodlice Woodlice belong to the biological class Crustacea. Most of the animals in this class are aquatic, and although the terrestrial species can breath with the aid of primitive "lungs," they lack the features found in most other land dwelling arthropods. They do not have a waterproof waxy cuticle on their exoskeleton, like insects, and are therefore more likely to suffer from desiccation compared with other arthropods, which have a well-developed waxy layer. Woodlice excrete their nitrogenous waste as ammonia gas directly through their exoskeleton, which means that their exoskeleton needs to be permeable to ammonia and is therefore also permeable to water vapour. Most other animals excrete their nitrogenous waste in the form of urea or uric acid, so woodlice do not have to expend energy on such processes. The fact that woodlice prefer high humidity and cooler temperatures is a direct response of the permeability of their exoskeleton to water and the loss of water from their bodies. Many of the behavioural responses of woodlice are concerned with water conservation and the need to avoid desiccation. They have a relatively high surface area to volume ratio and are therefore likely to loose water by diffusion more quickly than many other species. Woodlice show a kinesis type response to moisture. They show both an increased speed of movement, or orthokinesis, and increased rate of turning, or klinokinesis, in dry conditions and slower rates of movement and turning in moist conditions. Woodlice also show a positive orthokinesis as the temperature increases or decreases from their preferred range. Their rate of turning also seems to show a similar response. By moving more rapidly, they are likely to spend less time in these unfavourable conditions and therefore will avoid unnecessary desiccation. They are known to show a photokinesis as well. This would result in them moving out of bright conditions and accumulating in darker regions. Brighter conditions tend to be drier and warmer than dark conditions, so this behaviour will again result in decreased desiccation. Finally, these animals have been shown to demonstrate positive thigmokinesis. This means they are less active when more of their body surface is in contact with other objects, including other woodlice. They will move around so that the maximum amount of their body is in contact with other objects. This behaviour results in woodlice forming groups or clumps and also means they will tend to congregate in cracks and crevices. In any case, they will have better protection from desiccation and also predators.

Problems with terminology When experimenting on simple organisms like woodlice we use terms such as ‘preferences’ and ‘choice chambers’. These terms imply that the woodlice make conscious choices as we do, falling into the trap of anthropomorphism - imagining that animals must experience the world as we humans do - e.g. thinking that woodlice ‘prefer’ damp, dark crevices - or, even worse that they ‘choose’ these places or ‘like’ them. They do not make choices or have preferences, it is just that they are more or less active in the different conditions. These differences in the levels of activity, and therefore rates of movement, are automatic responses and don’t involve any thought!

Alternation behaviour Like many other animals, woodlice tend to alternate their turns; when forced to turn in one direction they subsequently choose to turn in the opposite direction. Alternation is shown when a forced turn is followed by a turn in the opposite direction at the next barrier. For example if a woodlouse encounters a barrier which forces it to turn left, then if it next encounters another barrier where it has a choice of turning either left or right, a right turn would indicate alternation has occurred.

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Alternation would result in the woodlice crossing an open (or hot, or low humidity) region, containing a large number of obstacles, more rapidly than if alternation did not occur. If alternation always occurred regardless of distance travelled between turns then it could result in the woodlouse spending a longer time in the exposed conditions - this might occur when the exposed region had few obstacles. Obviously there should be a maximum distance or time after which alternation behaviour would no longer be an advantage. Isaac Asimov and Woodlice When he was a young child, Isaac's mother was startled by the strange expression on his face and asked him what was wrong. He was unable to reply so she became alarmed by this apparent affliction. Isaac, in an effort to calm his mother spat out a mouthful of woodlice. When asked why he had done such a thing, he replied that he had thought that they would probably tickle his tongue as they walked about inside his mouth. Apparently they did tickle - although his mother did not appreciate this turn of scientific curiosity.

Ideas for Experiments Apparatus for experimenting on woodlice 1. Choice chambers A problem of terminology already! Several models exist for these. The basic one uses a Petri dish. For light/dark comparisons one half of both the base and lid are painted black. Moist, dark coloured paper in the base is a simple improvement over the raw plastic

Another alternative is to cut a ‘doorway’ in the side of two Petri dishes, then glue them together. The lids can be cut and glued, but it is easier to cover the dishes with a sheet of acetate or thin clear plastic. You can get the idea from the two diagrams. Filter paper in the base can make an effective wet/dry chamber. It is important to ensure that there are no right angled corners (use circular strips of cardboard to line the interior walls) as this will encourage the woodlice to congregate there due to their thigmokinetic response. Griffin sell some large choice chambers with segmented bases that are good but expensive.

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2. Mazes These are used in the study of alternation. The length of the 'variable length' arm is varied from 2cm up to the point where alternation no longer occurs. It is easy to build a maze from lego, improved if you can smooth out the runway surface for maggots. You can also use the template below to make one out of card. Vary the length by moving barrier A. Force the turn by placing a barrier at B or C. Vary the length before the turn by cutting X-Y and sliding the outer section in or out.

slide

cut

slide

plan of the maze

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Alternation experiment method First it needs to be established whether or not woodlice show a preference for turning in a particular direction. With a barrier at position "A", allow a woodlouse to run along the channel to the T-junction and turn whichever way it chooses, left or right. Record this direction. Repeat with new woodlice until there is a reasonable, even number of results [between ten and twenty could be achieved in a few minutes and would give statistical significance]. If woodlice have no preference then their choice of turn will be random and you would expect equal numbers of left and right turns. (This can be tested using the chi square test). Unless you are extremely unlucky most of your class will demonstrate that there is no preference. Experiment - Put barriers at positions "A" and "B" and allow a woodlouse to run along the channel. It will be forced to turn right. When it reaches the next junction it will have a free choice of left or right. Record the direction it takes. It is useful to record the choice as "same" or "opposite" to the forced turn. Repeat with a new woodlouse but this time force it to turn left by putting a barrier at position "C". Obtain data for equal numbers of forced left and forced right turns [at least five of each for significance]. Collect class results and analyse. Evaluation - This exercise throws up plenty of practical problems for students to discuss. For example: • How can the effects of extraneous stimuli such as the direction of light, noise, draughts etc. be minimised? (The orientation of the apparatus can be randomised from trial to trial. ) • What if a woodlouse leaves behind a chemical trail which influences the direction taken by the next woodlouse? (Short of using a fresh channel for each trial, the run can be swept using a fine paintbrush to spread out any chemical traces and spoil the signal.) • What sort of woodlouse should be used? (Ideally only one species should be used in one investigation.)

More experiments A) For how long does the memory of a forced turn last? It is relatively easy to vary the time between a forced turn and a choice either by restraining a woodlouse after a forced turn with a paintbrush gently held on its back or by altering the length of channel between the forced turn and choice turn (the length can be altered by sliding the end sections in or out). B) How does a woodlouse detect the direction of a forced turn? Hypotheses: 1. internal inertial receptors are stimulated by rotation. 2. the action of the legs on each side are compared; those on the outside of the turn will have walked further/ stepped more quickly than those on the inside. This apparatus can be used to test the effect of a passive turn simply by turning it through 90° while the animal is running along a channel towards a "T" and noting the choice at the junction. Stimulating the legs on one side more that the other is more difficult.

3. Measuring kinesis This can be done simply by putting squared paper under a Petri dish and then counting the squares entered in a given time period. Squares copied onto acetate can be used above a chamber if e.g. comparing damp/dry. For investigating the effect of temperature put a piece of filter paper in the bottom of a 250ml beaker 5

and mark it with a line across the centre. Hold the base of the beaker in a waterbath, at the chosen temperature, introduce the woodlouse and count how many times the line is crossed in a given time. The same idea can be used to count the number of turns, but there are problems with this – principally what is a ‘turn’?

How should woodlice be handled? A plastic teaspoon and fine paintbrush are the most useful tools. Sod's Law usually applies when you put them into the channel: whatever you do they almost invariably go in backwards and you have to turn them with the paintbrush. Of course you should disturb the animals as little as possible, but alteration is such a robust behaviour that it is difficult to stop them doing it!

Some questions suitable for investigation • • • • • •

Do woodlice ‘prefer’ light or dark conditions? Do woodlice ‘prefer’ red or blue light? Do woodlice ‘prefer’ damp or dry conditions? Do woodlice excrete gaseous ammonia? What foods do woodlice prefer? What if the animals are forced through angles other than 90°? Does the choice turn angle equal the forced turn angle? • Does the tendency to alternate vary between woodlouse species? • How does temperature affect the movement of woodlice? • Do woodlice show alternating behaviour?

Maggots Maggots are the larvae of a huge range of insect species – there are over 90,000 varieties of what we would call maggots. The fishing maggot that is readily available for classroom use is the larval form of the blowfly – Calliphora sp. With the current interest in Forensic science (CSI, waking the dead etc.) the use of forensic entomological evidence can be significant - various flies are some of the first organisms to visit dead bodies. Consequently, the eggs/larvae present can help determine the time of death of a corpse. Maggots in the classroom are useful because they show taxes clearly, being negatively phototactic. They can also be used for alternation experiments. Handling maggots bought commercially is safe (see CLEAPSS advice), but probably not popular with some students – again the paint brush and plastic spoon are good tools. Maggots move using a hook like organ that is extended, fixed into the substrate the body being hauled after it. Without something to grip on locomotion is rather limited, so sheets of glass give maggots a huge headache! Any slightly rough surface will work – coarse paper, plastic rubbed over with an abrasive etc. I suggest you try your surfaces before going ‘live’ with the experiment

Apparatus for experimenting on maggots 1. Mazes as above for alternation, but pay attention to the floor material. 2. Effect of temperature – a difficult one as maggots travel in straight lines generally. One possibility is to use narrow plastic tube – thermometer cases work for this – maggot in tube, stopper the ends and place on the surface of a water bath, time the maggot along the tube. 3. Photaxis – a difficult one as choice chambers are less effective – once the wall is reached they tend to keep moving round the edge. The simple choice chamber design for woodlice can give good results if the light/dark difference is large. 6

This method is an alternative. A piece of marked paper (shown below) is put in a suitable container – petri dish, plastic tray etc. Each of the positive and negative sectors should have angles of 120° and each of the neutral sectors should have an angle of 60°. The end marked “positive” is positioned nearest to the light. The centre circle is 2cm diameter. Black out the lab and put the container about 10cm away from the front of a lamp. The lamp should be shining at a shallow angle along the tray. Spin a pencil to find a random direction. The maggot is then placed in the centre of the inner circle facing in the direction of the pencil.

Positive

Neutral

Neutral

You can then use several methods for tracking the maggot: Complex: Put an acetate on the tray. As soon as the maggot’s head leaves the paper’s inner circle start a stopclock and mark the position of the maggot’s head is every 5 seconds until the maggot leaves the outer circle.

Negative

Simple: mark the direction that the head of the maggot is facing after 1 minute or as it crosses the outer circle. Use a duplicate of the sheet above for this. If you are being extremely careful then replace the sheet each time and use a fresh maggot for each run. Use a ray box and variable power supply to investigate effect of light intensity.

Some questions suitable for investigation • • • • •

Do maggots ‘prefer’ light or dark conditions? Are maggots sensitive to different colours of light? Do maggots ‘prefer’ damp or dry conditions? How does temperature affect the movement of maggots? Do maggots show alternating behaviour?

Daphnia Daphnia are members of a collection of animals that are broadly termed as "water fleas". These are predominantly small crustaceans, and Daphnia belong to a group known as the Daphniidae (which in turn is part of the Cladocera, relatives of the freshwater shrimp, Gammarus et al, and the brine shrimp, Artemia spp). They get their common name from their jerky movement through the water. They are completely unrelated to real fleas, are insects. All species of Daphnia occur in different strains - sometimes the same species can look completely different, both in terms of size and shape, depending on its origin, and environmental factors at that location. Daphnia feed on particles found floating in the water (phytoplankton, but also attached vegetation or decaying organic material), but the predominant foods are free-living algae (eg Chlamydomanas spp, Volvox spp, etc), bacteria and fungi. In the summer months, they can often be seen "blooming" in ponds and lakes as the concentration of algae builds up. 7

Brine Shrimps Artemia salina. These are a hardy organism whose natural habitat is a salt lake or salt pan. They tolerate salinity between 0.3% and 10%, temperatures between 10°C and 30°C and are easy and cheap to keep, and, more importantly, can form a self sustaining ecosystem needing little care. They filter feed on algae suspended in the water, swimming efficiently using paired leafy legs. Both Daphnia and Artemia are also readily available from aquarist shops and the normal educational suppliers.

Handling For handling individual organisms a plastic pipette with the end cut off to increase the diameter is simple and effective. Larger numbers can be scooped using any suitable container. Both species can be used for a range of experiments. The following ideas give a range of possible experiments suitable for KS3 – KS5. Time scales suggested can be adjusted to suit the pupils.

Some Experiments in Animal Behaviour (from Bench Biology 1995, A. Tebbutt)

Experiments The tube diameter for the following apparatus was determined by the stock we had available - I am sure other sizes will work just as well! Depending on the group using the apparatus it can be set up with the organisms already present or by the students themselves. Students are instructed to return organisms to their tanks if they show signs of distress. The water in the tube should be the normal solution that the organisms are kept in - this should contain food and oxygen enough to maintain normal behaviour patterns for the duration of all experiments described. The apparatus can be used successfully with both Daphnia and Artemia. Filling the tubes completely can be achieved by putting a pin alongside the bung as you push it in – it allows excess water/air to escape and can then be removed.

Phototaxis Both Daphnia and Artemia are positively phototactic, and this can easily be demonstrated in the following apparatus:

Basic Method With the room either dimmed or blacked out - not essential but it gives a better controlled environment - each tube is illuminated uniformly by a bench lamp above it. The number of Artemia in each segment/half are then counted at one minute intervals for 5 or 10 minutes depending on time available or age of pupils. A black paper collar is then slid over the tube and used to cover 2 end segments. Numbers of Artemia in each visible segment/half are counted as before. This can be repeated covering the middle segments and the other 2 end segments. Number visible/minute can then be plotted, or more sophisticated statistical analyses carried out. 8

Modifications If a suitably shaped card shield is placed over the middle of the tube allowing each side to be illuminated independently (below), a further range of experiments is possible.

Colour Different colours of light (intensity measured and adjusted!) can be used to illuminate the two sides of the tube, counting as before. The ambitious could try three or four colours simultaneously.

Light Intensity The response to light intensity can be investigated if the illumination is varied on each side. This can be quantified with the use of a suitable light meter. The reasons for the behaviour patterns shown can then be deduced by students - e.g. feed on algae, algae photosynthesise, therefore found in light; oxygen produced by photosynthesis, therefore move to areas of high oxygen concentration; more photosynthesis in red light, therefore reasons as above etc.

Geotaxis With uniform illumination the basic tubing is stood on end, Artemia per segment are counted/minute for 5-10 minutes and plotted as a graph. As a control the apparatus is inverted and the experiment repeated. If any patterns emerge what might the reasons be?

Thermotaxis Response to temperature can be investigated using the basic apparatus set up as below. I would not recommend high end temperatures above 40°C for Daphnia or 50°C for Artemia. Numbers of Artemia are counted per segment at suitable intervals, and as a temperature gradient establishes along the tube the organisms will congregate in a preferred range. This temperature can then be measured using e.g. a thermocouple device on the outside of the tube, a thermometer or temperature probe slid through a modified bung in either the experimental or a dummy apparatus.

Preferences can then be related to environment, organism behaviour etc.

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Chemotaxis A method of examining responses to, for example, food quantity and chemical stimuli was developed following suggestions for further work from students. The modification to the apparatus finally arrived at was simple, merely a hole melted into the tube near one end. This is simply done by heating the required spot with a fine flame - micro gas torch or blowpipe through a Bunsen flame - and pushing the hole through from the inside with a mounted needle, seeker, or equivalent. The finished product looking like:

When filling the tube the hole can be covered with insulating tape. It can be kept upright on the bench using plasticene. In these experiments it is advisable to use a water supply that can be disposed of after use rather than a carefully nurtured culture solution.

Chemicals Responses to pH, nutrients and other chemical stimuli, such as glucose, protein etc. can be studied by counting Artemia per segment per minute for 5/10 minutes and then introducing the substance under test through the hole using a syringe and needle, or dropper if the hole will permit. Numbers per segment are then counted per minute for a further 5/10 minutes. In class organisation terms it is best to have each group investigating a different compound if a range are to be studied. On completion the tubes can be emptied via a sieve, thus preserving the Artemia and avoiding adding contaminated water to the stock tanks. I have used the following substances successfully: Ethanoic Acid, Sodium Hydroxide, Glucose, Sucrose, Protein solution, Olive oil, yeast suspension, Algal suspension from stock tank

Oxygen This apparatus arose from a suggestion that it might be the oxygen from photosynthesis that was the stimulus causing phototactic responses, not the light.

The apparatus was modified by adding a second hole and by placing it on a slight slope. This allowed oxygen to be bubbled into (and escape from) a solution that had been boiled and cooled to reduce its oxygen content to a low level. Precise values can be measured using an oxygen probe. To avoid stress to the organisms I would suggest counting at 1 minute intervals for only 3 minutes before the oxygen is turned on, and for 3/5 minutes afterwards, although this could be modified if the organisms are carefully monitored.

Finally I am sure there are other possibilities for this apparatus that I haven’t thought of yet, but some inquisitive student will undoubtedly come up with an idea or question in the future. 10

Topic: Simple animal behaviour lesson 1 Learning Objectives: pupils should learn • The factors that affect the behaviour of woodlice • To test ideas and to evaluate scientific evidence

Learning outcomes: pupils can • Have carried out the experiment and recorded the results accurately • Have commented on the accuracy, reliability and validity of your results • Have written a conclusion and explained how your evidence and the class evidence support the conclusion

Possible assessment: • How science works – accuracy, reliability and validity of results Time

Possible lesson starter: • Walt and Wilf for the lesson • Vocabulary card sort – reduced set focusing on the key words ACCURACY, RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, PREDICTION, SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS, KINESIS, STIMULUS, RESPONSE • Highlight the meanings of accuracy, reliability, validity!

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Possible teaching activities: • Outline experiment – Do woodlice ‘ prefer’ light or dark conditions? Explain carefully that there is no conscious choice, just simple behaviour patterns about survival. Explain the ‘choice’ chamber and how it works. • Get pupils to make a prediction as to which conditions they think woodlice will prefer (ref. vocab card sort) and to make a hypothesis as to why they have made this (again ref. vocab card sort) • Outline method – group 1 have 1 woodlouse, group 2 have 2 etc. up to a max of 10. (double up some groups). Suggest structure for results table. • Place woodlice into centre of choice chamber and record the number on light/dark sides after 1 minute, 2 minutes and 3 minutes • Collect class results on the board. Start with the group(s) who had one woodlouse: Check their predictions and Question the class as to are these results Accurate? -explain Reliable? – explain Valid? – explain (could check reliability against other groups with one woodlouse) useful here to have the definitions of A, R and V available. • Add more data from other groups with the same questions – what happens to the accuracy (no change), reliability and validity as we collect more data • Groups now write their conclusion as to the preferences of woodlice and their comments on their and the class results ref. A, R and V. and how they support the conclusion(ref. WILF statements)

Plenary activity: • Select one or two groups to read their conclusions and explanations – use these to highlight the WILF statements for the lesson

Resources:

light/dark choice chambers – 1 between 2, woodlice, stop clocks, cardsort prepared for pairs or fours

Scientific enquiry: • How science works – accuracy, reliability and validity of results 11

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Additional notes: This is also an ideal opportunity to build on previous work on structuring explanations – it might be necessary to reiterate the structure etc. for explanations.

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Topic:

Simple animal behaviour lesson 2a and b – woodlice

Planning the method in outline may be done as homework from the previous lesson

Learning Objectives: pupils should learn • To plan and carry out a practical investigation as part of a group • To ensure results are precise, accurate reliable and valid • To apply scientific thinking to explain some observations

Learning outcomes: pupils • • • •

Have planned an experiment to find out if woodlice prefer damp or dry conditions Have explained how the results collected will be made accurate and reliable Have recorded your results in a suitable table Have drawn a conclusion and tried to explain your observations and the validity of the results

Possible assessment: • How Science Works - Practical and enquiry skills and Critical understanding of evidence Time

Possible lesson starter: • WALT and WILF for the lesson • Recap of previous lesson and key ideas - put words/phrases (e.g. prefer, choice chamber, reliable and valid) on board and get pupils in groups/pairs to come up with 1 or two sentences to define or explain them

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Possible teaching activities: Lesson 2A • Demo the wet/dry choice chamber • Pupils then have to plan in groups and in bullet points an approach to answer the question do woodlice prefer wet or dry conditions? See note about homework in preparation (This might be supported by a writing frame) This should include: - Method - What results will be collected - How the results will be displayed - How the results will be made accurate and reliable • Circulate and check plans, distribute apparatus and get practical started and results collected • Use plenary listed below Lesson 2B • Processing of results – how will they be presented, graph, table etc. – opportunity for mini starters/plenaries for these aspects and use of Scientific Enquiry support materials ref.choice of graph, describing graph etc. • Write conclusion, again, opportunity for use of Scientific Enquiry and Scientific Writing support materials to develop skills • Explain if results are accurate, reliable, valid etc.

Plenary activity: Spend longer on the plenary after lesson 2b • Use ‘interactive plenaries’ powerpoint - give class list of the questions, choose

Resources: wet/dry choice chambers, stop watches, woodlice,

Scientific enquiry: 13

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time according to need

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Additional notes:

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Additional Resources

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ACCURACY

How close a measurement of something is to its true value.

RELIABILITY

How far the data is dependable. It is a measure of their repeatability and/or consistency.

VALIDITY

Considering how far the data reliably and accurately test the prediction.

PREDICTION

What you think will happen in a particular situation. Predictions are based on current explanations for how something works.

SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS

A suggested explanation for how something happens. A hypothesis is usually based on observations.

KINESIS

An increase in movement and changes in direction when in unfavourable conditions

RECEPTOR

The thing that detects a stimulus, e.g. A sense organ

STIMULUS

A change in the environment detected by animals or plants that produces a response

RESPONSE

A change in an animal or plant as a results of a stimulus

TAXES

Directional responses to unilateral stimuli IN ANIMALS

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TROPISM

A directional response to a unilateral stimulus IN PLANTS

UNILATERAL

One sided

DIRECTIONAL

a stimulus or response that in works in a particular direction

INSTINCT

An automatic response o a stimulus over a long period of time that affects the whole animal

REFLEX

A rapid, automatic response to a stimulus that affects only part of an animal

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More Suggestions for experiments Most of these factors have been investigated by groups or individual students over the last few years. You will may want to refer to the background information and the equipment used pages before you can start to plan these experiments. Investigate the mechanism causing the grouping instinct - is it odour, sound or some other factor? What are the preferred light conditions for woodlice? - eg light intensity and colour of light. What are the effects of temperature on behaviour - rate of turning, speed of movement etc. Investigating alternation in woodlice. Is time or distance travelled the main factor in determining whether alternation is likely to occur? Is humidity or temperature the most important factor in determining the clumping behaviour of Porcellio scaber? How do changes in water saturation affect the behaviour of Porcellio scaber? (eg clumping, activity levels) What is the effect of ‘clumping’ on the rate of water loss from Porcellio scaber? Can woodlice absorb and/or loose water through their exoskeleton? Do woodlice excrete gaseous ammonia? Is there any difference between night and day?. Is there any difference between active and inactive woodlice?

Ammonia excretion Woodlice do not produce urine. Instead of excreting urine, woodlice excrete their nitrogenous waste in the form of ammonia gas. Most animals find ammonia to be too toxic for excretion and so any ammonia formed is normally converted to urea or uric acid for excretion. Woodlice seem to have very high resistance to ammonia and are able to excrete it as a gas directly through the surface of their exoskeleton. This means that they do not need to use energy to convert the ammonia to area or uric acid before excretion.

Blue blood Woodlice along with most other crustaceans have the compound haemocyanin in their blood. Haemocycanin carries oxygen in the same way that haemoglobin does in mammals. Haemocycanin contains a copper atom instead of the iron atom found in haemoglobin. The blood is pale blue when it is carrying oxygen and colourless when it is not carrying oxygen. Because a woodlouse contains very small amounts of haemocycanin it is not possible to see these colour changes by direct observation.

Blue Woodlice An iridovirus can infect woodlice and at advanced stages of infection virus accumulates in such large numbers that it forms crystallinel structures in the diseased tissues. These crystalline structures give an intense blue or purple colour to the woodlice. Individuals infected to this extent will usually die within a short time.

Orange Porcellio scaber This orange form appears to be rare in this region. The example here is the only one found in a collection of over 400 from the same compost heap - it is also the only one, of two, that I have observed over the last 10 years. The red forms of woodlice are genetically determined but their rarity suggests that this form is not as well adapted to the habitat as the darker gray forms. 18

Coprophagy Woodlice, like many other animals, eat their faeces. In the case of woodlice this helps them to reabsorb sufficient copper minerals which have been lost in their faeces. Bacterial action on the faeces probably changes the copper to a form which is more easily absorbed into their bodies. Coprophagy is the term used to refer to the eating of faeces.

Drinking through the anus Woodlice get water with their food. But they can also drink it through their mouth parts and also by using their uropods. The uropods are tube-like structures on the posterior (back end) of the animal. When they use them for drinking they press their uropods close together and touch it against a moist surface. Capillary action pulls the water up the uropods and into the anus. Woodlice also seem to be able to absorb water vapour directly through their exoskeleton surface in regions of high humidity, and in fact if they remain in high humidity regions for too long they appear to become water logged and then tend to move to areas of lower humidity.

Isaac Asimov and Woodlice When he was a young child, Isaac's mother was startled by the strange expression on his face and asked him what was wrong. He was unable to reply so she became alarmed by this apparent affliction. Isaac, in an effort to calm his mother spat out a mouthful of woodlice. When asked why he had done such a thing, he replied that he had thought that they would probably tickle his tongue as they walked about inside his mouth. Apparently they did tickle although his mother did not appreciate this turn of scientific curiosity.

Moulting You may sometimes see a woodlouse which is two-toned. For example the front half of the body may be a pinkish colour and the back half may be the "normal" grayish colour. This occurs because the woodlouse moults its exoskeleton in two sections. It first moults the back half of its exoskeleton, then a few days later it moults the front half. The advantage of this two part moult is to help reduce its vulnerability to predation or desiccation during moulting. Adults moult about every two months.

Sense of smell Woodlice are able to detect chemical odours by using sensory receptors on either the ends of the large antennae or on the surface of their antennulae (these are usually an inner pair of insignificant small antennae) P. scaber seems to be able to detect litter by smelling the odours released by micro-organisms living on the litter.

Postage Stamps In 1995 St. Helena issued a set of stamps depicting small animals. The 53p stamp shown here, illustrates a Spiky Yellow Woodlouse. Why is the rest of the world ignoring these fascinating creatures?

Changing Sex Male woodlice infected by Wolbachia bacteria will turn into female woodlice! The bacteria upset the normal action of the woodlouse male hormone. As the bacteria are passed to the next generation of woodlice in the cytoplasm of the egg cells this process means that there is a better chance of Wolbachia survival as all infected offspring will be female and therefore will allow infection of the third generation of woodlice.

19

1. Red Light vs Blue Light preference

2. Dim light vs Bright Light preference

Thanks to Sandhya Deo for these results 20

3. Preferred Light Intensity

Thanks to Wei-Hsin Chan for these results

4. The effects that distance travelled has on alternation behaviour. In this experiment the woodlice were forced to make a right hand turn and then after a variable distance were given a choice of taking a left or right turn. Those that turned left showed the alternation behaviour. The experiment was repeated with the forced turn being to the left and results for both were collated.

1 Mature Woodlice 2 Juvenile Woodlice

1

2

Thanks to James van Rij for these results 21

5. The Effect of clumping on water loss Water loss was measured by taking the drop in weight of 10 isolated woodlice and comparing this with the drop in weight of 10 woodlice which had been allowed to clump together as a group.

1

2

1 Clumped group 2 Individuals group

Thanks to Rebecca Wilson for these results

6. The Effect of humidity on water loss

1 2

3 4 5

6

1 - 100% 4 - 40%

2 - 80% 5 - 20%

3 - 60% 6 - 0%

Thanks to Adam Blower and Steven Hardy for these results 22

More Experimental Backgound and Data It has been studied that Isopods are very active when it comes to varying conditions in their environment. This activity leads them to be typically found in dark, moist, and crowded places. Isopods are known by several names: sow bugs, pill bugs, or woodlice. Because of the large number of species in the isopod order, it was necessary to determine the specific family of which the studies were done. Pill bugs are classified in the family Armadillidae and can roll themselves into a small ball. However, the animal being studied here was unable to perform this activity and was determined to be a sow bug species. More specifically, this species is a member of the Porcellionidae family. The Porcellios are a group of animals that are grayish in colour and when it is disturbed it tends to quickly run away. The head is crown shaped with the two outer lobes being rounded. It has two pairs of projections on the rear of the body called uropods. The inner pair of uropods is much smaller than the outer pair. The posterior ends of the plates of the exoskeleton tend to come to a sharp point. On the underside of the body there are two pairs of pleopod lungs. The outer margins of the plates of the exoskeleton are slightly reverse curved in the upward direction. They have 7 pairs of legs and their bodies consist of three fused sections so that it is difficult to be sure where each section starts or finishes. Woodlice, as they are also referred, are often found in the upper layers of compost heaps, under rotting wood or logs, under surfaces or stones, and in other dark, damp places. Woodlice belong to the biological class Crustacea. Most of the animals in this class are aquatic, and although the terrestrial species can breath with the aid of primitive "lungs," they lack the features found in most other land dwelling arthropods. They do not have a waterproof waxy cuticle on their exoskeleton, like insects, and are therefore more likely to suffer from desiccation compared with other arthropods, which have a well-developed waxy layer. These animals excrete their nitrogenous waste as ammonia gas directly through their exoskeleton, which means that their exoskeleton needs to be permeable to ammonia and is therefore also permeable to water vapour. Most other animals excrete their nitrogenous waste in the form of urea or uric acid, so woodlice do not have to expend energy on such processes. The fact that woodlice prefer high humidity and cooler temperatures is a direct response of the permeability of their exoskeleton to water and the loss of water from their bodies. These preferences are behavioural adaptations to help reduce desiccation. The experiments preformed here are testing this theory and demonstrating this behaviour. Many of the behavioural responses of woodlice are concerned with water conservation and the need to avoid desiccation. They have a relatively high surface area to volume ratio and are therefore likely to loose water by diffusion more quickly than many other species. Porcellio scaber show a kinesis type response to moisture. They show both an increased speed of movement, or orthokinesis, and increased rate of turning, or klinokinesis, in dry conditions and slower rates of movement in more damp conditions. This response will result in them accumulating in more damp regions, and so will not loose water from their bodies. Interestingly, it has been reported that woodlice taken from very damp conditions show a different reaction. They may either show no difference in their reaction to changes in moisture or may even actively avoid the damp regions in preference for the drier regions (Sutton, Woodlice, 1972). Woodlice also show a positive orthokinesis as the temperature increases or decreases from their preferred range. Their rate of turning also seems to show a similar response. By moving more rapidly, they are likely to spend less time in these unfavourable conditions and therefore will avoid unnecessary desiccation. They are known to show a negative phototaxis as well. This would result in them moving away from bright conditions towards darker regions. Brighter conditions tend to be drier and warmer than dark conditions, so this behaviour will again result in decreased desiccation. Finally, these animals have been shown to demonstrate positive thigmokinesis. This means they are less active when more of their body surface is in contact with other objects, including other woodlice. They will move around so that the maximum amount of their 23

body is in contact with other objects. This behaviour results in woodlice forming groups or clumps and also means they will tend to congregate in cracks and crevices. In any case, they will have better protection from desiccation and also predators.

Procedure In order to demonstrate the effects of temperature and moisture on the animals, a chamber was set up with an underlying grid, used for calculations. The chamber could be altered in order to create a different environment. In this case, temperature was varied from cold, to room temperature, to warm. In each temperature range, damp versus dry was compared. The animal was placed in the chamber for a period of time and recorded using a digital camera. Upon playback of the video, the number of squares the animal covered over the period of time was calculated to give a value of orthokinesis. Also, the number of turns made by the animal was counted to demonstrate the value of klinokinesis occurring in each environment. These values were then tabulated and compared.

24

Results - Orthokinetic experiment Cold-Dry Run

Squares Covered 1 122 2 206 3 62 4 42 5 97 6 76 Average =

Run 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2

300 300 180 180 180 180 0.4387

Orthokinetic Value 0.4067 0.6867 0.3444 0.2333 0.5389 0.4222

Run 1 2 3 4 5 6

Room Temperature-Dry Squares Time Orthokinetic Covered Value 129 300 0.4300 149 300 0.4967 73 180 0.4056 96 180 0.5333 262 180 1.4556 104 180 0.5778

Average =

Run

Time

Cold-Wet

Warm-Dry Squares Covered 103 38

Average =

Run 1 2 3 4 5 6

0.6498

Time 94 31

Squares Covered 9 41 34 59 72 18

Time

Orthokinetic Value 180 0.0500 180 0.2278 180 0.1889 300 0.1967 300 0.2400 180 0.1000 Average = 0.1672

Room Temperature-Wet Squares Time Orthokinetic Covered Value 2 300 0.0067 34 300 0.1133 37 180 0.2056 21 180 0.1167 24 180 0.1333 13 180 0.0722 Average =

Orthokinetic Value 1.0957 1.2258

Run 1 2

1.1608

Warm-Wet Squares Time Covered 16 31 11 30

Orthokinetic Value 0.5161 0.3667

Average =

25

0.1080

0.4414

Klinokinetic experiment

Run

Cold-Dry Turns

Time

13 2 15 3 16 46 58 62 Average

60 60 60 60 60 60 =

0.0500 0.2500 0.2667 0.1000 0.1333 0.0333 0.1389

Klinokinetic Value

Room Temperature-Dry Run Turns Time Klinokinetic Value 1 16 60 0.2667 2 33 60 0.5500 3 22 60 0.3667 4 18 60 0.3000 5 31 60 0.5167 6 14 60 0.2333 Average = 0.3722

Run

Warm-Dry Turns

1 57 60 2 41 31 Average =

Time

Run

Cold-Wet Turns

1 2 3 4 5 6

2 9 11 8 11 7

Run 1 2 3 4 5 6

Klinokinetic Value

0.9500 1.3226 1.1363

26

Time

Klinokinetic Value 60 0.0333 60 0.1500 60 0.1833 60 0.1333 60 0.1833 60 0.1167 Average = 0.1333

Room Temperature-Wet Turns Time Klinokinetic Value 2 60 0.0333 4 60 0.0667 16 60 0.2667 21 60 0.3500 11 60 0.1833 17 60 0.2833 Average = 0.1972

Run

Warm-Wet Turns Time

1 2

9 7

Klinokinetic Value 31 0.2903 30 0.2333 Average = 0.2618

Experimental Conclusions Both experiments followed the predicted outcomes. The orthokinetic experiment showed that the rate of movement increased with temperature. The discrepancy in the moist environment is most likely due to the animal pausing at moist points to take up water. This is seen in the cold and room temperature environments. The warm environment was highly unfavourable for the animal in any case. This is due to the heat causing excessive desiccation. In the klinokinetic experiment, the same predicted outcomes were observed. The rate of turning increased with temperature. One result to point out here is that the rate of turning increased much more in the dry environment than in the wet environment. This would most likely be due to the fact that a wet environment is favourable over dry for the animal, so it is to be expected that the rates are higher for the dry environment.

General Information One behaviour that was noticed during the experiment was the use of the uropod structures at the posterior of the animal. Woodlice get water with their food, but they can also drink it through their mouth and also by using their uropods. The uropods are tube-like structures on the posterior of the animal. When they use them for drinking they press their uropods close together and touch it against a moist surface. Capillary action pulls the water up the uropods and into the anus. The above picture shows the uropod lifted in order to prevent suction of water. Woodlice, along with most other crustaceans, have the compound haemocyanin in their blood. Haemocycanin carries oxygen in the same way that haemoglobin does in mammals. Haemocycanin contains a copper atom instead of the iron atom found in haemoglobin. The blood is pale blue when it is carrying oxygen and colourless when it is not carrying oxygen. Because a woodlouse contains very small amounts of haemocycanin, it is not possible to see these colour changes by direct observation. There are cases of blue woodlice. An iridovirus can infect woodlice and at advanced stages of infection virus accumulates in such large numbers that it forms crystalline structures in the diseased tissues. These crystalline structures give an intense blue or purple colour to the woodlice. Individuals infected to this extent will usually die within a short time. Another interesting fact about woodlice is that they have the ability to change sex. Male woodlice infected by Wolbachia bacteria will turn into female woodlice. The bacteria upset the normal action of the male hormone. Bacteria are passed to the next generation in the cytoplasm of the egg cells, and this process means that there is a better chance of Wolbachia survival as all infected offspring will be female and therefore will all allow infection of the third generation of woodlice. Woodlice are land-dwelling crustaceans. They breathe through gills which need to be kept moist at all times, and this requirement influences much of their behaviour. It is easy to fall into the trap of thinking that woodlice ‘prefer’ damp, dark crevices – or, even worse that they ‘choose’ these places or ‘like’ them. This is falling into the trap of anthropomorphism – imagining that animals must experience the world as we humans do. In England students are often asked to write school reports about the behaviour of woodlice after carrying out experiments using ‘choice-chambers’. I have no intention of writing such a report here, but there is no harm in pointing out some common mistakes and giving a few ‘clues’. Woodlice are most active during the night and are usually found huddled together in damp places during the day, but they do not move towards damp conditions, it is just that they are more active in the dry. Similarly they do not choose crevices or other woodlice, but are more active when their bodies are not being touched. These differences in the levels of activity, and therefore rates of movement, mean that woodlice spend most of their time crowded together in damp crevices. This type, of behavioural response to stimuli is known as ‘kinetic’- it is not directional. The other error that students often make is to fail to mention the species of woodlouse they observed. (Key to help Identify British Woodlice). 27

Section 2

Human Behaviour • Lesson plans • Resources

A series of three lesson plans exploring aspects of behaviour in humans. Starting with behaviours which we share with other vertebrates (instincts and reflexes) the lessons move on to aspects of human behaviour which mark us out from them – problem-solving and decision making, and then look at personal space as an example of a human social behaviour concept, with a related investigation.

Lesson 1: Instinct, reflexes and learned behaviours Part

Content

HSW skills

Communication: presenting an investigation

Objectives

To describe and distinguish between types of animal behaviours, noting differences and similarities with humans

Outcomes

Pupils will confidently define, and give examples of instincts and reflexes in humans and animals

Starter

Main part

Discuss definitions – start by describing some instincts; homing instinct of pigeons, suckling instinct of babies and young animals, rocking instinct when a person picks up a baby to comfort them. Ask for examples seen in pupils’ pets and families. Elicit that instincts are untaught, are behaviour patterns and are ‘hardwired’ (genetic). They occur across ethnic groups and often have a primitive survival function. Cardsort: sort these out into ‘instinct’ and ‘not instinct’ to reinforce understanding of meanings. Point out that some automatic actions which are not instincts, called ‘reflexes’, are triggered when a nerve is stimulated. We’re now going to try out some:

Resources

Card-sort sets

Circus of investigations – 1. Firmly stroke a spoon handle down the sole of a bare foot. Watch the toes. 2. Sit down, cross legs, firmly but gently tap under kneecap. Watch the lower leg 3. Spin a subject round until dizzy – an office chair is a safer way to do this. Keep the person still and look in their eyes – do you see them flick side to side (‘nystagmus’) as the ‘room spins’ for them? For variety try it with the head held horizontally. 4. Clap your hands in front of the subject’s face. Pretend to punch them in the stomach but stop just short. What reflex actions help protect them from danger?

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Spoons, office chair beaker of water

5. Dip three fingers in water for a few mins. Look for the wrinkling – a nerve controlled reflex. (cutting the nerves to the hand will prevent it). What advantage might it give? What happens to the other fingers, and the other hand? Try it with the elbow – no wrinkling. Then either: Make an annotated poster on large paper to illustrate the findings for one of the investigations. Or Present your investigation In the style of Robert Winston or a news report.

Plenary Differentiation

See interactive ppt slide Most able pupils may also be introduced to the additional category of learned reflexes and an example included in the circus - eg. Ask them to use a knife and fork the wrong way round, or fasten the buttons on a shirt belonging to someone of the opposite sex, and report on the difficulties. But avoid KS4 conditioned reflexes issues.

Homework Safety

Other notes

Spinning a subject to make them dizzy needs careful adult supervision and removal of objects and furniture which might cause injury if they fall. Some pupils may be embarrassed to take their shoes and socks off and this should be avoided if likely to be a problem. A demo on an adult is an alternative.

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Lesson 1: Is it an instinct? Newly hatched ducklings follow the first moving object they see and assume it is the mother duck

People usually say ‘bless you’ when someone sneezes

Male robins attack a dummy bird which has a red breast on it

Everyone shakes hands using their right hand

Salmon in the sea return to the stream they were born in, to breed

Most people feel that wearing brown and purple stripes looks bad

An injured animal will lick its wounds

Bears eat rubbish out of bins in Canada

All the fish in a shoal turn direction together

Drivers brake when they see a red light

New-born human babies ‘walk’ if you hold them above a surface

A dog will come up to you when you whistle it

A female horse eats its placenta after giving birth

Welsh people are all good singers

A cat, when dropped, lands with its feet downward

Blind people have a better developed sense of hearing

Dogs gather round the house of a bitch on heat

Crows are scared of a scarecrow

Answers: left side are instincts. They fulfil the requirement of being behaviours which are not learned, and are not simple responses to nerve stimulation. The right side responses are either reflexes, learned responses, or not true.

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Lesson 2: Investigation into how people solve problems Part HSW skills Objectives

Outcomes

Content

Resources

Groupwork, experimental design To explore the use of planning, decision-making, lateral thinking, discussion, trial-and error, and deferred gratification when humans solve problems. To be able to relate these to times in scientific enquiries and general life when these behaviours are used Pupils will solve a practical problem in order to consider the strategies they used, and be able to explain their methods

Starter

Ask pupils to relate examples of when animals seems ‘silly’ – suggest birds stuck inside the house, dogs stuck in pipes or burrows, etc. Take two or three of their funniest. Point out the lack of considered thought animals put into solving their problems. How, generally, our problem solving techniques set us apart from other animals in our behaviour. Explain that we are now going to solve a couple of problems, but the purpose is not so much finding the solution, as watching ourselves do it and thinking about the strategies (behaviours) that we use. The science of psychology is the study of behaviour

Main part

Divide pupils into groups of threes, or other appropriate groupings One pupil acts as observer and note-maker. The other two discuss and solve the problem. The note-maker must be prepared to report back to the class verbally Problem 1: Pupils are given a candle and a box of drawing pins. They have to attach the candle to the notice board in such a way that when it is lit it is upright and doesn’t scorch the board. This encourages lateral thinking as it is not immediately obvious that the box can be used as a candle-holder and the candle secured to the box with melted wax, while the pins hold the box to the wall. Problem 2: Three posts are fastened upright on the desk in a row. On post ‘A’ are slotted four discs as in the diagram.

A

B 34

C

candles matches boxes of drawing pins posts and discs

The task is to move them to post ‘B’, always following the rule that no disc can be placed over one that is smaller. Post ‘C’ can be used as a temporary holder although the rule applies to that post too. Only one disc may move at a time. The aim is to use the fewest possible moves. The observer, in explaining what the team did, may see that they first defined the problem, then discussed possible options before deciding on a strategy. This may or may not have been successful first time. Some teams may start immediately and use trial and error, while others plan then act. The merits of these approaches can be discussed, and comparisons made with animals. The value of speech will be apparent (you could try a ‘silent’ group) The point is not the solution of the problem, but the tactics used to get there. Suitable posts could be pencils in a pencil block, or mass-holders with different sized masses on them. Discs could include CDs, rubber bungs, masses or you could prepare cardboard ones.

Plenary

Differentiation

Groups that worked by trial and error, or rushed straight to Mini white-boards a possible conclusion, will appreciate the story of the man and pens who caught a monkey by putting sweets into a heavy narrow-necked jar. The monkey took a fist-full and couldn’t a big jar of get its hand out. If it tried to escape, it had to let go of the sweets and sweets. Monkeys are not good enough problem-solvers to monkey mask allow ‘deferred gratification’ – neither are small children (or would be useful some not so small). Ask the pupils to illustrate one human example of failing to apply ‘deferred gratification’ on their mini white-boards in cartoon style. (prompts if needed – pocket money, alcohol, marathon running, pensions) Make the point that this is a higher-order behaviour. When is this behaviour actually a disadvantage? Do squirrels show DF by hoarding nuts? When might a scientist need this behavioural skill, for instance in solving a crime? The tasks may be made easier with the use of prompt cards or written instructions, and made harder with a strict time limit, no-talking rule, or for problem 1 fewer pins, for problem 2, more discs.

Homework

Octopuses are supposed to be the most intelligent molluscs. Design an experiment to test their problemsolving skills. Draw an annotated diagram of the set-up, explain how you would get the octopus to do it (after all, they can’t read or understand you talking to them!), measure its success, and what you would look for to see how the animal went about solving the problem. What might you have to find out about octopuses first?

Safety

Check the candles are safe and securely fastened before pupils are allowed to light them.

Other notes 35

Lesson 3: Experimenting with personal space Part HSW skills

Objectives

Outcomes

Starter

Main part

Content

Resources

Use range of scientific methods to test ideas Evaluate evidence Use secondary sources Investigate personal space as an example of human behaviour which is affected by a range of factors Critically discuss and extend simple experiments on human psychology Pupils will be able to explain and describe personal space and its ‘invasion’ They will have looked at a psychological experiment and considered how it was set up, controlled and how results can be analysed, and will be able to give a reasoned explanation of the techniques used. When the class is seated and settled, the teacher gets a seat and sits as close as possible to a chosen pupil while the register is taken (or other suitable neutral activity). Note the body-language, comments and other behaviours of the pupil. (Choose carefully!) Introduce the lesson by asking pupils how they would react if they were sitting in an otherwise empty row of seats in a train and someone came and sat right next to them. Compare with the reaction of the squirming pupil the teacher chose to sit next to. Why do we react like that? What factors might influence our reactions or the amount of closeness we can tolerate? Define personal space as a kind of invisible bubble around us where there are rules about who can move into it, how they act there and under what circumstances we tolerate them. Read sheet 1 (first page only) with the class. Discuss the experiment and the questions in bold. Now hand out the second page of sheet 1. Presentation of the results (best as overlapping line graphs) is optional depending on time and the needs of the group. Another option at this point is to plan to carry out a similar or related experiment in your own library or dining hall. Hand out sheet 2, give time to complete, then discuss… Answers are: 1 closer; 2 further; 3 closer; 4 further; 5 closer; 6 further; 7 further; 8 further; 9 further; 10 further; 11 closer. What other factors might they add? Ask a pupil to stand in the middle of an empty piece of floor. Draw concentric circles around them, at a radius of approx 40 cm, 110cm and 4 metres. 36

Sheets 1and 2 Stick of chalk

The zone they are standing in is the intimate zone, then come the arms-length zone, personal zone and social zone. What zone would they feel comfortable… • • • • • •

Talking at a party Meeting the Headteacher Standing by an adult stranger of the opposite/same sex Having a confrontation Chatting someone up Playing with a toddler

You can ask for other examples. Outside the social zone communication is difficult. When might you keep someone that far away?

Plenary

Differentiation Homework

Safety Other notes

Summarise the functions and features of personal space. Finally explain that personal space is protected by unwritten rituals in our society. One of these is ‘shaking hands’. Pupils can be shown how to shake hands effectively – avoiding the ‘wet-fish’ and the ‘bone-crusher’, not touching the other person with the other hand etc. Then practice with each other. Most school pupils never shake hands socially, find it embarrassing and are at a loss when expected to do so, eg at an interview, so it’s worth a practice! The sheets with this lesson contain more work than is practicable in 1 hour. Take away activities as appropriate India has the most formalised caste system to protect personal space – a new caste has recently been described, lower than the ‘untouchables’, who wash the clothes of the untouchables. They only come out at night as they believe if a high-caste person sees them they will contaminate that person. Most people were not even aware that this group existed until recently. Your task – to research the castes on the internet and write a paragraph on each caste to explain what they are. No issues It’s obvious, but be sensitive to cultural and gender issues with class members when demonstrating personal space, shaking hands etc.

37

Lesson 3: Sheet 1 In 1966, in an American University, a female psychology student tried the following experiment: There were six chairs around a large table in the University library, fairly evenly spaced. Only one, or occasionally two of these chairs were occupied by unsuspecting female students, who were busy reading. The experimenter tried out these different tests on the students round the table: 1. She sat next to a student, and moved her chair to within 8cm (as close as you can get without touching). If the student moved away, she moved nearer again, saying nothing. 2. She sat next to a student, but at an acceptable distance of half a metre away. 3. She sat one seat away from the student (leaving one chair between them) 4. She sat three seats away 5. She sat immediately facing the student across the table What results would you expect to get? What sort of things might the experimenter have measured to get her results? In what way might she have made this a controlled experiment? How could the experiment be adapted to get more reliable results?

Her results: She repeated the experiments many times over. Only 55% of the students she sat very close to (test 1) stayed at the table for more than 10 minutes. 90% of the others (tests 2 to 5) stayed for more than 10 minutes. 100% of students stayed longer than 10 minutes when the experimenter didn’t sit on the same table at all, but the table and chairs were arranged the same way. This was her control. After 20 minutes the number of students staying in test 1 dropped to 45%, and 80% for tests 2 to 5. There were still just under 100% of students at the table if the experimenter didn’t go near. After 30 minutes the number of students staying in test 1 dropped to 30%. For tests 2 to 5 there were 73% remaining, and 87% at the table without an experimenter. In test 1, students didn’t just move off. Sometimes they made barriers of books or their bags between themselves and the ‘intruder’.

In the space below show these results in an easy-to-understand diagram or chart form.

38

Lesson 3: Sheet 2 Closer or Further Away?? Some factors lead to us setting up a bigger personal space, some make it smaller. For each of these, write ‘Closer’ or ‘Further away’ 1. The other person is a close family member 2. The other person is elderly 3. You are in a crowded bus 4. You live in the country, not a city 5. You are under the age of six 6. The other person smells 7. The other person may be drunk 8. You are a criminal convicted of a violent crime 9. You are schizophrenic 10. Both of you are Swedish or Scottish 11. Both of you are Arab or South American

39