The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) is a nonprofit organization funded through the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Rural Utility Service. Our mission is to help small towns and rural areas have the best drinking water possible. We have information available to make it easier for you to achieve that goal. We maintain a toll-free technical assistance hotline, produce On Tap magazine, and distribute many other free educational materials. We also

sponsor conferences, workshops, and seminars. The NDWC houses several databases, including a comprehensive small system treatment technologies database called RESULTS, which can be searched by request at no charge. To learn more about the NDWC, you can order an information package or speak with a member of our staff by calling (800) 624-8301. Or, you can visit our Web site at: www.ndwc.wvu.edu.

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Features

Calendar .................................. 5

23 Grassroots Watershed

News and Notes .................... 6

Protection

Letters to the Editor ..........10

County Group Works to Clean Up Waterways

Web Resources .................... 12 Ask the Experts ....................14

28 Water Boards

Cover Story ..........................16 Products .............................. 50

34 Security and Emergency Planning Community-Wide Efforts Require Preparation

Products Order Form ........ 54 Fun Time .............................. 56 Until Next Time .................. 58

38 Ideal Training Solutions For Water Operations

42 New Methods for

Removing Arsenic

46 Besides SRF and RUS funding, what are some alternatives?

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En d oc rine Di s ru p to r s What are they doing to you?

Tech Brief Water Hammer

Water hammer is the momentary increase in pressure that occurs in a water sys tem when there is a sudden change of direction or velocity of the water. These pressure fluctuations can be severe enough to rupture a water main. Therefore, potential water hammer problems should be considered in each design or opera tion change to avoid costly malfunctions in the distribution system.

How To Manganese Greensand Treatment Units As one remote West Virginia school discovered, these treatment units are effective in removing iron and manganese from drinking water—provided that they are installed correctly and maintained properly. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 3

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Drinking Water News and Information for America’s Small Communities Winter 2003 . Volume 2 . Issue 4

Sponsored by Rural Utilities Service

From the Editor’s Desk Greetings and belated best wishes for a terrific year in 2003 from all of us at the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC).

Hilda Gay Legg . administrator Susan Loney . loan specialist Darrel Lipscomb . loan specialist

N a t i o n a l D r i n ki n g W a t e r C l e a ri n g h o u s e The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) assists small communities by collecting, developing, and providing timely information relevant to drinking water issues. Established in 1991,the NDWC is funded by the Rural Utilities Service and is located at West Virginia University. John L. Mori, Ph.D. . director, National Environmental Services Center Sanjay Saxena . director, National Drinking Water Clearinghouse Mark Kemp-Rye . editor

Thanks to all of you who completed the reader survey in the last issue. Unfortunately, the printer placed the survey behind the inserts in the center of the magazine, making it hard to remove. Our apologies. In this issue, you’ll find the survey once again,but placed in such a way that it should be easier to remove. We encourage you to fill it out and mail it so that we may use the comments to improve On Tap.

Kathy Jesperson . associate editor John Fekete . senior graphic designer Chris Metzgar . graphic designer Michelle Moore . associate editor Jamie Knotts . assistant editor Vipin Bhardwaj . engineering scientist Mary Stewart . program administrator Sheila Anderson . administrative associate Lori Jennings . administrative associate

If you haven’t been to our Web site recently, you’ll find a wealth of information there about current topics, such as water system security and arsenic removal. You’ll also find searchable databases, copies of On Tap, a discussion forum,and advice on technical topics. Log on to www.ndwc.wvu.edu to see for yourself. Speaking of the Internet, we now field technical assistance questions via e-mail. Send your queries to [email protected]. Or, if you prefer, you can still call us at (800) 624-8301 and ask to speak to a technical assistance specialist. On behalf of the NDWC staff, I wish you every success bringing safe, clean drinking water to America’s small communities.

Cover art by Kairi Frame Some images in this issue © 2001–2002, www.arttoday.com

O n Ta p E d i to r i a l A d v i s o ry B o a rd Jerry Biberstine . senior environmental engineer, National Rural Water Association Jenny Bielanski . operator certification/ capacity development coordinator, EPA Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water Rodney Coker . retired tribal utility consultant, Indian Health Servic e Mark Coyne . associate professor, University of Kentucky Frank DeOrio . director of municipal utilities, Auburn,NY Kevin Kundert . interactive training developer, Montana Water Resources Center Z. Michael Lahlou, Ph.D. . civil and environmental engineer, Huntington Beach, CA Lori B. Libby . senior project manager, Center for Public Management and Regional Affairs , Miami University of Ohio Babu Madabhushi, Ph.D. . project engineer, URS Corporation, Miami Springs, FL Lee Michalsky . assistant professor, Alaska Training and Technical Assistance Center

Mark Kemp-Rye On Tap Editor

Lisa Raysby . water department manager, Peninsula Light Company, WA Jay Rutherford, P.E. . water supply division director, Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation Nelson Yarlott . resident operator, Bellvue Water Treatment Plant, Greeley, CO

Ar ti cle Submissions On Tap is a free quarterly publication. Articles,letters to the editor, news items,photographs, or other materials submitted for publication are encouraged.Please address correspondence to: Editor, On Tap, NDWC West Virginia University PO Box 6064 Morgantown WV 26506-6064

(800) 624-8301 (304) 293-4191 (304) 293-3161 (Fax) www.ndwc.wvu.edu

Permission to quote from or reproduce articles in this publication is granted when due acknowledgement is given. Please send a copy of the publication in which information was used to the On Tap editor at the address above.The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Rural Utilities Service,nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. ISSN 1061-9291 Printed on Recyled Paper ® An Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Institution

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C a l e n d a r March

May

American Water Works Association’s (AWWA) Customer Service Conference and Exposition March 16–19,2003 Denver, CO Phone:(800) 926-7337 www.awwa.org

American Backflow Prevention Association International Conference and Tradeshow May 4–7,2003 Detroit Marriott Renaissance Center Detroit, MI Contact: Shane Dillard Phone:(979) 846-7606 Fax:(979) 846-7607 Email:[email protected] www.abpa.org

3rd World Water Forum March 16–23,2003 Kyoto International Conference Hall Kyoto, Japan Phone:+81-3-5212-1645 www.worldwaterforum.org/ Water Quality Association 29th Annual Convention and Exhibition March 18–22,2003 Las Vegas Convention Center, Las Vegas, NV Phone:(630) 505-0160 Fax:(630) 505-9637 www.wqa.org AWWA’s Water Security Congress March 23–26,2003 Los Angeles, CA Phone:(800) 926-7337 www.awwa.org 3rd Annual Alternative Water and Wastewater Technologies for Small Communities Conference March 31 and April 1,2003 Holiday Inn Central, Omaha,NE Contact:Jackie Stumpff Phone:(402) 471-3193 Fax:(402) 471-2909 E-mail: [email protected] www.deq.state.ne.us

June National Environmental Health Association 67th Annual Conference June 8–11,2003 Reno Hilton Hotel Reno/Lake Tahoe, NV Phone:(303) 756-9090 Fax:(303) 691-9490 www.neha.org American Water Works Association Annual Conference and Exposition June 15–19,2003 Anaheim Convention Center Anaheim, CA Phone:(800) 926-7337 or (303) 795-2114 Fax:(303) 794-3951 www.awwa.org/ace2003/ National Association of Environmental Professionals 28th Annual Conference June 22–25,2003 Adams Mark on the Riverwalk San Antonio,TX Phone:(888) 251-9902 or (301) 860-1140 Fax:(301) 860-1141 www.naep.org

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July National Association of Counties Annual Conference July 11–15,2003 Midwest Express Center Milwaukee, WI Contact: Patrick Cokley Phone:(202) 942-4293 Fax:(202) 393-2630 www.naco.org National Environmental Training Center for Small Communities Annual Institute July 29–August 1,2003 Mountainlair, West Virginia University Morgantown,WV Phone:(800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191 Fax:(304) 293-3161 www.netc.wvu.edu September National Association of Towns and Townships Annual Conference September 3–5,2003 Hyatt Regency Capitol Hill Washington,DC Phone:(202) 624-3550 Fax:(202) 624-3554 www.smallcommunities.org October Water Environment Federation’s 76th Annual Technical Exhibition and Conference October 11–15,2003 Los Angeles, CA Phone:(800) 444-2933 www.weftec.org

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EVENTS If you are sponsoring a water-related event and want to have it listed in this calendar, please send information to Lori Jennings, National Drinking Water Clearinghouse, West Virginia University, P.O. Box 6064, Morgantown, WV 26506-6064.You also may call Lori at (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191 extension 5522 or email her at [email protected]

Association of State Drinking Water Administrators Annual Conference and Exposition October 6–9,2003 Sheraton Hotel Boston,MA Phone:(202) 293-7655 Fax:(202) 293-7656 www.asdwa.org Water Environment Federation WEFTEC ’03 October 11–15,2003 Los Angeles Convention Center Los Angeles, CA Phone:(800) 666-0206 or (703) 684-2452 Fax:(703) 684-2492 www.weftec.org 55th Annual National Rural Water Association Convention October 19–22,2003 Oklahoma City Convention Center Oklahoma City, OK Phone:(580) 252-0629 Fax: (580) 255-4476 www.nrwa.org

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Engineers Push for Water Trust Fund In October 2002, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) recommended that the federal government create a “water trust fund” to aid the nation’s water systems. Noting an estimated funding gap in water infrastructure investment of $534 billion over the next 20 years, ASCE’s recommendation is at odds with a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency report that places responsibility on state and local systems. According to EPA’s The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis, state and local governments can close the gap by increasing their capital and operations and maintenance budgets by three percent annually for the next 20 years, with no federal contributions needed. However, ASCE charges, the report does not consider the impact of future population growth and new construction on the nation’s overburdened water infrastructure systems. “The case for federal investment is compelling when you consider that failing to meet the investment needs for water infrastructure over the next 20 years puts the public health, environmental, and economic gains of the last three decades in peril,” said H. Gerard Schwartz, Jr., ASCE president. “This report’s assertion that state and local government can shoulder

the burden of offsetting the shortfall in water infrastructure funding is unacceptable. “It is critical that the federal government take a leadership role in solving the problem of our decaying water infrastructure by establishing a flexible federal investment program that includes grants, loans and other forms of assistance coupled with local and state funds, says Schwartz. “Grants are needed for many communities that simply cannot afford to meet public health, environmental, or service-level requirements. Loans and credit enhancements may be sufficient for other types of communities with greater economies of scale, wealthier populations, or fewer assets per capita to replace.” Founded in 1852, ASCE represents 125,000 civil engineers worldwide and is the nation’s oldest engineering society. For more information visit their Web site at www.asce.org, write to 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191, or call (800) 548-2723.

NSF Gets Homeland Security Funding The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) awarded two cooperative agreements to NSF International for work on homeland security. The NSF homeland security project includes identification of priority areas of investigation, selection of potential technologies, test protocol development, and technology evaluation. The NSF Drinking Water Systems Center (DWSC) and the NSF Water Quality Protection Center (WQPC) will administer the agreements through the NSF/EPA Environmental Technology Verification Program. The first verification reports are scheduled for completion in late 2003. According to NSF, the DWSC verifies the efficacy of home water treatment systems in providing protection against water contaminants. DWSC has verified the performance of 29 drinking water On Tap . Winter 2003 . 6

technologies including technologies for Cryptosporidium and arsenic reduction. WQPC focuses on equipment designed to treat water used in the cleanup of contaminated buildings and equipment. WQPC verifies technologies for disinfectant mixers, storm water treatment, mercury amalgam separation, wastewater nutrient reduction, and animal waste separation. “NSF International and its stakeholders are playing a critical role in developing ETV testing protocols and verifying technologies that help to secure the nation’s drinking water,” says Teresa Harten, director of EPA’s environmental technology verification program. For more information about NSF’s home land security work, visit their Web site at www.nsf.org or write to P.O. Box 130140, 789 N. Dixboro Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48113-0140.

Are you getting enough water? For years, the National Research Council’s Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) has recommended that adults drink 64 ounces (eight, 8-ounce glasses) of water each day. One recent report seems to validate this recommendation while another questions it. A study lead by Jacqueline Chan, Ph.D., and published in the American Journal of Epidemiology, found that healthy people who drink five glasses of water a day have only half the risk of fatal coronary heart disease, compared with those who drink less than two glasses each day. Chan and her colleagues investigated more than 20,000 participants. They also found that heavy consumption of caffeine, juice, milk, and alcohol was associated with a 46 percent increase in heart attack risk. In an American Journal of Physiology report, however, Heinz Valtin, M.D., states that he can find no scientific basis for the so-called “8x8” recommendation and suggests that people may not need this much water. He claims that items such as juice, milk, soda, and coffee are made up

almost entirely of water and may be reasonable substitutes for it. Dr. Valtin also says that too much water can lead to “water intoxication,” a situation where the kidneys become overloaded and can’t keep pace with fluid intake. This condition is being reported with increasing frequency in endurance athletes, military personnel, and certain recreational drug users, he says. The FNB is finishing a review of daily water consumption and expects to release the findings in March 2003. The board will also investigate how water intake affects health, ranging from kidney stones to heart conditions. They will also look at whether or not the fluid in foods is an adequate source of water.

NGWA Encourages Annual Well Checkups More than 15 million households in the U.S. have their own water wells. And, like furnaces, chimneys and people, these wells benefit from routine checkups. The National Ground Water Association (NGWA), as part of its 2003 Ground Water Awareness Week, March 16–22, encourages an annual well checkup conducted by a licensed or certified groundwater contractor to ensure the proper operation of the well, prolong its years of service, and monitor the water quality. According to NGWA, a well checkup should include: • a flow test to determine system output, along with a check of the water level before and during pumping (if possible), pump motor performance (check amp load, grounding, and line

voltage), pressure tank and pressure switch contact, and general water quality (odor, cloudiness, etc.); • an inspection of well equipment to assure that it is sanitary and meets local code requirements; • a test of your water for coliform bacteria and nitrates, and anything else of local concern; additional typical tests check for iron, manganese, water hardness, sulfides, and other water constituents that cause problems with plumbing, staining, water appearance, and odor; and • a concise, clear, written report delivered to you following the checkup that explains results and recommendations and includes all laboratory and other test results. For more information, visit NGWA’s con sumer Web site, www.wellowner.org. The site addresses many common consumer questions with free information relating to groundwater resources and private water well ownership. Additional information is also available by calling NGWA customer service at (800) 551-7379. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 7

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EPA Releases Water Infrastructure Analysis In September 2002, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released the Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis, a report that examines the estimated funding needs of the nation’s water systems. “This report looks at infrastructure in the broad sense—everything it takes to deliver clean, safe water to America’s homes and businesses and then remove and treat the wastewater that results,” says Christie Whitman, EPA administrator. “From the simplest pipe to the most complex treatment system, we looked at the entire picture.” Assuming no growth in revenues, the total need for clean water—in both capital and operations and maintenance— exceeds $270 billion over 20 years. For drinking water, the gap approaches $265 billion for the same period. The size of the gap can be reduced substantially if a real growth in revenues is projected over the same period. Assuming a three percent annual real growth in revenues, for example, the gap shrinks by nearly 90 percent on

the clean water side and by about 80 percent on the drinking water side. “The actual gap may end up somewhere in between these numbers—and there are an enormous number of considerations that will go into determining where the gap ends up. The important thing about this report is that it enables us to engage the discussion with a better understanding of what the dimensions of the challenge really are,” Whitman says. For fiscal year 2003, the administration has already proposed the largest combined request for the state drinking water and clean water revolving loan funds in history: $2.1 billion. Whitman said that meeting the challenge will require harnessing the power of the public and private sectors both for financing and for the development of new technologies and innovations. In 2003, EPA plans a national forum, that will bring together prominent experts and stakeholders to discuss innovative approaches on how to best meet infrastructure challenges. For a copy of the Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis, visit EPA’s Web site at www.epa.gov/owm/featinfo.htm or write to EPA/OGWDW (4606M), 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Ariel Rios Building, Washington DC, 20460.

New Federal Security Agency One of the final acts of the 107 th Congress was to pass legislation establishing a Department of Homeland Security (DHS). President George W. Bush signed the bill on November 25, 2002. The new department will combine 170,000 federal workers from 22 existing agencies into four divisions: Border and Transportation Security; Emergency Preparedness and Response; Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Countermeasures; and Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection. Tom Ridge, director of the White House’s Office of Homeland Security, will head DHS. For those in the water industry, the bill consolidates several important activities. According to Water On Tap . Winter 2003 . 8

Engineering and Management, the DHS will include “the Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office, now in the Commerce Department; the National Infrastructur e Protection Center, now part of the Federal Bureau of Investigation; and the National Infrastructure Simulation and Analysis Center, currently part of the Energy Department.” Additionally, the Federal Emergency Management Agency will be housed within the DHS. The 107th Congress also passed the Bioterrorism Act of 2002 that, among other things, requires water systems to assess their vulnerability to terrorist attacks. (See the article “Security and Emergency Planning” on page 34 for more information about vulnerability assessments.)

RUS Loans: Poverty Rate Unchanged; Others Up Interest rates for Rural Utilities Service (RUS) water and wastewater loans have been announced. The poverty rate remains the same, while the intermediate and market rates increased slightly. RUS interest rates are issued quarterly at three different levels: the poverty line rate, the intermediate rate, and the market rate. The rate applied to a particular project depends on community income and the type of project being funded. To qualify for the poverty line rate, two criteria must be met. First, the loan must primarily be used for facilities required to meet health and sanitary standards. Second, the median household income of the area being served must be below 80 percent of the state’s non-metropolitan median income or fall below the federal poverty level. As of April 1, 2002, the federal poverty level was $18,100 for a family of four. To qualify for the intermediate rate, the service area’s median household income cannot exceed 100 percent of the state’s non-metropolitan median income. The market rate is applied to projects that don’t qualify for either the poverty or intermediate rates. The market rate is

based on the average of the Bond Buyer Index. The rates, which apply to all loans issued from January 1 through March 31, 2003, are: poverty line: 4.5 percent (unchanged from the previous quarter); intermediate: 4.75 percent (up 0.125 percent from the previous quarter); and market: 5.0 percent (up 0.125 percent from the previous quarter). RUS loans are administered through state Rural Development offices, which can provide specific information concerning RUS loan requirements and applications procedures. For the phone number of your state Rural Development office, contact the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse at (800) 6248301 or (304) 293-4191. The list is also available on the RUS Web site at www.usda.gov/ rus/water/states/ usamap.htm.

Urban Poverty Is Bad; Rural Poverty Worse Where are the highest incidences of poverty in the U.S.? Many people would guess “in the inner cities.” However, you may be surprised to learn that poverty is often worse in rural areas than in urban ones. For the 2.5 million children in rural America, the boom decade of the ‘90s never arrived, says America’s Forgotten Children: Child Poverty in Rural America, a new study by Save the Children. In fact, 195 of the 200 consistently poorest counties are rural. The study notes extreme pockets of poverty along the U.S.–Mexico border, on Native American reservations, in California’s Central Valley, in the Mississippi Delta, and in Appalachia. Poverty persists in these areas because they tend to be isolated and lack money and expertise to support community and economic endeavors. Because of low population density in many of these areas (among other things), they also lack public infrastructure for water, wastewater, and transportation, thus exacerbating existing problems.

International Year of Freshwater During its 55th session, the United Nations (UN) proclaimed 2003 the “International Year of Freshwater.” Also, in December 2002, the UN Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights declared access to water a human right and stated that water is a social and cultural good, not merely an economic commodity.

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Letters to the Editor Paying the Bills In the article “Paying the Bills” (On Tap Vol. 2, Issue 2) David Cole states “If they don’t pay the water bill, they put it on the property tax. But the problem with that is the property owner gets to deduct the amount from their income taxes the following year.” Unfortunately this is not true. While you can deduct your property taxes on your federal income tax return if you itemize, only the portion of your taxes that is based on the evaluation of your taxes is deductible. Assessments and other fees are not. If these customers are deducting the amount of the delinquent water bills, it was done illegally. The federal tax code reads: “A tax is an enforced contribution exacted pursuant to legislative authority in the exercise of taxing power, and imposed and collected for the purpose of raising revenue to be used for public or governmental purposes, and not a payment for some special privilege granted or service rendered.” Because a delinquent water bill is for a service rendered, it is not deductible. Ken Rutkowski Operations Maintenance Specialist Port Austin, Michigan

Who loves ya baby? We don’t even know most of you, it’s true. But, we love to get letters from you anyway! Whether you’ve got a bone to pick with us or an idea for an article, On Tap editors are eager to hear from you. Let us know what we’re doing right and what we’re doing wrong. E-mail the On Tap editors: Mark Kemp-Rye ([email protected]) or Kathy Jesperson ([email protected]) You may also give us a call, toll free, at (800) 624-8301 On Tap . Winter 2003 . 10

David Cole responds To clear up the confusion mentioned by Mr. Rutkowski, I would like to emphasize that I received this information from the municipalities I deal with. As the training specialist for the New York Rural Water Association (NYRWA), I do many presentations to municipal boards. The topic in question is “Rates for Water Systems,” while also addressing the issue of delinquent water bills. Most of the boards I have presented to complain to me about the way customers’ overdue bills are added to the tax role. They like the idea, on one hand, because that avenue allows them to collect the rents. But, they tell me, the downside is the ability of those same residents to deduct that on their taxes. I have never questioned the practice, assuming the municipalities have addressed the legalities of it. I am in no way advocating this practice. I was simply pointing out the process as a hurdle the “system” allows. Whether or not it is legal, which apparently it is not, it is often brought up during my presentations. I make a point not to get involved in the politics of the boards. I typically throw up my hands and tell them “that’s not up to me.” I simply try to provide them with options and ideas. I have, however, added the tax code law Mr. Rutkowski cites to my PowerPoint presentation. I will certainly use this at my next opportunity. I would like to thank On Tap and Mr. Rutkowski for allowing me to learn something that I, in turn, can pass on to the boards I deal with. David Cole Training Specialist New York Rural Water Association

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Flushing Technique Questioned I read the flushing article (On Tap Vol. 2, Issue 2) with interest and have a comment relative to the picture that is on page three of the article and the picture used on the inside front cover of the publication.

In my opinion, an operator should not flush the hydrant using the hydrant as the control valve. This leads to the hydrant seat being ruined. Also, as in the picture, if the operating nut were to break when the hydrant is in a flow mode, the only way to shut the hydrant off at that point would be to shut the whole street down. As you can see in the picture, the hydrant gate access is blocked by the flow of the water out the steamer port. Matt Pearson Manager, Grafton Water District Grafton, Massachusetts

Larry Rader responds I received a number of interesting e-mails concerning my article about hydrant flushing. Many operators, through trial and error, develop different procedures that work best in their system. Any “how to” article, because of space limitations, can only provide an overview using generally accepted practices. A few states regulate hydrant-flushing procedures that could allow chlorinated water to enter a stream, either directly or indirectly. For these situations, several companies offer de-chlorination devices specific to hydrant flushing. Larry Rader NDWC Environmental Consultant

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Water System Security I have been reading the Winter 2002 On Tap (Vol. 1, Issue 4), which focused primarily on water system security. I found this issue to be both comprehensive and informative. I’m a sanitary engineer for the Philadelphia Water Department (PWD), charged with the design and implementation of our water quality (WQ) monitoring network. I’m concerned with what appears to be the lack of available information regarding how to effectively set-up and monitor the water distribution system using remote on-line instrumentation. I would like to share with you how Philadelphia has developed its WQ monitoring network since 1999. During the development of our network, we found that one major issue had to be addressed in order to have an effective WQ monitoring system. That is, to first understand the hydraulics of the distribution system not just within the larger transmission mains, but in the smaller service mains as well. In addition, we identified other key essentials to implementing an effective water security monitoring system as (1) developing hydraulic models for each potential monitoring site, (2) conducting tracer studies within the distribution system to estimate residence and travel times, (3) gathering accurate baseline WQ data at each site, and (4) gathering flow and pressure data for each site. Flow and pressure are probably two of the most important parameters to monitor at each remote site because most utilities, including the PWD, only monitor the larger mains and not the smaller service mains. Ralph J.Rogers Sanitary Engineer 2 Philadelphia Water Department

The phone number listed for the Rural Community Assistance Program (RCAP) in the fall 2002 On Tap is not correct. RCAP's correct phone number is (202) 408-1273. Anyone interested in more information also may e-mail the organization at [email protected]. We apologize for any inconvenience. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 11

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By June 30, 2004, all water systems serving populations between 3,300 and 49,999 will have to conduct a vulnerability assessment and submit the results to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).The new law also requires these systems to have an emergency plan in place that incorporates their vulnerability assessment and to certify this with EPA. To help small systems meet these mandates, the National Rural Water Association has developed a Web-based “engine”—available on the Minnesota Rural Water Association’s (MRWA) Web site—that will provide you with a hard copy of (1) a vulnerability plan, (2) an emergency response plan, and (3) a cover letter to EPA for submitting the material.The “engine”has 50 questions that take approximately 30 minutes to complete. “Physical facilities pose a high degree of exposure to any security threat,”says Ruth Hubbard, MRWA administrator.“This self-assessment is designed for use by water system personnel and should be conducted on all components of your system: wellhead or surface water intake,treatment plant,storage tanks, pumps, distribution system, and other important components of your system.We encourage all water systems,regardless of population, to conduct a vulnerability assessment.” The vulnerability assessment engine was designed in collaboration with EPA and the Association of State Drinking Water Administrators. The engine provides the option of completing hard copy documents or saving the information on your computer. All information is confidential and exempt from freedom of information laws.

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Public Citizen Has Water Info Founded in 1971 by consumer advocate and erstwhile presidential candidate Ralph Nader, Public Citizen’s mission is to represent consumer interests in Congress, the executive branch of the federal government, and in the courts. The organization has six divisions, including one devoted to the environment called “critical mass energy and environment program.” Public Citizen has been an unabashed opponent of the privatization of water facilities in the U.S. and around the world. According to their Web site, “… there is a growing social movement to protect water as a common resource. Because the largest multinational corporations have come to realize that water scarcity and pollution are going to define the next century, a tremendous surge of activity is taking place around the world to commodify and privatize water. Public Citizen is campaigning to protect universal access to clean and affordable drinking water by keeping it in public hands.” The Public Citizen Web site has extensive information related to water privatization, including reports on multinational water corporations, lists of citizen groups working against water privatization, and examples of state and federal legislation about municipal water. The site also offers “economical and ethical alternatives to privatization.” For more information, visit www.citizen.org/cmep/water/ or write to Public Citizen, 1600 20th Street NW, Washington DC, 20009.

USDA State Fact Sheets The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Economic Research Service (ERS) publishes fact sheets for each state and the U.S. as a whole. Information in the fact sheets includes: per-capita income, poverty rate, unemployment rate, percent employment change, and top agriculture commodities. Although the fact sheets primarily focus on agricultural issues, they may be of interest to a wider audience. “You may find the state fact sheets useful for creating presentations about the rural areas of your state,” says Eileen Stommes, ERS deputy administrator. “You can easily link to data sources to develop charts and graphs depicting rural conditions.” The entire state fact-sheet database may be downloaded into MS Access 97. Each topic area has links for more data and to a contact person within ERS who can provide more detailed information.

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Water Pollution Reports Online To mark the 30th anniversary of the Clean Water Act (CWA), the U.S. Public Interest Research Group (USPIRG) released an extensive report documenting water pollution. Using previously nonpublic information obtained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the report In Gross Violation: How Polluters Are Flooding America’s Waterways with Toxic Chemicals analyzes all major facilities exceeding their CWA permits. Among the findings in the report: • Nationally, 5,116 major facilities (81 percent) exceeded their Clean Water Act effluent permit limits at least once between January 1, 1999, and December 31, 2001, including 1,768 facilities (28 percent) for discharging chemicals known or suspected to cause cancer and/or serious non-cancer health effects. • Nationally, 262 major facilities exceeded their effluent permit limits for at least 10 reporting periods between January 1, 1999, and December 31, 2001, for chemicals known or suspected to cause cancer and/or serious non-cancer health effects • Major facilities, on average, exceeded their effluent permit limits for high hazard chemicals by 849 percent, or more than eight times the legal limit, between January 1, 1999, and December 31, 2001. “On the Clean Water Act’s 30th anniversary, we find that facilities across the country continue to violate the letter and spirit of the law, at times egregiously, for high hazard chemicals,” USPIRG states in the executive summary. The entire report is available on the USPIRG Web site at uspirg.org/uspirg.asp?id2=5663&id3=USPIRG&#e4. Information for each state is available for download, as well as data on toxic pollutants and their health effects; a list of facilities with the most reporting periods in violation (1999-2001); and a list of facilities exceeding their permits by at least 1,000 percent. Additional water reports may be found on this Web site. Founded in 1983, USPIRG seeks to uncover dangers to public health and wellbeing and fight to end them, using investigative r e s e a rch, media exposés, grassroots or g a n i zing, advocacy, and litigation.

Source Water Protection Case Studies A variety of local government source water protection case studies are now available on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Web site. “These case studies represent a variety of approaches to protecting sources of drinking water supplies for a diverse group of communities that differ in size, geography, economic and social characteristics, and type of source water used (surface water, ground water, or both),” says Steve Ainsworth of EPA’s Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water. “What they have in common is a fairly comprehensive approach to source water protection that reflects a strong commitment to safeguarding the public’s health. We offer them here so that other communities interested in moving to source water protection can use them as references in designing their own programs.” To view the case studies, visit EPA’s Web site at www.epa.gov/safewater/protect/casesty/casestudy.html

National Environmental Health Association www.neha.org The National Environmental Health Association’s (NEHA) mission is to improve the environment in cities, towns, and rural areas throughout the world to create a more healthful environment and quality of life for us all. NEHA’s membership includes those in both pubic and private sectors, academics, and the uniformed services. Because of its diverse membership, NEHA offers a forum for discussing issues from a variety of viewpoints.The site has information about continuing education and credential renewals,and also offers a series of Web-based courses. Articles from the Journal of Environmental Health may be purchased online.The site includes links to environmental health- and protection-related organizations and agencies.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 13

O P I N I O N

Ask

From time to time, water quality violations can occur. t h e In these incidences, how should utilities handle the mandatory language in public notifications (such as a boil water advisory) and consumer education (such as the annual Consumer Confidence Report mandated by the Safe Drinking Water Act) so that the public doesn’t lose faith in their water supply?

Experts Each issue, we ask members of the On Tap Editorial Advisory Board to answer a drinking water-related question. We then print as many responses as space permits.

Cable TV, Talk Shows Are Options Auburn prepares its consumer confidence report and distributes it in the local newspaper and on our Web site. We also get the word out about water quality by having our operating and management staff appear on local cable television and a radio talk show several times a year. These venues are great to get out general information regarding current issues and topics involving the water supply. When it comes to violations requiring public notice, we have the policy of letting our local health department prepare and release the notice to the press and media. Our local health department has a public relations expert on staff who handles all the press releases from the department. This arrangement allows for consistent and definitive information to be released in both a timely and effective manner, without tying up staff or management who are generally busy resolving the issue. During these events, we typically schedule a time when the press can ask questions of both the utility’s management and the health department at least once per day. This truly lets customers know that we are on top of the problem and we, therefore, instill a confidence in their utility that they both demand and deserve. Thankfully, we’ve had very few of these situations over the years. Frank J. DeOrio Director of Municipal Utilities City of Auburn, New York

Make the Unpleasant Useful Water quality violations are always an unpleasant experience. Having to admit (to the public you serve) that there may be a problem makes that experience even more unpleasant. But regulations addressing this issue exist for a purpose. And the requirements that involve keeping the public informed are a part of that On Tap . Winter 2003 . 14

regulatory framework. Therefore, why not find ways to use the public notification regulations to your advantage? First, adopt the attitude that public relations is an important part of your overall water utility program. This should not be a “back burner” or “I’ll do it when I get around to it” program. Make it a priority. And never (I mean never) miss an opportunity to educate the people you serve as to what is going on within your water utility program. Second, protocols need to be established. This is an internal, management issue that addresses things like who is responsible for making sure that the public notification gets written and distributed. It could also address things like the who, what, when, where, and hows of a boil water advisory. It is a good idea to go ahead and develop some typical public notification statements and have them approved by your management or board of directors. If necessary you can also have them reviewed by your regulatory agency. It is much better to develop these (in draft form) when you have the time and resources, as opposed to trying to do it when the violation actually occurs, and you have all kinds of “issues” to worry about. The mandatory language requirement is there to make sure you focus on the true issue that is a result of the violation. The nice thing about this is that you have some options on how you structure or incorporate what is mandatory into the overall statement. Deciding what will work best for your utility in advance of when it might be needed just makes the overall process much easier. The last thing is to remember that no matter how hard you work on that public notification statement, trying to be as fair and honest as possible in addressing the issue while also incorporating the mandatory language, there will always be some negative fallout. Therefore I would encourage you to remember the “One to Ten Rule.” Simply stated, this means that, within your public relations pro-

gram, for every negative issue you need 10 positive issues. Or for every bad public relations situation, you need 10 good public relations statements to keep things balanced out and maintain that positive attitude about the utility organization that you’d like your customers to have. Rodney L. Coker Tribal Utility Consultant (retired) Indian Health Service

Methods, Requirements Differ It is important to remember that the public notification rule (PNR) and the consumer confidence report (CCR) are two different things. The PNR requires notification to everyone in your service area when there’s a violation. The CCR is your annual report to consumers and your primacy agency about the condition and quality of your system’s water. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency places public notification violations under three tiers, each with a different time frame for getting the information to your customers: 24 hours for tier 1 violations, within 30 days for tier 2, and within one year for tier 3. A system is required to give public notice when it: 1. fails to comply with existing drinking water regulations, 2. has been granted a variance or exemption from the regulations, 3. has violated the terms of a variance or exemption, or 4. is facing other situations that could pose a risk to public health. If you are faced with a violation or situation requiring public notification, you must provide notice to all the people your system serves. In some cases, you may need to contact people who may not be informed via your first notification. For example, if you provide notice to all billing customers, people who do not receive water bills—such as tenants whose utilities are included in their rent or people working but not living within your service area—would not receive a notice. To be covered, you also need to post notification in conspicuous places. Notices in more than one language may also be necessary to ensure that all customers are reached. The tone of your notice will have a significant affect on the public’s perception of their water utility. Notices need to be clear and concise, with a positive tone that indi-

cates you completely understand the problem and are taking the appropriate steps to correct it. A concise notice is much more effective than a lengthy one, and an accurate notice reinforces your credibility. CCRs are a much different animal. They are not intended to be a public notification of violations or water quality problems. The spirit behind the CCR is to provide consumers with information on the: • water quality in the system that serves them, • system’s susceptibility to contaminants and possible contaminant sources, • potential health effects of contaminants, • educational materials available to them, and • telephone contact numbers for the utility. It is acceptable to include what may be viewed as negative information in your CCR. By being a good “spin doctor” with these negative results, you can instill more confidence in your customers by showing them that you are performing the necessary tests and taking the appropriate actions when something isn’t quite right. Take a positive approach, or as the old adage says, “turn your lemons into lemonade.” This is your best chance to inform your customers about what is right with their system. When faced with a negative situation, sometimes we become more concerned with placing blame than we are about fixing the problem itself. The primary intention of Congress in enacting the PNR and CCR requirements was to make sure that the public is kept informed of their water quality—not to make it appear as though someone has been negligent in their duties. Somehow, these positive intentions have been muddied to the point that many managers and service providers are apprehensive about issuing reports and view these regulations as tattletale documents that could put them in legal jeopardy. Actually, the opposite is true. The legal ramifications come from not informing the public. By clearly explaining a problem and what you are doing about it, you can head off any potential panic and probably get your customers to rally behind you to work toward a solution. Nelson Yarlott Resident Operator Greeley, Colorado

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 15

C O V E R

S T O R Y

They’re in the Water They Make Fish Change Sex

Endocrine Disruptors What are they doing to you? by Kathy Jesperson On Tap Associate Editor

S

cientists have been documenting a series of strange situations lately. In certain places around the world, fish have spontaneously changed sexes. The sexual organs of male alligators in Florida have failed to develop to a mature size. And the thyroid glands of Great Lakes salmon have enlarged. Other peculiar phenomena began cropping up as well: bald eagles have failed to reproduce, male panthers have almost no testosterone, and about seven percent of male tadpoles have developed ovaries. Something must be terribly wrong. Scientists have found that certain chemicals disrupt the endocrine systems of wildlife. Nearly all animals have an endocrine system, including mammals; non-mammalian vertebrates, such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, and

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 16

birds; and invertebrates, such as snails, lobsters, insects, and other species. Because humans also have an endocrine system, these findings have led scientists to ask a serious question: If these chemicals disrupt the endocrine systems in wildlife, what are they doing to humans? Many scientists argue that if these chemicals affect wildlife, it must follow that they also affect humans. Critics argue that there is no proof that these chemicals affect humans in any way. However, many scientists point out that there’s no sense in waiting around for a generation of hermaphrodites to encourage the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to move ahead with its research. It’s time to get moving now. While the EPA already regulates some chemicals thought to be endocrine disruptors, the agency has really only begun to

research how many potential endocrine disruptors there are. And because this is only the beginning, it may take a long time before a complete list of these chemicals is available. In the meantime, it’s a good idea to learn as much as possible about what is in our drinking water supplies and how these substances affect our health. Chemicals, such as pesticides, fertilizers, fuel additives, and detergents, are spread through the environment in a variety of ways, such as exhaust, spills, and waste discharges. In the case of many agricultural products, they are intentionally released. Because of this constant chemical supply to the environment, many substances can and do drain or leach into source water supplies. Fish and other aquatic life live in the water, animals drink it, and a lot of it finds its way to the local drinking water treatment system.

What is an endocrine system? The endocrine system consists of glands, hormones, and receptors. Endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, ovaries, prostate, and testes. The pituitary gland acts as the control center, telling the other glands when to send their signals and how much hormone to send. The pituitary gets its cues from the hypothalamus, which acts as a regulator, telling the pituitary to increase hormone production or to slow it down and shut it off. These messages travel back and forth continuously throughout all parts of an organism, keeping everything balanced and coordinated. The glands produce hormones, such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), corticosteroid, adr enaline, estrogen, testosterone, androgen, insulin, triiodothyronine, and thyroxin. Hormones are involved in just about every biological function. They are better known as the body’s chemical messengers because they travel through the bloodstream and cause responses in other parts of the body. The amount of hormone that an animal’s body produces depends upon the stimuli that its body receives. They also can work at astonishingly low concentrations—in parts per billion or even trillion. Hormones regulate: • reproduction and embryo development, • growth and maturation, • energy production, use, and storage, • electrolytes—the balance and maintenance of water and salt, • reaction to stimuli, such as fright and excitement, and • behavior of human beings and animals. Receptors, which are in the cells of various target organs and tissues, recognize and

respond to the hormones. Receptors are a part of a complex biological feedback system that regulates the response. Any disruption to the balance can cause changes to take place in these reactions. What are endocrine disruptors? Endocrine disruptors are synthetic or naturally occurring chemicals that interfere with the balance of normal hormone functions in animals, including humans. This imbalance can cause various abnormalities of the reproductive system, such as the feminization of males and the masculinization of females. Among other abnormalities, they also can cause enlargement of the thyroid gland, birth defects, behavioral changes, depressed immune systems, and an increased vulnerability to disease. An endocrine disrupting chemical can affect the endocrine system of an organism in a number of ways, but they typically affect animals in three specific ways. They can mimic, block, or trigger a hormone response. Chemicals that mimic respond like normal hormones inside the body. A good example of a mimicking endocrine disruptor is the potent drug diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic estrogen. Doctors prescribed DES to as many as five million pregnant women to block spontaneous abortion prior to DES being banned in the early 1970s. When doctors first began prescribing DES, they believed that it would prevent miscarriage and promote fetal growth. However, researchers discovered that after the children went through puberty, DES affected the development of the reproductive system of the daughters of the mothers given DES, and it caused vaginal cancer. In addition, these women have an increased risk of developing endometriosis. Sons born to mothers given DES have an increased frequency of undescended testes,

congenital birth defects, hypospadia, and decreased adult sperm count. A second group of disruptors are hormone blockers. These interfere with how naturally occurring hormones function. Blockers bind to the same protein receptors as the real hormone but do not stimulate any action. They sit in the way of the natural hormone and prevent it from sending its message. An example of a blocker is how DDE (a metabolic breakdown product of the pesticide DDT) blocked action of testosterone in male alligators in Lake Apopka, Florida, which led to undersized penises. Testosterone, a male hormone, is needed for proper reproductive development. Triggers are the third category of disruptors. They attach to protein receptors, then trigger an abnormal response in the cell. These triggers cause growth at the wrong time, an alteration of metabolism, or synthesis of a different product. The best-known triggers are dioxin and dioxin-like chemicals. Dioxin acts through a hormone-like process to initiate entirely new responses. What kinds of substances can be endocrine disruptors? The number of substances believed to be endocrine disruptors is wide and varied, including both natural and synthetic materials. Concern arises because potential endocrine disruptors may be present in the environment at very low levels but still may be able to cause harmful effects.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 17

Regulated Chemicals Known to Cause Endocrine Dysfunction MCLG1 (mg/L)2

MCL or TT1 (mg/L)2

Potential Health Effects from Ingestion of Water

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

0.003

0.003

Cardiovascular system or reproductive problems

Runoff from herbicide used on row crops

Benzo(a)pyrene (PAHs)

0.0

0.0002

Reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Leaching from linings of water storage tanks and distribution lines

Carbofuran

0.04

0.04

Problems with blood, nervous system,or reproductive system

Leaching of soil fumigant used on rice and alfalfa

2,4-D

0.07

0.07

Kidney, liver, or adrenal gland problems

Runoff from herbicide used on row crops

1,2-Dibromo-3chloropropane (DBCP)

0.0

0.0002

Reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Runoff/leaching from soil fumigant used on soybeans, cotton,pineapples, and orchards

Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate

0.4

0.4

General toxic effects or reproductive difficulties

Discharge from chemical factories

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

0.0

0.006

Reproductive difficulties; liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from rubber and chemical factories

0.007

0.007

Reproductive difficulties

Runoff from herbicide used on soybeans and vegetables

Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD)

0.0

0.00000003

Reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Emissions from waste incineration and other combustion;discharge from chemical factories

Ethylene dibromide

0.0

0.00005

Problems with liver, stomach, reproductive system,or kidneys; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from petroleum refineries

Glyphosate

0.7

0.7

Kidney problems; reproductive difficulties

Runoff from herbicide use

Hexachlorobenzene

0.0

0.001

Liver or kidney problems; reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Discharge from metal refineries and agricultural chemical factories

Methoxychlor

0.04

0.04

Reproductive difficulties

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on fruits, vegetables, alfalfa,livestock

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

0.0

0.0005

Skin changes;thymus gland problems;immune deficiencies; reproductive or nervous system difficulties;increased risk of cancer

Runoff from landfills; discharge of waste chemicals

Toxaphene

0.0

0.003

Kidney, liver, or thyroid problems; increased risk of cancer

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on cotton and cattle

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene

0.07

0.07

Changes in adrenal glands

Discharge from textile finishing factories

0.2

0.2

Nerve damage or thyroid problems

Discharge from steel/ metal factories;discharge from plastic and fertilizer fac tories

Organic Atrazine

Dinoseb

Inorganic Cyanide (as free cyanide)

Source:U.S.Environmental Protection Agency

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 18

Many plants and animals produce substances that can have endocrine effects. Some of the substances are toxic but others have proven beneficial in certain circumstances. For example, some endocrine disruptors have been used to control fertility (birth control pills), to treat cancer (corticosteroids), to treat psychiatric disorders, and other medical conditions. Natural substances, such as sex hormones or phytoestrogens (plant chemicals having estrogen-like effects), can become concentrated in industrial, agricultural, and municipal wastes. Exposure to these wastes may produce reactions in humans, wildlife, fish, or birds. Where are endocrine disruptors found and what are examples? Synthetic chemicals suspected as endocrine disruptors may reach humans and animals in a variety of ways. Some, such as pesticides, are used to treat food crops and can leach into groundwater supplies. Others are by-products of industrial processes and waste disposal—these include dioxins and PCBs—or are discharged from industrial or municipal treatment systems. The pesticides include chlorinated organic chemicals such as DDT, toxaphene, and kepone. Industrial compounds include PCBs, phenol, and dioxins. Their most common characteristics include persistence in the environment and in organisms and solubility in fats, rather that water. What are the health effects? Wildlife offers the greatest evidence of the health effects of endocrine disruptors. However, some researchers point out that the human endocrine system is so similar to that in wildlife that they must conclude that humans have been affected as well. Some of the suspected effects in humans are declining sperm counts; climbing rates of breast, testicular, and prostate

cancer; and the increasing incidence of childhood hyperactivity and learning disorders. Developing embryos and the very young are thought to be at the greatest risk because hormone activity guides the growth of a baby’s nervous and immune systems and programs organs and tissues, such as the liver, blood, kidneys, and muscles, so they will function properly. During early development, this regulation of growth and development is critical for a child. According to In Harm’s Way, a report linking home-cleaning and industrial chemicals to developmental disabilities, including behavioral and lear ning disabilities, these chemicals are toxic to the developing child and can lead to hyperactivity, attention deficit disorder, lower intelligence, and motor skill impairment.

Among the chemicals evaluated in this groundbreaking study are: • lead, mercury, cadmium, and manganese; • pesticides; • dioxins and PCBs; • solvents used in gasoline, paints, glues, and cleaning solutions; and • nicotine and alcohol. The report found that the blood chemistry of more than 80 percent of adults and 90 percent of children in the U. S. contains residues of one or more harmful pesticides. “The urgency of this issue is underscored by the fact that between five and 10 percent of school children in America have learning disabilities and at least an equivalent amount have ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder),” said Dr. Ted Schettler, one of the report’s co-authors. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 19

Sources

Category

Substances

• Incineration, landfill

Polychlorinated compounds (from industrial production or by-products of mostly banned substances)

Polychlorinated dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls

• Agricultural runoff / atmospheric transport

Organochlorine pesticides (found in insecticides, many now phased out)

DDT, dieldrin, lindane

• Agricultural runoff

Pesticides currently in use

Atrazine, trifluralin, permethrin

• Harbours

Organotins (found in antifoulants used to paint the hulls of ships)

Tributyltin

• Industrial and municipal effluents

Alkylphenols (Surfactants—certain kinds of detergents used for removing oil—and their metabolites)

Nonylphenol

• Industrial effluent

Phthalates (found in placticizers)

Dibutyl phthalate, butylbenzyl phthalate

• Municipal effluent / agricultural runoff

Natural hormones (produced naturally by animals); synthetic steroids (found in contraceptives)

Estradiol, estrone, and testosterone; ethynyl estradiol

• Pulp mill effluents

Phytoestrogens (found in plant material)

Isoflavones, lignans, coumestans

Source: Environment Canada “Endocrine Disrupting Substances in the Environment,” 1999.

Other recent studies also link endocrine disruptors to developmental disabilities. For example, according to a study recounted in the August 2001 issue of the Journal of Occupa tional and Environmental Medicine, even low levels of ammonium perchlorate in drinking water may negatively affect fetuses and newborns. The study reported that perchlorate—a chemical that is used in the manufacture of rockets, missiles, and fireworks, among other products—may be the reason behind higher-than-normal thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels, which points to hypothyroidism, identified in some newborns in Arizona. And because perchlorate crosses the placenta, it has the potential to cause hypothyroidism in fetuses. Thyroid hormone is essential for normal neurological function

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 20

and development. Thyroid hormone deficiencies during fetal development or early infancy can lead to mental retardation, hearing loss, and speech problems. Children with thyroid deficiencies, even those with normal IQs, can have language comprehension problems, impaired learning and memory, and hyperactive behavior. According to the Magic Foundation for Children’s Growth, clinical hypothyroidism is marked by a deficiency in the secretion of the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones regulate metabolism and, in children, growth. A child with hypothyroidism may have an enlarged thyroid gland, also known as a goiter. But more likely, the child will fail to grow, particularly in height. At the time of birth, however, the symptoms and signs of hypothyroidism are minimal or absent. But the foundation

warns: “the lack of adequate thyroid hormone from birth until approximately two years of age is associated with varying degrees of permanent mental retardation.” Dr. Ross Brechner, lead author of the study and chief of the Arizona Department of Health Services, found that mothers who drink water with detectable levels of perchlorate gave birth to babies with elevated levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), an indicator of the thyroid disorder known as hypothyroidism. Scientists with the Arizona Department of Health Services’ Bureau of Health Statistics compared newborn screening data for 1,542 infants born in Yuma and Flagstaff between 1994 and 1997. Researchers chose these cities because Yuma draws all of its drinking water from the Colorado River below Lake Mead, which is contaminated by the rocket

fuel ingredient, while Flagstaff does not use any water from the Colorado River. Also, the cities are comparable in size and socioeconomic status, and conventional water treatment plants serve both communities. The study found that infants born in Yuma had significantly higher levels of hormones that stimulate the thyroid than those born in Flagstaff. This is indicative of thyroid disorder and hypothyroidism. “[This study] suggests that even low-level perchlorate contamination of drinking water may be associated with adverse health effects in neonates and highlights the need for both further study and control of human low-level perchlorate exposure,” noted the study’s authors. As much as 1,000 parts per billion (ppb) of perchlorate have been detected in the Las Vegas Wash, which feeds Lake Mead and the Colorado River. The chemical also has been detected in the river below the lake, which provides water to approximately 20 million people. Currently, California is the only state that has a standard for perchlorate, which is set at 18 ppb. In 1999, the perchlorate level in Yuma’s treated water was 6 ppb; the chemical was not detected in Flagstaff’s water. These worrying trends are increasing. And the health of men, women, and children are increasingly at risk. Worrying Trends in Male Health Testicular cancer Testicular cancer has increased by 55 percent between 1979 and 1991 in England and Wales. In 1991, these countries reported 1,137 new testicularcancer cases. Since testicular cancer is mainly a disease of young men, the increased age of the population is not a reason for the increase of this cancer (as it is with many other cancers). It is thought that testicular cancer is initiated early in life, before birth.

Most researchers currently believe that testicular cancer results mainly from problems occurring during the development of testes while the individual is developing in the mother’s womb. These same researchers also hypothesize that hormonedisrupting chemicals are the cause of the increase. Rates of increase measured in other countries include: an increase of 300 percent between 1945 and 1990 in Denmark and an annual increase of 2.3 percent in the Baltic countries. It is clear that rates of increase and incidence vary between different countries, with Finland having among the lowest incidence in Europe; men in Finland also seem to have the highest sperm counts in Europe. Declining sperm counts Many studies in recent years have suggested that sperm counts have reduced in the last 40 or so years. A major re-analysis of results from many studies concluded that sperm counts in Europe and the U.S. have been declining, with sperm counts in Europe having declined at 3.1 million per milliliter a year over the period 1971–1990. One worrying trend that shows up in some studies is a correlation between year of birth and sperm count, with those born most recently having the lowest sperm counts. A study of the sperm counts of Scottish men has shown that men born in the 1970s are producing 24 percent fewer sperm than are men born in the 1950s. However, a smaller study published at the same time suggests that sperm count has not declined in specimens collected in Toulouse, France, between 1977 and 1992. This is in contrast to earlier research in Paris, which did show a reduction; the

authors suggest that this difference may be due to environmental differences. Some recent studies have found even more startling results. A 2002 University of Missouri study found that men of lower economic status who live in rural Missouri have lower sperm counts than those of higher economic status who live in urban areas of the state, as well as men who live in other areas of the nation. Researchers found that fertile men from Missouri’s Boone County have a mean sperm count of approximately 59 million per milliliter, compared to

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 21

103 million for men in New York, 99 million for men in Minnesota, and 81 million in Los Angeles. The Missouri men also tended to have much less vigorous sperm. The study hypothesized that farms make up more than half of Boone County, so there may be a correlation between use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, or pesticides and the results of the study. Reproductive abnormalities The reproductive abnormalities cryptorchidism (undescended testes) and hypospadias (urethra opening on the underside of the penis) may also be increasing, but the data on cryptorchidism is very limited, and on hypospadias there are problems of definition. However, clear increases in cryptorchidism have been observed in England, and increases in incidence of hypospadias have been observed in many countries. The incidence of hypospadias in Finland is lower than in other Scandinavian countries. Are fewer male babies being born? The ratio of male to female births has declined during the last 20–40 years in Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Norway, Finland, Canada, and the U.S.; fewer male babies are being born than would normally be expected. It is not clear why this is happening, though environmental pollution and hormone-disrupting chemicals have been suggested as possible causes. This hypothesis is supported by data from Seveso, Italy, where an industrial accident released large amounts of dioxin. In the eight years after the accident, 12 daughters and no sons were born to nine couples with the highest dioxin exposure. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 22

Worrying Trends in Female Health Breast cancer Breast cancer incidence estimates show a one percent increase per year since the 1940s in the U.S., and a 50 percent increase in Denmark between 1945 and 1980. It has also increased in the United Kingdom over the last few decades. Research has suggested a link between breast cancer and exposure to hormone disrupting chemicals such as DDT, dioxin, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Early puberty Research is suggesting that girls in the U.S. are now entering puberty earlier than has been found previously. The potential role of chemicals in this change is supported by a study, which compared the onset of puberty in children with differing levels of two persistent synthetic chemicals, PCBs and DDE in their mothers while they were pregnant. Girls whose mothers had the highest levels, and who were therefore exposed to the highest amounts of DDE and PCBs in the womb, entered puberty 11 months earlier than girls with lower exposures. The onset of puberty in boys was not affected. Other studies have shown that girls who enter puberty earlier are at increased risk of breast cancer. What is EPA doing? Although regulatory policy concerning endocrine disruptors is still evolving, EPA has already taken regulatory action on some chemicals of concern through its pesticide and toxic substances programs. Organochlorine compounds, such as PCBs and chlorinated pesticides, have long been problematic in the environment for a number of reasons, and many of them (such as DDT)

induce endocrine activity. The term organochlorine refers to chemical compounds that have a chlorinated hydrocarbon structure, that is, they are formed from atoms of hydrogen, carbon, and chlorine. Although their effect may be much weaker than the body’s natural hormones (like estrogens, androgens, and thyroid hormones), they are nonetheless suspected of disrupting the endocrine system, resulting in the aforementioned harmful effects like reproductive and developmental defects and certain cancers. EPA has banned PCBs, dieldrin, DDT, chlordane, aldrin, kepone, mirex, endrin, and toxaphene. Or ganochlorine pesticides still registered for use in the U.S. include endosulfan, lindane, methoxychlor, dicofol, dienochlor, and heptachlor. However, their use is very restricted, and most are scheduled for priority pesticide re-registration review. They will likely be among the first compounds to be screened in EPA’s Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program. This program will focus on providing methods and procedures to detect and characterize endocrine activity of pesticides, commercial chemicals, and environmental contaminants. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1996 now authorizes EPA to screen for endocrine disruptors in drinking water sources. Continued on page 49 On Tap Associate Editor, Kathy Jesperson's background in biology really helps when she writes articles about the health effects of certain drinking water contaminants.

Grassroots Watershed Protection County Group Works to Clean Up Waterways

Story and Photos by Michelle Moore NDWC Associate Editor

ural Greene County in sourthwestern Pennsylvania is a place you’d want to come home to. Its forests, farmlands, and small communities make the area a mecca for folks wanting to escape the rush of urban life.

R

What is a Watershed The regional area of land from which all precipitation and runoff drain into a single water source is called a watershed. Watersheds are natural divisions of the landscape. Rivers, lakes, estuaries, wet lands, streams, and even the oceans serve as catch basins for the land around them. Groundwater aquifers below the land’s surface serve the same purpose, catching and holding water for the future. Adapted from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Many Greene County families have lived there for generations. And the newcomers, well, many have moved in, and they’ve stayed, and now they couldn’t be pried away with a crowbar. They like the dirt roads, the corn fields, and the hillbilly music at the fire halls on Saturday nights. Streams, creeks, lakes, and a major river wind through the landscape, and similar to a lot of other places in the U.S., these waters have declined in quality over the years. Coal mining dominated the county’s industry for decades, leaving scars on the terrain, as well as polluting creeks and the Monongahela River. Many homes have faulty or inadequate sewage disposal. Erosion, habitat destruction, and polluted runoff (nonpoint

source pollution) also contribute significantly to water quality degradation in the watersheds. This is a story about the Greene County Watershed Alliance (GCWA), a group working to restore and protect the county’s waterways. Circumstances in your watershed may be very different from those in this Appalachian foothill region. You might live in a coastal zone or in the high desert. Your watershed could be in northwest apple country, or you might live near the Mississippi delta. Wherever you live, there is probably a watershed protection group working to make sure your drinking water remains safe for future generations. (See “The Canaan Valley Institute, Helping On Tap . Winter 2003 . 23

Communities Help Themselves” in the spring 2002 On Tap for more information about watersheds and community development.) Watershed Approach is the Answer People often don’t realize that what they put into a water body can have an effect far downstream. That’s why the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends taking a “watershed approach” to improving regional water quality. This tactic is based on the EPA’s premise that “many water quality and ecosystem problems are best solved at the watershed level rather than at the individual water body or discharger level . . . managing water resource programs on a watershed basis makes good sense environmentally, financially, and socially.” Looking at the watershed is the logical starting point for addressing water quality in any given area. In the past, water quality improvement efforts focused primarily on pollution sources, such as sewage or

industrial discharges and spills, and the individual water bodies that might be affected. The watershed approach evaluates all potential pollution sources that may be affecting waterways. Say, for instance, that an abandoned riverside factory site is cleaned up. The adjacent waterway will reflect the improvement. Eliminating specific problem sites may prove successful in the immediate area, but the river’s overall water quality may still be at risk from other chronic problems. Protecting the river’s entire watershed area, from headwaters to end, is the key to ensuring that clean, safe drinking water will be available for the future. Greene Residents Join Forces Some of the folks who care most about Greene County banded together to improve and restore its waterways. The GCWA is an umbrella group uniting a number of smaller watershed organizations to become a voice for countywide water quality improvement. The

Greene County, Pennsylvania, Principle Watersheds South Fork,Ten Mile Creek Enlow Fork Muddy Creek Whiteley Creek Dunkard Creek Fish Creek

PA OH

WV

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 24

GCWA is a relatively small group in a county with 40,000 people, but when they want to get something done for the waterways, let me tell you, they find a way to do it. Terri Davin, a biologist and mother of two young children, is the group’s president and inspirational dynamo. She and her family live outside of Rutan, a tiny village in West Greene. Davin says the watershed alliance is made up of everyday people: a full-time mom, an engineer, a fisherman, a nun, a teacher, and a genealogist. That’s not their entire membership, by any means, but you get the idea. A science degree is not required to join. The GCWA officially began in October 2000 through a Pennsylvania Growing Greener grant for $9,900. These grants were created through the Environmental Stewardship and Watershed Protection Act. Nearly $547 million was allocated for various types of projects, including abandoned mine clean-up, gas or oil well plugging, watershed restoration and protection projects, outreach activities, and demonstration projects. Lisa Bennett, the Greene County Conservation District’s (GCCD) watershed specialist and technical advisor, helped the alliance get started. Part of their initial work was to “get their name out there,” as Bennett put it, “so that people would know that there is a group, an organization that they can belong to.” Bennett knew that it was nearly impossible to get people to come together all at once for a cause. But she “set out on a mission to go around the whole county” to arouse watershed protection support. “I went to just about every township building in the county and held meetings,” Bennett said. “Some places I had two people show up, and some places I had 10 or 15 people. Those who showed up seemed

like they were interested in doing something. So after the meetings, I sent out letters, told them again what I was doing, and that I was going to write a grant to get them money for starting the groups.” Like Davin, Bennett said that the people who wanted to be part of the watershed protection group are just nice, country folks. “They haven’t been out sampling and monitoring. They’ve never gone down to the streams and turned over rocks looking for little creatures. They’re just fisherman, farmers, and people from town, anybody who’s concerned about what’s going on in their area.” GCWA’s start-up grant money helped them buy equipment, like a computer, a printer, a camera, and other supplies. To spread word about their mission, the alliance needed postcards and stamps, and they needed to create and distribute informational brochures. Bennett said people were very excited right from the beginning. “They wanted to get grants and do this and that, but you can’t do it all right away. In the last two years, they’ve done very well, especially how much i n f o rmation they’ve passed out, how much ‘press time’ they’ve had. They’ve been in the papers a lot.”

about anything from septic problems, mining, garbage, logging, keeping the streams clean, and keeping people out of the streams—it’s not good when people take trucks and tractors into streams or try to straighten out a stream.” Needless to say, the hardest thing for the alliance is attracting enough public involvement. But, as Bennet says, “There’s always someone who is really concerned about water problems in their area.” (See the Spring 2002 On Tap for more information about public participation.)

Funding Makes Projects Reality Greene County has 10 major watersheds and countless subwatersheds. Davin said she’s hoping that eventually all 10 will have local residents actively working to protect water quality. Some of the watershed advocacy groups, like the Wheeling Creek Watershed Conservancy and the Dunkard Creek Watershed Association, have been around for years. “We have so many subwatersheds in the county” Bennett said. “I thought it would be nice to have a representative from each one who could be the

Spread the Message At least once a month, the GCWA has public meetings with speakers, like department of environmental protection representatives, who answer questions. Township and school district officials are usually invited. Postcards are sent to interested residents. The GCWA sets up an information booth at local festivals and at the annual county fair. Notices always run in the newspapers to alert the public of any meetings, work projects, or accomplishments. “Our group is mainly educational,” Bennett said. “We’ll talk On Tap . Winter 2003 . 25

watchdog or steward, someone who would speak on behalf of that area. So far we’ve got people from Dunkard Fork of Wheeling Creek, Enlow Fork, Dunkard Creek, and Muddy Creek. The majority of the folks are from the South Fork of the Ten Mile, the largest watershed we have.” According to an August 2002 Washington Observer report, Greene County received $1.3 million in watershed project funds. The largest, $958,910, is being used to rebuild a wetlands area for treating discharge from an abandoned mine. Another grant for $235,662 is for developing agricultural best management practices. The county conservation district office will work with farmers installing stream bank fencing, improving livestock watering facilities, stabilizing stream crossings, reducing barnyard runoff, and building manure storage facilities. The watershed alliance also received a grant to help organize a new group, the East Dunkard Creek Watershed Association, and another to conduct an assessment of the Ruff Creek watershed in the northern part of the county. In addition to fundraising and educating the public, alliance members occasionally get together to work on stream restoration and clean-up projects. In fall 2001, 15 or so people in the GCWA helped plant

The major features of a watershed approach are: • targeting priority problems, • promoting strong stakeholder involvement, • integrating solutions using the expertise and authority of various agencies, and • measuring success through monitoring and other data gathering.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 26

trees along streams located in state game lands, creating more stable banks and reducing erosion. The volunteers took about an hour to plant 108 trees of five different varieties—some fast work. Bennett said that once the trees get established, their root systems hold stream banks better than grasses. GCWA also participated in the GCCD’s River Sweep 2002 to eliminate an illegal dump located down a steep bank along Dunkard Creek. The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection provided dumpsters, garbage bags, and drinks. The small but mighty group of five spent the morning scouring a hillside loaded with trash, appliances, and rotting furniture. Once again their enthusiasm is obvious: they filled a dumpster in just a couple of hours. Students Get Involved As with most plans for making a healthier environment, getting young people involved has plenty of benefits. First of all, when projects are outdoors and active, kids learn things that will last them a lifetime. And second, they are eager and curious, and they’ll take the ball and run with it when given the chance. The alliance knew the power of enlisting this homegrown resource so they applied for and received a grant for youthbased stream monitoring. (Stream monitoring helps identify polluted areas.) The program is coordinated with science teachers in the county’s five school districts, and they are trained about proper sampling techniques and developing monitoring plans. The grant helped buy water pollution Lamott test kits, GPS [global positioning system] units, and macroinvertebrate guidebooks. (Certain populations of macroinvertebrates tolerate pollution, making them perfect pollution indicators.) “We train the teachers to do water quality sampling, then

the high school science classes will test streams in each watershed,” Davin said. “We’ll be taking kids out who have never done anything like this before. “When we get all the data from the streams, we’ll load it into GIS [geographic information system] software we bought for the county vo-tech school’s drafting class. Then we’ll have water quality data on many of the streams in the county.” Bennett said that luckily most of the school districts are in different watersheds so students can record data from each of them. “This program gets kids out into the streams, gets them interested, and asking questions,” Bennett said. “Someday later down the road, they’ll end up being good stewards, whether they’re living here or 500 miles away.” Accomplishments Are Many Since that first grant award back in October 2000, the GCWA hasn’t stopped working. They continue to educate people about surface effects of underground mining. They’ve identified county areas damaged by acid mine drainage. They help other grassroots watershed organizations with advice and technical assistance. The group participates in annual tree plantings to establish riparian stream buffers. They have River Sweeps, and they maintain a Web site. The GCWA is delighted with their the youth-based water quality monitoring program and with public workshops on watershed issues. They’ve conducted numerous stream restoration projects. With all these accomplishments, Greene County’s Watershed Alliance provides an example for others to live up to. For more information Contact the GCWA at (724) 852-5278. You can e-mail Terri Davin at [email protected] or Lisa Bennett at [email protected].

For more information about forming or joining a watershed protection group in your area, begin by checking with your state’s environmental protection office. The EPA created the Watershed Academy to help local groups manage, protect, and improve watersheds. Their distance learning program, the Watershed Academy Web, is a set of self-paced training modules that give a broad, basic introduction to watershed management. The program includes the most important watershed management topics that local officials, decision makers, and others should be aware of. Learn more about the EPA’s online watershed management training at www.epa.gov/ watertrain and at www.epa.gov/ owow/watershed/wacademy/ catalog.html. The Pennsylvania Organization for Watersheds and Rivers (POWR) offers “How to Form Your Own Watershed Association in Pennsylvania,” a fact pack that includes a book and video. Contact them at (717) 234-7910 or by writing to 25 North Front Street, P.O. Box 765, Harrisburg, PA 17108. Funding sources for watershed protection are located at www.epa.gov/owow/water shed/funding.html. A catalog of federal funding sources for watershed protection can be downloaded from www.epa.gov/ owow/watershed/wacademy/f und.html. Additional watershed protection information can be found at www.rivernetwork.org.

Michelle Moore is the promotions editor for the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse and a lifelong resident of southwestern Pennsylvania.

10

Top Ten Tips

for Watershed Organizations

Local watershed organizations can help develop and carry out local solutions to water quality and quantity problems and in helping to prevent future problems. These tips were gathered from successful watershed groups:

1. Build and maintain relationships. Many people share your watershed, and they often have different points of view. Your efforts will be more successful if you involve other groups, individuals, and agencies early; identify interests you share; and work toward a shared vision. This isn’t easy, but it’s worth it. 2. Set clear goals that are easy to explain. It will be easier to get support—both financial support and volunteers—if people understand what you are trying to do and how it relates to them. 3. Make sure everyone involved knows the basics. Many people did not learn much about watersheds in school and information about your specific watershed may not be widely available. 4. Develop a watershed plan. The plan should describe current conditions in your watershed, what goals you want to reach and how you will get there. Outline your budget needs. This provides your group with a “map” to follow and can also be used in seeking financial support. 5. Demonstrate results early. Pick a project that fits into your overall plan—then do it. A successful project, even a small one, will get people excited, interested, and feeling that they can accomplish something. It also shows potential financial supporters that you have the ability to get things done. 6. Give project participants good publicity. This is especially good to do when a local business has allowed its employees to participate on work time. Public recognition is a great thank you. Use local newspapers and organizations’ newsletters. 7. Look for diverse funding sources. Because many funding sources are designed for specific types of activities, you probably will have to piece them together to meet your overall watershed goals. Also, many government grants require local matching funds or in-kind services. Private foundations are often more flexible but may favor groups that can attract several funding sources. Make sure you are aware of the administrative requirements for any grant you pursue and the time schedule for receiving the funds by contacting the potential funder. 8. Look for other types of support. Businesses and local governments may be able to provide services or materials more readily than cash. Try to make it easy for them to say “yes” by looking at your request from their perspective. Local colleges and universities may be able to help with inventories and surveys. 9. Enlist the support of your local government officials. Someone in your group may already have a working relationship with your local officials and be willing to make calls or visits. Various state and federal agencies may also be able to help. 10. Above all, be creative. Groups can come up with surprising and innovative ways to get materials, services, volunteer workers, money, and more when they put their minds to it. Adapted from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 27

M A N A G E M E N T

By Jamie Knotts Assistant Editor

Editor’s note: This fall, Jamie Knotts, On Tap assistant editor, conducted a lengthy interview with Susan Poe, a board management training technician with Arkansas Rural Water Association. That interview is the basis of this article. If O&M actually stood for “operation and maintenance” rather than “ongoing misery” at your drinking water utility, it would likely make your job as a water board member easier. Faced with tight budgets, increasing regulations, employee oversight issues, bill collection problems, and all the responsibility of assuring your customers safe water, the little—if any—compensation you get won’t make you rich. But while the hassle of being a board member might deter some from serving, the draw of helping neighbors and supporting their community inspires others to become water board members. It’s a thankless job as far as customers go. Few board members will deny that. But it’s crucial to a water utility’s success. As a board member you will be guiding the utility’s direction for the time you serve on the board. You’ll be making decisions that affect customers today, as well as in the future. The Devil’s in the Duties Whether you were elected, appointed, or grudgingly selected to serve on the board, the work you do will affect others. Of the jobs you’ll do as a water board member, the two most important On Tap . Winter 2003 . 28

are hiring a certified, competent operator to run the treatment processes and making sound financial decisions for the long-term viability of the system. “That’s right—it’s a ‘job!’ It’s not an honorary position,” says the training package Management Training Manual for Board Members of Public Water Systems. You don’t just sit, listen, and make comments. You don’t stand around and drink coffee and gossip. You may not have gotten a job description when you were appointed or elected, but you should have. Your community has put its trust in you to make decisions that have a very significant effect on its health, welfare, and economics. “And yes, you are responsible legally and morally for the decisions you make or don’t make. It’s your responsibility to make sure your customers have safe, dependable, affordable drinking water,” says the training manual, developed by the Mississippi State University Extension Service and the Mississippi State Department of Health. Susan Poe, a board management training technician with Arkansas Rural Water Association (ARWA) agrees that a utility board must work together for the community’s benefit. “Base decisions (or votes) on the system as a whole and what is in the best interest to the community, and always have providing safe, quality drinking water as your priority in the process,” Poe says. “Avoid doing things as a

board member for the good of a small minority of people versus what’s in the best interest of everyone as a whole. It is very important to educate yourself in the field and use every opportunity to take advantage of training materials, sessions, meetings, and so forth.” Of the many boards she’s worked with, Poe sees some common practices that help things run smoothly. “Putting aside personal differences and backgrounds, using your outside skills and life experiences to operate without letting individuals dominate the board” are two keys to making a board work. “It is a team effort to operate as a board and not a dictatorship,” she says. On a month-to-month basis, Poe says typical water and wastewater board members participate in board meetings and make decisions for the utility’s future. “First of all, the biggest thing is being available,” she says. “They must be at meetings, have good attendance, and have a schedule that is flexible so they can attend them. Members must review any data and material that comes through in order to make good, valid decisions. They’re responsible to look over proposals and get the basic understanding of the issues. Board members need to try to educate themselves on the workings of the plant, both financially and treatment-wise. There are all kind of schools and assistance providers to help them gain a basic knowledge of their systems. They need to do this on an individual basis.” Poe stresses that board members really need a basic knowledge of the system. “One of my most comical experiences was a case where the newly elected board wanted to change the line sizing from a two-inch pipe and increase it to four inches by cutting out four-foot sections to the line. They wanted to install a hydrant to the fourfoot section and then reduce it back to two inches without replacing the entire line. They wanted to install four hydrants along this section of line using this method. This would have collapsed the whole line. “Their reasoning for it was to save money and get hydrants that they said were badly needed,” she says. “It turned out this section was also a section that took in four of the board members’ houses. They were finally convinced that playing amateur engineer was not in the best interest of their system.”

Poe also warns that board members must be mindful of their legal obligations to the community. “They need to have an understanding of the legal implications of their jobs as well as an understanding of the regulations and compliance issues of the system,” she says. “They come from all different backgrounds and some of them get the term ‘tort immunity’ in their heads and think they are safe from the legal ramifications of their decisions. Anybody can be sued for an issue. They need to remember that their primary responsibility is to provide safe drinking water for the community, planning for the future, and taking responsibility for the system.” So how much can board members expect to be paid for all the work and responsibility they take on? “They get paid?” Poe says with a chuckle. “It’s mostly done out of the kindness of their hearts.” Most of the board members Poe has don’t get paid. She usually works with systems serving fewer than 10,000 customers, and depending on the way their governing papers were filed under state statute, most board members earn no pay. “Most boards are given reimbursement for training and out-of-pocket expenses, but it’s not what could be called a salary.” Work Together to Make Meetings Work Well Poe has provided assistance to systems that have worked well together and those that haven’t. “The worst-case scenario is the situation where personal problems between members results in a vote just to spite another member. The best case scenario is when arch enemies set aside differences and make a decision for the betterment of the whole community,” Poe says. “I worked with a brand new system that totaled 1,900 customers by the second phase of the project. The board asked me to come to observe their board meeting and give them some advice with the process,” she says. “I saw mudslinging, no meeting skills, and members sitting throughout the room rather than at one table. I didn’t know who was a member and who was

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 29

part of the audience. After a two-hour discussion, they were embarrassed. “I worked with the board in a special training session,” Poe says. “We practiced their meeting skills. They started with 14 members—which was a huge mistake— and now they have reduced it to seven members. Now they can get in and out of a meeting in a half hour. They are also giving their consumers a lot more respect at their board meetings. “We’re Arkansas and we do things informally here, but you still have to have formal meetings. If you show what you want the customers to do in the meeting, such as not talking over one another, then the meetings will run much more smoothly.” Retaining the Good Members So once a solid group of members are in place and doing a good job working for the community, what can be done to retain those board members? “I can’t think of specifics that the board can do to ‘keep’ that ideal board member in place aside from developing a good operating board that is produc-

Let's agree we won't argue during tonight's meeting.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 30

tive and ‘gets the job done.’ As long as they are being productive and going through a productive meeting by moving through the agenda, they aren’t sitting there stewing over something out of their control, they see the board is well run and getting the work done, and they are contributing, the good members will stay,” Poe says. “If there are problems, there may be a turnover due to frustrations. “There is no advantage to being a board member on a personal level. It can be a very rewarding experience knowing that they are helping their communities. Fulfilling their responsibilities and staying with the times would create a desirable environment for a good member to want to stay with it.” There are times when someone does leave the board. When that happens, the remaining members must work together to find the best replacement. “Once an opening is declared, there is normally just a 30-day period to find a replacement, which is difficult to find ‘that good board member’ in such a short period of time,” Poe says. “A board needs to find a person in the community that is dependable, does not have pre-conceived notions about the water system, is open-minded, accepts change, and has a sincere desire to serve his or her community. Potential board members need to know up front the responsibilities and duties required of them so they have a clear picture of what they are getting into.” Poe recommends that the opening be advertised properly. She says that word of mouth notice or press releases to local media outlets are some good ways to get the word out. Other options include posting notices at community locations, such as the post office and town hall, and running an announcement on the local public access channel. Poe says that members are usually elected, but in some instances, com-

missions hand pick their board members. She says that some towns and cities also run their own water or wastewater system, so the council may serve as the water or wastewater board itself, or the council may appoint a separate board to oversee the utility’s operation Getting New Members up to Speed To help new members understand their roles on a board, the ARWA has developed a template program that board members can use. The binder includes sections for the system’s bylaws, rules and regulations, financial reports, agendas, customer policies, and anything that pertains to the system. “This is put in a book for each member to have and use,” Poe says. “It is critical that new members learn about those things that are particular to their system. “Bad decisions are made because board members don’t understand all the facts. For instance, they could vote on an issue that is in blatant violation of a code because they don’t know the regulations,” she says. “They really need to understand the rules and regulations. As another example, the board should know the operator certification requirements for their particular system so they can ultimately hire the person who holds the correct certification credentials. “The book we give them is to use and understand. They should include six months of old agendas so they can read about and understand the history of the issue so that they may make the best decision,” she says. “Several months may go by without an issue being discussed, so if a new member has the old agendas and minutes to refer to, they can make a more informed decision on the matter rather than depend on another board member to explain what was discussed at a previous meeting. Board members should vote their own minds rather than go along with the flow.” The template binder given to members includes a number of policy forms that members can fill out and for their administrative procedures. The binder also holds a customer complaint form the system can use to gain input from the public. “Getting the policies in place is extremely helpful in running the system,” Poe says. “Water and wastewater boards like the program because they don’t have to type it. The policies we’ve included were drafted based on exam-

ples from the systems in the state that had good policies in place. The template is something they love. It’s generic and easy to use.” Be Open, Be Honest Keeping the public informed of the decisions it makes is not only crucial for a board in developing good relations with the public, it’s often mandated by law that the public be informed, such as with the consumer confidence reports. Open meeting laws and public disclosure notices dictate that boards be open and available to the public. So what advice would Poe give to a board member who doesn’t necessarily want to be open to the public or wants to be secretive about their decisions? “I do have individual members say, ‘if we could get together before and hash this out without the public watching us, we could get the matter settled without it being aired in public.’ That does happen in the real world,” she says. “But they need to make every effort to make the public informed. They need to remember that the public is their best ally if they keep them informed. If the public doesn’t think the board is being secretive, then the community is more likely to support a rate increase. You have to have the trust of the community. The Freedom of Information Act allows the community to obtain public information so a board must always be aware of what the public can see.” When it comes to possibly contentious issues, such as rate increases, Poe says that boards should “stick to the issue and state facts—not opinions. In the example of a rate increase, a board member should continually state the reason for the increase and justify it no matter what the outcome of the rates. They may need to say ‘the rate increase is necessary to provide additional storage, additional storage is necessary to supply adequate pressure, and adequate pressure is needed to meet demand, etc.’ They might need to say ‘the rate increase is to cover the cost increases in parts and labor.’ “They always need to make the public aware that the system is run like a business and that, as a business, it is an expensive item to run and maintain,” Poe says. “Public water is not a free service—it’s a privilege to have safe water. On the public relations end, it may not be necessary to go into great detail on an issue. But the public does On Tap . Winter 2003 . 31

I wish they’d just stop looking over my shoulder.

need to understand why an engineer is needed or why chlorine is there and their associated costs. A board needs to be constantly educating its public.” Working Well With the Staff When it comes to working with a water or wastewater system’s staff, the board should absolutely not micromanage workers. “Don’t give your operator five bosses!” The booklet Small System Guide to Board Responsibilities for Operation and Maintenance notes. “Designate one person on the board to supervise the operator. This board member acts as the link between the operator and the entire board and should be fairly accessible if the operator needs to ask questions. At no time, unless it’s clearly understood by the board and the operator, should anyone but the designated board member give instructions to the operator.” Poe agrees that boards should not meddle too much in an operator’s day-today workings. “It is not the board’s responsibility to oversee the day-to-day operations of the personnel. That is why they have managers or supervisors. Small systems have a lot of trouble with micromanaging from individual board members who feel that being a board member makes them an instant supervisor to all the staff. One board member cannot call the shots without the majority of the remaining board to support them. “The staff is usually qualified, trained, and licensed for the jobs, whereas a board member is not duly qualified for handling or supervising the day-to-day operations,” Poe says. “Board members should focus more on the policies that are necessary to run a smooth system such as personnel policies, job descriptions, and so forth. A board should have the policies on paper so the board and the employee know the policy.” On Tap . Winter 2003 . 32

Poe says she has seen instances where an operator was watched and followed to see if he was doing his job. She knows of an operator who was fired when a board member saw the operator stop at a local department store on his way home from work. The operator’s crime was using the utility’s vehicle even though it had been assigned to him as part of his on-call work. Many operators also face working board members who don’t take the advice they provide. “I know of situations where the board totally ignored the operator’s advice and hired an outside consultant for advice,” Poe says. “ If the operator works with technical assistance providers like ARWA, they may get the board in the habit of using the free services available instead of paying consultants. This still gives the board the outside opinion or advice while not hampering the budget. In cases where free assistance is not available, Poe suggests that systems should try to find a system that solved a similar problem. Looking at what another system did to handle the problem, could save costly consulting fees. “We work for the system, not the board or the operator. When something comes up, I get a call to provide assistance, not work for one person at the system,” she says. “There’s a lot of mistrust by board members who may shy away from taking the operator’s advice,” Poe says. “I try to encourage operators not to be offended when a board doesn’t follow his or her advice. I tell them to build trust over time and keep working at it by providing good advice that board members can trust and accept.” To learn about board training opportu nities available in your area like those offered by Arkansas Rural Water Association, contact the office in your state or log onto National Rural Water Association’s Web site (www.nrwa.org) for contact information. Many rural water associations offer water board training in addition to onsite assistance with com munity relations, management issues, technical problems, and other concerns. To reach Arkansas’ Rural Water Association, call (501) 676-2255, or write to 240 Dee Dee Lane, Lonoke, Arkansas 72086. ARWA’s Web site is located at www.arkansasruralwater.org.

Water Board Chair is Key to a Successful System As the leader of a water board, you will work closely with other board members, operators, engineers, lending agencies, representatives from regulatory agencies, attorneys, community members, the press, and numerous others. As chair, you will need to use skill and diplomacy to solve problems, plan for the future, and act in the best interest of the community.

Learn the Duties of Your Job

Work Together as a Team

A good place to begin learning your duties is to speak with former chairs and other board members to see what worked and what didn’t. Take time to speak with your operator and other treatment workers, billing clerks, and customers.

Reassure the board and staff that you’re all trying to meet the same goals. Recognize and discuss the fact that each may have differing opinions how to meet the goals but that they can be met by working together. Set an example to others by not keeping secrets or forming alliances among members of the board. Don’t try to hide bad news such as treatment violations or money problems.

Find out the system’s debt and any needs workers feel are pending. Tagging along as an operator works in the plant, reads meters, or repairs equipment or line breaks will give you new insight into the work that goes on in the utility. A good chair will understand that his or her job means more than just running meetings, though running a meeting is an important part of the job. Well-run meetings help to keep people interested and motivated. Because many public utilities fall under open meeting laws, be sure to consult with someone who understands the requirements in your state. Generally speaking, all meetings—except those involving private personnel issues—should be open to the public. Have an agenda to follow. If discussion gets off track, diplomatically bring people back to the agenda item up for discussion. Encourage participation from others, including the system’s customers.

Know Those Working With You Get to know the other board members as well as the system’s staff. Make sure staff knows you personally and feels welcome coming to you for assistance or advice. Make an effort to listen to other board members who bring a different perspective to the board. It’s likely the board will be made up of a diverse group of people such as retirees, bankers, businesspeople, teachers, or community activists, so take advantage of the knowledge and skills that each bring to the group. Adapted from “Getting the Best out of Boards and Board Members” by Thomas Higgins, National Association of Boards and Board Members.

To learn more about Management Training Manual for Board Members of Public Water Systems, visit the Mississippi State University Extension Service Web site at msucares.com. An online version of the training manual is available through the Web site under its “publications” sec tion or by doing a search for “water board training.”

Try to keep everyone involved by providing them with information and listening when they come to you with an issue. Be objective and maintain a calm demeanor when others disagree with you. Try to remain rational and neutral and give others a chance to speak. A neutral party may be needed at times to help the board make a decision, but if you have the on-staff knowledge to make a decision, don’t waste the utility’s money by hiring outside consultants. Many operators feel left out of decisions based on consultant recommendations rather than their own input. This could lead to disgruntled feelings or an operator having little faith in the board’s ability to manage.

Be Available As board chair, customers will expect you to be available at all times of the day. There will be times when you will serve as the spokesperson for the water board before the media. Many board leaders face the glaring media exposure during heated rate increase discussions, system health violations, and community opposition to board decisions. Prepare yourself in advance by honing your public relations skills. The National Rural Water Association offers a great tool to help build better community relations. Quality On Tap! A Practical “Hands-On” Guide to Better Public Relations for Small Water Utilities includes several tools to help your system. Utilities can use these items to improve customer and media relations. Contact the rural water association in your state for availability of the public relations manual.

To obtain a copy of Small System Guide to Board Responsibilities for Operation and Maintenance, contact the Rural Community Assistance Program, at (202) 408-1273. Writer/Editor Jamie Knotts holds a master’s degree in education and a bachelor’s degree in journalism. If you have a story suggestion or comment, send it to him at [email protected]. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 33

O P E R A T I O N S

Security and Emergency Planning

Community-Wide Efforts Require Preparation by Chain-Wen Wang, Ed. D. NDWC Contributing Writer

In May 2002, the 107th Congress enacted the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 (Bioterrorism Act), to enhance federal and state efforts to prepare for and respond to the threat of bioterrorism and other public health emergencies. On June 12, 2002, the President signed the bill into law. The Bioterrorism Act reauthorizes or amends several important grant programs established under the Public Health Threats and Emergencies Act and the Public Health Service and also provides significant new grant opportunities for states and local governments. As part of the legislation, the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Title XIV has been amended to include Section 1433, which pertains to terrorism and and other intentional acts. Title IV of the act requires all community water systems (CWSs) serving a population greater than 3,300 to conduct a vulnerability assessment (VA) and provide a written copy of the assessment to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) administrator and, within six months of completing

the assessment, prepare an emergency response plan (ERP) that incorporates the results of the vulnerability assessment. According to the Act, by August 1, 2002, the EPA administrator is to provide baseline information to community water systems that are required to conduct vulnerability assessments. After consultation with appropriate departments and agencies of the federal government and with state and local governments, the baseline information is supposed to cover which kinds of terrorist attacks or other intentional acts are considered probable threats. EPA is also required to develop security protocols that “may be necessary to protect the copies of the assessments required to be submitted under the subsection 1433 (5) (and the information contained therein) from unauthorized disclosure” in consultation with appropriate federal law enforcement and intelligence officials no later than November 30, 2002. The baseline report was completed by the August 1 deadline; however, it did not go out in August because the EPA admin-

Vulnerability Assessment: Key Dates Population of Community Water System (CWS) 100,000 or greater 50,000–99,999 3,301–49,999 On Tap . Winter 2003 . 34

Approximate Number of CWSs 400 460 7,500

Certify and Submit Vulnerabilty Assessment (VA) by

Certify Emergency Responce Plan within 5 months of VA but no later than

March 31,2003 December 31,2003 June 30,2004

September 30,2003 June 30,2004 December 31,2004

istrator asked for and received an Academy of Science peer review of the document. The final baseline report was ready on September 1 after the peer review. However, it was delayed while EPA was setting up a secure method of distributing the report to the more than 7,900 community water systems who are the recipients of the report. The security protocols did not need to meet the same requirements as the report and were ready on November 30. (An article on the security protocols may be found at www.awwa.org/ communications/waterweek/.) While the new bioterrorism law requires EPA to provide guidance on vulnerability assessments to community drinking water systems, it does not specifically authorize EPA to prescribe the components of the vulnerability assessments. Some drinking water organizations feel that community water systems are thus not required to use any particular vulnerability assessment tool. However, in the baseline report EPA has identified common elements found in vulnerability assessments that would be appropriate to all size systems. Drinking water systems can choose any vulnerability assessment method, but these basic elements should be addressed so that there’s consistency in the assessments. Each Situation Is Unique “We are working closely with various states and local agencies on helping systems conduct their

vulnerability assessments,” says Andrew Bielanski, an environmental engineer with the EPA Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water. “Because every water system is different from the next, the assessment will basically have to be system specific with some common elements.” Tommy Ricks, Mississippi state coordinator of the Community Resource Group–Southern RCAP, says the same thing when it comes to providing assistance to water systems conducting their vulnerability assessments. “The Mississippi State Department of Health, the Mississippi Water and Pollution Control Operators Association, and my organization developed training, as well as a Water System Emergency Response Plan template that incorporates the general ideas/principles of a vulnerability assessment and made that available to water systems in the state. “The template,” Ricks explains, “uses a common sense approach that contains the most basic and general rules regarding emergency response plans. It gives you (the water system) an idea where to start your ERP (general guidelines on what needs to be included in an

ERP). What you need to do is to modify it to suit your system.” EPA has several tools available that can be downloaded from or linked to from their Web site at www.epa.gov/safewater. These tools include: • “Vulnerability Assessments and Remediation Plans,” a method developed by Sandia National Laboratory for large systems; • “Security Vulnerability SelfAssessment Guide for Small Drinking Water Systems,” a tool for systems serving fewer than 3,300 people; • “Security Vulnerability SelfAssessment Guide for Small Drinking Water Systems Serving Populations Between 3,300 and 10,000,” a guide developed by the Association of State Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA) and National Rural Water Association (NRWA) in cooperation with the USEPA; and “Model Emergency Response Guidelines (Guidance for Water Utility Response, Recovery & Remediation Actions for Man-Made and/or Tech-

nological Emergencies),” a downloadable tool. Many organizations, such as NRWA, ASDWA, the Water Environment Federation (WEF), and the American Water Works Association (AWWA), as well as many state primacy agencies, also have tools and guides to provide assistance to water systems either conducting VAs or preparing ERPs. While the acceptability of different types of vulnerability assessments is not clear, water systems can still work on developing a new ERP or revise their old ERP. “What needs to be included in the ERP is really the step-by-step plan of action in response to various emergency events, whether it’s natural disasters or threats of bioterrorism,” says John Mori, director of the National Environmental Services Center. “If you have it spelled out ahead of time what action to take when certain events occur, you have a plan.” Integrating Assessments with Community Plans “From the feedback we’ve received, there seem to be two levels of inadequacy regarding emergency planning for security

Volunteer firefighters and hazardous materials handlers participate in a “mock disaster”in Morgantown,West Virginia. Several hundred emergency response personnel took part in the event, sponsored by the Department of Justice's Office for Domestic Preparedness. Photo by Dave Custer On Tap . Winter 2003 . 35

purposes when it comes to protecting drinking water systems,” Mori says explaining the importance of revisiting security issues. “One, some systems have done little or nothing in spite of the laws. And, two, few systems have accomplished true integration. “What we think should happen for every drinking water system is not only to have a vulnerability The temporary command area was a busy place during a assessment tied to an recent mock disaster held in Morgantown, West Virginia. emergency plan in sonnel on appropriate emergency place, but also to have the plan response, but they are also runintegrated into the overall community emergency plan,” he says. ning mock drills.” What’s more Why do water systems need to impressive, according to Ricks, is that many small water systems think about integrating their in Mississippi volunteer to parERP into the overall community ticipate in the drills, even though emergency plan? “For example, they are not required to have an if a delivery truck accidentally emergency plan. runs into your facility, what will “Without first doing your vulyou do first? Who will you call?” nerability assessment to identify Mori asks. “Do you need to conpotential weaknesses, you really tact the fire department? The can’t update your emergency police department? The state response plans,” Bielanski cauemergency response team? Who tions. “Systems should not skip is responsible for doing what? the step of doing a complete and Ask yourself, is this a situation thorough vulnerability assessyou (the water system) can hanment when updating their emerdle yourself, or is this a situagency response plans. tion that needs the involvement “At this point, EPA hasn’t made of the larger community? If it’s a a final decision on how to evalusituation the water system can ate the adequacy of vulnerability not handle by itself,” Mori sugassessments except that it will be gests “then it needs to be on a system-by-system basis,” he included in the overall commusays, “and we are working really nity emergency plan.” (For more hard trying to iron out all the information about crisis comdetails regarding security protomunications and community cols to protect the copies of the networks, see the On Tap artiassessments submitted.” cles “Crisis Communication: Ricks agrees, “It is tricky. Building a Network to Keep Usually, this kind of document Drinking Water Safe” in the Fall is accessible to the public, but, 2002 issue and “Crisis because of the sensitive nature Communications: Keeping Your of the documents, it is exempt. Community Informed During And, how do you decide who Emergencies” in the Winter has access to your emergency 2002 issue.) plan when you are supposed to “Communication and training work with different agencies? If is the key to success,” Ricks conyou don’t share some of the curs with Mori’s statement. “In information, is it still possible to Mississippi, we are really workbe an effective plan? If you do ing at the overall community share the information with level. Many local governments everyone who might be involved, are not only training related perOn Tap . Winter 2003 . 36

how do you know you’re not compromising your system’s security?” Ricks, along with other drinking water professionals, has no answer to those questions. Assessment ABCs Although there are many complex regulatory issues involved in vulnerability assessments and emergency response planning that remain unresolved at this point, there are still some basic comPhoto by Dave Custer ponents that should be included. According to the Bioterrorism Act, water system VAs must include: • a review of pipes and constructed conveyances; • physical barriers; • water collection, pretreatment, treatment, storage and distribution facilities; • electronic, computer or other automated systems, which are used by the public water systems; • the use, storage or handling of various chemicals; and • the operation and maintenance of such system.” The language above basically coincides with the physical and managerial aspects of water systems. Comparing NRWA’s Water/Wastewater Security Vulnerability Self-Assessment and the Security Vulnerability Self-Assessment Guide for Small Drinking Water Systems by ASDWA, in collaboration with EPA, the EPA Drinking Water Academy, and the NR WA, it’s easy to see that these two documents follow the same physical and managerial aspects of water systems, including: water sources; treatment plant and suppliers; distribution; personnel; information storage/com puters/controls/maps; and public relations. According to the vulnerability assessment tools available for review, the most common way to conduct a vulnerability assessment for water systems seems to be to answer a series

of “yes,” “no,” or “not applicable” questions regarding the aspects mentioned above. For instance, for facility security, typical questions relate to access to the pumping stations, treatment plants, storage facilities, offices, and other physical components, such as who has access to what within the facility and how will unauthorized entry or attempted entry be detected? One consideration that has been given scant attention is utility personnel. Requiring background checks in the hiring process and photo-identification cards for utility personnel are two examples. Another topic that is relatively new is protecting records and critical information from someone who might plan to vandalize a water system. Again, as experts point out, a lot of this is common sense, especially for small water systems that do not have complicated facilities or large staffs. The first and most important thing is to have an inventory of critical system components. Once the inventory is completed, identify all the physical and managerial components of the system to detect vulnerable points. Once the vulnerable points are identified, you’re starting to get into the beginning of emergency response planning. At this point, the water system needs to prioritize actions needed to decrease the vulnerability of the system and improve the system’s security. Create an Emergency Contact List Based on the NRWA/ASDWA tool available to systems serving populations less than 3,300, one essential part of an ERP for a water system is an “Emergency Contact List.” The list should contain the names and phone numbers of people to call in case of an emergency. The Security Vulnerability Self-Assessment Guide for Small Drinking Water Systems suggests including three sections on the list: system identification, notification/contact information, and communication and outreach. The system identification section contains basic information about the system, such as the

water system ID number; system name and location; population served and numbers of service connections; system owner; and the name, title, and phone number of the person responsible for maintaining the list. The notification/contact information section should include a local officials list, a service/ repair company list, a state agency list, and a media list. Specific contact information includes organizations, such as the fire department, police department, health department, hospital, schools, and primacy agency, as well as the designated spokesperson for the system and newspaper, radio and television stations. The guide suggests that water system representatives talk with the state drinking water primacy agency about local emergency preparedness and solutions to potential emergency communication problems, such as disrupted phone lines and overloaded cell phone lines. It also suggests making a plan to notify the public in case of contamination of the water supply, including how to reach all customers in the first 24 hours of an emergency and how to contact institutions with large numbers of people. In addition to the emergency contact list, a good water system ERP should also include general emergency response procedures, as well as procedures for handling accidents, natural disasters, external and internal emergencies, threats and hoaxes, contamination and waterborne diseases outbreaks, water outages, security measures, recovery plans, and emergency training and drilling, according to Ricks. Another important component of a good plan is to include a chain-of-command that identifies those persons who are responsible for making decisions in case of an emergency and outlines each person’s responsibilities, suggests Mori, “especially when the situation calls for the involvement of the larger community.”

The last, but not the least important, component of a good emergency plan is communication. This includes communication between the water system and state agencies, such as the drinking water primacy agency and the emergency management agency; between the water system and local organizations, such as fire and police departments; between the water system and the public; between the water system and the media; and within water system personnel, as well with other federal, state, and local governments and agencies. At this time, because it’s not required by law, there is no way of verifying how many drinking water systems serving populations of less than 3,300 have an emergency response plan or vulnerability assessment in place. However, drinking water system personnel should still work on conducting individualized vulnerability assessments for their systems and developing an emergency response plan that can be integrated into the overall community emergency plan. Chain-Wen Wang holds an Ed.D. in technology education from West Virginia University and operates an environmental consulting business specializing in drinking water, wastewater, and stream water quality issues.

References Association of State Drinking Water Administrators and National Rural Water Association. 2002. Security Vulnerability SelfAssessment Guide for Small Drinking Water Systems. Washington DC. Association of State Drinking Water Administrators and National Rural Water Association. 2002. Security Vulnerability SelfAssessment Guide for Small Drinking Water Systems Serving Populations Between 3,300 and 10,000. Washington DC. National Rural Water Association. 2002. Rural Water/Wastewater Security Vulnerability SelfAssessment. Duncan, OK: NRWA. U.S. Congress. 2002. H.R. 3448 Title IV— Drinking Water Security and Safety. Washington DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Guidance for Water Utility Response, Recovery & Remediation Actions for ManMade and/or Technological Emergencies (Model Emergency Response Guidelines). Washington DC. Online at www.epa.gov/safewater U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Water Security Strategy for Systems Serving Populations Less than 100,000/15 MGD or Less. Washington DC. Online at www.epa.gov/safewater On Tap . Winter 2003 . 37

T R A I N I N G

ITrdae a l ining

Solutions for

Water Operations by Kevin Kundert Training Director, Montana Water Center

N

o, this is not a proposal to hold system operators and managers hostage and force them into required training. Quite the opposite, those of us who provide training must now cater to the increased needs of this audience. In doing so, we must use the most appropriate training methods. Many states are now reimbursing certification and training expenses for those operating community and nontransient, non-community public water systems serving 3,300 or fewer people. States that are eligible for federal funding under the ERG Program [Operator Certification Expense Reimbursement Grant Program] are also producing new training materials to meet the demands of their particular program(s). In this article, I examine some of the popular training solutions available to water and wastewater opera tions and suggest ways training providers can minimize the cost of producing state-specific training for small systems. If duplication of training development is minimized, then funds will go a lot further in our mission to protect public health. The ideal “silver bullet” soluOn Tap . Winter 2003 . 38

tion for small systems training is one in which today’s (and tomorrow’s) technologies are employed. Popular Training Methods What is your training preference? Do you attend workshops, buy books, take computer-based courses, or do you prefer to use a variety of training solutions? We can make general statements about the pros and cons of each method and be somewhere between 100 percent correct and 100 percent incorrect every time, flip a coin. It depends on the people being trained, the audience. The point is that we must know the needs and expectations of the audience to focus on an effective solution. Those organizations that provide training all have pieces of the puzzle and need to communicate to assemble that puzzle. Popular training solutions and technologies that are available to us now form a baseline of knowledge that we need to consider to evaluate and provide

ideal training for water and wastewater operations, especially in smaller systems. Print-based training includes books, workbooks, and written correspondence courses. Many of us have learned basic system operations this way. How many of you have used the “Ken Kerri manuals” from Cal State’s Office of Water Programs, the New York manual, or Skeet Arasmith’s publications? Many well-done training programs are available. Print-based materials will always be a mainstay, but this media is static and runs the risk of intimidating, burdening, and boring the learner if he or she is not highly motivated to learn that material. Many times printed materials are combined with other media types, such as CDROMs, videos, and audio tapes, to form an effective training solution. Of course print media is free from the need for computers and VCRs and can be used anytime. However, publishing and distribution costs for books, workbooks, etc., are expensive, and

they cannot be updated frequently without a repeat of that large expense. In-person or instructor-led training allows for social interaction and can integrate a variety of media. Courses can be produced in a short development cycle, and the materials can be tailored to the group while training is in progress. This traditional method of teaching is comfortable for both students and instructors and because learners are removed from their work environment, they can focus on the course free from distraction. However, this training relies heavily on instructor knowledge, personality, and presentation skills. The course moves at one pace, usually the pace of the majority of the class and does not account for individual rates and styles of learning. Travel time and expenses for both the instructor and participants is a significant investment and scheduling may not meet the needs of all who require the information. In the case of small system operations, many times a relief operator is not available to allow an operator to attend. Computer-based training has the advantage of providing consistent delivery at a learner-controlled pace. Individual time schedules can be accommodated, and there is an unlimited opportunity for review. Consistent testing and record keeping are appeal ing to certification agencies (or should be). The high degree of interactivity and involvement of the learner is enhanced in computer based training with exten-

sive multisensory appeal, but these programs can be expensive to produce. Those that aren’t tend to be very textbased and essentially electronic copies of a book. A high level of technical expertise is required from a team of individuals to produce good computer based training. Any program designed for small system operations should have a relatively simple navigation scheme because many of the learners have little experience with computers. Web-based training inherits all of the pros and cons of computer-based training, plus a few more. Developing webbased applications is very attractive to those of us producing training materials because it can easily be updated and programmed to manipulate data in a multitude of ways. But most system operators, especially those who operate small systems, are not connected to the Internet. For information sharing between organizations, Web-based training is the way to go. A wise move these days is to provide this as an option. Teleconference and videobased training are both somewhat passive learning experiences. Teleconferences

require collaboration with other sites that need qualified technicians, and the process can be complex. One organization that is doing this very well, though, is the AWWA [American Water Works Association] with more than 200 downlink sites for national teleconferences. Combining that media with case studies and calls from sites to an expert panel provides a good balance of learning experiences. This format is very popular with engineers and larger system operators. Video is flexible in delivery; participants can view the information wherever a VCR is present. Sometimes video is the best choice for role-modeling and motivational training. Video is expensive to produce but inexpensive to duplicate and deliver after initial development costs. DVDs (digital video discs) are rapidly replacing video technology due to their mass storage capability, size, weight, and ease of reproduction. For small system operations, though, video is still more prevalent. Blended training refers to some combination of the previous solutions. It is usually composed of a selfstudy course followed by an in-person workshop or series of classes in which the attendee expands on basic concepts. He or she has the opportunity to interact with an instructor and peers. Properly done, this type of training may be very fruitful. The disadvantage to this solution is that the training provider must be good with both his presentation skills and with technology solutions. Sometimes the technology relied upon is beyond the trainer’s control, e.g., a realtime event with content experts On Tap . Winter 2003 . 39

or a video-teleconference hosted by a separate organization. Results with this solution can be very good or very bad, depending on the qualifications and experience of the trainer. What do these training solutions have in common? All have a need for good content material and graphics. All but the print-based solutions can benefit from interactive components. How can new technologies help? New technologies offer many opportunities to improve training delivery. Let’s examine six prominent examples. Structured reusable con tent is a set of standards that publishers and training producers agree on and adhere to in order to share structured information between organizations or training applications. The goal is to separate content material from graphical components and application interfaces so that it can be easily customized for other uses, some that may not even be imagined now. If a master document is created using structured content, then there is one central location where modifications can be made and then output into any format desired. This saves an enormous amount of development time and eliminates potential errors from cropping up when multiple developers manipulate source files. This also makes it easier to track and secure content from inappropriate reuse. Many in higher education are interested in structured, reusable content and are moving forward at a rapid pace. If you’d like to know more, a good resource is available from the Higher Education Knowledge and Technology Exchange (HEKATE) Web site: www.hekate.org/HEKATEweb serviceswhitepaper.pdf. Given that we need to produce prodOn Tap . Winter 2003 . 40

ucts for small system operations in multiple formats, this is a useful technology worthy of some research. A great example of what can be done to structure content into reusable “learning objects” was created by the Digital Library for Earth System Education, or DLESE project (www.dlese.org/). The group defines learning objects and assigns the thematic order to access the objects based on the needs of particular classes. Content management is critical to a shared development solution. Not only must we know where content and media exist, we need to know who produced it, when, for what purpose, what are the conditions for its reuse, and other data relating to its format and structure. This is referred to as “metadata,” or data about data. Because we can trace the origin of the content, that source can be appropriately credited for what they have done. Right now, the primary agencies developing training for water operations are grantfunded educational institutions and nonprofit organizations. As developer tools get cheaper and easier to use, we may see private business move into this arena and then compensation for using content will be an issue. This may not be bad for the industry. It could bring an exponential increase in the amount of good training components available to our audience. A business or developer would probably build a unique component that adds to an existing system, not an entire training program requiring massive amounts of time and money. Imagine having access

to a world of developers without individual states each having to hire and train multimedia development teams to compete against private industry. This sharing of content and computer source code is referred to as “open-source” and is a way to enhance existing products and applications by giving everyone a huge jump-start. Sure, some headaches will be involved, but making everyone begin at ground-zero is much worse. Learning management is what we’ll need to use when regulatory or fiduciary requirements dictate that we report the who, what, when, and where of certification training or continued education training for operators. As investment in training systems increases, funding agencies will probably want to view the information that these systems can provide to determine return on investment. Big business has been using this technology for years. Universities are starting to and we’ll need to do it soon also. Some excellent systems are available today that go far beyond the basic tracking mechanisms by steering lear ners to appropriate training based on what they do or how they perform on previous modules. But costs are still high: hundreds of thousands of dollars for the powerful systems with about the same cost to set it up. Lesser systems may work for small programs, and it is possible for good programmers to build these in-house. In the case of tracking small system personnel, it may be overkill at this time, especially since most are not connected online. The perception that “big brother” may be watching is also a significant concern when employing this type of technology. Interactive forms will be a boon for the regulatory agencies that want to distribute secure forms in Adobe PDF format. Anyone with the free Adobe Reader software can fill out forms that are provided to

them and then save the information to a floppy disc or directly to an online database if they are connected to the Internet. When these forms are printed, they look the way they are supposed to and operators aren’t required to become computer experts. Another advan tage is that the information can be verified before it is allowed to be submitted (e.g., numbers in a certain range, text only in some fields and the provision of feedback that instructs the operator). Now the information already exists in electronic form and does not have to be re-entered by the regulatory folks. Once this infor mation is in the system, the regulators can review it. Some states are automating this process to verify data and print out a report without their need to input any data at all. “Win-win activities” is a term we use at the Montana Technical Assistance Center for Small Public Water Systems for activity-based learning projects we’ve developed. This activity is a subset of many. A win-win activity is one that addresses a specific problem we are having with small system operations, such as a big turnaround in operator staffing in small systems. When one operator leaves (and he is the only operator), all or a big chunk of “system knowledge” walks out the door and the new operator has to start from scratch. If activities (for credit) are designed that actually help the operator accomplish job goals and requirements, then he or she will not only benefit by getting credit for the activity, but will also be documenting important system functions and parameters. This is a win for the sys-

tem operator and a win for the system owner. A series of these activities can be created to help transition operators into the operation of a system foreign to them. Games and simulation are very popular with users but expensive to produce. These require some heavy-duty programmers and should not be relegated to mere mortals. When you dive into this field, come in with your eyes wide open. What will help our industry is sharing game source code and modular content design. There are numerous online user groups where programmers can find examples of code and sometimes complete program source code. One example of reusable or modular code could be a glossary game. The glossary terms, definitions, feedback, and animations (if any) should conform to a specific structure, which allows the game to work when new content is added or replaced. Also, the graphical interface should be easy to change so that each organization using it can have a different look and feel. Simulation is a word we should use carefully. True simulation allows free navigation through an environment like a flight simulator would. This requires a budget in the millions. (Please call me if you know someone who wants to put together a “Water Treatment Simulator”!) When we talk about simulation, most times we are referring to a branched, decision-tree type of interactivity. Think of it like an expanding outline. There is a limited set of options, feedback, and actions based on what the

learner does within the limited set of options. This fools the user into thinking it is simulation if it is designed properly. Our center is funded to do two of these in 2003. The “Silver Bullet” Now that we’ve reviewed some exciting technologies and you can see how these will help in training operators and managers of small systems, let’s return to the world of tight budgets and short days. What can we do to improve the situation? What works? Well, I think the Middle Ages proved that alchemy does not work. Lead is lead and silver is silver. There is no quick, easy solution to operator training. Quality training takes time and money to produce and deliver. The “silver bullet” solution is about minimizing the time to develop and deliver. It’s about sharing; it’s about collaboration. The future of training solutions looks innovative and exciting. Learning strategies are becoming more entertaining, interactive, and synergetic. We are shooting ourselves in the feet if we don’t look to the future while developing new training applications today. For more information about multimedia training, write to: Montana Water Center, 101 Huffman Building, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59717-2690 or call (406) 9947738 or visit their Web site at water.montana.edu/training References Lee, William W. and Diana L. Owens. 2000. Multimedia-Based Instructional Design. San Francisco: JosseyBass/Pfeiffer. Lorenzo, George. 2002. Web Services Enabling Technology for Application Integration and Assembly, Higher Education Knowledge and Technology Exchange (HEKATE). www.hekate.org/HEKATEwebservices whitepaper.pdf

Kevin Kundert leads a multimedia training development team at the Montana Water Center, Montana State University in Bozeman,where he earned his bachelor’s degree in hydrogeology.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 41

T E C H N O L O G Y

New Methods for Removing Arsenic Editor’s note: Arsenic is a vexing problem for many small communities. Fortunately, there are different options for removing this naturally occurring chemical from drinking water.This article looks at four new technologies. Although certain brand names are mentioned in this article, their use here should not be construed as an endorsement.

By Vipin Bhardwaj Engineering Scientist

T

he January 23, 2006, implementation date for the new 10 parts per billion (ppb) arsenic rule has spurred development of alternative treatment methods for arsenic removal from drinking water. Currently, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) categorizes seven emerging technologies: iron oxide-coated sand, granular ferric hydroxide, iron filings, sulfur-modified iron, greensand filtration, iron addition with microfiltration, and conventional iron/manganese removal. A discussion of four iron-based adsorption technologies is presented here. All have NSF Standard 61 certification; all are suitable for small systems. (For a comprehensive look at arsenic and drinking water, see the article “All About Arsenic” in the Summer 2002 On Tap.) GFH Arsenic Removal System USFilter’s GFH [granular ferric hydroxide] Arsenic Removal System for drinking water is an adsorption process capable of removing arsenic and other heavy metals from raw water supplies. The process uses a ferric-based, nonregenerative media to absorb arsenic, selenium, uranium, chromium, and other heavy metals from drinking water. Like other adsorption processes, the water simply passes through the media to remove the contaminants. Once the media has depleted its adsorption capacity, it is removed from the vessel and fresh media is added. In

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 42

many cases, the exhausted media can be discarded in landfills and classified as non-hazardous waste if toxicity characteristic and leaching procedur e (TCLP) testing permits this disposal method. Onsite storage of regeneration chemicals and concentrated waste disposal issues are eliminated with the single use media. The adsorption life of the media depends upon raw water pH, arsenic concentration levels, and operating cycles per day. GFH does not require preconditioning or pre-oxidation procedures, and the use of non-regenerative media are ideal design features for small and wellhead applications, particularly where no treatment currently exists. The GFH is available in a parallel or series operation, depending on the required removal concentrations. If a consistent 90 percent reduction is needed across the system, the series design is used. However, if the percentage is less than 90 percent, then the parallel design is typically applied. GFH media operates as a fixed bed adsorber. Typical installation is in pressure vessels to allow a single pumping stage for the water treatment system. The standard GFH system consists of three vertical pressure vessels with factory-installed internals for distribution and collection of influent and backwash flows. GFH media is placed on a 12-inch gravel support bed. All face

Arrangenent of Vessels in Severn Trent Service's SORB33 Media for Arsenic Removal Figure 1 piping and valves are included in the standard system to streamline installation. Water continuously passes through the media bed where arsenic in water is adsorbed onto the media. The vessels are arranged in parallel or series arrangement depending on water parameters with an empty bed contact time of five minutes. The vessels are backwashed once every two to six weeks to prevent bed compaction and to remove trapped particulates. The backwash process flow rate is typically 10 to 12 gallons per minute per square foot (gpm/sq.ft). MEDIA G2 Adsorptive Filter System ADI International Inc., of Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, developed MEDIA G2, an iron-based adsorptive filter media system. MEDIA G2 is a natural mineral, impregnated with a substantial quantity of ferric hydroxide. Used in a conventional filtering arrangement, arsenic-contaminated water flows downward through the filter bed where the iron on the media attracts and binds arsenic ions to the media substrate through a process of chemical adsorption. Tested and used

in full-scale water treatment applications, MEDIA G2 will reduce arsenic from 1,200 ppb to less than five ppb. In most applications, the treated water will contain less than two ppb arsenic. MEDIA G2 systems use an adsorptive process for arsenic removal, taking advantage of the natural affinity of iron to attract arsenic ions from the water. This takes place within the favorable pH range of 5.0 to 7.0. Extensive testing demonstrates the ability of the media to adsorb both trivalent (arsenite) and pentavalent (arsenate) arsenic. However, it is well recognized in the industry that arsenate is easier to adsorb than arsenite. MEDIA G2 also allows for the oxidation of arsenic on the surface of the media during the treatment process. Iron-based adsorption and the MEDIA G2 process is suited to small systems because it is basically like a filtration process, requiring the least of unit operations, labor, and complexity. In California, for example, a Class 2 Operator is certified to operate a MEDIA G2 system. The ability of MEDIA G2 to be regenerated, in place, offers many systems On Tap . Winter 2003 . 43

This treatment facility in Onemana, New Zealand, uses ADI International's arsenic treatment system .

an economical solution, particularly where the arsenic concentration is more than 50 ppb and large through-puts are desired. MEDIA G2 can be regenerated up to five times before disposal and loses only 10 percent of its adsorption capacity per regeneration event. MEDIA G2 is unaffected by other contaminants at concentrations up to, or even exceeding, maximum allowable drinking water concentrations. The most economical size range is 50 to 10,000 gpm to serve an estimated 100 to 50,000 population. MEDIA G2 systems produce very little residual waste: Typically, 99.8 percent of treated water (i.e., less than 0.2 percent wastage), which consists of the initial backwash and rinse of the media and normal backwashing requirements. The recovery can be increased to 99.99 percent with reclaim and recycle of backwash and regeneration water. ADI supplies the main process equipment for a MEDIA G2 system as a package. Pressure vessels are 304 or 316 stainless steel, ASME code stamped. Manifold pipe and valves are

This photo shows an ADI arsenic treatment system in Rose Hill Center, Holly, Michigan. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 44

pre-assembled at ADI’s plant for fast bolting to pressure vessels at the site. Where chemical feed systems are required, pre-packaged systems can be supplied with automatic control and monitoring. Many MEDIA G2 plants can be operated with the minimum of controls or automation. As part of its supply, ADI provides on-site operator training, and a manual. MEDIA G2 systems operate under pressure of the existing well pump. Therefore, power requirements are very low. SORB 33 Uses Iron Hydroxide Granules SORB 33 arsenic removal was developed in 1995 by Severn Trent Water (U.K.). The heart of the SORB 33 system is a fixed bed composed of iron hydroxide granules through which the polluted water passes. The iron oxide granules used are between 0.5 and 2 millimeters. The media has a high specific surface area of approximately 732,400 ft 2/lb. The adsorption technology fixes the arsenic contaminant onto a solid media. The SORB 33 process reduces arsenic levels to below 3 ppb across a complete range of large and small municipal drinking water systems, industrial wastewaters, and residential and commercial applications. The Bayoxide E33 media has a long life in the SORB 33 system, typically up to two years between replacement. Spent media “fixed” with adsorbed arsenic passes EPA’s TCLP, making it suitable for simple landfill disposal. This low-cost adsorption process has little flow interruption. The media will also adsorb other contaminants, including antimony, chromate, lead, selenium, and vanadium. No chemical usage is required for regeneration and the process produces very low residual (wastewater) effluents. The capacity of this media is more than other adsorbents such as activated carbon and activated aluminum oxide. Also, the media does not require regeneration like the ion exchange process. When the media is exhausted, it is discarded. Aquabind Is Suitable for POU/POE Another arsenic removal media is available from Apyron Technologies,

Inc., based in Atlanta, Georgia. Apyron’s custom-designed line of advanced adsorptive media products removes up to 99 percent of both arsenite and arsenate from drinking water. The product is suitable for point-of-use (POU), point-of-entry (POE), and small water systems. Recently, the National Drinking Water Advisory Council completed an EPA-commissioned cost analysis stating that POU applications should be given greater consideration as a method of tackling arsenic contamination. The council’s cost evaluations show that communities as large as 10,000 may benefit financially from this approach. Confirmed through independent laboratory analysis, each product is operational in a wide range of temperatures, water profiles, and pH ranges. The product can treat arsenic levels from 50 to 3,500 ppb and iron up to 15 ppm. Apyron has installed arsenic treatment units in Bangladesh and India, where they have been well received in the villages. The product is simple to use with no electricity or sophisticated controls needed, and can treat up to 4,500 gpd. Apyron also offers an arsenic test kit, a cost effective and simple method of informing potential customers of existing arsenic levels and validating the performance of the treatment option, once installed.

Conclusion Conventional treatment technologies have been discussed in previous issues of On Tap (see the Summer 2002 issue). Some of these are suitable for arsenic removal. Please note, however, that no single treatment technology is best for every application. Water chemistry, such as arsenic concentration, speciation of arsenic (arsenite versus arsenate), feed water pH, presence of interfering/competing ions such as silica, fluoride, phosphate, sulfate, dissolved iron and manganese; dissolved oxygen content; daily water usage; and maximum flow rate are all factors that must be considered before selecting a technology. The treatment technologies mentioned in this article will give communities additional options besides conventional treatment methods. Communities and water systems facing an arsenic problem are encouraged to explore different options in dealing with this issue. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank M. Eric Winchester of ADI International and Rich Dennis and Nadia Abbott of Severn Trent Services, Inc. for providing information about their technologies.

Vipin Bhardwaj, engineering scientist, has a master's degree in environmental engineering and a master ’s in agriculture from West Virginia University.

Need answers to your drinking water questions? The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse’s (NDWC) technical assistance specialists are available to answer questions about drinking water issues such as regulatory requirements, water quality problems, funding sources, and water system troubleshooting. If you have a drinking w ater-related question and don’t know where to turn, call the NDWC at (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191 and select option “4” to speak with a drinking water technical specialist. NDWC technical specialists also maintain three databases:RESULTS [Registry of Equipment Suppliers of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems],a searchable public reference database containing information about technologies used by small water systems across the country; a Literature Database with more than 1,600 article abstracts from trade and scientific journals, research papers, and government documents;and an Organizational Database containing contact information for approximately 150 drinking water organizations. RESULTS and the Literature Database are available on the NDWC Web site at www.ndwc.wvu.edu. If you need help searching a database, call the number above. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 45

F I N A N C E

Besides SRF and RUS funding, what are some alternatives ? By Jamie Knotts Assistant Editor

In most of America’s small water systems, boar d members, managers, and operators know when they need money to fix a system problem. Knowing how and where to get the money to solve the problem is not as easy. Water professionals know water, but they don’t always know the ins and outs of financing their system’s upgrades, repairs, and extensions. Many systems looking for funding sources think first of USDA Rural Utility Service loans and grants or state revolving loan funds (SRF) administered through individual states. SRF funds come through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). But a wealth of other funds is available to systems needing capital for projects. Though not always the “free money” that system managers prefer to have, various loan and grant programs offer low-interest options for financing needed infrastructure projects. SRF is Often the First Stop The mainstay of many drinking water projects is the drinking water state revolving fund (DWSRF). Created through the 1996 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act, the DWSRF offers low interest rates on loans for projects. Each state runs its own program so eligibility requirements and interest rates vary from state to state. The fund does require applicants to have a source of revenue or adequate security to cover the loan amount, as well as the technical and managerial capacity to run the system over the long term. Depending on the state and the income levels of residents in a particular community seeking an SRF loan, interest rates can vary from as little as zero percent up to current market rate. On Tap . Winter 2003 . 46

DeAnn Ament works as a business manager with the North Dakota Municipal Bond Bank, the state agency overseeing their SRF program. She says that no two SRF programs are run the same across the country. “States are given real flexibility to oversee the loan program,” she says. “We offer loans for 2.5 percent with a 0.5 percent administrative fee for a total of three percent,” Ament says. “But in Wyoming, they have a state grant program for drinking water projects so they can’t give away their SRF money. People line up for their grant program.” Ament says that North Dakota will lend $12 million in SRF funds this year on 30 to 40 system projects. “Some of those projects will be 100 percent SRF loans while some will have a combination of SRF loans, community development block grants, Federal Emergency Management Agency grants, and other funding. “We’ve yet to turn away a system that has applied for funding,” she says. “We work with the systems to find the funding to get their project underway.” SRF grants and loans don’t always cover the entire cost of a water project, so utilities often look for multiple sources to ensure the project gets completed. A wide variety of grants and loans are available from different sources. Alternative Funding Is Available The Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) program administered through the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) offers grants directly to states, which then provide funds to small cities and non-urban counties. The program requires 70 percent of CDBG funds be used to help low- and moderate-income people. On

average, these grants cover 50 percent of project costs. For more information, contact your state or local HUD office, or you may call HUD headquarters at (202) 7081112. HUD’s Web site is www.hud.gov/ cpd/cpdcomde.html The Economic Development Administration (EDA) offers Grants for Public Works and Development Facilities. Aimed at economically distressed areas, these grants are for public works projects such as water and wastewater infrastructure development. Projects must promote economic development, create long-term jobs, and benefit low-income residents. These grants cover up to 50 percent of project costs with as much as 80 percent available for severely distressed communities. For more information, contact your state or regional EDA office or call (202) 482-5081. EDA’s Web site is www.doc.gov/eda/. The Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) offers Community Development Supplemental Grants for water projects in the designated Appalachian regions in 13 eastern states. Funding covers up to 50 percent of project costs with as much as 80 percent available for severely distressed communities. For more information, contact your state ARC office or call (202) 884-7700 or visit ARC’s Web site at www.arc.gov. A Water and Wastewater Loan Program administered through CoBank offers communities with fewer than 20,000 residents another loan option. Loans can be used for new construction, upgrades to existing systems, system acquisitions, water rights purchases, and refinancing of existing debt. The typical loan is for $1 million with a term not to exceed 20 years at a fixed or variable rate. In addition, CoBank offers a Small Loan Program that provides loans between $50,000 and $500,000 to cover construction-related costs. CoBank may be reached at (800) 542-8072 or at www.cobank.com. The Housing Assistance Council (HAC) offers a Small Water/Wastewater Loan Fund aimed at financing predevelopment, land acquisition, site development, and construction phases of a project. Maximum loan amounts vary depending on the project, with the average loan totaling $100,000 to

$250,000. Loans have duration of up to three years while interest is generally below market (now 5 percent.) For more information, contact the HAC at (202) 842-8600 or log on to their Web site at www.ruralhome.org. In addition to federal programs, many states also offer their own grant program dedicated to helping communities address their water needs. To learn if your state offers a grant program, contact the drinking water primacy agency in your state or call the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse for contact information. Phone (800) 624-8301 and ask to speak with a technical assistance specialist. RCAP Network Helps Communities The Rural Community Assistance Program (RCAP) is a group of six regional organizations that help small and rural communities obtain basic water, wastewater, and housing services. In addition to loan programs, RCAP technical assistance providers work with community leaders to obtain and maintain services across the country. RCAP has more than 200 field-based rural development specialists at the state and local levels in all 50 states, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The RCAP national office can be reached at (202) 408-1273. Its Web site is located at www.rcap.org. For Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas, the Community Resource Group, Inc., (CRG) offers a Community Loan Fund with loans of up to $100,000. Eligibility requirements suggest that recipients serve a significant number of low-income customers, be unable to get affordable financing from other sources, and be willing to accept free technical assistance to help improve their systems. The typical loan averages $50,000, but small loans of $6,000 to $10,000 are made for emergency repairs. Interest accrues at 5.9 percent, while the term cannot exceed10 years. For more information contact CRG at (479) 443-2700 or visit their Web site at www.crg.org The Southeast Rural Community Assistance Program (SE/R-CAP) offers a water and wastewater loan fund for small and rural communities in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and On Tap . Winter 2003 . 47

Florida. Local municipal or county governments, public service authorities, non-profits, and user or homeowner associations are eligible to borrow from $1,000 to $250,000 for up to 10 years, with interest rates ranging from 4 to 7 percent. Projects must serve populations of 10,000 or less, with a minimum of 30 percent low-income (at or below 80 percent of area median income). To contact SE/R-CAP, phone (540) 3451184 or visit their Web site at www.ser cap.org/. The Rural Community Assistance Corporation (RCAC) serves Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. RCAC offers a water and wastewater loan fund for projects overseen by public utility districts, special purpose districts, municipalities, counties, nonprofits, and Indian tribes. Loans can be used for predevelopment work and range from $25,000 to $750,000. The current interest rate is 5.5 percent. Call RCAC at (916) 447-2854 or visit their Web site at www.rcac.org. The Great Lakes Rural Community Assistance Program maintains a Safe Water Fund revolving loan program that assists water and wastewater infrastructure projects in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Loans range from one to six years, with interest rates in the four to six percent range. Loan amounts range from $5,000 to $250,000. Loans can be used for equipment replacement and repair, land acquisition, and predevelopment costs. For more information, phone (800) 7759767 or log on to their Web site at www.glrcap.org/. Additional Funding Information Available While not offering loans or grants, EPA’s 10 Environmental Finance Centers (EFC) offer information and assistance in finding creative ways to fund environmental projects. Centers are located at University of Southern Maine, Syracuse University, the University of Maryland, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, University of Louisville, Cleveland State University, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, California State University at Hayward, and Boise State University. The EFC developed A Guidebook of Financial Tools, that gives

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 48

an overview of various financial tools such as bond, grants, loans, fees, and other consumer charges. The guide is available at EFC’s Web site. For more information, contact the Environmental Financing Information Network at (202) 564-4994. The EFC Web site is www.epa.gov/efinpage/. The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse offers several publications to help utilities sort through the various funding alternatives. One of the first things a utility must do is get its in-house financing in order before looking for loans and grants. Making sure a system is solvent means reviewing rates, accounting procedures, and other budgeting issues. These publications address financial planning and can help you better understand the financial complexities of managing a drinking water system: FDBLFN03 Water and Wastewater Manager’s Guide for Staying Financially Healthy FDBLFN13 Utility Manager’s Guide to Water and Wastewater Budgeting FDBLFN15 Road to Financing: Assessing and Improving Your Community’s Creditworthiness DWBKFN14 Financial Accounting Guide for Small Water Utilities FDVTFN18 Building Support for Increasing User Fees Additional alternative funding information is available in the following publications: DWBLFN07 Innovative Options for Financing Nongovernmental Public Water Supplies’ Needs DWBLFN12 Action Guide for Source Water Funding: Small Town and Rural County Strategies for Protecting Critical Water Supplies FDBLFN14 State and Local Government Guide to Environmental Program Funding Alternatives FDBKFN12 Alternative Financing Mechanisms for Environmental Programs DWBKFN15 Catalog of Financial Support Sources for U.S.-Mexico Border Water Infrastructure Publications are free and available by calling (800) 624-8301. You may also order by sending an e-mail to [email protected].

Endocrine Disruptors Continued from page 22 For more information about this program or to obtain EPA’s latest information about endocrine disruptors, visit the agency’s Web site at www.epa. gov/scipoly/oscpendo. Or call the Safe Drinking Water Hotline at (800) 426-4791. References The Associated Press. 2002. “Sperm Quality Low in Farming Region.” “Study Finds Sperm Quality, Count Low in Farming Region; Researchers Cite Agricultural Chemicals.” Chiffriller, Margaret. 2002. “Breast Cancer and the West Nile Virus.” Breastcancer.about.com/library/weekly/a a081400a.htm?terms=pesticide.

ExtoxNet. 2002. “Questions About Endocrine Disruptors.” ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/faqs/pesti cide/endocrine.htm. Keith, Lawrence H. 2002. “Protecting Children’s Health. Preventing Exposure to Endocrine Disruptors—A Teaching Aid.” Instant Refernce Sources, Inc. www.instantref.com. Natural Resources Defense Council. 2002. “Toxic Chemicals and Health: Endocrine Disruptors.” www.nrdc.org/health/effects/qendoc.asp. Porter, Warren P., James W. Jaeger, and Ian H. Carlson. 1999. “Endocrine, immune, and behavioral effects of aldicarb (carbamate) atrazine (triazine), and nitrate (fertilizer) mixtures at groundwater concentrations.” Toxicology and Industrial Health. Schettler, Ted, Jill Stein, Fay Reich, Maria Valenti. 2000. In Harm’s Way, Toxic Threats to Child Development. Cambridge, MA: Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility.

Shomon, Mary. 2002. “Pesticides Targeting West Nile-Carrying Mosquitos May be a Thyroid Danger.” Thyroid.about.com/library/weekly/aa0726 00a.htm?terms=pesticide. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. “Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program Web site.” Endocrine Disruptors. www.epa.gov/scipoly/oscpendo/index.htm U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Endocrine Disruptor Screening and Testing Advisory Committee Final Report . www.epa.gov. Warhurst, A. Michael. 2000. “Introduction to Hormone Disrupting Chemicals.” Website.lineone.net/~mwarhurst/chemi cals.html. Why Files. 2002. “Endocrine Disruptors, Crossed wires? EPA tackles hormone disruptors.” Whyfiles.org/045env_hormone/main1.html World Wildlife Fund Canada. 1997. “Reducing Your Risk.” Wwf.ca/satellite/reduce-risk/.

NDWC Offers

Water System Self-Evaluation

Toolkit

Water systems benefit from periodic evaluations of their operations. Who better can make those assessments than the professionals working in the plant, making budgetary and administrative decisions, or handling the day-to-day finances? The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) is offering “Staying Ahead of the Curve: How well do you know your water system?,” a practical self-assessment toolkit created for community water systems by the Maryland Center for Environmental Training (MCET). This U.S. EPA-funded toolkit, which includes a video and the Drinking Water and Wastewater Handbook for Local Officials, covers three objectives: to measure the technical, managerial, and financial strength of the system; to develop capital, operation, and maintenance planning strategies and budgeting expertise; and to proactively comply with regulatory requirements. The toolkit includes: • a questionnaire divided into sections for evaluating general facility and technical, managerial, and financial information (tables with each section help summarize financial management issues);

• a handbook designed to help local officials understand legal and technical requirements for treatment, storage, and distribution of drinking water and collection, treatment, and storage of wastewater; • a 28-minute video describing a water system selfevaluation, plus interviews with leading experts in the water industry, regulators, operators, and town administrators; and • an electronic copy of the self-evaluation questionnaire on a disk. Call the NDWC for the “Staying Ahead of the Curve” toolkit at (800) 624-8301 or e-mail ndwc_orders@ mail.nesc.wvu.edu and ask for item number DWPKMG29. This product is free but limited to one per customer.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 49

N D W C

P R O D U C T S

Products List

Item Number Breakdown First two characters of item number: (Major Product Category) DW FD

Drinking Water Finance Drinking Water

Second two characters of item number: (Document Type) BK BL BR CD FS PK PS QU SW VT

Book,greater than 50 pages Booklet, less than 50 pages Brochure Compact Disk/ROM Fact Sheet Packet Poster Quarterly Software Video Tape

Third two characters of item number: (Content Type) DM FN GN MG NL OM PE PP RE RG TR

Design Manual Finance General Information Management Newsletter Operation and Maintenance Public Education Public-Private Partnerships (P3) Research Regulations Training

Last two characters of item number: Uniquely identifies product within major category

Products recently added to the list are highlighted.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 50

All of the products listed are free! Quantities are limited to one each per order. If bulk copies are needed, please call for availability. If you are interested in a subject not listed here, please call the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse at (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191 and ask to speak with a technical assistance specialist who may be able to locate information for you. To order these free products: Please use the product order form on page 54.

Design DWBKDM16 Improved Protection of Water Resources from LongTerm and Cumulative Pollution DWBKDM14 Manual for the Certification of Laboratories Analyzing Drinking Water; Criteria and Procedures Quality Assurance: Fourth Edition DWBKDM06 Manual of Individual and Non-Public Water Supply Systems DWBKDM05 Manual of Small Public Water Supply Systems DWBKDM01 Manual of Water Well Construction Practices DWBKDM12 Radionuclide Removal for Small Public Water Systems DWBLDM02 Rainwater Cisterns: Design, Construciton, and Water Treatment DWBKDM08 Regionalization Options for Small Water Systems

Finance DWBLFN12 Action Guide for Source Water Funding: Small Town and Rural County Strategies for Protecting Critical Water Supplies FDBKFN12 Alternative Financing Mechanisms for Environmental Programs DWBKFN08 Alternative Funding Study: Water Quality Fees and Debt Financing Issues FDVTFN18 Building Support for Increasing User Fees DWBKFN30 Catalog of Federal Funding Sources for Watershed Protection DWBKFN15 Catalog of Financial Support Sources for U.S. - Mexico Border Water Infrastucture DWBKFN09 Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey: First Report to Congress DWBKDM22 Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey: Modeling the Cost of Infrastructure DWBKFN33 Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey: Second Report to Congress DWBKFN31 Drinking Water State Revolving Fund Program Guidelines

DWBKFN14 Financial Accounting Guide for Small Water Utilities DWBKFN05 Financing Models for Environmental Protection: Helping Communities Meet Their Environmental Goals DWBLFN07 Innovative Options for Financing Nongovernmental Public Water Supplies’ Needs DWSWFN01 PAWATER Users Manual: Financial Planning Model New, Small Community Water Systems (Version 2.2) FDBLFN15 Road to Financing: Assessing and Improving Your Community’s Creditworthiness DWBKOM08 Small Water System Byproducts Treatment and Disposal Cost Document DWBKDM19 Standardized Costs for Water Supply Distribution Systems: Complete EPA Report FDBLFN14 State and Local Government Guide to Environmental Program Funding Alternatives DWFSFN32 Using DWSRF Funds to Comply with the New Arsenic Rule FDBLFN13 Utility Manager’s Guide to Water and Wastewater Budgeting FDBLFN03 Water and Wastewater Manager’s Guide for Staying Financially Healthy

General Info rm at i o n DWVTPE25 Careers in Water Quality DWVTGN20 Clean Ground Water: Virginia’s Endangered Inheritance DWBKPE80 Clean Water Action Plan: Restoring and Protecting America’s Waters DWBKGN28 Designing a Water Conservation Program: An Annotated Bibliography of Source Materials DWBLGN24 Drinking Water Glossary: A Dictionary of Technical and Legal Terms Related to Drinking Water DWBKGN06 Improving the Viability of Existing Small Drinking Water Systems DWBRGN02 Lead Ban: Preventing the Use of Lead in Public Water Systems and Plumbing Used for Drinking Water DWBLGN19 Lead in Drinking Water: An Annotated List of Publications DWBKGN36 Outreach Resource Guide 2002 DWBLGN41 Providing Solutions for a Better Tomorrow: A Progress Report on U.S. EPA’s Drinking Water Treatment Technology Demonstations in Ecuador, Mexico and China FDBKPP03 Public-Private Partnerships for Environmental Facilities: A Self-Help Guide for Local Governments DWBRGN03 Public Water Systems: Providing Our Nation’s Drinking Water DWBKRE03 Summary Report: Small Community Water and Wastewater Treatment DWBKGN20 Technical & Economic Capacity of States & Public Water Systems To Implement Drinking Water Regulations DWBLRE02 USDA Rural Utilities Service Water 2000: A Plan for Action DWBLGN35 Water 2000 Information Package DWBLGN17 Water Quality Self-Help Checklis t

Management DWBKMG22 Consolidated Water Rates: Issues and Practices in Single-Tariff Pricing DWBKRG56 Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Guidance Manual DWBKMG09 Drinking Water Handbook for Public Officials DWBLMG20 Ensuring Safe Drinking Water for Tribes DWBKMG14 Environmental Planning for Small Communities: A Guide for Local Decision Makers DWBKRG54 EPA Water Conservation Plan Guidelines DWBKMG10 Ground Water Resource Assessment DWBLMG12 Helping Small Systems Comply With The Safe Drinking Water Act: The Role of Restructuring

DWBKMG21 Information for States on Implementing the Capacit y Development Provisions of the Safe Drinking water Act Amendments of 1996 DWBLPE83 NDWC Consumer Confidence Report DWBKMG15 Practical Personnel Management for Small Systems DWBKMG19 Preparing Your Drinking Wter Consumer Confidence Report: Guidance for Water Suppliers DWBLPE98 Risky Waste Disposal Practices Can Cost You Plenty: A Manager’s Guide to Protecting Community Drinking Water DWBLMG01 Self-Assessment for Small, Privately Owned Water Systems DWPKTR01 Self-Evaluation Guide for Decision Makers of Small Community Water Systems DWBLTR14 Small Systems Guide to Risk Management and Safet y DWBKMG25 State Programs to Ensure Demonstration of Technical, Managerial, and Financial Capacity of New Water Systems DWBLPE75 Strategies for Effective Public Involvement: Drinking Water Source Assessment and Protection DWBKMG05 Water Board Bible: The Handbook of Modern Water Utility Management DWBLMG03 Water System Self-Assessment for Homeowners’ Associations DWBLMG02 Water System Self-Assessment for Mobile Home Parks

NDWC Publications DWQUNL01 DWQUNL02 DWQUNL03 DWQUNL04 DWQUNL05 DWQUNL06 DWQUNL07

OnTap, Volume 1, Issue 1; Spring 2001 OnTap, Volume 1, Issue 2; Summer 2001 OnTap, Volume 1, Issue 3; Fall 2001 OnTap, Volume 1, Issue 4; Winter 2002 OnTap, Volume 2, Issue 1; Spring 2002 OnTap, Volume 2, Issue 2; Summer 2002 OnTap, Volume 2, Issue 3; Fall 2002

O pe ration and Maintenance DWBKDM23 Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidants Guidance Manual DWBKOM17 Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water by Coagulation/Filtration and Lime Softening Plants DWBKOM12 Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water by Ion Exchange and Activated Alumina Plants DWBKOM14 Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water by Iron Removal Plants DWBKOM03 Control of Biofilm Gr owth in Drinking Water Distribution Systems DWBKOM16 Controlling Disinfection By-Products and Microbial Contaminants in Drinking Water DWBLRE01 Impact of Pipe Coatings on Drinking Water Qualit y DWFSOM10 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule: A Quick Reference Guide DWSWTR16 Leak Audit Software for Water Utilities to Quantif y Distribution System Water Losses DWBKOM09 Optimizing Water Treatment Plant Performance Using the Composite Correction Program: 1998 Edition DWBLOM13 Oxidation of Arsenic (III) by Aeration and Storage DWFSOM19 Safety Tips: Hazard Communications DWBKRE11 Seminar Publication: Control of Lead and Copper in Drinking Water DWBLOM05 Shock Chlorination of Wells and Springs DWFSOM11 Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule: A Quick Reference Guide DWFSOM15 Tech Brief: Reservoirs, Towers, and Tanks-Drinking Water Storage Facilities DWBKOM18 Treatment of Arsenic Residuals from Drinking Water Removal Processes DWBKTR15 Water Audit and Leak Detection Guidebook: Water Conservation Guidebook No. 5

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 51

Public Education DWFSPE60 DWPKPE78 DWBRPE04 DWBLPE106 DWBRPE104 DWBLPE32 DWBLPE37 DWBRPE103 DWBKPE53 DWFSPE30 DWVTPE69 DWBLGN21 DWBRPE28 DWPKPE39 DWBLPE123 DWBLPE05 DWFSPE122 DWFSPE120 DWBRPE100 DWFSPE57 DWBLPE96 DWBLPE74 DWPKPE49 DWBKPE115 DWFSPE36 DWVTPE23 DWBRGN26 DWPSPE40 DWBRPE03 DWFSPE46 DWFSPE68 DWBRPE91 DWBLPE29 DWBLPE113 DWPSPE10 DWBLPE06 DWBLPE16 DWBRRE14 DWBLPE86 DWBKPE79 DWBLPE121 DWBKPE66 DWFSRG57 DWBLPE33 DWBLGN07 DWPKPE116 DWBLOM06 DWBLPE02 DWBLFN13 DWBLPE89 DWBLGN39 DWBLPE38 DWBLRE17

21 Water Conservation Measures for Everybody Bacteria and Water Wells Bottled Water: Helpful Facts and Information California Water Works and Why it Does Children and Drinking Water Standards Citizen Monitoring: Recommendations to Household Well Users Citizen’s Guide to Ground-Water Protection Class V Injection Wells and Your Drinking Water Cleaner Water Through Conservation Copper, Drinking Water, and You Creator’s Gift: Good Water Cryptosporidium De sus Ninos del Plomo en el Agua Potable (Protecting Your Kids from Lead in Drinking Water) Drinking Water Activities for Teachers and Students Drinking Water and Health—What you need to know! Drinking Water from Household Wells Drinking Water: Past, Present, and Future Drinking Water Quality Reports—Your Right to Know Easy Ways To: Save Water in the Home Emergency Disinfection of Water Supplies Fact Sheet on Home Drinking Water Treatment Fact Sheet: Water Conservation Measures Give Water a Hand Action Guide Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource Ground Water Protection: A Citizen’s Checklist Ground Water Video Adventure Groundwater Contamination & Your Septic System Groundwater Protection Begins at Home Home Water Treatment Units: Filtering Fact from Fiction Household Hazardous Waste: Where it Goes in Monongalia County How to Protect Your Well Is Your Community’s Drinking Water at Risk? Is Your Drinking Water Safe? It’s YOUR Drinking Water: Get to know it and protect it! Lead and Copper Rule Decision Diagram Lead in School Drinking Water Lead in Your Drinking Water: Actions You Can Take To Reduce Lead in Drinking Water Lead Leaching from Submersible Well Pumps Pesticides in Drinking-Water Wells Private Drinking Water Supplies: Quality, Testing, and Options for Problem Waters Protect Our Health From Source to Tap: National Drinking Water Program Highlights Protect Your Ground Water: Educating for Action Protecting Drinking Water Sources Protecting Local Ground-Water Supplies Through Wellhead Protection Protecting Our Drinking Water From Microbes Safewater: Tap Into It! Safeguarding Wells and Springs from Bacterial Contamination Science Demonstration Projects in Drinking Water (Grades K–12) Source Water 2000: Funding and Assistance Programs To Protect Small Town and Rural Drinking Water Springs: Early Warning Systems for Our Groundwater SPRINGS: Their Origin, Development, and Protection Student Activity Sheets for Drinking Water Projects Summary Results of EPA’s National Survey of Pesticides in Drinking Water Wells

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 52

DWVTPE22 Surface Water Video DWBKMG18 Tapping Your Own Resources DWFSPE54 Update On Lead Leaching From Submersible Well Pumps and Private Drinking Water Systems DWBRGN04 Volatile Organic Chemicals: Are VOCs in Your Drinking Water? DWBLPE105 Water and Me DWBLPE109 Water Around Us: The Hydrologic Cycle and Conservation DWBLPE51 Water in Your Hands DWBKPE92 Water on Tap: A Consumer’s Guide to the Nation’s Drinking Water DWBLPE90 Water Protection at Home: What You Can Do To Prevent Water Pollution in Your Community DWBLPE58 Water Testing DWBLPE97 Water Testing Scams DWBLPE119 Water Quality for Private Water Systems DWBLPE94 Water Quality Impr ovements for Farmstead and Rural Home Water Systems DWBLGN38 Well Abandonment DWBRRE16 Wellhead Protection in Confined, Semi-Confined, Fractured, and Karst Aquifer Settings DWBKMG06 Wellhead Protection: A Guide for Small Communities DWBRPE45 Your Home Could Contain Hazardous Waste: What You Need To Know

Regulations DWBLRG64 25 Years of the Safe Drinking Water Act: History and Trends DWPKRG65 A Small Systems Guide to the Total Coliform Rule DWBLRG26 Consolidated Rule Summary for the Chemical Phases DWBLRG52 Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List DWBLRG44 Drinking Water Regulations and Health Advisories DWBKRG50 Drinking Water Standard Setting Question and Answer Primer DWBKTR17 Enhanced Coagulation and Enhanced Percipitative Softening Guidance Manual DWPKRG47 Safe Drinking Water Is in Our Hands DWBKRG55 Federal Register Part II EPA 40 CFR Parts 141 and 142 National Primary Drinking Water Regulation: Consumer Confidence Reports; Final Rule DWBLRG62 Final Drinking Water Public Notification Regulations DWBKRG53 Guidance on Implementing the Capacity Development Provisions of the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 DWBKRG22 Lead and Copper Rule Guidance Manual DWBKG21 Lead In Drinking Water Regulation: Public Education Guidance DWBKRG61 Microbial and Disinfection Byproduct Rules: Simultaneous Compliance Guidance Manual DWBLRG12 Monitoring Guidance Document for the Lead & Copper Rule (Systems serving 3,301–10,000 people) DWBLRG13 Monitoring Guidance Document for the Lead & Copper Rule (Systems serving 501–3,300 people) DWBLRG14 Monitoring Guidance Document for the Lead & Copper Rule (Systems serving 101–500 people) DWBLRG15 Monitoring Guidance Document for the Lead & Copper Rule (Systems serving less than 100 people) DWPKRG38 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (Drinking Water Contaminants): Inorganic Chemicals, Consumer Version DWPKRG39 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (Drinking Water Contaminants): Inorganic Chemicals, Technical Version DWPKRG40 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (Drinking Water Contaminants): Synthetic Organic Chemicals, Consumer Version DWPKRG41 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (Drinking Water Contaminants): Synthetic Organic Chemicals, Technical Version

DWPKRG42 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (Drinking Water Contaminants): Volatile Organic Chemicals, Consumer Version DWPKRG43 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (Drinking Water Contaminants): Volatile Organic Chemicals, Technical Version DWVTRG34 Nontransient Noncommunity Drinking Water: Requirements for Suppliers DWFSRG60 Proposed Ground Water Rule: Questions and Answers DWFSPE110 Public Notification Rule: A Quick Reference Guide DWFSRG66 Radionuclides Rule: A Quick Reference Guide DWPKRG17 Regulations Fact Sheet DWBLRG58 Regulations on the Disposal of Arsenic Residuals from Drinking water Treatment Plants DWPKRG25 Safe Drinking Water Act and 1996 Amendments DWBLRG30 Safe Drinking Water: Health/Safety Requirements and Resulting Costs DWBLRG63 Small System Regulatory Requirements Under the Safe Drinking Water Act as Amended 1996 DWBKRG46 State Source Water Assessment and Protection Programs Guidance (Final Guidance) DWFSRG18 Status of DBP Regulatory Negotiation DWFSRG59 Technical Fact Sheet: Proposed Ground Water Rule DWBLRG04 Your Drinking Water: From Source to Tap, EPA Regulations and Guidance

Research DWBLRE06 DWBLRE20 DWBLMG17 DWBKRE21 DWBLRE18 DWBKRG49

DWBLRE07 DWBLRE08 DWBKRE15

Benefits of Water and Wastewater Infrastructure Drinking Water Treatment for Small Communities: A Focus on EPAs Research Initial Summary of Current State Capacit y Development Activities Laboratory Study on the Oxidation of Arsenic III to Arsenic V National Pesticide Survey: Update and Summary of Phase II Results Providing Safe Drinking Water in America: 1996 National Public Water Systems Compliance Report and Update on Implementation of the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments Radium Removal from Water by Manganese Dioxide Adsorption and Diatomaceous Earth Filtration Strengthening the Safety of Our Drinking Water: Report on Progress & Challenges & A genda for Action Ultraviolet Light Disinfection Technology in Drinking Water Application—An Overview

Technologies DWBKDM13 Corrosion in Potable Water Supplies DWBKDM15 Corrosion Manual for Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems DWBLDM03 Cross-Connection Control Manual DWBKGN09 Environmental Pollution Control Alternatives: Drinking Water Treatment for Small Communities DWBKDM07 Nitrate Removal for Small Public Water Sytsems DWFSGN29 RESULTS 3.0 Fact Sheet DWBLRG48 Small System Compliance Technology List for the Surface Water Treatment Rule DWPKPE71 Tech Brief Package DWBLPE52 Tech Brief: Corrosion Control DWFSPE108 Tech Brief: Diatomaceous Earth Filtration for Drinking Water DWBLPE47 Tech Brief: Disinfection DWBLPE50 Tech Brief: Filtration DWBLPE56 Tech Brief: Ion Exchange and Demineralization DWBLPE70 Tech Brief: Iron and manganese Removal

DWFSPE102 Tech Brief: Leak Detection and Water Loss Control DWBLPE67 Tech Brief: Lime Sof tening DWBLPE81 Tech Brief: Membrane Filtration DWBLPE59 Tech Brief: Organic Removal DWBLPE84 Tech Brief: Ozone DWBLPE63 Tech Brief: Package Plants DWBLPE93 Tech Brife: Radionuclides DWBLPE99 Tech Brief: Slow Sand FIltration DWPSPE82 Tech Brief: Treatment Technologies for Small Drinking Water Systems DWBLPE101 Tech Brief: Ultraviolet Disinfection DWBLPE65 Tech Brief: Water Treatment Plant Residuals Management DWBKDM04 Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities DWBLRG44 Ultraviolet Light Disinfection Technology in Drinking Water Application-An Overview DWBLGN11 USEPA Fact Sheets on POU/POE Units and Home Water Testing

Training Guides DWBKTR12 Directory of Drinking Water Training Materials DWBKPE95 How to Conduct an Inventory in Your Wellhead Protection Area DWBLTR13 Methods for Assessing Small Water System Capability: A Review of Current Techniques and Approaches DWBLOM04 Training Guide: Introduction to Water Loss and Leak Detection DWBLTR05 Water Rates: Information for Decision Makers DWCDTR18 Operator Basics

To place an order… To place an order, call the NDWC at (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191, or use the order form on page 54 and fax your request to (304) 293-3161. You also may send e-mail to [email protected]. Be prepared to give the item number and title of the product you wish to order. The NDWC’s Products Catalog provides descriptions of many products. The guide may be downloaded via the NDWC’s Web site at www.ndwc.wvu.edu. Please indicate the product item number, title, and quantity for each item ordered. Make sure you include your name, affiliation,address, and phone number with each order. Quantities are limited to one each per order. If bulk copies are needed, please call for availability.

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 53

To Order NDWC Prod u ct s : Call:

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E-mail: [email protected]

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Health On Tap . Summer 2002 . 54

State

N E W S

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N O T E S

Grassroots terror protection or just the town terror? Marc Keyser is a man on a mission. As the executive director of his own registered nonprofit— Neighborhood Terror Watch—Keyser is convinced that the Elk Grove, California, water system isn’t doing enough to protect the community’s water from terrorism. Keyser goes door to door in the community, raising funds and getting people to sign a petition forcing the local utility to make the water system more secure, reports Chrisanne Beckner in the Sacramento News and Review (October 17, 2002). “What if the terrorists pumped a cocktail of deadly poisons in the outgoing water line, including radioactive waste, and it contaminated the plumbing and everything the water touched in people’s homes?” Keyser asks in the article. To bolster his cause, Keyser stages photos purportedly showing how easy it would be to get into the water system. “One pictured a van parked next to a water treatment facility’s security fence,” reports Beckner. “The van’s back door was open, and inside sat a large barrel stamped with an alarming yellow symbol of radioactivity. A pale blue hose led from the barrel toward the fence topped with razor wire. Next to a ladder, the hose snaked over the fence and disappeared. “A second photo had been taken from inside the water treatment facility. The

other end of the hose had been attached to a valve on an exposed pipe that rose out of a concrete slab. An enormous water tank squatted in the distance.” Both pictures were taken at a plant that was still being built. And, despite assurances from local officials that the water plant is secure, Keyser remains steadfast in his quest. “When engineers looked at Keyser’s staged photographs and explained that the water pressure in the pipes would make it impossible for someone to force chemicals inside, Keyser found pumps on the market that he believed could produce enough pressure to override the pressure in the pipes,” writes Beckner. “When engineers mentioned that terrorists would need immense amounts of poison to have any effect,” she continues, “Keyser started researching ways of getting tanker trucks full of hazardous materials.” One representative from Elk Grove Water Service told Beckner, “this [Keyser’s project] is the way to terrorize a water department.” To Keyser, though, the scenarios aren’t farfetched, and his work is all part of being a champion for pubic safety. To read the entire article, go to www.newsreview.com/issues/sacto/200 2-10-17/cover.asp.

Fun Time Puzzle Solutions The ability to think straight, some knowledge of the past, some vision of the future, some skill to do useful service, some urge to fit that service into the wellbeing of the community— these are the most vital things education must try to produce. Virginia Crocheron Gildersleeve (1877–1965) On Tap . Winter 2003 . 55

F U N

T I M E

Solution on page 55

NDWC Crossword Puzzle Across 1. 5. 9. 12. 13. 15. 16. 18. 19. 20. 21. 23. 24. 25. 28. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 43. 45. 46. 47. 50. 51. 54. 55. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63.

Agile Box Possessed Stew Spooky Before to poets One of EPA's roles Facilitate Undergraduate degrees (abbr.) Region ______ Fidelis (Marine's motto) At any time Not yours Full page headline State of inactivity Oklahoma city Cable Small pest Garbage in,garbage out (programmers acronym) Coarse files ____ St. Vincent Millay Actor Guinness Engrave using acid Astronaut Amstrong Patios Related to certain rites Composer Stravinsky Urban place Tina or Ted Car Ran into Soft cheese (see 23 down) In the past Slumber Chicken of the Sea Soak flax Young girl Suggestive look

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 56

Crossword by Mark Kemp-Rye

Down 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 14. 17. 18. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

European fruit tree Request Equips with sails "How do ___ do?" Person working the grill? Actor O'Toole Opera highlight Brazilian city Pile English backside (slang) Elk relative Stores fodder Wash Exigency Finish Fish sex changer (with 55 across) Change Sired Like a feeble old woman African country

28. 29. 30. 31. 33. 36. 42. 43. 44. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 56. 57.

Compact ____ Beneath Beyond obsession Booth Necessity for life on Earth Documents Matured Stomach exercises Upon Heals Ski lift Impulse Melee On the ocean Pout Sea eagle Russian monarch Not well Transistor-Transistor Logic (abbr.)

Solution on page 55

NDWC Word Search

D Q W N W Z K M C Q D T I Z M

E N J D W Q S I P D C R C H X

V G Y V I R V L R O S A A S E

E C W C E S A L N A N I L O K

L A A B N N R T T O A N C X B

O A M P N E A U I G O I T K R

P E Q I A M G T P X L N G E Z

M L N Q I C A R W T L G B N A

E G F N T L I J E K O G J I V

N S A O U N C T I M V R Y R O

T N V G L V K E Y G E P S C B

T K E M O Y T I R U C E S O Y

G R A S S R O O T S D U S D Y

V A D F U N D I N G O D K N R

Find the following words in the puzzle above Loans Funding Security

Water Training Contaminant Regulation

Endocrine Disruptors Board Members Emergency Planning Capacity Development

A M G O V O N O R E T A W E N

Water Fact Water is the only natural substance that is found in all three states—liquid, solid (ice),and gas (steam)—at temperatures normally found on Earth. Source:US Geologic Survey

Drinking Water Trivia The shape of a raindrop most closely resembles: a) a teardrop b) a hamburger bun c) a sphere d) a rhomboid Answer (B):When you think of a drop of falling water you probably think it looks like a . But, using high-speed cameras, scientists have found that falling raindrops look more like a small hamburger bun . As rain falls, the air below the drop pushes up from the bottom, causing the drop to flatten out somewhat. The strong surface tension of water holds the drop together, resulting in a bun shape. Source:US Geologic Survey

Quotes There are four things that hold back human progress: ignorance,stupidity, committees, and accountants. Charles J.C. Lyall (1943–96)

The mountains, I become a part of it. The morning mists, the clouds,the gathering waters, I become a part of it. Navajo chant

If there is magic on this planet, it is contained in water. Loren Eiseley (1907–77)

On Tap . Winter 2003 . 57

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The Watchful Citizen By Susan S. Seacrest President, The Groundwater Foundation

Thoughtful and courageous people have often made the difference in protecting the public interest. As the water community works to make our water systems safe and secure, we need to keep in mind the importance of alert, informed, and ready-to-act citizens. We are fortunate that, through provisions in the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act, states and communities will have information available to educate citizens and initiate local action. Source water assessments required for each public water system in the country provide this information. The assessment contains a delineation, which identifies the location of the community water supply, and a contaminant source inventory, identifying potential threats to its quality. Local residents interested in protecting the safety of drinking water are able to use this information to monitor potentially dangerous land uses, and support community practices and regulations that prevent contamination. Although state governments are charged with preparing source water assessments, committed and involved citizens must develop and implement their own source water protection programs. As president of The Groundwater Foundation, I have had the privilege of seeing firsthand the value of local involvement in the protection process primarily through the foundation’s Groundwater Guardian program that uses local teams to implement protection projects. These teams understand that safe and ample drinking water is the basis for their communities’ environmental and economic vitality. This past year, The Groundwater Foundation partnered with the Public Entity Risk Institute to help several Groundwater Guardian communities complete contaminant source inventories, On Tap . Winter 2003 . 58

using readily available, easy-to-use technology. The project was called Applying Community Technology Today (ACTT). ACTT turned out to be an apt acronym because the project empowered citizens to act effectively on their own behalf. It proved that local residents, familiar with local conditions and issues, were in a great position to conduct accurate and useful contaminant source inventories. ACTT participants collected and compiled data using global positioning systems (GPS) and geographic information systems (GIS). They located water supplies and identified potential threats, such as service stations, landfills, feedlots, and shallow injection wells. The information was distributed widely through community presentations, local media, and water system billing information. The result: informed citizens watching out for and reporting suspicious or dangerous activities in the area surrounding their well field or surface water intake. During the ACTT project, Macomb, Illinois, people learned to use GPS and GIS to identify, map, and analyze contaminant sources. The Detroit Lakes, Minnesota, Groundwater Guardian team used technology to locate and fill abandoned wells that might be tempting conduits for contamination. Callaway County, Missouri, completed its contaminant source inventory with the support of such diverse groups as the Callaway County Health Department, extension office, and Future Farmers of America. AmeriCorps and other local volunteers were a great source of support in Holdrege, Nebraska, as the community began its source water protection program.

The common denominator of all these efforts is the presence of well-informed participants, committed to acting in the public interest. These watchful citizens form the most effective part of a security plan and, in some communities, may be the only viable security option. With this perspective in mind, I urge the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and other federal officials who are charged with the water system components of homeland security to value the contributions of those who are conducting contaminant source inventories and taking steps to implement source water protection in their backyards. Citizen monitoring groups for rivers and watersheds have been active and effective for years. Citizen action on behalf of drinking water protection can be equally helpful. A timeworn inscription over the entrance to the Nebraska Capitol reads, “The salvation of the state lies in the watchfulness of its citizens.” Watchful citizens are part of our tradition as Americans. We should become watchful citizens ourselves, sup port people working in the field, and encourage local, state, and federal officials to value local involvement as a major resource. The safety and health of our communities depend on it. Susan S. Seacrest is the founder and president of The Groundwater Foundation. To learn more about the foundation,including information about ACTT, visit their Web site at www.groundwater.org or write to P.O. Box 22558,Lincoln,NE 68542-2558.

Barreling down the road behind the wheel of 80,000 pounds of truck wouldn’t give a person much time to enjoy a hobby, you’d think. But for a long-haul driver known as “Trucker Mike,” the hours on the road allow him the opportunity to pursue one of his passions: taking pictures of water towers. All the photographs on this page are by Trucker Mike, taken as he traverses America’s highways. To view more of his water tower photos, go to www.mikiemetric.cc/WaterTowers.html.

The National Environmental Services Center Our business is your community’s environmental and public health.

National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) Helping small communities by collecting, developing, and providing timely information relevant to drinking water issues .

National Small Flows Clearinghouse (NSFC) Helping America’s small communities solve their wastewater problems.

National Environmental Training Center for Small Communities (NETCSC) Assists small communities by providing training and training-related information and referral services in the areas of wastewater, drinking water,and solid waste.

National Onsite Demonstration Program,(NODP) Demonstrating integrated onsite wastewater management and technology solutions.

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