Understanding Student Motivation and the Role of Self-Reflection in Learning Bill Moore (Washington State Board for Community and Technical Colleges) and Sonja Wiedenhaupt (The Evergreen State College)

From the NSILC 2014 program description: Workshop inquiry focus - Students thrive when they “take charge” of their own learning, no matter what courses they are in. For entering students, especially, learning communities provide the space and time for students to develop the meta-cognitive skills and strategies associated with becoming intentional, independent learners. Workshop objective - This session begins with a brief examination of student motivation across the curriculum, including students’ self-theories of intelligence that contribute to motivation. It then focuses on the engine for further learning—self-monitoring—and ways to invite students to pause and ask, “What did I just learn…what do I need in order to understand this better?” Focus 1. provocative question about motivation as lead-in to P x E framework (critical moments scenario—fork in the road)—how do you explain choices made?

2. share conceptual frame (P x E), situate Dweck’s work as key example of Person side of the equation, central role of beliefs in shaping student approach learning environments

Process/Activity How does someone who is a motivated and effective learner sound and act?

Time 10-15

Handouts Question (slide) Motivation summary from Fong & Asera (slide)

10

P x E (slide plus web handout with references)

How do you make sense of when/why a student will or won’t engage these behaviors? [individual reflection, small group discussion, brief processing] character (person) vs. context (environment)? Motivation a complex, multi-faceted construct; we’re going to focus on a small slice of the construct, interaction of person x environment and role of self-reflection and metacognition; designing conditions to create motivating environments [instructional design] Beliefs can be powerful predictors of behavior. When I think it’s going to rain, I’ll bring a raincoat, or an umbrella. When I think there will be dessert, I try to eat a little less for. Carol Dweck examined how beliefs about the quality of intelligence can affect how a student approaches the task of learning. 1. TPS -- take a moment to think of one way it might affect students’ approach to studying. 2. See for example: • Choice of task, • Attention to feedback, • Use of supplemental instruction, • Quality of self-talk. 3. Quick check for understanding: How do you think the student might make sense of a mistake or failure at something?

3. focus today on Environment, how faculty create learning conditions that interact with student beliefs and influence overall approach to learning in 3 broad areas: a. engagement (productive struggle) b. relevance (explicit connections to concepts and prior knowledge) c. metacognition (deliberate practice & self-reflection) 4. Explore in-depth metacognition and deliberate practice, connecting them to LC outcomes and classroom practice

[Transition] How might class design reinforce or challenge these conceptions/beliefs? Can certainly talk about “everyone is a learner” but what’s involved in creating an environment that fosters learning behaviors and outcomes? • •

see slide for prompts

How many times have you heard students, in response to not doing well at something, say: “But I worked so hard! I spent hours working at this!” DarlingHammond elaborates on deliberate practice by changing the focus on who is assessing and deciding the strategies. From teacher to student. • Provide example from article. Challenge is to help students become strategic about their efforts – as scholars and problem solvers in the world, they need to learn how to steer, gauge the effectiveness of and adjust the focus of their efforts. Envelope exercise – examine practices on each of the slips. − Are there any key patterns or principles involved in designing an activity that invites metacognition? (e.g. clarity of goal, self-assessment, planning approach to work, etc.)? − What other practices have you engaged that invite metacognition?

5

DarlingHammond handout (slide; post handout to web only) 15

10

• 5. Reflection/wrap-up

Merseth synopsis in 3 parts Small group discussion (slide)

Break out sections of Merseth piece for small-group discussion (groups of 3—each person assigned a single color-coded section) read and share with group so everyone gets a basic understanding of the 3 areas of “learning opportunities” −

•

15

Discussion -- implications for own practice (planning, collaboration, use of classroom time, challenges to making these shifts,…?) share takeaways • Motivation is about the intersection of person and environment (the in-between) • Instructional design is crucial in shaping student beliefs, which shape their behaviors • Faculty need to engage in their own deliberate practice about teaching/learning and design of classroom environments (learning opportunities, not just “fun” activities or content coverage) • Without metacognition there can be no deliberate practice

5-10

slips Practices worth experimenting with – Metacognition. Reference list/bibliography

How Learners Beliefs Impacts Learners Behaviors National Summer Institute on Learning Communities 2013 -- Wiedenhaupt, The Evergreen State College THEORY of INTELLIGENCE

Entity beliefs

Incremental beliefs

(e.g. 90% ability + 10% effort)

(e.g. 10% ability + 90% effort)

Types of tasks and goals choose. (Dweck, 1999)

Aim for learning opportunities even if means failure

More likely to aim for success and avoid failure

Type of feedback attend to

Information and evaluation

Evaluation only

Who engages supplemental instruction? (Hong et al, 1999)

If need it, more likely to do it

Less likely to pursue it even if need it

Interpretations of having to work hard (Dweck, 1999)

Necessary for learning

Sign that not smart

Interpretations of failure & mistakes (Dweck, 1999)

They provide information about where to exert effort

Sign that not smart

(Mangels et al, 2004; Dweck, Mangels and Good,2006)

ATTRIBUTIONS FOR SUCCESS /DIFFICULTY

Self talk while working on a challenging task (study of 5th graders Diener & Dweck, 1978)

Related to things under their control, e.g. effort Identified a plan/system that could help them figure out a solution

Self-regulation (Study of

Chemistry students (Grant, cited in Elliott & Dweck, 2005)

Identified a plan/system that could help them figure out a solution

Ignored feedback and used repetitive Task oriented Instructions e.g. “slow down” “concentrate” “start here” strategies that didn’t lead to solution Self-monitoring e.g: “Wow, I’m working hard”, “Oh, I tried that before.” “Mistakes are my friend”

Attributions due to lack of ability

Statements of positive affect e.g. “this is fun”

Statements of negative affect

Positive prognosis statements

Solution-irrelevant statements

e.g. “I’m going to solve the problem.”

GOALS

Related to things outside of their control

Students with learning goals Used self-regulatory strategies e.g. deep learning strategies, time management. Found ways to be interested, Managed their levels of stress Preserved their motivation to study.

e.g.

“I guess I’m not very smart” “I never did have a good memory”

e.g. “this is boring”

e.g. talking about something non-task related like what they’re going to do after class. Students with performance goals Were equally likely to want to do well in the class but did not connect doing well with using these self-regulatory strategies.

Adapted and Excerpted from

Learning Opportunities for Pathway Classrooms Katherine K. Merseth, Harvard Graduate School of Education (full essay available on Carnegie Pathways web site)

At the broadest level and across all subjects, the National Research Council in How People Learn (2005) determined that there are three basic principles of learning: 1) New understandings are constructed on a foundation of existing or prior understandings; 2) The brain forms cognitive schema or networks that are critical to the learning process; and 3) The ability to self-monitor one’s skills and progress enhances learning. The three interconnected “learning opportunities” described below (productive struggle, explicit connections to concepts, and deliberate practice) build on these basic principles in ways fundamental to addressing fundamental issues in developing powerful learning environments: engagement, relevance, and metacognition.

Productive Struggle  Students who are productively struggling are engaged and inquiring; the task they face requires thinking and the students have both the time and encouragement within the classroom culture to engage with the problem.  The focus of the productive struggle is on the learning goals embedded in the problem or situation; it’s less about guessing what the teacher wants to hear or about finding a particular answer and more about the process of thinking, making sense, and persevering in the face of not knowing exactly how to proceed or whether a particular approach will work.  Frequently students join in small groups to discuss their thinking and ideas. During the discussions, there will be sharing of ideas about strategies, justifying answers, students questioning each other, and looking at each other’s papers.  Faculty are not passive while students are engaging in productive thinking; they are usually quite active, circulating around the room checking in with individuals and groups, asking probing and provocative questions, and assisting groups that appear to be bogged down and feeling stumped.  Sometimes faculty intervene directly with students, usually on an individual basis or with a small group. Directive intervention and struggle are not incompatible; it is the quality and nature of the intervention that differs from more traditional teaching.  Preparing students for productive struggle involves: o Emphasizing the process rather than the result, the way of thinking rather than an exclusive focus on the answer is warranted. o Choosing problems or questions that are compelling to students. The context should motivate students so they genuinely would be motivated to search for an answer or explore multiple answers. The task itself, maybe somewhat complex and novel, and slightly beyond immediate comprehension by the students in order to stretch or provoke student thinking. o Being well aware of the learning goals for the lesson and clear about the core concepts and explicit connections within the material as well as the instructional goals for the students.

Explicit Connections  The idea of explicit connections refers to the linkages or relationships among and between core disciplinary facts, procedures, and concepts (“big ideas”).  Connections may be drawn by students or faculty, but most often are presented and reinforced by faculty.  Ideally, an explicit connection helps students place the idea into existing cognitive schema they possess. Doing this enables the learner to gain a deeper understanding of a concept and “where it fits.”  Making explicit connections helps reinforce earlier learning and builds a strong foundation for future understanding. Whenever or wherever the linkage is made, an explicit connection helps students place the idea into a cognitive schema that the student already possesses, enabling the student to remember it more easily the next time the concept appears.  The essential ingredients for faculty to address explicit connections include o a deep understanding of the core disciplinary ideas addressed in the course; o an overview of the course and an understanding of the overall course objectives; and o a comprehensive grasp of the learning goals for the lesson.

Deliberate Practice  Deliberate practice consists of a set of tasks for students that are created to overcome gaps in understanding, apply what has been learned, and/or deepen fluency with key concepts.  Activities that qualify as deliberate practice represent a strategic progression of exercises that is purposefully designed to improve performance and strengthen cognitive understanding.  The key of deliberate practice is that it addresses the question: How should we select and implement problems over time to build greater conceptual understanding?  Deliberate practice is not characterized by rote drill or repetition; it requires students to think about the approach they are using to solve the problems, why they are choosing that approach, and how the approach must be adapted for appropriate use in a new context or problem.  Faculty can consciously and strategically employ in-class and out-of-class activities in a deliberate way if they keep in mind the learning objective of the lesson and its related exercises. By thinking through a progression of skills and concepts, faculty can help engineer progress for students toward meeting the larger learning goal.  Homework assignments should have a specific cognitive purpose, whether it is to approach the concept in a new and different way, to explore the application of the concept in a new context, or to promote facility in the use of important concepts, processes, or techniques.  A collection of exercises should lead to something or somewhere; mindless repetition has been shown to be a remarkably inefficient (and certainly a highly de-motivating) approach to gaining conceptual understanding.

Practices worth experimenting with –Turning Activities into Learning Opportunities 1 What is one learning outcome you are aiming for in your learning community? (e.g. some area of knowledge, method or purpose the learning community works to develop)

How can the activities in your LC support learning in this area? What qualities of the activities can help students focus their efforts on learning? Productive Struggle

This means:

1

Explicit Connections This means:

Deliberate Practice This means:

See Merseth, K (nd) Learning opportunities for pathway classrooms. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Retrieved from: http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/sites/default/files/learning_opportunities.pdf

Excerpts from “Thinking about Thinking: Metacognition” Darling-Hammond et al, no date, retrieved 6/21/11 from (http://www.learner.org/channel/courses/learningclassroom/support/09_metacog.pdf) . Often we hear that one of the most important tasks of education is to teach students how to learn on their own throughout their lifetimes. But how do we learn how to learn? How do we know what we’ve learned and how to direct our own future learning? These are all questions addressed by the concept of metacognition. Simply put, metacognition means “thinking about one’s own thinking.” There are two aspects of metacognition: 1) reflection—thinking about what we know; and 2) self-regulation— managing how we go about learning. Taken together, these processes make up an important aspect of learning and development. Developing these metacognitive abilities is not simply about becoming reflective learners, but about acquiring specific learning strategies as well. Research has shown that one of the key traits good problem-solvers possess is highly developed metacognitive skills. They know how to recognize flaws or gaps in their own thinking, articulate their thought processes, and revise their efforts (Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983). As adults, we actively engage in these skills in our everyday thinking. We decide what method to use to solve a problem or when to ask for help. We use metacognitive skills to help us decide which elements we understand and which we do not understand. In short, we direct our own learning. Students and novices often lack these skills or fail to recognize when to use them (Flavell & Wellman, 1977). As educators, it is important for us to help foster the development of metacognitive skills in students. These are skills that will help students learn how to learn. Sometimes people use the phrase “going meta” when talking about metacognition, referring to the process of stepping back to see what you are doing, as if you were someone else observing it. “Going meta” means becoming an audience for your own performance—in this case, your own intellectual performance. When a person is learning to play golf, for example, seeing a videotape of her own swing can help her to understand what she is doing well and what she is doing poorly. Typically, we do not know what we are doing when we do it, but it is very hard to improve a process that we are engaged in if we do not have a sense of what we are doing in the moment. Even a skilled professional ballet dancer relies on mirrors to help him understand what he looks like and what he is doing as he dances. He has to be able to see his performance as others might see it before he can begin to improve it. The ability to view our own performance is particularly useful when we learn physical skills. However, cognitive work is often invisible and cannot be directly observed. How do we help students become thoughtful about their own performance as they are learning to reason about mathematics and history? The challenge is helping students learn how to “go meta” in regard to thought processes that are not directly visible in order to improve their cognitive performances. Teachers must create the classroom equivalent of the mirror on the dance studio wall or the videotape of the golf swing. If one aim of schooling is to prepare children to be lifelong learners, then it is important to help students become aware of themselves as learners and to take control of their own activities. … …Although the word metacognition did not come into common use until the 1970s when it was introduced by psychologist John Flavell, the notion of reflecting about one’s thinking can be found in writings dating back to Plato, who emphasized the importance of reflecting through dialogue. John Dewey, often considered the father of progressive education, viewed reflection as a central part of active learning. Dewey observed: As long as our activity glides smoothly along from one thing to another ... there is no call for reflection. Difficulty or obstruction in the way of reaching a belief brings us, however, to a pause. In the suspense of uncertainty, we metaphorically climb a tree; we try to find some standpoint from which we may survey additional facts and, getting a more commanding view of the situation, decide how the facts stand related to one another (Dewey, 1933, p. 14)….

CUT INTO SLIPS AND PUT A SET IN AN ENVELOPE FOR EACH TABLE GROUP

Deconstruct goals with students. Make sure they see the value of the learning targets.

Examine and analyze examples and models of strong and weak work to reveal/ clarify or develop evaluation criteria.

Model and provide informational descriptive feedback. Students engage peer and self-assessment using this quality of feedback.

To help students notice and articulate gaps in their knowledge/skill, strategically mine for uncertainty by comparing ideas and preconceptions.

Ask probing questions to reveal thinking and rationale: What are you doing now? Why are you doing it? How does it help you?

After self-assessing, get students to identify the kinds of resources, investigation or evidence they’d need in order to inform, test and evaluate their ideas or skills.

Teach students focused revision along some particular aspect of quality. Collectively work through the process of revising an answer, product or performance using an anonymous sample of work. Students collaborate to peer review, ultimately self-assess, and then revise.

Engage students in self-reflection. Ask students to (i) keep track of, and describe their learning; (ii) to identify areas relative to the assignment or course goals that they still need to refine; and (iii) and to identify plans for refining them. For example, if students are working towards a final project (e.g. integrative assignment), ask them: (i) how they might use knowledge/skill from readings and workshops on their final project; and (ii) what they still need to understand better in order to apply knowledge/skill.

Structure tasks to invite and teach metacognition, i.e. the practices of productive learners: Framework from seven strategies for engaging Assessment for Learning -- Stiggins et al (2007) Classroom Assessment For Student Learning 1

Where Am I going? 1. Make sure students understand and see value of the learning target. 2. Examine and analyze examples and models of strong and weak work.

Rationale • Key factor in intrinsic motivation is when learner understands and buys into purpose of work. (Bergin, 1999, Wlodkowski, & Ginsberg, 1995) •

1

Where am I now? 3. Offer regular descriptive feedback 4. Teach students to self-assess and set goal

•

Help students direct and focus their attentional processes. (Immordino-Yang, 2008). •

•

1

How can I close the gap? 5. Design lessons to focus on one aspect of quality at a time 6. Teach students focused revision 7. Engage students in self-reflection, and let them keep track of and share their learning.

According to self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation occurs in part when : → students perceive their competence and are able to identify concrete ways to build their competence.

•

Reinforce the connection between effort and learning by helping students learn to be deliberate and strategic in how they use their energy (see concept of deliberate practice in Bransford et al, 2000, and Coyle, 2009)

→ students have ownership of the learning process. (Deci & Ryan) Help students develop a language for describing strengths and weaknesses that are specific to learning targets.

•

Reclaim the meaning of “mistakes” as information for action (vs. indictment of ability)

Model through feedback what it looks like to identify explicit doable acts for revision that will result in making progress towards the goal.

Examples of what it can look like in the classroom -- i.e. activities to plan into instruction. Deconstruct goals with students. Make sure they understand and see value of the learning targets: • Students paraphrase the learning goal and explain the purpose of learning it. “Why are we doing this activity? What will you learn by doing it?” Why is it worthwhile 1 learning? •

Examine and bridge the gap between students’ reasons for 3 taking course and actual course goals. (see CAT #35)

•

Students identify questions on what is unclear to them about the target, or identify what they need answered 1 before they understand what is expected.

•

Engage students in a pre-assessment in which students explore current understandings of big conceptual questions course will address (e.g. create a model of the process of learning). Have them compare understandings and notice questions, assumptions and points of disagreement (QAP). Have students examine course goals in light of their QAPs.2

Distinguish between formative and summative assessment. Make visible: (i) the kinds of formative assessments that students will be able to make use of, (ii) the time line for how they will occur in course, and (iii) work with students to strategize how they can best make use of these assessments (Popham, 2008) Model and provide descriptive feedback (see Dweck, 2007; Butler,1988; and Covington & Omelich, 1984) Aim for task oriented/ informational feed back:  Describe features of the work that are relevant to the learning target 

Describe strengths.



Prioritize specific ways to improve the work that can be realistically accomplished.

Avoid: Person centered/ Controlling • How intelligent student is. • How well student did relative to others Vague evaluative statements • “Excellent work!” • “Needs work.”

Design lessons to focus on one aspect of quality at a time • Make visible what you saw in their work that led you to see the need for this lesson (e.g. not yet synthesizing in their essays) Plan for refining skills/informing understanding • After self-assessing, get students to identify the kinds of resources, investigation or evidence they’d need in order to inform, test and evaluate their ideas or skills. Teach students focused revision • Work through the process of revising an answer, product or 1 performance using an anonymous sample of work:  Choose work that needs revision along a particular aspect of quality → Ask students in pairs to revise the work using their own advice. → Or, get students to write a letter to the creator of the sample with concrete suggestions for how to make it stronger in the area discussed. → Students then revise their own work in this key area.

•

Give students pre-assessment. Include a reflection in which students analyze quiz questions in order to identify what they’ll learn from the course, how they’ll need to think about and apply the information. Have them identify what they think they already have some knowledge of and what they’ll need to learn about or how to do. 2

Engage students in self assessment and setting goals •

Examine and analyze examples and models of strong and weak work: • Students describe what skillful, knowledgeable or quality work would look like. Work with them to compare their ideas with scoring guide/rubric you’ll use to define quality. Could develop criteria with them. Above all, make sure 1 they understand and can explain the criteria.

•

•

•

•

Use anonymous models of strong and weak work. Without telling them which you think is strong/weak, get students to analyze samples for quality and justify their 1 judgments. Model what it looks like to create the product/performance. “Show students the true beginnings, the problems you run into, and how you think through decisions along the way. Don’t hide the development and revision part, or students will think they are doing it wrong when it is messy for them at the beginning, and they won’t know how to work through the rough patches” (Stiggins, p43)

•

Student writes a response log at end of class in which they identify key points learned and main questions (see CAT #6 Minute Paper & #7 Muddiest Point; #40 Diagnostic 3 Learning Logs)

•

Students write a process paper detailing how they solved a problem, created a product or performance – encouraging and making visible what it looks like to think like professionals in the discipline (Stiggins, 2007)

•

Use feedback from peers/faculty or from self-assessment to identify (i) what specifically need to work on, and (ii) how plan to work on it.

Students write a paper addressing the central questions at the beginning of the course. They then re-write the paper at the end making visible and explaining how their answers have changed in light of the learning in the class.

•

Using established criteria, select a work sample for a portfolio that proves a certain proficiency, explaining why the piece qualifies.

Students create a portfolio that documents and describes key samples of work that illustrate what has changed in their knowledge and skill relative to key course learning objectives.

•

Students write a self-assessment along the key learning objectives. “I used to… , but now I…. . This is evident in these pieces of work. For example…” ( Ritchart, Church & Morrison, 2011)

Students write an author’s note in which they identify strengths and areas for improvement before handing in work for peer or faculty review.

Strategically mine uncertainty, competing hypotheses and anomalies in students pre-conceptions. •

Ask students to make predictions Get students to compare their ideas and hypotheses with each other. Ask them to notice ways in which their ideas conflict. Use this as a way to help students notice and articulate gaps in their knowledge/skill.

Ask probing questions to reveal thinking and rationale • What are you doing now? Why are you doing it? How does it help you? (Schoenfeld in Darling-Hammond, nd) 1

Strategies from Stiggins (2007)

2

Strategies from Wiedenhaupt

Engage students in self-reflection. Ask them to keep track of and share their Learning

3

Strategies from Angelo & Cross (1993)

REFERENCES & RESOURCES National Summer Institute on Learning Communities 2014 Bill Moore (Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges) Sonja Wiedenhaupt (The Evergreen State College) On Supporting Persistence Merseth, K. K. (nd) Learning opportunities for pathway classrooms. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching Silva, E., & White, T (2013) Driving toward productive persistence. from “Pathways to improvement: Using Psychological strategies to help college students master developmental math.” Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Retrieved from http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/sites/default/files/pathways_to_improvement.pdf Yeager, D., Walton, G., & Cohen, G. L. (February 01, 2013). Addressing achievement gaps with psychological interventions. Phi Delta Kappan, 94, 5, 62-65. Retrieved from: http://www.stanford.edu/~gwalton/home/Welcome_files/Yeager%20Walton%20Cohen%202013.pdf

On Theories of Intelligence and Motivation Aronson, Fried and Good (2002) Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38, 113- 125 Blackwell, L., Trzesniewski, K., & Dweck, C. (2007). Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and an Intervention. Child Development, Vol. 78, No. 1, pp. 246-263. Brainology (2008) You can grow your intelligence: new research shows the brain can be developed like a muscle. Retrieved 6/12/09 from www.brainology.us Bronson, Po (2/11/07) How not to talk to your kids: The inverse power of praise. New York Magazine.http://nymag.com/news/features/27840/ Dweck, C.S. (2007) The Perils and Promises of Praise. Educational Leadership, 34-39. Butler, R. (1988). Enhancing and undermining intrinsic motivation: The effects of task-involving and ego- involving evaluation on interest and performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 1- 14 Fong, C. & Asera, R. (2010) Psychosocial Theories to Inform a New Generation of Student Support Structures for Learning Mathematics” http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/sites/default/files/elibrary/psychosocial_theories.pdf Covington, M.V., & Omelich, C.L. (1984). Task-oriented versus competitive learning structures: motivational and performance consequences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 1038-1050 Dweck, C.S. (1999) Self theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development, Philadelphia, Taylor and Francis Diener, C.I., & Dweck, C.S. (1978). An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy, and achievement cognitions following failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 431-462. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256-273. Hong, Y.Y., Chiu, C., Dweck, C.S., Lin, D., & Wan, W. (1999) Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: A meaning system approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 588-599. Immordino-Yang, M.H. (2008). The smoke around mirror neurons: Goals as sociocultural and emotional organizers of perception and action in learning. Mind, Brain, and Education, 2(2) 67-73.

Mangels, J.A., Butterfield, B., Lamb, J., Good, C.D., & Dweck, C.S. (2006) Why do beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social-cogntive neuroscience model. Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience, 1, 75-86. Mangels, Dweck & Good (2004) “Motivational effects on Attention, Cognition and Performance” in Motivation, Emotion and Cognition. Dai and Steinberg (eds). New Jersey: Lawrence Earlbaum. Self-Determination Theory: An approach to human motivation and personality. University of Rochester. Retrieved from http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/theory.php Stroessner, Good & Webster (no date) Reducing Stereotype Threat.org http://reducingstereotypethreat.org/ Wlodkowski, R, Ginsberg, M (1995). Diversity and Motivation: Culturally Responsive Teaching. San Francisco: JosseyBass, On Learning & Metacognition: Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L. & Cocking, R.R. (1999) How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington D.C. National Academy Press (note: this series also has additional volumes on how people learn history and science that I’ve found very provocative and useful) Coyle, D (2009) The talent code. Greatness isn’t born, it’s grown. Here’s how. Bantam Press http://thetalentcode.com/ Darling-Hammond et al, (nd) “Thinking about Thinking: Metacognition” retrieved 6/21/11 from (http://www.learner.org/channel/courses/learningclassroom/support/09_metacog.pdf). Tavris, C. & Aronson, E. (2007) Mistakes were made (but not by me: Why we justify foolish beliefs, bad decisions and hurtful acts. Harcourt inc. Zusho, A., & Edwards, K. (2011). Self-regulation and achievement goals in the college classroom. New Directions of Teaching and Learning, 126, 21-33. Zull, J. (2002) The Art of Changing the Brain Enriching the Practice of Teaching by Exploring the Biology of Learning. Stylus Publishing On Assessment FOR learning: Angelo, T.A. & Cross, P.K. (1993) Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers. Jossey Bass. Eaton, M.( nd) Student Self-Assessment: Thinking About The Way We ‘Know’ http://academic.evergreen.edu/w/wiedenhs/washington_center/EATON_selfassess.doc Nicol, D.J. & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006) Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education 31 (2) 199-218. retrieved from: http://tccl.rit.albany.edu/knilt/images/8/8e/Nicol_article.pdf Popham, W.J. (2008) Transformative Assessment. Virginia: ASCD. Ritchart, R., Church, M., Morrison, K.(2011) Making Thinking Visible. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Stiggins et al (2007) Classroom Assessment For Student Learning. Pearson. (NOTE: I have found this K-12 resources extremely useful to understanding purpose, structure and specific strategies of formative assessment, even at the graduate level) Wiliam, D. (2010) Keeping learning on track: Formative assessment and the regulation of learning. Making mathematics vital: Proceedings of the twentieith biennial conference of the Australian Association of Mathematics Teacher. Retrieved from: http://assessment.tki.org.nz/Assessment-in-the-classroom/Readings-on-formativeassessment