Communicating Responsibility: Audience reception of CSR communication on social media Master Thesis 30 hp (Vårterminen 2014) Submitted May 26, 2014 Author: Lindsey Oredsson Supervisor: Yvonne Andersson
D e p a r t m e n t o f M e d i a S t u d i e s
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Abstract This study offers insight into international audience reception of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) communication. Swedish companies are currently reaching international audiences through a variety of social media channels and this study analyzes how audiences in Sweden and the U.S. respond to specific messages. Qualitative interviews with professionals offer background information on how CSR is currently communicated while audience responses to CSR communication are gathered through a webbased survey and focus groups consisting of American and Swedish citizens. Results indicate that the two countries have more similarities than differences. Americans have a slightly more positive outlook on the communication and they are more likely to look up information about CSR initiatives after hearing a corporate message. This might indicate a more profound interest. Cultural and social differences are given as a possible explanation for the key differences.
Keywords: Audience Reception, Corporate Social Responsibility, CSR Communication, Business Ethics, Digital Marketing, Global Marketing, Online Communication, Public Relations
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Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Yvonne Andersson. Thank you for always answering my questions thoroughly and for giving me a clear direction in my research. Your support gave me confidence during the difficult times when turning in a complete study, which reflected all my efforts, seemed impossible. Thank you to informants who gave their time to participate in interviews and focus groups. I am grateful to John Ambrose, Thomas Bergmark, Mark Boutros, Malin Ekefalk, Erik Hedén, Heather Johnson, Pontus Staunstrup, and Henrik Sundström for the professional insight into CSR communication, which was invaluable to this study.
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Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................... ii 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Aims and Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 3 2. Background ....................................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Public Relations and Social Media ...................................................................................................... 5 2.1.1 Facebook ................................................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1.2 Instagram ................................................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1.3 Pintrest ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1.4 Twitter ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8 2.1.5 YouTube .................................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Corporate Social Responsibility .......................................................................................................... 8 2.3 CSR Communication on Social Media ................................................................................................. 9 2.4 Cause-‐Related Marketing ................................................................................................................... 10
3. Theoretical Frame and Literature Review ............................................................................ 11 3.1 Encoding and Decoding ....................................................................................................................... 11 3.2 The Uses and Gratification Theory Applied to Social Media ................................................... 12 3.3 Previous Research on CSR Communication .................................................................................. 13 3.4 Cultural Differences ............................................................................................................................. 16 3.4.1 Swedish culture .................................................................................................................................................... 17 3.4.2 American history and charity .......................................................................................................................... 17 3.4.3 Social issues in the U.S. .................................................................................................................................... 18 3.4.4 Americans and advertising ............................................................................................................................... 18
4. Methodology and Materials ....................................................................................................... 19 4.1 Interviews ................................................................................................................................................ 20 4.2.1 Interviews with internal CSR executives .................................................................................................... 20 4.2.2 Interviews with CSR consultants ................................................................................................................... 21 4.3 Survey ........................................................................................................................................................ 22 4.3.1 Survey distribution .............................................................................................................................................. 24 4.5 Focus Groups ........................................................................................................................................... 25 4.6 Material .................................................................................................................................................... 27 4.7 Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................................................ 28 4.7.1 Validity and reliability of interviews ............................................................................................................ 28 4.7.2 Survey validity and reliability ......................................................................................................................... 29
5. Results and Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 32 5.1 Interview Results .................................................................................................................................. 32
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5.1.1 How corporations use social media networks to communicate CSR ................................................. 32 5.1.2 Dominate discourses in CSR communication discussions .................................................................... 35 5.1.3 Challenges corporations face when communicating to an international audience ........................ 37 5.2 Survey and Focus Group Results ...................................................................................................... 39 5.2.1 How audiences respond to CSR messages communicated via social media ................................... 41 5.2.2 How corporate messages about CSR affect audience opinions ........................................................... 45 5.2.3 Motivations for sharing CSR messages on social networks ................................................................. 46 5.2.4 Differences between American and Swedish responses ........................................................................ 47
6. Conclusion and Reflection .......................................................................................................... 51 6.2 Limitations and Proposal for Further Research ......................................................................... 54 References ............................................................................................................................................ 55 Appendix A – Interviews .................................................................................................................. 61 Appendix B -‐ Survey .......................................................................................................................... 62 Survey ............................................................................................................................................................... 62 Survey Translated to Swedish .................................................................................................................. 67 Survey Results – Tables and Frequencies ............................................................................................ 73
Appendix C – Focus Group Material ............................................................................................. 75
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1. Introduction Although the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR)1 is not new, its significance to multiple stakeholder groups and the way corporations communicate it has changed over time (Cramer 2002). Jacqueline Cramer (2002) asserts that globalization triggered more CSR communication. “The globalization of the economy and the increasing reliance on market forces are placing a greater social responsibility on the shoulders of trade and industry” (2002: 105). Cramer accurately predicted that the demand for sustainable business practices would continue. “We are ... moving towards a network society in which regulation by civil society plays an important role alongside regulation by government” (2002: 105). With the increasing use of social media networks, the visibility of CSR communication to publics is presently even more evident (Phillips & Young 2009). Social media networks offer platforms for engaging with audiences (Phillips & Young 2009; Yaxley 2012). While there is a great deal of research about CSR, the research about CSR communication is more limited. This study will not argue merits and limitations of increased CSR. Instead, it focuses primarily on CSR communicated through social media and audience reception. In order to find out more about CSR communication, the methodology includes interviews with communication professionals and CSR consultants. “The advent of social media has a range of implications for organizations attempting to position themselves as ethically engaged” (Phillips & Young 2009: 253). Heather Yaxley explains that companies need to decide on social media strategies and appropriate approaches in order to accurately take part in communication to build relationships with stakeholders (2012: 233). “This requires an approach which eschews a publicity model in favour of relationship with publics, who are treated with respect” (Yaxley 2012: 233). In order to narrow down the focus for the study, Electrolux, Ericsson, H&M and IKEA’s CSR communication on social media is addressed. These corporations were chosen because three are within the top ten biggest corporations in Sweden2. IKEA, however, is not listed as one of the top ten biggest corporations in Sweden, but was founded in Sweden and now operates in 1
Corporate Social Responsibility is “the concept that an enterprise is accountable for its impact on all relevant stakeholders. It is the continuing commitment by business to behave fairly and responsibly and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the work force and their families as well as of the local community and society at large.” according to the Commission of European Communities (Dahlsrud, 2008: 8). 2 Sveriges största företag (2012) Retrieved December 2013, from http://www.ekonomifakta.se/sv/Fakta/Foretagande/Naringslivet/Sverigesstorsta-foretag.
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43 countries.3 IKEA communicates CSR on their Facebook and Twitter pages in different languages. The decision to include them is based on their size and the amount of global attention their CSR communication receives on social media platforms. CSR messages are communicated online through their corporate websites, social media, online news sources and other websites. Because social media communication is seen by a large audience and not only by specific stakeholder groups, audience reception informants live in one of the corporation’s markets and are not necessarily a member of any of the corporation's target markets. The survey is distributed in the U.S. and Sweden. Because social media communication is seen by a large audience and not only by specific stakeholder groups, audience reception informants live in one of the corporation’s markets and are not necessarily a member of any of the corporation's target markets. The survey is distributed in the U.S. and Sweden. The term “Corporate Social Responsibility” can have different meanings. In this study, the definition used by the Commission of European Communities is applied. As Alexander Dahlsrud (2008: 7) states, the Commission of European Communities CSR definition is: CSR is the concept that an enterprise is accountable for its impact on all relevant stakeholders. It is the continuing commitment by business to behave fairly and responsibly and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the work force and their families as well as of the local community and society at large. Sustainable business practices are often lumped together with CSR. In this study, sustainable business practices are seen as part of CSR. A few examples of sustainable business practices are giving workers fair wages, recycling and reducing waste. Corporations are required by law to adhere to a level of responsibility. Sustainable business practices are monitored to ensure businesses are not engaging in illegal behavior. While Electrolux, Ericsson, H&M and IKEA’s communication about sustainable business practices is explored in this study, emphasis is placed on cause-related marketing campaigns. The survey and focus group places emphasis on audience reception of cause-related marketing because contribution to a cause involves doing more than what a corporation is required to do by law.
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Franchisor.IKEA.com, (2014). Inter IKEA Systems B.V. - IKEA retailing facts and figures. [online] Available at: http://franchisor.IKEA.com/Whoweare/Pages/IKEA-retailing-facts-and-figures.aspx [Accessed 3 May. 2014].
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Corporations engage in a ‘cause-related marketing campaign’ when they donate a potion of sales to a cause (Barone, Miyazaki & Norman 2007: 437-445). 1.1 Aims and Research Questions One reason for choosing this topic is because the art of communicating CSR can be seen as challenging. “One of the dangers of CSR is that it is often seen as at best buying off a guilty conscience, or worse as a publicity stunt. The transparency and scrutiny of social media critiques makes this even more of a challenge” (Phillips and Young 2009: 253). One aim is to discover the current landscape of CSR communication by answering the fist set of questions: How do corporations use social media networks to communicate CSR, which discourses presently dominate CSR communication discussions and what specific challenges do corporations face when communicating to an international audience. The choice to use social media to communicate CSR to a large international audience could be considered an interesting phenomenon. While Public Relations (PR) practitioners are encouraged to embrace social media (Phillips & Young 2009: 270), this exposure can place them in unpredictable situations. As Yaxley asserts, CSR is a major PR issue that will continue to be relevant in the future (2007). Therefore, this study is conducted with the aim to contribute to the academic knowledge on contemporary CSR communication practices and professional perspectives. The subject of this study is inspired in part by a study aimed at exploring “corporate responsibility advertising as a social and cultural phenomenon” (Schrøder, Drotner, Kline & Murray 2003: 107). Kim Schrøder et al. examined consumer reception of corporate responsibility print ads. Their reception study concluded that, “it is doubtful whether corporate responsibility advertising, addressing public opinion impersonally through the mass media, is an appropriate strategy for achieving… a relationship of trust” (2003: 107). Because social media is now a common channel for communicating CSR, the current study examines communication about CSR on social media to see if audience responses to this are different than those responses documented in the print ad study. Another aim of this study, therefore, is to explore how audiences interpret CSR communicated through social media sites such as Facebook, Instagram, Pintrest, Twitter and YouTube. The results contribute to increasing knowledge on social media reception.
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The last aim is to compare and contract CSR communication reception in two different markets. Analyzing how audiences in different markets respond to corporate communication is expected to aid in further illustrating the cultural phenomenon. The main research questions and sub questions are: 1. How do corporations use social media networks to communicate CSR? • Which discourses presently dominate CSR communication discussions? • What specific challenges do corporations face when communicating to an international audience? 2. How do audiences respond to CSR messages communicated via social media? • How do corporate messages about CSR affect audience opinions? • What motivates sharing corporate CSR messages on social networks? 3. What similarities and differences can be detected between the responses of audiences in the United States and Sweden?
2. Background Before presenting the theoretical framework and literature review, the rise of social media use and the channels discussed in the study will be addressed. Background information regarding Electrolux, Ericsson, H&M and IKEA’s CSR communication practices is also given along with examples of cause-related marketing. With the rise in Smartphone use, the time individuals spend online is increasing. In Sweden, Smartphone penetration is approximately 63% according to research commissioned by Google and performed by Our Mobile Planet (Our Mobile Planet 2014). In the U.S., Smartphone penetration is approximately 56% (Our Mobile Planet 2014). People in the U.S. spend approximately 7.6 hours on social media per month (Statistic Brain 2014) and 15-44 year olds in Sweden spend an average of 156 hours on the Internet per month (Nordicom 2014). Audiences in both countries are therefore likely exposed to digital public relations on social media platforms. The typical social media user may see communication about CSR through friends’ feeds, online advertisements and through news feeds. “As more people have mobile devices than computers” David Phillips and Philip Young assert that “[mobile internet] is an important development for PR practice” (2009: 18). Phillips and Young explain that companies’ plans need to “fluid” (2009: 196) in order to manage the unpredictable (2009: 204). In a brief on page 204, they summarize by saying that “many management teams are wary of the internet and see it as a threat. For some there is no doubt that it is a threat and needs management” (2009: 204).
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2.1 Public Relations and Social Media Paul Smith and Jonathan Taylor explain the need for a more integrated approach to marketing. “...the academic world has not yet provided a sufficiently strong theoretical framework … to support a totally integrated approach to the study of marketing communication…” (2004: vii). They argue that digital communication creates a need to integrate marketing tools (2004: vii). Their point about integration is cited here to explain how a TV advertisement circulated on social media about CSR might be labeled ‘public relations’. TV commercials about CSR, which a corporation created for TV and then circulated through a link on social media networks, are considered advertisements and public relations in the current study. Marketing tools include advertising, sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing, and personal selling (Bains & Fill & Page 2011: 409). Both online advertising and public relations on social media will be discussed in this study. Prior to Facebook, Instagram, Pintrest, Twitter, and YouTube, online advertising was prevalent through direct email and banner ads on sites target markets frequented (Zeff & Aronson 1999: 69-93). TV advertisements shared on corporate social media channels could be seen as advertising and public relations4. Communication that is considered less in line with traditional advertising in this study includes Pintrest boards which give environmental information, corporate tweets which mention CSR initiatives, and YouTube clips that are not in line with traditional TV ads. Building public relations through online mediums, which reach an international audience, can be challenging. This is because of the importance of creating relationships (Zeff & Aronson 1999: 290). Developing relationships through dialogs can be increasingly difficult if the dialogs need to be interpreted by audiences who speak different languages (Zeff & Aronson 1999: 290). Some of the corporations in this study use multiple languages to communicate CSR through advertising and PR on digital platforms. Yaxley asserts that the public relations division of a corporation is most suited to communicate CSR because their role is to communicate with stakeholders. She notes that “Public relations is the function that is most involved with communicating with key stakeholders and is therefore in the best position to find out their views and expectations of how an organisation should interact with its environment” (Yaxley 2012: 207). Rex Harlow asserts his 4
Many corporations categorize social media communication as public relations (Inc.com, 2014).
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working definition of public relations in Building a Public Relations Definition (1977: 34-42). “Public relations is a distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and co-operation between an organization and its publics…” (Harlow 1977: 36). Although channels have changed since this definition was written, it is still used by more contemporary academics. Dr. Johanna Fawkes quotes Harlow’s definition, among others, when explaining how difficult it can be for one working in public relations to explain what she does (Fawkes 2012: 7). Social media offers a vast array of opportunities to deliver corporate messages and build an ethically responsible brand image. International corporations can be found online on an increasing number of social networks. Social media platforms offer an opportunity to corporations to communicate openly with stakeholders. One advantage to using these channels is that they allow corporations the opportunity to engage with their target markets. They can receive feedback, build their brand image, and get others to share their communication (Yaxley 2012: 232-234). Emma Wood and Ian Sommerville explain that, “The ‘stakeholder model’ is so named because those who propose it argue that the task of the corporate manager is to balance the interests of all the different groups who have a ‘stake’ in the company” (2012: 113). Because profit is only one consideration of one stakeholder group, businesses, which use this model, must take into account other stakeholder considerations such as social responsibility (Sommerville & Wood 2012: 113). Wood and Somerville assert that this model is needed to make “genuine attempts to discover the requirements of community stakeholders and help companies be more responsive to social needs” (2012: 117). Even when the stakeholder model is in place and a company is engaging in business in a responsible way, there may still be difficulty in deciding how much to communicate. “We would argue that telling partial truths is inherent to PR practice, whether online or in any other forum or channel, and that deciding where the distinction lies between partial truth and deception is an individual decision.” (Phillips & Young 2009: 227). “Social media … allow everyone to publish and to participate in multithreaded conversations online” (Weber 2009: 5). Larry Weber discusses how companies need to address complaints on social media in his book Marketing to the Social Web. He advises corporations to let people criticize them openly where the corporations have a presence on social media and listening to feedback (Weber 2009: 51-58). He also says to digital marketers that, “Instead of continuing as
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broadcasters, marketers should – and will—become aggregators of customer communities (Weber 2009: 3). 2.1.1 Facebook Facebook, founded in 2004, has more than one billion active users. It is available in 70 languages and is used by both Americans and Swedes (Facebook 2014). According to Lucia Moses, sourcing The Cassandra Fall/Winter 2013 Report, “Facebook is the preferred platform for people to hear about brands” (2014), making it an interesting platform for corporations to communicate CSR. Table 1: Corporate Presence on Facebook* Sweden Page U.S. Page Global Page Corporations Facebook Likes Electrolux 2,339,694 14,613 n/a Ericsson n/a n/a 63,480 H&M n/a n/a 18,000,000 IKEA 323,807 3,580,621 n/a *Recorded on May 4, 2014
As can be observed in Table 1, all four corporations have a presence on Facebook. While H&M and Ericsson have global pages in English, Electrolux and IKEA chose to create market specific pages. Therefore, they can communicate specific communication to their U.S. audience in English and specific communication to their Swedish audience in Swedish. 2.1.2 Instagram Instagram is a social networking service that enables users to share photos and videos. Users can include captions with their photos and videos. They can also comment on and “like” photos and videos. Instagram was launched in 2010 and now has more than 200 million monthly active users (Instagram 2014). On the press page of Instagram's website, there is information for corporations with promotional purposes on how to use official screenshots and logos (Instagram 2014). Each corporation in this study has at least one Instagram account (Instagram 2014). 2.1.3 Pintrest The Pintrest website launched in 2010 and the Pintrest iPhone app launched a year after, in 2011 (Business Insider 2012). Marketers can use Pintrest to promote brands through Pintrest boards. A Pintrest board on the Electrolux Pintrest profile page communicates ways to reduce water waste. This information can be seen as an effort to increase water conservation by informing others.
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Another example of a board on Pintrest is the Electrolux “Vac of the Sea” board (Appendix C – Focus Group Material). 2.1.4 Twitter Twitter was created in 2007 and now has 241 million active users (Twitter 2014). Users of the micro-blogging site can publish “Tweets”, which are 140-characters long or less. These tweets can share or request information (Yongjian 2012: 103) and users can also communicate with brands by tweeting to them. They can also circulate CSR messages further by re-tweeting communication. The four corporations this study focuses on each have a Twitter account (Twitter 2014). 2.1.5 YouTube The video-sharing site YouTube was founded in 2005 (Time 2006). It is now available in 61 languages and has more than 1 billion active users (YouTube 2014) who view and/or upload material. Among these users are corporations sharing videos. These videos can give information about CSR initiatives. Over 6 billion hours of YouTube video is viewed each month and YouTube reaches more US adults ages 18-34 than any cable network (YouTube 2014; and Neilson). Two of the examples used as material for the focus group were Facebook posts which contain links to corporate videos on YouTube. Promoting corporate videos on Twitter and Facebook seems to be a common practice to get more viewers. 2.2 Corporate Social Responsibility In addition to adhering to the Global Reporting Intuitive from the United Nations, ensuring companies report on the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) through annual reports and CSR reports, corporations are also watched by organizations like Swedwatch, a non-profit organization specializing in monitoring Swedish companies sustainability practices abroad. “Many companies publish annual CSR or sustainability reports, e.g. BAT, GSK, SSL International. Increasingly governments and supranational organizations actively encourage CSR initiatives…” (Baines, Fill & Page 2011). Each corporation explored in this study report on the TBL. Put simply, each corporation reports on people, planet and profit. “The best way to avoid being cheated is to be honest. This piece of advice goes beyond karma and ‘everything goes around comes around.’ It is good Viking business. You must be forewarned, forearmed, ready for bloodshed, and honest” (Strid & Andreasson, 2008: 134). In
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their book entitled, The Viking Manifesto, Strid and Andreasson make generalizations about the ‘Scandinavian approach’ to business, citing both IKEA and Ericsson as examples. “The strength of a brand is a major factor in both price and profit margin. Higher labour costs can easily be offset by other features such as higher quality and social responsibility” (2008: 117). Negative publicity about Scandinavian corporations contributing to societal problems is not unheard of, however. H&M received negative CSR publicity on Twitter in 2010. Both their ethical integrity and their handling of the negative tweets were criticized. Some branding professions stated that they should have been quicker to respond to the negative tweets (Forstater 2014). 2.3 CSR Communication on Social Media In 2010, H&M received negative publicity on Twitter after a New Yorker reported a local store to The New York Times for intentionally destroying merchandise and throwing it away instead of following store procedures properly. The story was tweeted by popular tweeters and the incident was downloaded over 12,000 times (Forstater 2014). The incident, therefore, became widely known and H&M received criticism for not contributing the clothes to people who could use them. As one additional example of negative CSR publicity, ActionAid has criticized H&M for not paying a fair amount of taxes to Bangladesh, where much of their merchandise is produced, due to the way the company is structured (Actionaid 2014). Because the four corporations in this study have a variety of situations when it comes to how susceptible they are to criticism of this nature, they also have varying approaches for communicating. Electrolux has won awards for sustainability (Electrolux 2014). However, their CSR efforts are not visible in predominate places on their websites (Electrolux 2014). This may be because of the product category. They are not a fast fashion company like H&M. Other companies in their category also do not predominately place corporate responsibility information on their websites according to Sundström, VP Sustainability Affairs at Electrolux (Mr. H Sundström 2014, pers.comm., 5 March). IKEA could be seen as more vocal about their CSR initiatives than Electrolux. They participate in cause-related marketing and communicate these campaigns on Facebook. However, The Berne Declaration has accused IKEA of avoiding taxes (IKEA, eBay Avoid Paying UK Taxes, Reports Allege, 2014). Although they communicate a great deal about solar powered roofs (Danko 2013) and participate in cause-related campaigns (see appendix C – Focus
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Group Material), it is possible that audiences do not respond as well to these when they also hear negative stories from Huffington Post and other highly circulated news source (IKEA, eBay Avoid Paying UK Taxes, Reports Allege, 2014). Ericsson is a B2B company and therefore perhaps interested in communicating online for different reasons than the B2C companies. Their communication on social media is, however, seen by a much larger audience than their primary stakeholders, such as the businesses that they sell to, alone. As one of the world’s largest telecommunications companies, they have a big impact on the markets where they have a presence and this might be why a large international audience follows their communications through social media. 2.4 Cause-Related Marketing Theaker discusses cause-related marketing in her Public Relations Handbook. She explains that Business in the Community (BITC) defines cause-related marketing (CRM) as “a commercial activity by which business and charities or causes form a partnership with each other to market an image, product or service, for mutual benefit” and asserts that this is more than a sponsorship. She explains that CRM is gaining importance and gives evidence of this by giving survey results from BITC. One interesting result was that “74 per cent of consumers think that it is acceptable for companies to involve a charity or good cause in their marketing.” Other interesting survey results from BITC included results from surveys sent to charity representatives. For example, “65 per cent had been involved in CRM” and “ 92 per cent felt that it would increase in importance in achieving fundraising objectives” (Theaker 2001: 190). Two cause-related campaigns communicated on Facebook are given as examples in Image 1 and 2. Image 1: IKEA Sweden Facebook Post
Image 2: IKEA U.S. Facebook Post
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These posts communicate different cause-related campaigns benefiting children. The U.S. post encouraged Americans to buy a stuffed fairy to help children get “access to quality education” on December 7, 2013. On December 13, 2013, the Swedish page encouraged their audience to buy two vaccines for children in need from IKEA as Christmas presents. Both posts gave a link, which led to more information
3. Theoretical Frame and Literature Review Hall’s encoding and decoding theory (1980) will be discussed in this chapter. Additionally, fundamental theoretical points taken from the uses and gratification theory are addressed because they are seen as relevant to answering some of the audience reception questions. The stakeholder involvement strategy is explained because it aids in illustrating the significance using social media networks has to corporations. Literature on CSR communication and previous reception studies are reviewed in this chapter as well. Lastly, cultural and societal differences between Sweden and the U.S. are explained because they are used as a framework for analyzing potential differences in the survey and focus groups. 3.1 Encoding and Decoding Start Hall asserts that media producers encode meanings in Encoding/decoding (1980)5. Before he initially introduced his theory in 1973, mass communication was more generally considered a loop involving the sender, the message and the receiver. Hall’s Theory of Encoding and 5 By the time Encoding/decoding was published, Hall was already well known for this theory (Hall, 2007)
Hall, S. (2007). 22 Encoding and decoding in the television discourse. CCCS Selected Working Papers, 2, p.386.
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Decoding explains that messages carry with them a preferred reading. According to Hall, the meanings that audience members make can be described as ‘dominant’, ‘negotiated’ or ‘oppositional’ (1980: 136-138). Dominant meanings derived by audience members are more closely in line with preferred meanings encoded by the sender. Instead of the terms ‘dominant’, ‘negotiated’ or ‘oppositional’, the terms ‘positive’, ‘neutral’ and ‘negative’ replace them respectively in the current study. Hall explains that meaning making is imperative for consumption. “If no ‘meaning’ is taken, there can be no ‘consumption’. If the meaning is not articulated in practice, it has no effect” (1980: 128). This point signifies the importance of the delivery of the message. It is also indicative of why corporate communicators often package communication in a way that makes it easy to understand. Although Hall primarily addresses TV audience reception, some of his ideas may be seen to cover elements of social media reception as well. Critics of Hall say that the theory is flawed. Justin Wren-Lewis points out that it can be difficult to decipher the preferred meaning. He also discusses previous research and suggests that decoders’ opinions will be swayed because they know that they are participating in a study and will, therefore, likely be more critical than usual (Wren-Lewis 1983: 196). “…Problems are… less likely to crop up if the interview revolves around the decoders reconstruction…”(WrenLewis 1983: 196). Therefore, the interviewer takes a more passive role in the focus groups and attempts to keep all questions open and non-leading when trying to stimulate conversation. In this study, it is presumed that preferred meanings of the CSR communication examples given in the survey and in focus groups includes one or more of the following: ‘this is a good initiative’, ‘this is a socially responsible corporation’, ‘this is a good corporation’, ‘I will make a positive contribution if I buy from them’. 3.2 The Uses and Gratification Theory Applied to Social Media The uses and gratification theory is used to guide the audience reception aim of this study. This theory specifically aids in addressing the question regarding the motivation for sharing CSR communication on social media. Rubin explains that the uses and gratification theory involves an active audience, which chooses media to gratify specific needs (Rubin 2009: 165-167). The theory allows researchers to say something about someone’s needs based on her media choice because the active audience’s media choice is influenced by their psychological and/or social
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needs. “The assumptions of uses and gratifications underscore the role of the audience initiative and activity. Behavior is largely goal directed and purposive” (Rubin 2009:167). Rubin explains that critics of the theory argue that it implies that the audience is too active in their media selections and that self-reported data is relied on too much (2009: 169), but that contemporary studies have shown progress with applying the theory (2009 :170). Contemporary studies have also found ways to use the theory while introducing “similar motivation measures” (Rubin 2009 :170). For example, the uses and gratification theory was expanded by Shyam Sundar and Anthony Limperos to include internet-specific gratifications (2013). Sundar and Limperos use the existing theory and add gratifications such as ‘community building’ and ‘agencyenhancement’ (Sundar & Limperos, 2013: 518). These gratifications could be seen to pertain to the reception and sharing CSR communication. Social media users who interact with brand communication online may do so in order to be part of a community or to have a chance to voice an opinion. Furthermore, spreading CSR communication could be seen as activism if a user uses social media to share a negative reading of CSR messages. Conversely, a user could share thoughts about an ethically engaged corporation, possibly communicating a dominant reading of a CSR message. Sundar and Limperos oppose criticism that the new gratifications can be categorized as ‘information-seeking’ by explaining that the older ‘information-seeking’ gratification is too general. They argue that it can explain almost everything users do online (2013: 521). 3.3 Previous Research on CSR Communication Research by Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) illustrate how consumers can be influenced by CSR communication. Consumer responses are tied to how closely their personal characteristics and values match the characteristics and values portrayed in a company's CSR message. Although their research clearly focused on consumers in particular, their findings could be seen to extend to audiences in general. The more the meaning resonates with the audience, the more likely the audience will have a positive opinion of the company. Because the poverty level is higher and the quality of education is lower in the United States, American audiences are expected to have a stronger and more positive reaction to companies which communicate initiatives addressing
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social issues like these. This may help to explain why an audience in a specific market could respond better to a message if the issues addressed are more common and visible in that market.
Figure 1: Sen and Bhattacharya’s Conceptual Framework (Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001: 227)
Figure 1 illustrates how C-C congruence (consumer-company congruence) plays a role in how a person responds to a CSR message. C-C congruence stands for consumer-company congruence and represents how similar the consumer is to the company. A person is more likely to buy from a company, which is understood to value similar things. CA stands for corporate ability and refers to a consumer’s perception of a company’s ability. According to this illustration, a consumer could potentially decide to purchase based on CSR and CA beliefs. C-C congruence, as illustrated here, can play a key role in the consumers’ evaluation of a company. One challenge for corporations, therefore, is to formulate and effectively communicate a message with a meaning that resonates with their target market. A corporation may communicate on social media to reach a large audience in the hopes of communicating a cause that their stakeholders can sympathize with. The way a CSR message resonates with an audience member might be influenced by how much they sympathize with the victim. CSR messages displaying an image of a child, whom
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audience members can easily associate with innocence, might increase their sympathy. Höijer explains that audiences respond with more sympathy to media depictions of victims who are in line with their vision of an innocent victim (2004: 513). Global compassion plays a vital role in the success of some cause-related campaigns. The compassion an audience member feels for a victim can depend in part on how well the victim fits the viewer’s idea of what a victim looks like (Höijer 2004: 513). One of the YouTube CSR messages shown in the focus group communicates a cause-related campaign benefiting UNICEF. According to Chaudhri and Wang (2007), the internet “offers organizations the opportunity to design messages that do not have to follow the dictates of gatekeepers”. It also gives all internal and external stakeholders – from community activists to employees – the ability to interact (Chaudhri & Wang 2007: 235). Chaudhri and Wang argue that this is positive for businesses. However, it could be argued that this open communication is negative. For example, the case of the H&M Twitter critics previously discussed. Morsing and Schultz present results from a study on CSR Communication in Scandinavia and introduce three strategies for communicating CSR based on Grunig & Hunt’s original public relations model (2006). One of these three strategies is “The stakeholder involvement strategy” (2006: 326). Using social media could be seen as a stakeholder involvement tactic because, as previously stated, social media allows corporations to engage with stakeholders. They present national survey results and found that about 50% of Scandinavians wanted open communication about CSR, while 50% either wanted little or no communication. Morsing and Schultz encourage third party endorsement and involving external stakeholders (2006: 336). Morsing and Schultz state that “Companies must ‘give sense’ as well as ‘make sense’”, an argument against solely adopting the stakeholder involvement strategy (Morsing & Schultz, 2006:336). They do not suggest that the stakeholder involvement strategy is the only appropriate strategy. Morsing and Schultz explain that “messages claiming to represent a true picture of corporate initiatives such as CSR would benefit from a third party endorsement, i.e. from external stakeholders becoming involved and expressing their support of corporate CSR initiatives by taking an active part in both the sensegiving and the sensemaking process” (Morsing and Schultz 2006:336). Using the stakeholder involvement strategy and social media may allow corporations to discover audience and stakeholder values in order to adjust their
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messages to them. Communicating on social media is therefore a tactic used by corporations which have adopted a stakeholder involvement strategy. The study mentioned earlier which involves examining consumer reception of corporate responsibility print ads is interesting to consider because of its similarities to the current study. Schrøder et al explain that, “corporate responsibility advertising…enables a company to enter the realm of politics in order to express its concerns as one responsible citizen to other citizens, not just about market affairs, but also about urgent social and political issues” (2003: 108). Their reception study concluded that, “it is doubtful whether corporate responsibility advertising, addressing public opinion impersonally through the mass media, is an appropriate strategy for achieving… a relationship of trust” (Schrøder et al, 2003: 107). The researchers conducted individual interviews with 16 British informants and 16 Danish informants. They found that the majority of the respondents were cynical6 (Schrøder et al, 2003: 115) and that none of the British participants fell into the ‘sympathetic’7 category (Schrøder et al, 2003: 117). Additionally, Danish participants were less cynical. “In line with the argument about class consciousness above, the British informants believed that progress requires struggle; the companies are basically not to be trusted, therefore, ‘we’ must be ready to fight…” (Schrøder et al, 2003: 119). So, corporations analyzed in the present study may also have difficulty concerning trust when communicating CSR. When communication by IKEA, Electrolux, Ericsson, and H&M was presented in the Background section, the challenge of using social media to reach international audiences was briefly addressed. In order to consider how cultural differences might play a role in the current study, the Swedish and American cultures will now be addressed. 3.4 Cultural Differences A few cultural and societal differences may affect audience reception. “Americans expect companies to … engage selectively in cultural and political life” (Brønn & Vrioni, 2001: 213). However, less might be expected from companies in Sweden because it is a welfare state. “In Scandinavia, social responsibility joins the list of state duties” (Brønn & Vrioni, 2001: 213). Along with this fundamental difference, there are other differences. Prior research was explored
6 The term ‘cynical’ in 7
Schrøder’s study equates to the ‘negative’ label in the current study. The term ‘sympathetic’ in Schrøder’s study equates to the ‘positive’ label in the current study.
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and collected for the following comparison, but it should be noted that differences were difficult to pinpoint because it is difficult to label any large group of people (Daun 1996). 3.4.1 Swedish culture “Anyone seeking a ‘Swedish culture’ will find a multicultural Sweden, not necessarily a single, uniform national culture” (Daun 1996 :12). Daun explains that “culture is a system of codes” (1996: 17) and that outsiders may see Swedes as ‘socially closed’ and ‘spiritually empty’ based on their own system of codes. They come to these conclusions when making value out of messages they receive and process based on their own cultural backgrounds (1996: 16-17). Stereotypes include speaking slowly, being punctual and complacent. Americans, therefore, might see a Swede “as ‘self-satisfied’ or even ‘smug’, a misinterpretation that is made when people ethnocentrically judge others’ character traits by their own code system.” (1996: 18). An example of how greatly the receivers’ cultural background can affect their own interpretations is a Finns reading of Swedish men. Daun explains that Finns use the term ‘homosexual’ in a derogatory way to describe how Swedish men talk easily “with anyone about anything – a trait usually ascribed by Finns to women” (1996: 18). He explains that Finns generally communicate slower and with more “communication anxiety” believing that “a real man should not talk unnecessarily” (1996: 18). Finns, according to Duan, are generally quieter than Swedes. Therefore, their interpretations are much different from Americans. Americans have much the opposite characteristic when it comes to communication in general. They are stereotyped as loud and even boastful (Pessoa & Pessoa, 2014). 3.4.2 American history and charity In Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, Lawrence Friedman and Mark McGarvie explain the impact Calvinistic and Christian values had on ideas about social responsibility. They give a historical guide for understanding impacts on dominant views on philanthropy and charity in the U.S. (2003). The “…Puritan view of a Christian society encompassed Calvin’s vision of a holy commonwealth in which every aspect of social life was filled with spiritual purpose and every man pursued his vocation as a divine calling” (Friedman & McGarvie 2003: 54). Friedman and McGarvie also address women’s role in early philanthropies in America. As women acquired more freedom in the 1820s, they began antislavery campaigns and other philanthropies (Friedman & McGarvie 2003: 88).
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There are still many charities operating in the U.S. and Americans can be stereotyped as compassionate (Pessoa & Pessoa, 2014). Birgitta Höijer states, “A global discourse of compassion has extended and developed at the point of intersection between politics, humanitarian organizations, the media and the audience/citizens” (2004: 513). It should be noted that the involvement Americans’ have in charities might seem more significant when compared to a smaller country like Sweden merely due to the fact that there are more people in the U.S. and, therefore, a greater number of people might equate to a higher number of activists. Compared to Swedish corporations, an American company could be seen as louder when communicating CSR. While Americans are stereotyped as less skeptical and more hopeful than Swedes, they can be seen to have a bigger-is-better mentality and boastful demeanor (Pessoa & Pessoa 2014). It could be extrapolated that American corporate communication might be seen as boastful when compared to Swedish corporate communications. 3.4.3 Social issues in the U.S. When comparing education quality, access to healthcare and other social issues, one can see that there are more societal problems in the U.S. than in Sweden. With the increased level of communication about distant suffering, there is more awareness of distant suffering (Russell & Russell, 2010: 67). However, individuals are still more greatly moved by local social issues (Russell & Russell, 2010: 67). “A large body of literature supports the notion that consumers would be more concerned with locally focused CSR initiatives that directly affect their lives” (Russell & Russell, 2010: 67). According to this notion, Americans are likely to be more interested in CSR initiatives that might address societal problems where they are located. 3.4.4 Americans and advertising Jerry Kirpatrick rebukes criticism of advertising in his book, In Defense of Advertising, and yet addresses that advertising cannot be granted moral credit for being altruistic because advertising in not altruistic by nature. ...Altruism is the theory of ethics that motivates the hostility toward capitalism and egoism. According to altruism, a morally good action is one that places others above self; as such, altruism commands self-sacrifice. It does not mean kindness or gentleness, but the act of giving up a higher value for the sake of a lower value or non-value.” (1994: 18)
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While Kirpatrick admits that, “altruism can never grant moral value to advertising” (1994: 18), he defends advertising as a “beacon of the free society” (1994: 154). Daniel Boorstin also supports that advertising is a symbol of a free society in his book entitled The Image (1992). While advertising is a symbol for America and therefore perhaps something that Americans can appreciate, Sweden does not have the same cultural attachment to advertising and therefore might be less interested in it. Sweden regulates both political advertising and advertising to children, while the U.S. allows a particularly “vitriolic and negative approach” (Bains et al. 2011: 710) in political advertising and does not have as many laws regulating advertising to children (Bains et al. 2011: 711; Ungkonsument.se, 2014). Because Americans are exposed to less regulated advertising, they might be less critical of CSR messages. It is possible that American audiences are desensitized to marketing messages that a Swedish audience might consider condemnable. To conclude this chapter, Hall’s ideas on encoding and decoding are used as an overarching paradigm in this study. His idea of sorting meanings decoded by audiences into three categories is adopted in the analysis and discussion of focus group results. The way audiences decode CSR messages depend on their own cultural background, their thoughts about CSR in general and how a specific message is communicated. Because the uses and gratification theory can be applied to new media environments, it is used as a point of departure. The uses and gratification theory is also used to reach the second and third aim of this study, pertaining to audience reception. A review of CSR research included Sen and Bhattacharya (2001), Morsing and Schultz (2006), and Chaudhri and Wang (2007). Lastly, social and cultural differences between Sweden and the U.S. have been cited. Because there are many aspects to consider when analyzing this, a multi-method approach is applied which includes interviews, a survey and focus groups.
4. Methodology and Materials The methods chosen for the analysis are discussed in this section. The methodology includes both qualitative and quantitative methods in order to obtain a higher validity. Between-method triangulation can minimize bias (Denzin 1978: 307). Qualitative interviews contribute insightful information while surveys can give a broader picture (Siebel 1973: 1358). The methods in this study work together to contribute insight into different aspects of CSR communication. “Each
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method implies a different line of action toward reality – and hence each will reveal different aspects of it…”(Denzin 1978: 292). Information gathered in the interviews was used to create the survey. As Alan Bryman suggests, “…qualitative research may act as a source of hunches or hypotheses to be tested by quantitative research” (1995: 134). 4.1 Interviews In order to answer the first research aim regarding how corporations use social media networks to communicate CSR, insight was gathered through qualitative interviews with the following professionals: 1. John Ambrose, Senior Copywriter at JG Communication 2. Thomas Bergmark, Owner at Bergmark Sustainability AB and previously worked as the Sustainability Manager at IKEA Group 3. Mark Boutros, Director of Corporate Responsibility at Kreab Gavin Anderson 4. Malin Ekefalk, Director of Social Responsibility at Electrolux 5. Erik Hedén, a founder of Sustainable Brand Insight 6. Heather Johnson, Director of Communications and Stakeholder Engagement at Ericsson 7. Pontus Staunstrup, Content Strategy Director at JG Communication 8. Henrik Sundström, VP Sustainability Affairs at Electrolux In these semi-structured personal individual interviews, professionals shared perspectives on current challenges and their knowledge about audience reception. Each interview was 30 minutes in duration and conducted in-person at the professional’s office, with the exception of one, which was conducted over the phone. The interviewer was allowed to ask follow-up questions. An audio recording was taken of each interview and transcribed following the interview. There were two incidents where the interview was not recorded due to errors made by the researcher. Detailed notes were taken and included in the appendix in these cases in place of transcriptions (see interview notes in appendix A). Information and insight gathered from interviews was considered when the online survey and focus group guide were designed. An interview guide was used. It was tailored before interviews to relate directly to the internal CSR professionals and CSR consultants by citing specific campaigns or their areas of expertise. 4.2.1 Interviews with internal CSR executives Heather Johnson, Director of Communications and Stakeholder Engagement at Ericsson, was the first in-house CSR executive interviewed. Ms. Johnson explained her role and how interest in CSR has grown even more so in the last few years (Ms. H Johnson 2013, pers.comm., 29
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November). She is the ideal person from Ericsson to interview because her role is to oversee CSR communication and to engage with stakeholders. She has worked at Ericcson for 15 years and has led communications and stakeholder engagement at Ericsson for 6 years. Ericsson’s Connect to Learn initiative was addressed specifically in interview questions. The other internal interview took place at the Electrolux Headquarters. This interview was conducted to discover how Electrolux currently communicates CSR online. Henrik Sundström, VP Sustainability Affairs and Malin Ekefalk, Director of Social Responsibility at Electrolux were interviewed in order to gather input from other sources other than online research. This interview took longer to set up than the interview with Ericsson and was, therefore, unfortunately conducted after the survey link was distributed. However, the insight gathered in this interview was helpful when designing the focus groups. In this interview questions were asked about specific Electrolux CSR communication like Electrolux’s “Your Watermark” Pintrest board. 4.2.2 Interviews with CSR consultants Mr. Bergmark has the unique ability to speak on a high level about IKEA's CSR communication because he previously worked as the Sustainability Manager at IKEA Group. He is also currently a consultant in sustainability and advises companies on CSR communication. Mr. Bergmark was able to give specific insight into how CSR communication decisions were made at IKEA. He also discussed some common discussions he has with the companies he advises. Specifically, he was able to address how transparency is a key component of marketing CSR and he was able to discuss with authority, through his 20+ years of experience, other key CSR considerations. As Managing Director & Partner at Sustainable Brand Insight, Hedén is currently in communication with IKEA as an external resource consulting on CSR communication. Sustainable Brand Insight helps Swedish corporations by giving them insight and strategies to “place sustainability in the unique context of their brands”. Hedén was contacted for the interview because he has the ability to discuss current key discourses within the area of CSR communication. He attends CSR conferences in both the U.S. and Sweden. Therefore, he might also be able to compare professional discourses within the two countries. Insight gathered in this interview was considered when designing the focus groups.
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Mark Boutros, Director of Corporate Responsibility at Kreab Gavin Anderson, was unable to disclose the names of the clients he works with due to confidentiality contracts. It can be said, however, that he works with large Swedish corporations on communicating CSR to international audiences. Interviewing Mark came about after the researcher heard about a speech he gave about CSR. The researcher heard that in his speech Boutros discussed being in the Peace Corps in Africa. He explained that he started to become interested in CSR when he noticed that, in his experience, NGOs left when things got difficult in certain areas, but the groups backed by large corporations were the ones which stayed. He is an American who has worked in CSR in both the U.S. and in Sweden. Along with bringing insight to the question of predominate discourses he has knowledge about CSR audience reception studies in both countries and may be able to share information audience reception and give the current study more direction. He has worked with CSR communication since 2005. While he finished a PhD he worked in CSR at Ogilvy. He is able to give insight into dominant CSR discourses. Both John Ambrose, Senior Copywriter at JG Communication, and Pontus Staunstrup, Content Strategy Director at JG Communication, are knowledgeable about how companies communicate CSR because of their experiences working at JG Communication. They bring more detail to the study about how large corporations in Sweden address international differences when communicating. An interview guide similar to the one used for other professionals was used. However, slight modifications were made in order to address their area of expertise. JG Communication is a content consulting agency working with corporations to develop ‘strategic communication’. The interviews were conducted in order to shed light on strategic CSR communication. 4.3 Survey The quantitative survey, conducted with the aim of gauging audience opinions about CSR messages, took about ten minutes to complete. Two survey versions were created using SurveyMonkey, an online survey development website. Both versions, the English and Swedish version, asked the same questions. The survey contained 14 questions aside from demographic questions. It started by explaining that the purpose of the survey was to gather information on audience reception of corporate communication. Simple wording was used in order to increase understanding. The questions were the same and the CSR communication examples were similar.
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The control question, “Have you lived in the U.S./Sweden for the majority of your life” was asked. If the respondent had not lived in one of these countries for most of their lives, they were taken to thank you page and the survey was ended. It was important for the survey reliability that the respondents were immersed in the culture and society in which they represented. After the control question, the question, “Do you have memory of seeing a message like these two examples?” followed. The examples presented earlier, Images 1 or 2 depending on the survey language, were given of social media CSR communication. If the respondent answered yes, two questions regarding the most memorable CSR message they heard or saw were asked. “How did you hear about the most memorable message?” and the yes or no question, “Did you have a positive reaction to it?” followed. ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ were offered as answers to the statement “If a company engages in activities aimed at benefiting society, it can make me think more highly of the company”. This question was presented to both the respondents who remembered seeing a CSR message and those who did not. It was asked in order to see if CSR communication was reported to potentially give a higher opinion about a corporation. Answers to this question will aid in answering the research questions about how CSR messages affect public opinion. Another question asked how respondents thought CSR should be communicated. This question gave ‘Annual report’, ‘Corporate website’, ‘Social media’ and ‘other’ as options. If the respondent answered ‘Other’, she was asked to specify the way she thought CSR should be communicated. According to Schrøder et al. the way CSR is communicated can have an impact on if audiences respond the way corporations intend (2006). This is one reason why questions in the survey inquired about the way respondents heard about CSR messages and how they thought corporations should communicate CSR. These questions help to gauge audience opinions about CSR messages communicated through various mediums including social media so that the way messages are communicated and how this might impact audience responses could be analyzed. A scale of “highly agree”, “somewhat agree”, “neutral”, “somewhat disagree”, “strongly disagree” was given for the next seven questions. These questions asked about sharing CSR communication on social media, what information a company should provide on their website, if CSR effects respondents’ buying decisions, if respondents look for information about CSR, and about CSR visuals containing alarming images.
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As discussed when explaining the theoretical framework of this study, the compassion an audience has for a victim can depend on how well the victim fits their idea of a victim (Höijer 2004: 513). Examples on the survey referenced cause-related campaigns benefiting children. A child can be seen as an ideal victim because of her vulnerability (Höijer 2004). The last scale question asked if respondents were less critical of a company’s social responsibility communicated by media instead of by the company. This question was included to see if respondents thought that the corporation was less trustworthy when communicating their CSR than the media. If the respondent agreed, this might indicate a lack of trust in the credibility of corporate communications. The survey allowed respondents to make additional comments about CSR communication at the end. In this way, respondents could add points that they think are significant. The question asked if they had any specific thoughts about a company communicating corporate responsibility. And added, “For example, is there a situation when a company should not communicate through social media?” Lastly, demographic questions were given. All respondents received at least two demographic questions to gather the respondents’ age and gender. The survey results were entered into SPSS and results are shown in tables in the Results section. 4.3.1 Survey distribution A convenience Snowball sampling method8 was used first. The researcher distributed the survey link through Facebook, Twitter and emails. Others, in the researcher’s network, passed the link on to their acquaintances. The researcher’s network in the U.S. is primarily located in the Pacific Northwest, while the researcher’s network in Sweden is primarily located in Stockholm. When it was realized that not enough respondents were obtained this way, further efforts were made to distribute the survey. In an effort to get more Swedish respondents, a short presentation of the research was given to a Journalism, Media and Communication first year class at Stockholm University. A copy of the survey was passed out to students in the class. The researcher also distributed surveys at the Stockholm University Frescati campus. Approximately 45% of the Swedish 8 This method, like many others, has advantages and disadvantages (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981: 141) and will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter under the Validity and Reliability heading. 24
surveys were collected in person, while all of the U.S. surveys were collected online. In an effort to increase the number of U.S. respondents, SurveyMonkey was paid approximately $300 USD (1 971 SEK) for 212 respondents scattered throughout eight U.S. regions including: New England, Middle Atlantic, East North Central, South Atlantic, East South Central, West South Central, Mountain and Pacific. SurveyMonkey added more demographic questions when they distributed the survey in the U.S. This is why some of the charts in the appendix include other demographic details such as location in the U.S., income, and education. SurveyMonkey did not allow any question requesting an email address. Both Swedish surveys and English surveys distributed by the researcher asked for respondents’ e-mail addresses. Some of the respondents who gave email addresses were contacted and asked to participate in a focus group. 4.5 Focus Groups Attempts to recruit American and Swedish participants for focus groups were also made through the presentation addressed in the last section, posted flyers, and emails to acquaintances of the researcher. Attempts were made to include participants who did not know researcher well to increase the level of validity. Focus groups were conducted with Swedish and American individuals. Holding focus groups is a suitable method to achieve the second goal of this study, analyzing audience reception, because focus groups can create a more natural environment for participants to share their opinions. Enabling participants to interact in an open way is fundamental to understanding different perspectives (Hansen, Cottle, Negrine, and Newbold 1998: 257). “The generation of meanings and interpretations of media content is ‘naturally’ a social activity, that is, audiences form their interpretations of media content and their opinions about such content through conversations and social interaction…” (Hansen et al 1998: 261). The focus group involves individuals between the ages 20-44. An effort was made to recruit a majority of participants who are within the age bracket of 20-34 as that these individuals are likely computer-savvy (William & Page 2011). Williams and Page support this distinction when they state, “Generation Y was born during 1977-1994... They were born into a technological, electronic, and wireless society with global boundaries becoming more transparent” (William & Page 2011). Statistics indicate that the majority of this age group is active on social media networks including Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter (Moses 2014).
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Participants in the first group were students with Swedish citizenship. All participants lived in Sweden for the majority of their lives, with the exception of one Italian student who has a good understanding of the Swedish language and was living in Sweden during the time this focus group took place. Although an original qualification was set to recruit only participants who had lived in Sweden for the majority of their lives, this requirement was overlooked to include the Italian student. Swedish students who the researcher knew were not included. Only two out of ten emailed prospective participants responded positively to attending the focus group. One student brought two of her friends with her. The Swedish focus group took place on April 2, 2014. There were four participants: • • • •
Participant S1: Female, Age: 44, Citizenship: Swedish Participant S2: Female, Age: 23, Citizenship: Italian, but attending classes in Swedish at Stockholm University Participant S3: Female, Age: 21, Citizenship: Swedish Participant S4: Male, Age: 30, Citizenship: Swedish
Participants in the other two groups were American citizens. Two graduated from Stockholm University and were living in Sweden during the time the focus group was conducted. One was a Stockholm University doctorial student at the Criminology Department. Lastly, one of the American participants was living near San Francisco during the time the focus group took place, but was visiting Sweden. All American participants spent the majority of their lives in the U.S. They were, however, acquaintances or friends of the researcher. Although the goal was to recruit participants who did not have an existing relationship to the researcher, this qualification needed to be overlooked because the researcher was not able to recruit other participants. There were two American focus groups comprising of four Americans in total. Two confirmed participants were unable to attend the first focus group unexpectedly and only two Americans participated. Therefore, a second focus group was arranged with two other participants. The first American focus group took place on April 5, 2014 and the following participants were present: • •
Participant A1: Female, Age: 32, Citizenship: American Participant A2: Female, Age: 32, Citizenship: American
The last American focus group took place on April 13, 2014 and included the following participants:
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• •
Participant A3: Female, Age: 31, Citizenship: American Participant A4: Female, Age: 32, Citizenship: American
4.6 Material Specific messages communicated via social media networks by the corporations explored in this study within 12 months prior to May 2014 are examined in focus groups in order to analyze responses to recent CSR communication. Examples of CSR communication are given in a survey and in focus groups. As previously explained in the Background section, communication on social media can look like advertisements, but often times they do not. This section will explain the stimuli given on the survey and in focus groups. The Electrolux Pintrest boards mentioned previously gives water conservation tips and shares information about pollution. They do not encourage the audience to buy from Electrolux in an obvious way. A Tweet from H&M (see image 3), which mentions that the corporation is working towards a goal of paying all workers a fair wage, is discussed in the focus group. Participants are asked about their thoughts on this tweet specifically and about tweeting this type of communication. An Ericsson YouTube clip that explains their project connecting refugees living in Africa is presented. This clip was chosen because the refugees were considered in line with the dominant idea of “victims” (Höijer 2004: 513). Communication that is considered more in line with traditional advertising in this study are two IKEA TV clips circulated through links on Facebook pages in both the U.S. and Sweden. This link went to a YouTube clip that communicated a United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) cause-related promotion. While the Swedish and American audiences both watched the European TV clip in focus groups, the American focus group was also given the American version of the ad to see if they related better to the way the ad communicated the promotion to the U.S. market. These two clips communicated cause-related marketing campaigns, which donated a portion of profits to UNICEF, a charity for children. As mentioned earlier, the compassion an audience member feels to a victim can depend in part on how well the victim fits the viewer’s idea of a victim (Höijer 2004: 513). Children are fitting as mediatized symbols of innocent victims and therefore can more easily aspire compassion from the audience. All of the examples of corporate communication used in the focus groups were found on social media and were used to encourage conversations. They were chosen because they seemed
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to be representative of the plethora of CSR communication on social media. Because there was a limited amount of time, material was kept to a minimum. Only two Pintrest boards, three YouTube clips and one Tweet were given as examples in the survey and a Facebook post and a tweet were given as examples on the survey. The online campaigns shown were used to initiate conversations. A modified tactic used by Jenny Kitzinger, whereby focus group participants are given cards with advertisements on them and participants are asked to rank them (1994:106) was applied. Participants were asked to compare corporate messages communicated via YouTube. Once participants were asked which “message is most memorable” and which campaigns, if any, make them most “want to be a customer”. The final rank of the commercials is not important, but it the process of getting there that maters (Kitzinger 1994: 106). All four corporations, Electrolux, Ericsson, H&M and IKEA were brought up in questions. Probing was done by asking open-ended questions and asking participants to talk freely about the campaigns. An audio recording was taken of each focus group and later transcribed. 4.7 Validity and Reliability The validity and reliability of both qualitative methods and the qualitative method will now be addressed more thoroughly. A method is considered valid if its findings measure what a researcher set out to measure and a study is considered reliable if results can be duplicated (Golafshani 2003). In this chapter, the validity of each method is addressed. The reliability of overall results and the conclusions reached from each method is also discussed in this chapter while the reliability of individual findings is discussed in the Results and Analysis chapter. 4.7.1 Validity and reliability of interviews In order to discover dominant professional discourses it was important not to lead professionals to the same responses. The researcher followed an interview guide and attempted to make the professional feel comfortable to lead the interview. It was in this way that the researcher hoped to get authentic responses and reveal dominant discourses about CSR. By choosing an informal interview approach and often telling the interviewee that they are free to discuss aspects that they find important, the researcher thinks that the results of the interview are valid. With the exception of the Electrolux interview when two employees were interviewed simultaneously, individual interviews were conducted. Individual interviews were considered better to address 28
the first aim of this research because other professionals would not be present who could possibly influence responses in individual interviews. The method is considered an appropriate approach to reach a valid conclusion about both what is important to consider in CSR communication and contemporary challenges when communicating. Eight professionals were interviewed, instead of only a few, in order to increase the reliability of the results. In order to encourage conversation, the interviewer actively engaged in conversation with the professional by nodding, and making comments like, “I understand”. Therefore, these subtle gestures and exclamations may affect reliability. Expressing interest was a conscious decision, however, in order to keep the interviews conversational and aid in establishing an informal environment. If the researcher had a more rigid demeanor, the informal environment may have been jeopardized. It is possible that another researcher could reach different dominant discourses and challenges. When reflecting on the approach used, the researcher continues to consider the approach used best for reaching authentic responses. The researcher reflects that responses may have been only slightly affected by the interviewer’s demeanor during the interview and believes that another researcher with a different approach conducting the interviews would not make a significant difference. The number of interviews is considered appropriate to reaching a conclusion about dominant discourses with the CSR communication arena and to reach a conclusion about common challenges. 4.7.2 Survey validity and reliability “Qualitative research allows the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or concept to be studied, and perhaps generate hypotheses to be tested”(Golafshani, 2003: 597). While interviews are located in the interpretive paradigm and appropriate for understanding CSR as a social and cultural phenomenon, surveys are dominant in the positive paradigm and “information is gathered in the form of numbers that can be quantified and summarized”(Golafshani 2003: 597-598). In this study, the interviews allowed the researcher to gain a better understanding of CSR audience reception in order to create a survey. Qualitative research is valid when “the means of measurement are accurate and whether they are actually measuring what they are intended to measure” (Golafshani 2003: 599). In order to reach a high level of validity, survey questions were tested in a pilot study. The questions were revised in order to make the questions easier to understand. It is important to
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ensure that respondents understood what the question is asking in order to properly measure their opinions. Simple and straightforward wording was used in the survey in order to minimize misunderstanding. Participants’ opinions of messages about CSR are “regarded as being readily available in the world of the audience for objective collection through the analyst’s questionnaire” (Schrøder, Drotner, Kline & Murray 2003: 30). Sieber asserts, “the ‘obtrusiveness’ of a questionnaire can be assessed and taken into account in the analyst's interpretations” (1973: 1357). Some respondents may speculate that the researcher could identify them and this may affect their answers. “In order to classify causal relations and their validity as clearly as possible the conditions under which the phenomena and relations under study are controlled as far as possible” (Fink 2006: 13). A limitation, therefore, is that it is hard to speak in detail about the American respondents because about 200 American respondents were reached by paying SurveyMonkey for respondents. In this case, the researcher had no control over distribution. There may be differences between an American respondent who is paid and a respondent taking the survey while sitting in a university class and this may have an effect on responses. Although there were limitations and the validity may be affected, these limitations are considered and explained in when results are discussed. It is understood that survey respondents do not represent the whole population of the U.S. and Sweden, but their responses give indications about what the reality might be like. More than 300 respondents in total help to increase the likelihood that this survey is reliable and the results are replicable. 4.7.3 The validity and reliability of focus groups Focus groups are an appropriate approach for exploring audience reception because participants rely less on the researcher to stimulate the conversation (Frey & Fontana 1991: 184). Focus groups are often conducted in media studies because they are considered appropriate approaches for gauging audience reactions (Frey & Fontana 1991). Frey and Fontana assert that researchers need to consider whether the focus group really measures what you are using it to measure. The methodological approach in this case was devised to discover audience responses to CSR messages. The researcher when reflecting upon this approach continues to consider the focus groups valid because they measured opinions of specific CSR communication. It did not measure anything similar to this like opinions to ‘advertising’ in general. Respondents’ comments, given
30
in the Results section, were very specific to CSR communication (Appendix C). Both questions and responses were very closely related to the CSR reception. One limitation is that there were eight participants in total. The validity of drawing conclusions based on only eight participants might be questioned. There may be fewer differences between the countries than the focus groups reflected. A problem with comparing two different cultures this way is that every individual is unique in their life experiences, beliefs and aspirations. Therefore conclusions given in the results section focuses on results that are backed by survey and focus group results and not focus group results alone. Another aspect to note is that examples used in the focus group and the survey were chosen because of the way they seemed to be representative of the plethora of CSR communication on social media. Because there was a limited amount of time to show participants and not very much material could be examined in the focus group, it is possible that results could be different if different stimuli were used. The reliability of focus groups may have been jeopardized slightly if participants changed their opinions to fit in or did not share their opinions. If this occurred then it would be less likely that the study could be replicated which has similar results. A common argument against using a focus group is that focus groups “tend to work towards ‘consensus’ ground” (Hansen et al 1998: 263). The fact that some participants knew each other may play a role in potential similarities in opinions and perspectives. The focus group is seen as a conditional experiment and it is understood that the sample does not have a strong relationship to the entire population. Each of the focus members commented, but the time each participant spent talking varied. American participants took up relatively equal amounts of time. This may be due to the fact that American focus groups contained only two participants while the one Swedish focus group contained four. Size can have an effect on responses. For example, participants in the groups with only one other member may have felt safer to voice their opinions. The Swedish focus group contained one member who only commented four times, aside from ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answers. This limited interaction was more natural in a setting with three other participants, but this individual may have participated more if there was only one other participant. It is especially important to address the size limitation and discrepancy because “this is especially crucial since group members will probably know each other and will have already established a patterned relationship” (Frey & Fontana 1991: 191).
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This method was considered appropriate to answer questions about CSR reception. The researcher took a passive role because of the informal setting. Although focus groups have many benefits, a problem is that “…group interviews require different skills than individual interviews” (Frey & Fontana 1991: 192). The researcher must “be sensitive to group dynamics”. Without offering financial compensation, it was difficult to recruit participants. When reflecting on the focus group structure, the researcher thinks that the size of each of each focus group and familiarity did not limit the reliability substantially. However, conducting more focus groups would have been advantageous if time permitted.
5. Results and Analysis The validity and reliability of the methods used were brought forth in the previous chapter and will be taken into consideration in the discussion of results. This reflexive approach will aid in addressing the validity and reliability of specific results. This chapter presents results and analysis of the empirical research. Research questions are addressed individually. Results from the interviews are, for the most part, presented first and then the results from the focus group and survey are presented together as these methods work together to answer the same research questions regarding audience reception. 5.1 Interview Results 5.1.1 How corporations use social media networks to communicate CSR Each corporation uses social media to communicate CSR messages in different ways. Each executive interviewed had different preferences regarding the way they used the words “sustainability” and “corporate social responsibility”9, but all four corporations explored in this study engage with stakeholders on social media networks about these topics on social media. Company specific efforts were discussed briefly in the background section. Qualitative interviews with professionals aided in furthering the knowledge about specific campaigns and answering the first set of research question regarding how corporations use social media networks to communicate CSR. 9
Mr. Boutros preferred to use the term CSR throughout the interview and spoke little about sustainable business practices while Mr. Hedén
spoke about both. Ms. Johnson did not use the term ‘CSR’ at all but spoke about sustainable business practices and being responsible in the countries where they have a presence. It could be that each corporation has its own way of using these terms to some extent.
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Engagement was discussed in each interview. Social media lets corporations engage with their audience. The interviews with professionals showed some consensus about strategies for communicating CSR. The most discussed aspect of CSR communication discussed in these meetings was that CSR must be related to the core of the business. For example, Ericsson provides help after natural disasters by sending employees to the area and setting up networks so that other aid providers work faster. One tactic that was widely discussed was using social media to communicate because it can engage an audience. Direct tone and moving images with information that linked back to corporate sites in many cases was advised (Mr. T Bergmark 2014, pers.comm., 17 February; Mr. Boutros 2013, pers.comm., November 19; Mr. E. Hedén 2013, pers.comm., November 29). When interviewed on 29 November 2013, Ms. Johnson discussed Ericsson First Response. The CSR initiative, Ericsson Response, is “a global initiative that works in partnership with UN agencies to put communications expertise, equipment and resources at their disposal in times of need” (Ericsson 2014). First Response volunteers sometimes upload videos and images to social media channels. The Connect to Learn project was also discussed. Connect to learn is “a global initiative that provides scholarships for girls and boys in impoverished areas to attend secondary school, and implements mobile broadband technology to connect their classrooms to a 21st century education” (Connect To Learn 2014). These initiatives are communicated on social media as well as through Ericsson.com, ConnectToLearn.org and other digital channels. Electrolux referenced a campaign called Vac From the Sea. It was seen as a successful social media campaign internally because it got their audience talking about them and to them on social media (Mr. H Sundström 2014, pers.comm. 5 March; Ms. M Ekefalk, 2014, pers.comm. 5 March). CSR consultant, Boutros spoke about how CSR messages should tell an engaging story, which is what IKEA did through their Vac from the Sea campaign. Electrolux reaches an international audience by communicating on Facebook, Instagram, Pintrest and Twitter. They communicate about products, the environment and their campaigns like Vac From the Sea and Your Watermark. Some of their communications might be seen as informative communication about the environment. It might be seen as created with an aim of branding the company as socially responsible. H&M and IKEA have some similarities in the way that they use social media to communicate CSR. They both communicate cause-related campaigns and post information about
33
sustainable business practices. The researcher was not able to interview someone from H&M or IKEA, but interviews with CSR consultants were able to shed more light on some of the communication tactics that they likely use. It seems that they are attempting to address societal issues on their channels and position themselves as helping to make things better. Both H&M and IKEA have been criticized for not being socially responsible. H&M tweets about becoming more socially responsible in image 3.
Image 3: H&M Tweet
The link in this tweet goes to more information about the H&M initiative to start paying their workers in other countries a fair living wage in the future. YouTube circulates Electrolux, Ericsson, H&M and IKEA TV ads. The ads communicating CSR are sometimes told with subtle music and an air of calmness. The IKEA ad given as an example of a cause-related campaign in the focus group was linked to from IKEA’s Facebook page. It was considered a representative example of a cause-related ad. The IKEA ad contains soft music, and an air of calmness. The music might be seen as comforting and the tone might be seen as reassuring. The embedded message seems to be that IKEA is a socially responsible corporation. Communication professionals refer to Facebook, Instagram, Pintrest, Twitter, and YouTube as platforms currently used to appropriately communicate corporate responsibility online. The consultants pointed out that the appropriate platform and tone depend upon the corporation and the reason for the communication among other factors (Mr. Ambrose 2014, pers.comm., March 4; (Mr. T Bergmark 2014, pers.comm., 17 February; Mr. Boutros 2013, pers.comm., November 19; Mr. E. Hedén 2013, pers.comm., November 29; Mr. P. Staunstrup 2014, pers.comm., 4 March).
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5.1.2 Dominate discourses in CSR communication discussions Four main points made by consultants about CSR communication are: 1. A CSR initiative that is seen as related to the core of a business is more memorable, 2. Corporations should engage the audience when communicating CSR, 3. Communicating good stories on social media can engage audiences, 4. It is important to consider cultural differences when communicating. It is important for audiences to see the communicated CSR initiative as closely related to the corporation’s core (Mr. E. Hedén, pers.comm., November 29, 2013). It has been stated by scholars as well that a stronger association makes the message more memorable (Sohn, Han & Lee, 2012). Communicating CSR initiatives can be challenging if the CSR initiative is simply donating money to a cause that is not closely tied to the company. Therefore, it is not surprising that when interviewed on 6 March, Mr. Hedén asserted that these good deeds should be rooted in the company from its inception. Morsing and Schultz (2006), mentioned earlier, assert the significance of third party endorsement. A third party endorsement on social media might be seen as UNICEF tweet about an H&M cause-related campaign. Image 4: UNICEF USA tweet about a cause-related campaign
Engaging employees to endorse CSR initiative is also advisable (Mr. M Boutros 2013, pers.comm., 19 November); (Mr. J. Ambrose 2014, pers.comm., 4 March); (Mr. P. Staunstrup 2014, pers.comm., 4 March), (Mr. E Hedén 2013, 29 March). When interviewed on 4 March 2014, Mr. Staunstrup said that one of the most moving images he saw capturing a CSR initiative was taken by an employee. It was powerful, he said, because it was an “amateur shot”. The photo captured a desolate area after it was hit by a storm. The back of an employee was shown with the company’s logo displayed on the shirt and he is looking out onto nothing. Nothing was left after the storm devastated the area Mr. Staunstrup
35
explained. In the interview with Mr. Staunstrup, he remarked that Instagram offered an opportunity to corporations to transcend language boundaries by communicating through images (Mr. P Staunstrup 2014, pers.comm., 4 March). One way to engage a large audience is to tell an engaging story. Packaging a CSR initiative as an interesting story was repeatedly discussed as an appropriate tactic. Storytelling is used to communicate CSR to large audiences because it can simplify the information and make the initiate more memorable (M. Boutros, personal communication, November 19, 2013). Many companies report on social responsibly in annual reports, but it is not clear who reads these reports and most people do not read annual reports (M. Boutros, personal communication, November 19, 2013). Even if a large percentage of the public were to get information about corporate responsibility from these reports, it is unlikely that the communication derived from this report would be as memorable as an IKEA Facebook post containing a link to YouTube video showing Jesus online (see Focus Group Material). Storytelling can easily be seen in online videos like this one and shared by the corporation through mediums like YouTube. Ericsson’s Connect to Learn video is one example of a video uploaded to their YouTube channel. It tells a story in a more serious tone (see Focus Group Material). In three of the interviews, cultural differences were discussed at some length. Mr. Boutros and Mr. Hedén spoke about how CSR is different in the U.S. than in Sweden. Hedén asserted that it is more important that corporations address societal issues in the U.S. than in Sweden because of the differences in the way the countries are governed and how poverty is an issue in the U.S. They both mentioned that the U.S. is more divided. Mr. Boutros asserted that the right way to communicate these messages to both markets is to be open and honest, but mentions that the Swedish audience tends to be more skeptical. He encourages corporations to tell engaging stories to involve their target market. Mr. Boutros spoke positively of a number of U.S. CSR campaigns as good ways to communicate CSR by engaging people. This might indicate that he prefers an American approach to CSR communication rather than a Swedish approach. Both Mr. Hedén and Mr. Boutros think that American audiences are less skeptical. The American audience described by Mr. Boutros and Mr. Hedén are more open to communications about companies aiding in solving societal problems while Swedish audiences are more critical of these messages.
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Mr. Staunstrup explained situations where they realized how important it was that they had images approved by locals before using them in ads in some markets. It is hard sometimes to realize when there might be a cultural difference because a person sees the world through her own set of culture codes (Daun, 1996). “It’s very difficult to understand how other cultures will see things” (Mr. P Staunstrup 2014, pers.comm., 4 March). 5.1.3 Challenges corporations face when communicating to an international audience Sometimes corporations do not know how to communicate CSR. Environmental aspects of CSR were disused in the interview with Mr. Hedén. He asserts that companies need to do more than label products as ‘ecological’. Corporations should explain the benefits ecological products to the environment, health, etc. However, corporations continue to find it challenging to communicate to the public and often do not communicate these environmental benefits as much as they should (Mr. E Hedén 2013, 29 March). Communicating with publics in different countries can be challenging (Mr. P Staunstrup 2014, pers.comm., 4 March). Corporations need to consider cultural differences and work with people in the markets who understand local customs (Mr. P Staunstrup 2014, pers.comm., 4 March). It is not possible to cut corners by not conducting market research (Mr. T Bergmark 2014, pers.comm., 17 February). In an interview on 17 February 2014, Mr. Bergmark asserts that a dialog should be established with stakeholders so that communication addresses their concerns. When interviewed on February 17 2014, Mr. Bergmark, mentioned that there is often a question of ‘what’ to communicate along with ‘how’. Some IKEA employees wanted to start sharing social responsibility earlier than others. The ones who thought that the company should not actively communicate specific social responsibility initiatives on social media thought that they should wait until their business practices were even more sustainable in order to avoid backlash (Mr. T Bergmark 2014, pers.comm., 17 February). Phillips and Young agree that the best approach in the digital age is openness. “The inherent tension between duty and consequence is one of the main reasons why there appear to be so many grey areas in ethics…” (2007: 226). Phillips and Young also assert that the “nature of obligation” and the “nature of public relations” need to be considered in “any discussion of PR ethics” (Phillips and Young 2009: 226). Mr. Bergmark encourages companies to communicate in a transparent and open way. He
37
says that it is okay to let audiences post negative comments and the right approach is to respond to the criticism in an appropriate way (Mr. T Bergmark 2014, pers.comm., 17 February). This might be a challenge for corporations to allow negative readings of CSR messages on their social media channels, but corporate communicators are sometimes advised to address the concerns that are communicated in the negative readings on the channel in order to build and/or repair relationships (Mr. T Bergmark 2014, pers.comm., 17 February).When this topic came up in two other meetings, Mr. Ambrose and Mr. Staunstrup agreed that transparency is the best policy (Mr. Ambrose 2014, pers.comm., March 4); (Mr. P. Staunstrup 2014, pers.comm., 4 March). Phillips and Young allude to the negative implications that social media has for corporations communicating CSR (2009), however Phillips, Young, Yaxley and other academics assert that social media should be used to communicate. Academic and professional opinion seems to be that it is best to be open and transparent when communicating on social media even though addressing negative concerns may be challenging. In the interview with Ms. Johnson, she discussed getting employees involved. It is a challenge for Ms. Johnson to keep employees informed about sustainability and corporate responsibility so that they are able to explain the company’s approach on a high level (Ms. H. Johnson, pers.comm., November 29, 2013). In two other interviews the issue of how to engage employees and how to communicate CSR internally was addressed. Hedén also spoke about the importance of engaging employees. “…The bad way is just to send it in a PDF and hope that they read it. …So we have to do workshops.” Furthermore, he asserts that, “Involvement is really important. Engage people. How does this affect me as a worker?” Ericsson’s 20th suitability report lay on the table while the interview with Ms. Johnson was conducted. “… We’ve been actively externally communicating for 20 years, which I think is pretty long term for many companies. So I would say it’s not new to us, but it is definitely growing. I would say stakeholder interest has really grown, even in the past 2-3 years” (Ms. H Johnson 2013, pers.comm., 29 November). The increase in stakeholder interest in the last few years might be further indication of the cultural and societal phenomenon regarding the increased interest in corporate roles within societies at large. They are a B2B company and therefore do not use social media to promote products to customers. They do, however, still use social media to communicate. Their main goal with this is to reach stakeholders, but their communication reaches a much larger audience (Ms. H Johnson 2013, pers.comm., 29 November).
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Ms. Johnson receives feedback from employees through interviews and a survey question in order to address to what extent they care. Involving stakeholders and getting them to communicate their support of corporate CSR initiatives benefits CSR initiatives (Morsing and Schultz 336: 336). Stakeholders are then able to take part in the “sensegiving and the sensemaking process” (Morsing and Schultz 336: 336). When Mr. Boutros was asked for his CSR consulting input regarding what questions should be asked about CSR audience reception, he responded, “Who cares?”. It is interesting to find out who cares about these CSR messages communicated on social media. This question motivated the researcher to explore how much the public cares by finding out how Americans and Swedes respond to CSR messages communicated via social media, how CSR messages affect public opinion, and what motivates sharing corporate CSR messages on social networks. 5.2 Survey and Focus Group Results Similarities between Americans and Swedes were found when it came to their responses to CSR communication with some exceptions. The majority of survey and focus group comments showed an understanding of the fundamental concept of CSR communication. Anthony Giddens explains that sociologists appear to understand the world but people living in a society often understand even more (1984: 281). In order to answer the second and third aim of this study, regarding how corporate messages about CSR affect public opinion and if differences can be detected between U.S. and Swedish audiences, results from the survey were cross tabulated. There are 375 survey respondents. In both Sweden and the U.S., there are higher percentages of female respondents. In total, approximately 58% of respondents are female and 42% are male. Table 2A: Country * Female/ Male Crosstab
Country U.S.
Female Female/male Male
Total
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count
% within Country Cramer’s V=,027, Approx. Sig.=,617, N= 346
Total Sweden
138
64
202
57,5%
60,4%
58,4%
102
42
144
42,5%
39,6%
41,6%
240
106
346
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
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Some respondents skipped the demographic questions. SurveyMonkey distributed the survey to approximately 200 U.S. respondents and SurveyMonkey automatically included additional demographic questions such as: location in the U.S., education, and income (Appendix B- Table 2B-2D). Approximately 50 U.S. respondents and 35 Swedish respondents were reached through the Snowball sampling method discussed in the methodology discussion. The other Swedish respondents were found through the class presentation and by handing out the survey on campus as discussed earlier.
Table 3: Age * Country Crosstab
Country U.S.
>30
30-44 Age 45-60
>60
Total
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count
% within Country Cramer’s V=,505, Approx. Sig.=,000, N= 348
Total Sweden
59
80
139
24,4%
75,5%
39,9%
72
21
93
29,8%
19,8%
26,7%
69
5
74
28,5%
4,7%
21,3%
42
0
42
17,4%
0,0%
12,1%
242
106
348
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
As seen in Table 3, the respondents came from a variety of age brackets. A higher percentage of Swedish respondents are younger than 30 years old. This may influence results and findings. Therefore, the differences indicated by this survey between countries will be compared with differences between age groups to check the validity of the findings. Most respondents do not remember seeing or hearing a message about CSR communication in the past year (see Crosstab 14: CSR Messages in Appendix B). Of those 210 who responded, more chose social media as the medium which delivered the most powerful CSR message than any other medium. Graph 1: Which medium delivered the most memorable CSR message?
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Social Media (74) TV (26) Online news (21) Print media (21 YouTube (17) WOM (14) Corporate website (11) Project website (9) Radio (8) Other (8) Annual report (1) Missing (157)
N=210, Missing=157
Respondents specified ‘in-store’ or ‘on product label’ as other ways they heard about CSR. When asked which medium they did remember hearing a CSR message from, 74 respondents chose “social media” out of ten other options. Quite a lot more Swedish participants chose ‘social media” (59) than Americans (15). This is likely due to the younger Swedish respondents more than it indicates that Swedes find CSR messages on social media more memorable than Americans (See crosstab 15 in the appendix). 5.2.1 How audiences respond to CSR messages communicated via social media The majority of respondents in both countries had a positive reaction to the most memorable CSR social media communication. Both American and Swedish focus group participants appreciated when a corporation contributed something of value, like the Electrolux water conservation Pintrest board because this was seen as something contributed without any obvious potential for direct financial compensation. These Pintrest boards caused the majority of focus group participants to think more highly of Electrolux. Table 4: Thinking highly of a company
Country U.S.
If a company engages in activities
Yes
aimed at benefiting society beyond sustainable business practices, it can make me think highly of that company.
No
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count
Total
% within Country
Total
Sweden 33
84
117
97,1%
93,3%
94,4%
1
6
7
2,9%
6,7%
5,6%
34
90
124
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
Cramer’s V=,072, Approx. Sig.=,423, N= 124
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Table 4 gives the results to the yes/no statement, ‘If a company engages in activities aimed at benefiting society beyond sustainable business practices, it can make me think highly of that company’, A high percentage of respondents, 81% of Americans and 74% Swedes, reported that CSR communication can make them think more highly of a corporation. The Cramer’s V is 0,184 and the approx. sig. is ,038 so this is considered a weak correlation. Additionally, 250 respondents skipped the question indicating that this question should be reworded. It may be too difficult to respond to this statement because the respondents’ thoughts about a company might be dependent upon many other factors. The majority of respondents in both countries agreed that a corporation’s environmental impact should be addressed on its corporate website.
Table 5: Environmental Impact Communication
Country U.S.
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree How a company compensates for environmental impact should be communicated on their corporate website.
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count
Total
% within Country
Total
Sweden 17
3
20
6,9%
2,8%
5,7%
2
2
4
0,8%
1,9%
1,1%
29
9
38
11,8%
8,5%
10,8%
55
19
74
22,4%
17,9%
21,1%
142
73
215
58,0%
68,9%
61,3%
245
106
351
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
Cramer V=,129 Approx. Sig.=,210 N=351
The results to this question indicate that consumers are interested in knowing how a corporation compensates for environmental impact and that a corporation should communicate this online, at least through the corporation’s website. The survey indicates that customers care about how employees are treated. For example, 89.3% of respondents agreed that if a company does or does not engage in fair treatment influences whether they will buy from that company. These results support Strid and Andreasson assertion that social responsibility can allow for increased labour costs (2008: 117). Table 6: Fair Treatment of Employees
Country
Total
42
U.S. Strongly disagree
Count % within Country
If a company does/does not
Somewhat disagree
engage in fair treatment of their employees can have an
1
7
2,5%
0,9%
2,0%
5
8
13
2,0%
7,5%
3,7%
22
7
29
9,0%
6,6%
8,3%
89
50
139
36,5%
47,2%
39,7%
122
40
162
50,0%
37,7%
46,3%
244
106
350
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
Count
Neutral
% within Country
effect on if I buy from that company.
6
Count % within Country
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count
Total
% within Country
Sweden
Cramer V=,184 Approx. Sig.=,018 N=350
The majority of survey respondents care about the treatment of employees. One difference between the ways respondents in the two countries answered is observed when comparing answers regarding if the respondent actively seeks more information after hearing about a CSR initiative. Table 7: Actively Seeking More Information
Country U.S.
Strongly disagree
After I hear a message about social
Somewhat disagree
responsibility, I actively look for more information about the initiative (by
Neutral
clicking a link, performing a Google search or inquiring in another way).
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Total
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country
Total
Sweden 20
21
41
8,2%
19,8%
11,7%
26
23
49
10,7%
21,7%
14,0%
56
26
82
23,0%
24,5%
23,4%
104
29
133
42,6%
27,4%
38,0%
38
7
45
15,6%
6,6%
12,9%
244
106
350
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
Cramer’s V=,263 Approx. Sig.=,000 N=350
Hedén discussed that, according to his experience, Americans expect companies to contribute more to society due in part to the greater presence of societal problems in the U.S. (Mr. E Hedén 2014, pers.comm). The survey showed that a greater percentage of Americans are more likely to
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seek information about a specific initiative after hearing CSR communication. This could indicate that they are more interested. One questions compared CSR communicated by corporations with communication about CSR from news sources. According to Table 8, higher percentage of both Swedes and Americans trust CSR communicated by news sources more than social responsibility communicated by a corporation. More than 50% of Americans were less skeptical about social responsibility communicated by a news source than by a company. Similarly, more than half of the Swedes surveyed trusted news sources more. This may indicate a lack of trust in CSR communication. The receiver is influenced by the way they receive the message. Respondents to this survey may take into account that the corporations likely have a ‘preferred meaning’ (Hall 1980: 136-138) and that the meaning, if the audience chooses to accept it, will ultimately help the corporation. The corporations likely want the audiences to think ‘this is a socially responsible company’ or ‘I should want to buy from them’ after hearing a CSR message while news sources might be seen to have less bias. Table 8: News VS corporate communication
Country U.S.
Strongly disagree
I am less skeptical of messages about corporate social responsibility communicated by news sources than corporations.
Somewhat disagree
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count
Total
% within Country
Total
Sweden 12
3
15
4,9%
2,8%
4,3%
25
6
31
10,3%
5,7%
8,9%
72
22
94
29,6%
20,8%
26,9%
97
48
145
39,9%
45,3%
41,5%
37
27
64
15,2%
25,5%
18,3%
243
106
349
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
Cramer’s V=,164 Approx. Sig.=,051 N= 349
A news source might be less motivated to deliver a message that promotes the corporation. Another topic brought up in an interview was imagery. One consultant asserted that showing disturbing images is not the right approach in messages about CSR (M. Boutros 2013, pers.comm., November 19). The survey also addressed images. However, answers seem to reflect a large variety of opinions.
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Table 9: Alarming images in digital CSR communication
Country U.S.
Strongly disagree
It is alright if companies use alarming images in their online communications. (e.g. photos of starvation).
Somewhat disagree
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count
Total
% within Country
Total
Sweden 46
7
53
18,9%
6,6%
15,1%
65
19
84
26,6%
17,9%
24,0%
68
27
95
27,9%
25,5%
27,1%
50
35
85
20,5%
33,0%
24,3%
15
18
33
6,1%
17,0%
9,4%
244
106
350
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
Cramer’s V=,261 Approx. Sig.=,000 N=350
More Swedes than Americans agreed that it is ok to feature alarming images (e.g. images of starvation) in CSR communication or they were neutral. In other words more American respondents did not think that disturbing images should be in CSR communication. However this result was discounted when the age of the responses was factored into the cross tabulation and it was discovered that the youngest demographic agreed more than the older demographics. The differences between the countries, therefor, likely are a result of the greater percentage 18-29 year-old Swedish respondents (See Appendix B Table 16). 5.2.2 How corporate messages about CSR affect audience opinions Survey results seem to indicate that a well-executed CSR initiative, which is communicated in the right way, can increase intent to buy. Table 10: Purchase Intent
Country U.S. Strongly disagree
If I were already considering buying a product from a specific company, a
Somewhat disagree
campaign about how that company is socially responsible could increase my
Neutral
interest in making the purchase. Somewhat agree
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country
Total
Sweden 6
5
11
2,5%
4,8%
3,2%
9
10
19
3,7%
9,5%
5,4%
17
12
29
7,0%
11,4%
8,3%
98
37
135
40,2%
35,2%
38,7%
45
Strongly agree
Count % within Country Count
Total
% within Country
114
41
155
46,7%
39,0%
44,4%
244
105
349
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
Cramer's V=,161 Approx Sig.=,061 N= 349
Audiences in both countries think that a CSR campaign could influence their purchase decision. 5.2.3 Motivations for sharing CSR messages on social networks According to the survey, a significant percentage of respondents are either neutral or agree that they have shared CSR communication on social media. In the Swedish focus group, the motivations discussed included sharing negative and positive readings of CSR messages. They are motivated to share because they think that their message is important for others to hear and/or because they think others will be interested in the information. Participant S3 said he usually only shares negative thoughts about CSR communication. Most participants in the American focus group said they might share a message. One reason for sharing given by Participant A2 was sharing because she thought it contained something interesting that a specific friend might appreciate. Table 11: Sharing CSR Communication I
Country U.S.
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree I have shared communication about how a company is socially
Neutral
responsible through social media. Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country Count % within Country
Total Sweden
68
45
113
29,1%
41,5%
32,9%
19
10
29
8,1%
9,4%
8,5%
53
12
65
22,6%
11,3%
19,1%
50
24
74
21,4%
22,6%
21,8%
44
15
59
18,8%
14,2%
17,4%
Cramer V=,185 Approx. Sig.=,040 N=340
According to the table 12, 35.5% of respondents have shared CSR social media communication. This percentage was calculated by adding participants who answered, “Strongly agree”, “Somewhat agree”, and “Neutral” in Table 5. It should be noted, therefore, that “neutral” is subjective. “Neutral” is considered here to mean that perhaps the respondent has liked a friend’s post on the topic, an act that might lead the post to be more readily seen. If the
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respondent marked “neutral” it is assumed that she rarely shares CSR communication, but may have engaged in online behavior that resulted in sharing a CSR message at least once. Table 12: Sharing CSR Communication II I have shared
Missing
on social media
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
36
9,6
9,6
9,6
Has shared
133
35,5
35,5
45,1
Has not shared
206
54,9
54,9
100,0
Total
375
100,0
100,0
One last survey result that is interesting to consider is that Facebook was chosen more often than any other medium when respondents were asked where CSR should be communicated. Other options that the researcher expected to see chosen more often were ‘Annual Report’, ‘Corporate website’ and ‘Other’ (See Appendix B—Table 15 and Chart 2). This could indicate that publics like to hear about CSR on social media. One reason for this might be because they have the power to communicate their own opinion about the CSR initiative. Approximately half of the focus group participants have communicated with brands on social media. The focus groups were conducted to aid in finding out if Americans have a more profound interest in CSR communication and if they are more positive about corporations communicating CSR on social media. 5.2.4 Differences between American and Swedish responses Survey and focus group results show that there are a variety of responses within both the U.S. and Sweden. There is little national consensus, therefore, regarding CSR communication on social media. Survey respondents were given the opportunity to add their thoughts about CSR. Although some American comments included, “It really does not affect weather I will buy a product or not. I base purchasing a product on need, price and will it work.” from an American (with the following characteristics: 30-44 years old, male, from the Mid Atlantic, some college education, making 150,000 USD a year), most comments reflected a more receptive audience. “I don't think it is all that helpful for companies to shout about, pat themselves on the back, for simply doing the right thing, but I am receptive to messages of going above & beyond the status quo, and leading their industry in affecting positive change” from an American (with the following characteristics: 30-44 years old, Female, Graduate degree from West South Central).
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Results of the survey and focus groups indicate that the two countries have more similarities than differences and that negotiated readings of CSR messages are most common. Although, neutral comments on the survey are most common amongst American and Swedish respondents, a higher percentage of positive American comments were tallied and the percentages of positive American comments on the survey and in the focus group are higher. Some of these positive comments included: “I cannot think of an instance where social media would be inappropriate [to communicate CSR].” And “I think it is always a good idea to highlight social responsibility. Integrity is something I am always interested in.” The majority of Swedish comments were more neutral and sometimes negotiated aspects they appreciate about CSR communication and the aspects that they dislike. An example of a neutral Swedish respondents is10: “I feel that they absolutely can share communication about their social responsibility on social media, but there are definitely situations where it seems distasteful to communicate via social media when they want you to buy from them after a catastrophe as they pull wisely and strongly on your emotions.” Sometimes it was hard to categorize a comment. This Swedish comment is classified as positive by the researcher: “First and foremost, a corporation should probably take responsibility, so that it becomes known for being there. But I definitely think that corporations should communicate this [CSR] on their website or fb [Facebook], [T]witter, and Instagram. Corporations should promote themselves and not be so svenskt blygsamma [Swedish and modest]. It depends what kind of business the corporation conducts, there are absolutely activities that may not be suited so well for social media.” Perhaps this comment could have been categorized as neutral instead of positive. Because it was difficult to categorize some comments, this may have an effect on the reliability of this part of the analysis. Ideas expressed in the survey about using social media to communicate CSR were mixed. Some Swedes and Americans were positive. However, some comments indicate a negative perception of this communication. A negative American comment was, “I think most companies use social media for self serving lightly veiled advertising. I personally give little to zero attention to corporate social media posting.”
10 Swedish comments were translated by the researcher.
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The focus groups aided in answering the research question regarding differences between the U.S. and Sweden further. The focus groups provided further evidence that some subtle differences exist between the responses to CSR messages in Sweden and the U.S. Topics such as marketing and corporate wealth were brought up in all the groups. Because of the limited number of focus group participants, the only results discussed in detail in this thesis are ones that can be supported by the survey. The two biggest differences detected in the survey are that Americans are more likely to actively search for more information on a CSR initiative after hearing about it and that Americans are slightly more positive about CSR communication based on survey comments. These results are reinforced by the focus group results. Overall, the Swedish focus group focused more on negative and critical comments about CSR messages while the US focus groups addressed concern, but voiced a higher percentage of positive and neutral readings of CSR messages. American focus group participants were more inclined to change their buying behavior to reward companies for engaging in ethical behavior than Swedish participants. Mistrust was mentioned more than once in the Swedish focus group. Although there were negative comments in both Swedish and American focus groups, the Swedish negativity encompassed the concept of CSR communication in general while American cynicism was directed to specific corporations. For example, after viewing an IKEA commercial on YouTube communicating a causerelated campaign, several oppositional comments were recoded in the Swedish focus group. For example, Participant S4, said, “I always get pretty offended when I see this. So they can afford to do this to get good will. They give with one hand and they hit with the other. Because they have some children workers and things so they can afford these things. If they really wanted to change the world, they would give good salaries. But then they wouldn’t get a good promotion”. Participant A2, an American focus group participant, directed outrage toward IKEA specifically. She used the word ‘hate’ and expressed thorough dissatisfaction with their CSR efforts. Her underlining point was about IKEA’s culpability and she did not dislike cause-related campaigns in general. “I hate their whole guise of being a foundation and with all their tax invasion, it’s just a cover for all the crap they do … I would much rather buy from Lush or Body Shop because their whole entire corporate existence is based on corporate social responsibility. Or others, which might have huge arms of corporate charities like what IBM used to do — Donate thousands of computers and open schools. Not like, ‘Here, we’ll donate the other dollar for this
49
7-dollar toy. We made it for 35 cents in China, but we’ll donate the other dollar to kids over in like… Zimbabwe’…” The same American participant voiced positive readings of CSR communication examples from other corporations while the Swedish respondent quoted above did not make any positive comments. Participant A2 also laughed at the IKEA ad and said she would share it on social media networks because she thought it was funny. In the American focus group topics such as marketing and corporate greed were discussed but the topics were taken in a more lighthearted tone. Two laughed at parts in IKEA’s YouTube communication that were suppose to be funny. This is due perhaps to the fact that American participants knew each other and the researcher better than the Swedish respondents. Differences like this will be mostly overlooked, therefore, because of the question of reliability. The American focus group participants’ meanings were more in line with the assumed preferred meanings (addressed in the theoretical framework). Three were positive in their reception of Ericsson and H&M while only one Swedish participant voiced positive comments in line with preferred meanings about these communications. Two people said that they would share one of the cause-related advertisements used as an example because they found it funny. A third American said she would share one message (the Ericsson YouTube clip) because of the message. She said she would also share the Pintrest board with a few friends because she thought it was creative and well done. There are other focus group results that will not be discussed in detail because the results are not considered to be reliable due to the low number of focus group participants. These results largely indicated that Americans have a more positive outlook on CSR communication. Other focus group results included that the Americans, who were given two commercials to view, one aimed to the U.S. market and one aimed to the Swedish market, thought the second one made them more interested in buying. This result, along with the other results that are not discussed, is not considered reliable because of the low number of focus group informants. Similarities between all the focus groups included a general mistrust of large corporations and skepticism about cause-related marketing campaigns. When analyzing all comments in further detail, a more positive attitude toward the concept of CSR can be detected within the American focus groups. The majority of comments made by focus group members were neutral, negotiating what they appreciate and the things that do not resonate well with them. The researcher acknowledges that it may have been difficult to remain completely unbiased because
50
of her previous survey research results and hypothesis that Americans are more positive about CSR communication. Although every attempt was made to be unbiased by considering each response and categorizing it individually, it is possible that the researcher saw what she thought she would see when conducting these focus groups. This might limit the focus groups’ reliability and validity. 6. Conclusion and Reflection There is a great deal of consensus among professionals that CSR needs to be related to the core of the business. This makes the perceived value of a corporation’s initiatives stronger and more memorable to publics. CSR communication should be told through an engaging story according to professionals. Therefore, social media was repeatedly mentioned as an acceptable and efficient way to communicate CSR. It can be challenging to communicate to international audiences, but all four corporations are engaging in online communication in multiple languages in order to build relationships with their diverse publics. Some have had more challenges than others and a few have been criticized for not being better at responding to criticism on social media. Phillips and Young (2009:253) state that: Companies are discovering that the link between eco-sustainability and reputation has new and fundamental implications for how they run businesses; for them, it is the intersection between companies’ efforts of ‘marketing green’ and actually becoming green’ in a corporate communications environment that dictates unprecedented levels of transparency. None of the participants in the focus group mentioned that the communication seemed too loud and/or self-congratulatory, which can be a common concern when communicating CSR. This could be because by their nature these companies have a more “Swedish approach” to communicating what they are doing well. Whereas some American company might be considered loud about their efforts, the majority of Swedish corporations might be using a ‘lagom’ (just enough) approach when discussing their CSR efforts. Giddens uses the word ‘commodifying’ (1991: 9) when discussing what the mass media does. The act of ‘commodifying’ ethical behavior might be viewed as giving consumers a new aspiration. “The mass media routinely present modes of life to which, it is implied, everyone should aspire; the lifestyles of the affluent are, in one form or another, made open to view and portrayed as worthy of emulation” (Giddens, 1991: 9). These corporate messages might make
51
publics more interested in buying products from companies they consider ethical. The existence of corporate messages about social responsibility on social media networks reflects the level of involvement publics have in discussions about social responsibility. From the IKEA ad showing Jesus online to the Ericsson YouTube communication about connecting refugees in Africa, the stories are told with subtle music and an air of calmness. The music can be seen as comforting and the message in both these commercials can be seen as reassuring. The social and cultural phenomenon explored in this study involves the increased communication of CSR messages. The interest in these messages seems to have spread from primary and secondary stakeholders to the general public. This study asserts that social media has had a substantial role in spreading CSR communication and engaging a larger audience to take interest in corporate responsibility to society. Whether the communicated CSR initiative is seen as a way to increase profits affects perception. Ericsson stakeholder interest in sustainability has increased in the last few years (Ms. H Johnson 2013, pers.comm, 29 November), possibly indicating an increased interest in corporate roles within societies at large. Because of the differences between the U.S. and Sweden previously addressed, it is not surprising that Americans show a greater interest in CSR communication. The last research aim was to examine audience reception in two different markets. The differences and similarities given in the results section show that there are more similarities than differences. The main differences detected are that Americans have a more positive outlook on the communication and that they are more likely to look up information about CSR after hearing a corporate message. This could indicate a more profound interest. The survey results offered a picture of more crosscultural similarities than differences, but also indicated that Americans were more interested and had more positive comments about the communication. Focus groups further confirmed these differences. The majority of respondents in both countries reported that a CSR message could increase their intent to buy. In fact, a larger percentage of respondents agreed that a message could increase their interest to buy than make them think more highly of a corporation. This indicates an interesting phenomenon in itself. Perhaps is possible that a well-executed CSR campaign could increase interest in making a purchase, but not make someone think more highly of a company. Perhaps a partnership with a charity like UNICEF could entice individuals to purchase a product even if they do not like UNICEF’s corporate partner. The user and
52
gratifications theory helped to explain that focus group participants and interview respondents use social media to fulfill emotional and psychological needs. A substantial 33% of survey respondents shared CSR communication online. Reasons for sharing this communication varied from wanting to communicate negative readings to wanting to share the meaning the corporation intended by promoting it in a positive way. The results of this study indicate that audiences have a mix of positive and negative readings of CSR messages and that their opinions depend upon how much they believe a company is truly being authentic. For example, audiences did not react well to IKEA’s causerelated campaign because participants thought IKEA was an unethical corporation. Companies in this study who received more negative comments were IKEA and H&M while Electrolux and Ericsson are less criticized. This is likely due to IKEA and H&M’s product category. Sometimes companies find it challenging to communicate their participation in extra initiatives that can be considered philanthropic (Dawkins 2004) and it becomes increasingly challenging when international corporations need to consider that some online messages reach audiences in multiple countries. CSR executives recommend communicating CSR on social media through engaging stories. Hall asserts that the main purpose of any discourse is to make meaning. The idea of making messages more memorable through storytelling is not new (it can be seen in TV commercials), but the story seems more transparent when communicated on social media because specific details about corporate initiates are only a few clicks away from the receiver and the receiver has the opportunity to post comments reflecting negative readings of the message. Social media was chosen as one of the mediums that communicated the most memorable CSR message in the survey. Motivations for sharing corporate CSR messages on social networks included sharing something humorous, sharing something to specific individuals who might be interested, and helping spread knowledge about good work especially when it came to smaller corporations who audiences thought were especially good and not well known. Negative publicity about CSR does elicit a greater response than positive publicity about CSR. One reason for this given in a focus group is that it is much easier to focus on the negative in general because it is more widely reported by the media. The findings illustrate how social media plays a role in redistributing the power to communicate to large audiences that once belonged to corporations and not their audiences. One focus group participant said that he often posted
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negative readings of CSR messages. According to Hall, corporations have power and control over communication, because they are able to prevent some information from coming out to the public.11 The researcher asserts that communicating online might help to bring power to the public and away from large corporations. When corporations are forced to be transparent, they are not as powerful as they once were. Social media, therefore, aids in equalizing the power imbalance between the sender and receiver. Findings were similar to Schrøder results (2003: 120). The results seem to indicate that things have not changed based on the change of medium. It remains doubtful that advertising, even when it is online, is an effective communication strategy for establishing trusting relationships. The majority of focus group participants did not respond well to IKEA’s causerelated campaign communication online because it was in line with a typical advertisement. Communication that is seen less as advertising seems to elicit better responses, e.g. Electrolux Pintrest boards. The YouTube videos linked to from an array of other social media platforms looked and sounded like traditional TV ads and responses to these were mostly negative. Although languages can help segment online communications to specific markets, some digital communications can be difficult to segment. The circulation of social responsibility communication by corporations is indicative of collective cross-cultural interest in holding corporations liable for social responsibility. Respondents and participants were very aware of corporate goals to increase profits indicating a savvy public. 6.2 Limitations and Proposal for Further Research While there were 240 American respondents to the survey, there were only 106 Swedish respondents. The lower number of Swedish survey respondents may have limited the study. The distribution methods should be reworked so that the total number of respondents in each of the age groups is more similar. While it was interesting to interview executives and learn more about how audiences receive online communication about CSR, a content analysis could examine a social media platform and analyze how audiences respond to messages on the platform. A content analysis of 11 AFL: Resources by Theory (9th Edition). [online] Available at: http://www.afirstlook.com/edition_9/theory_resources/by_theory/Communication_Theory [Accessed 19 May. 2014].
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at least one corporation’s online CSR communication would have contributed to a better understanding of what is currently communicated and how it is communicated. The communication and cultural theories used in this study could be supplemented with marketing theories if the study aims were different. There are several communication models explained by Smith and Taylor (2004), which give evidence of the need for an integrated approach – one that would aid in establishing marketing approaches. The theories chosen for this study were related to analyzing the communication as a cultural and societal phenomenon and not to aid marketers. Because most CSR reception studies currently focus on developed markets, a future study might also consider addressing CSR communication audience reception in emerging markets. It would be interesting to see how audiences in emerging markets view cause-related campaigns.
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Appendix A – Interviews Thomas Bergmark, Owner at Bergmark Sustainability AB and previously worked as the Sustainability Manager at IKEA Group Interview with Thomas Bergmark (This interview was conducted over the phone. The call was not recorded as planned unfortunately so it is not possible to include a transcript, but the following are detailed notes from the call.) • Can you tell me a little about your current position and your background? • Worked at IKEA as a Managing Director and Business Area Manager. • Recently working as a consultant to companies • Both B2C and B2B company consulting • What does sustainability mean? • Sustainability involves 3 pillars: people, planet and process and these three pillars need to work together. • Sustainability involves reducing cost, increasing profit and becoming proactive. • This reduces chances of failure, and builds brands when businesses employ sustainable business practices. • First, most importantly, homework needs to be done. Good work completed to show sustainability. Next, the business needs to be very transparent and to share success stories along with challenges. • Some challenges with IKEA was that we needed to discuss communication strategies. Not everyone wanted to start communicating because not everything was a success story. • Others thought that IKEA should start communicating to consumers about it right away. Only communicating nice stories make audiences think that a company is green washing. • And what does CSR mean to you? • It is very similar to sustainability to me. It just depends on how you want to refer to the things we just discussed. CSR is corporate social responsibility and refers to how companies consider the environment, people and can involve everything from the types of products used to how the products can be later recycled. • What do you think are the biggest challenges with communicating CSR? • Reporting about it in an honest and transparent way can be difficult. Corporations don’t always know when and how to communicate. • How do the companies that you work with usually communicate CSR? • We encourage companies to be transparent and honest. • Which mediums do you think are best for this type of communication? • There are many good ways to communicate on websites and social media • It is good that social media allows audiences to interact with the brand. • Even if it is an organization posting negative comments or criticism. It is good that audiences are interested in the brand. The right way to handle this is to respond and be open and honest. • How has CSR changed over the years and here do you see things going in the future? • It is becoming even more concerning to companies how they are perceived matters more and audiences are critical. • How do you respond to criticism of CSR? (People who think certain projects are only • conducted and communicated to camouflage a company’s contribution to societal • problems?) • There is a big difference between green washing and really being honest and … (The number of appendix pages is kept to a minimum for this submission. More is available upon request.)
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Appendix B - Survey Survey
1. Corporate Communication in the U.S.
*1. Have you lived in the U.S. for the majority of your life?
Yes No
2. Communication Page 2
It is common for companies to communicate how they are socially responsible. Here are two examples:
IKEA promoted this toy campaign on Facebook on December, 7, 2013. They donated 1 USD to UNICEF and Save the Children for every soft toy sold.
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63
64
65
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Survey Translated to Swedish
67
68
69
70
71
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Survey Results – Tables and Frequencies Table 2B: Location in the U.S. (If respondent is located in the U.S.) Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent Percent Percent New England 15 3,7 7,4 7,4 Middle Atlantic 27 6,7 13,3 20,7 East North 35 8,7 17,2 37,9 Central West North 9 2,2 4,4 42,4 Central South Atlantic 35 8,7 17,2 59,6 Valid East South 11 2,7 5,4 65,0 Central West South 19 4,7 9,4 74,4 Central Mountain 20 5,0 9,9 84,2 Pacific 32 7,9 15,8 100,0 Total 203 50,4 100,0 Missin System 200 49,6 g Total 403 100,0 Table 2C: Education (If respondent is located in the U.S.) Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent Percent Percent High school 23 5,7 11,4 11,4 degree Some 63 15,6 31,3 42,8 college Valid Associate or 70 17,4 34,8 77,6 bachelor degree Graduate 45 11,2 22,4 100,0
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Missing Total
degree Total System
201 49,9 202 50,1 403 100,0
100,0
Table 2D: Income (If respondent is located in the U.S.) Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent Percent Percent 0-24999 12 3,0 6,0 6,0 USD 2500049999 40 9,9 19,9 25,9 USD 5000099999 48 11,9 23,9 49,8 Valid USD 100000149999 41 10,2 20,4 70,1 USD 150000+ 60 14,9 29,9 100,0 Total 201 49,9 100,0 Missing System 202 50,1 Total 403 100,0
Crosstab 14: CSR Messages Country U.S.
Sweden 37
90
127
14,6%
78,9%
34,6%
216
24
240
% within Country Count
85,4% 253
21,1% 114
65,4% 367
% within Country Cramer’s V=,626, Approx. Sig.=,000, N=367
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
Yes Do you have any memory of hearing about hearing or seeing a CSR message in the last year? No Total
Count
Total
% within Country Count
Table 15: Which mediums should B2C companies communicate CSR through? (Frequencies) Annual Report 44 Corporate Website 62 Social Media 88 Other 13 Missing 168
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Chart: Which mediums should B2C companies communicate CSR through? Annual Report Corporate Website Social Media Other Missing
N=207 Table 16: Images … (The number of appendix pages is kept to a minimum for this submission. More charts and tables are available upon request.) Appendix C – Focus Group Material Audience Reception Focus Group Guide Introduction: The type of corporate social responsibility communication that I am researching can be thought of as a corporation communicating something they have done to benefit society above what they are legally obligated to do. A few examples would be: using organic material in products, and contributing to a social cause. My research looks at how companies communicate this on Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, Pintrest and Twitter. Stimuli: Videos 1. IKEA: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X8Q-taDDwFs 2. Ericsson: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XlAauFU8MH4&list=PL3DDD369426CF84BA&index=22 Stimuli is given and questions like the following are asked 1. Would you “like” or share any of these and why or why not? 2. Which is most memorable? 3. Which tone and visuals did you find most pleasing? 4. Do any of them make you think more highly of the company or more likely to buy from them? If so, rank
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Other stimuli given: Electrolux: http://www.pinterest.com/Electrolux/vac-from-the-sea/ http://www.pinterest.com/Electrolux/your-watermark/ A Tweet:
At this point, the interviewer asks what participants think and tries to get them to discuss these communications amongst themselves. Additional questions if there is time: 1. What do you think about these? 2. Do you pay attention to negative csr stories (HM throwing out good clothes) more than positive csr stories? 3. How much would you say messages like this impact your buying decisions? 4. Have you ever communicated with a brand on social media? why 5. How much do you care about a corporation’s level of social responsibility? 6. Are your purchase and investment decisions affected by this factor? Why or why not?
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