PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS and ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 56th ANNUAL MEETING - 2012

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Cognition and Kinesiology: A Dual-Strategy Approach to Remembering Choreography Olga Kramarova1 & Robert J. Youmans2 California State University, Northridge1 & George Mason University2 Dancers often have difficulty remembering choreography they see in a class or workshop. This project investigated strategies dancers can use to effectively learn choreography so that they will be more likely to perform it correctly in the future. Using the Nintendo Wii’s Just Dance video game, we developed and tested two new strategies designed to improve dancers’ abilities to cluster movements and organize choreography in ways that made it easier for dancers to remember (Hanna, 2008; Stinson, 1985). The results largely supported the hypothesis that providing dancers with organizational strategies can improve how well dancers remember choreography, a finding that may generalize to other forms of physical learning (e.g. yoga, martial arts, etc.) We conclude by suggesting that the incorporation of organizational strategies in dance-related games may improve usability, increase customer gratification, and maximize the potential health benefits of physical games related to increased physical activity and exercise.

Copyright 2012 by Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Inc. All rights reserved. DOI 10.1177/1071181312561500

INTRODUCTION According to Kaeppler (1978), the word dance can be described as a cultural art form that is a result of creative processes in which the human body moves through space and time. Boas (1944) adds that it is a form of patterned expression performed in a given form that occurs through specifically selected and controlled rhythmic movements. Choreography includes the ability to create and interpret a particular sequence of dance movements (Giersdorf, 2009). Thus, while dance includes any planned or improvised activity whereby a person is moving to music, choreography involves the application of structure, methodology, and meaning to a dance routine (Risner, 2000). In this paper, we specifically use the term choreography to describe a given set of dance movements linked together in a specific order, to be executed at specific times, pertaining to specific parts of a song or musical composition. Both professional and amateur dancers may have a difficult time memorizing complex choreography that consists of many movements, but one of the ways that professional dancers decrease the amount of cognitive resources used to learn a new choreography is by organizing the new information (Chassy & Gobet, 2011). Research has demonstrated that one technique that humans use to remember information is by forming organized ‘chunks’ of the information (Gobet et al., 2001; Jeffries, 2004). This concept directly applies to dance. When a student or dancer is learning new movements, dance sequences can be learned in separate chunks, for example, the verses and the chorus of a musical composition can be learned separately. Research shows that chunks of information that are presented more frequently are more likely to be recalled (Pothos, Edwards, & Tzelgov, 2010). Thus, when it comes to choreography, it may be that the chorus should be learned first because it is a reoccurring sequence that will repeat several times throughout a choreography routine. The movements in the chorus should be learned separately from the movements that correspond to the verse of a song. Then, a dancer can learn the combinations for the first verse, second verse, and so on, while adding the chorus in between where appropriate. This way, the person is

storing information in two different categories – chorus and verses. If the musical composition has lyrics, the dancer can also use verbal cues in the song to associate with particular movements (Kassing & Jay, 2003). Counting is another important technique that dance and choreography students, performers, and instructors use (Benari, 1995). It is important for students to create a structure for movements when learning a combination. They must attend to the sequence, duration, frequency, and tempo of each movement (Hatchett & Gitlin, 2000). Assigning a number to each movement in correspondence with the music will help dancers learn the sequence more thoroughly. Thus, dancers count movements as well as beats in the music. Instructors depend on counting as another way of rehearsing the rhythm of a dance, either verbally or silently (Benari, 1995). Of course, the counting range will depend on the time signature and beat of the music to which the dance is being performed, but in most cases, the range is from one to eight, as that is suggested to be the easiest rhythm to teach and learn (Hopper, 2009; Joosten, 2009; Kassing & Jay, 2003). Again, this relates to the chunking process, and in this case, we suggest that people learn dance combinations that are taught in groups of eight counts per combination. This does not mean that there must be eight different movements. Instead, it means that the dancer should pay attention to how many times a movement repeats and to the duration for how many counts each movement should be executed. Kassing and Jay (2003) posit that some educators depend on verbal-cognitive techniques to teach dance, and one of those techniques includes counting. Counts provide students with cues for when to begin and end a movement, as well as to maintain the tempo of the dance. Counting also helps dancers stay on beat with the rhythm and maintain the correct tempo at which they must dance, a term dancers and musicians call rhythmic correctness (Beers, 2006; Kassing & Jay, 2003). During a performance, adrenaline may cause the dancer to speed up involuntarily (Walker & Nordin-Bates, 2010), or during long hours of rehearsal it may cause a dancer to move slower than the music requires. Counting may be beneficial in both situations by assisting the dancer to stay focused on the correct timing of the music and execution of movements.

PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS and ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 56th ANNUAL MEETING - 2012

Gilbert (2003) describes the application of Howard Gardner’s 1983 theory of multiple intelligences to dance, and explains that a main skill in learning to dance is related to logical-mathematical intelligence, also known as counting. By counting and creating strings of combinations, the dance begins to form a sentence, which links to a larger paragraph, which then leads to an entire story. Dance has many different notations to indicate its own language (Fügedi, 2003), and counting is one of those critical language tools. Given the findings of previous research on dance learning and education, another goal of this study is to test the possible effects of counting on user performance when playing interactive dance video games.

Working Memory Because people differ in the amount of information they are able to retain, an individual difference that may cause some to be better dancers than others, or to perform better or worse on a dance-learning and recall task, is working memory. According to Baddley (1986), working memory is a multidimensional concept that consists of three main parts – the central executive, the visuospatial sketchpad (information retained visually), and the phonological loop (information retained verbally). Dance is similar in the sense that it also consists of various dimensions – physical and cognitive, which activates both visual and auditory receptors in the brain. The visual learning process occurs when students are watching an instructor, and watching themselves in a mirror (which is common in dance classes). The auditory processes involve listening to music, rhythms, and counts. Thus, both loops are activated, and the connection between them is made by the central executive (Baddley, 1996). The ability for dancers to simultaneously sense, encode, and recall both visual and auditory information with which they are being presented in a short amount of time is likely to vary from person to person. For this reason, it is possible that participants will differ in their measures of working memory, which in turn may possibly affect their learning process and final dance performance.

The Current Study Dance and music video games have become increasingly popular in the past few years, specifically from 2008 to 2010 with the introduction of Konami’s Dance Dance Revolution, Harmonix’s Guitar Hero, and Nintendo Wii’s Just Dance (Bruno, 2012). The Just Dance franchise, in particular, has been especially popular, and Nintendo has produced various volumes of the game. Advertisements for the latest version, titled Just Dance 3, describes the product as follows: “In Just Dance players learn real dance moves to songs they know and love.” Interestingly, the designers and manufacturers of this product appear to believe that this video game can successfully teach its buyers how to “learn real-life dance moves” they can perform later. This project investigates the manufacturer’s claims, and then introduces several professional dance choreography techniques that the authors believed might improve the quality

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of the program. The first part of this experiment introduces and tests the effects of a strategic tutorial, which was created based on findings from previous dance education research. The strategy focuses on two techniques: organization and counting. Each technique is separately defined and presented as a tutorial in a timed slide show. After viewing the slideshow, participants interact with the Just Dance videogame and practice applying the techniques they learned in the slideshow. The video game Just Dance for Nintendo’s Wii was used to objectively measure dance performance. We hypothesized that participants who were exposed to one of the two strategies (organization or counting) will have higher dance performance scores than the participants who are not exposed to the strategy. In addition, participants who were exposed to the combined strategy condition (organization and counting) will have higher performance scores than both strategies separately. The main goal of this study is to use experimental methods to test ways of combining cognitive and human factors psychology techniques together in order to improve how fun, effective, and intuitive games that incorporate physical actions are to play. We also wanted to suggest ways to improve the efficiency of the Just Dance video game training regimen on the basis of our results.

METHOD Participants Forty students from California State University, Northridge voluntarily participated in this study, with an equal amount of males and females in each condition.

Design and Variables This study utilized a between-subjects experimental design to test the effects of one of three particular strategies on learning and remembering a dance sequence (measured by the score on the Just Dance video game). Independent Variable. The independent variable was which version of a 15-minute strategy slideshow participants received. Each slideshow was constructed with information and techniques collected from journals and books published on learning and dance education. All three slideshows were created to advance automatically so that all participants had equal amounts of time to view the tutorial. The three techniques of interest were counting, organization, and a combination of the two. Thus, there were four conditions, with each condition corresponding to a particular strategy: 1) control, 2) counting strategy, 3) organization strategy, and 4) counting and organization strategies combined. The fourth condition which combined both strategies dedicated seven and a half minutes to one strategy and seven and a half minutes to the other. The slideshow begins with brief instructions informing participants about what they are about to see. They are told to be attentive to a specific strategy that the slide show will illustrate, and they are also told that they may be asked to recall information

PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS and ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 56th ANNUAL MEETING - 2012

they read during the slideshow later in the study. First, participants read the title of the strategy and its definition, to ensure they understand its meaning in the context of this study. Second, they received a few examples that demonstrate the strategy technique. For example, participants in the organization condition were told: “Try to group movements into categories. Focus on the movements that are demonstrated during the verse of a song separately from the movements that are demonstrated for the chorus of the song. The verses of the song appear at the beginning, middle, and end of a composition, maintaining a similar rhythm and melody for each verse. The chorus, which is rhythmically and melodically different from the verse, is the most repeated and most memorable part of a song or musical composition (Logan, 2000). Hint: The chorus of a song/dance appears various times in a song/routine. Therefore, you should focus on identifying and learning the chorus first, as it will repeat. Because it is so repetitive, if you learn the “chorus” movements first, they will already be stored in long term memory, thus making more of your cognitive resources available to learn the next sequence of movements for the new upcoming verse.” Participants in the counting condition were introduced to the concept of designating one number for each new dance movement. They were also informed that dance movements are typically counted from one to eight (see Figure 1). After reading the content, participants were told to practice counting movements they saw on a screen, to an audio segment of a song played in the slideshow.

Figure 1: Slide from Counting Tutorial The fourth condition combined a portion of the slides from the counting tutorial and a portion of slides from the organization tutorial, each lasting approximately seven minutes. The control group did not view any of the strategy slideshows; instead participants read an article for the equivalent 15 minutes about the history of hip-hop dance, excluding any content related to any of the techniques presented in the strategy tutorials.

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Dependent Variable. The dependent variable is the performance score of each participant, objectively measured by the Just Dance video game after the second round. The video game Just Dance for Nintendo Wii is designed to teach its users how to dance by using a simulated image of a dancing person that performs the dance sequence (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Screen capture of current Just Dance video game

There is no training portion for the program; instead, the user tries to learn the dance combination by catching onto the pattern of movements, and executing them along with the simulation. A two-part sensor device attached to the television screen and to the user detects the accuracy of the player’s execution of movements. If the player is performing the correct movements, with the correct body part, at the correct time, the player’s score will increase. The score is provided as feedback on the screen while the player is dancing. Covariates. Three covariates that were considered in this study are 1) preexisting dance experience, 2) motivation ratings (as measured by the post-task motivation and experience survey) and 3) working memory capacity (as measured by the computerized automated two-back test). The first and second covariates, motivation and experience, tested if participants who enjoy dancing in comparison with those who do not enjoy dancing would differ in performance scores, depending on their existing attitudes and experiences about dance, and not necessarily depending on their exposure (or lack of exposure) to the strategy. The third covariate, working memory capacity, was used to assess the relationship between participants’ ability or inability to remember a specific set of rapid, consecutively presented information and their performance. Perhaps higher working memory may be associated with higher performance scores given the greater ability a person has to remember a certain amount of new, quickly presented information.

Procedure After obtaining informed consent from the participants, they completed a demographic questionnaire, indicating their age, class standing, and gender. Participants were randomly assigned to conditions as they showed up to the study. All participants then completed the working memory task prior to

PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS and ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 56th ANNUAL MEETING - 2012

exposure to the strategy. Those in the experimental condition then viewed the 15-minute strategy tutorial slideshow “Learn to Dance!” while the control condition read an article about the “History of Hip-Hop Dance.” Following the Powerpoint session, participants from both conditions played two rounds of the Just Dance video game. The first is a practice round so the participants could become familiar with the logistics of the game. The score from the second round was recorded as participant performance. Playing the game twice gave participants the opportunity to be exposed to the dance sequence more than once, and to practice organizing the dance steps and counting the movements to increase their score on their performance. Participants in the control condition also had a chance to play the game twice. Although they did not have the opportunity to practice techniques illustrated by the strategy, they did have the opportunity to improve their performance score due to repeated exposure to the routine. All participants experienced the same song single-player, intermediate level dance sequence. After completing the game, each participant was asked to complete a 7-point motivation survey stating how motivated they were to perform this task (1=not motivated at all, 7=very motivated). They also were asked to assess their previous dance experiences on a 7-point scale and how often they engage in any dancing/exercising activities (1=no experience at all, 7=very experienced). The entire study lasted approximately 30 minutes. Participants were debriefed at the conclusion of the experiment.

RESULTS A one-way ANCOVA was used to measure the effects of strategy condition on participants’ score on the Just Dance videogame, while controlling for working memory, previous dance experience, and motivation. Results indicated a main effect of strategy condition, F(3,37) =2.86, p=.05 (see Figure 3). Post-hoc analyses revealed that the significant differences occur between the control condition (M= 4330.90) and counting condition (M=6197.75), as well as between the control condition (M =4330.90) and combination condition (M=6326.60). There were no significant differences between organization condition alone (M=4874.67) and control condition. Thus, it is possible that the difference between control and combination condition is driven mostly by the effect of the counting strategy present within the combination condition. With a larger sample size, this assumption may be confirmed, which may assist us in identifying the more effective strategy. Two Pearson correlations were used to analyze the relationship between 1) motivation and dance performance, and 2) previous dance experience and dance performance. As predicted, results indicated that motivation has a positive and significant relationship with participants’ score on the Just Dance video game (r = .38, p = .05). The second correlation revealed a stronger and also positive relationship between participants’ previous dance experience and their score on the videogame (r = .46, p= .01). Thus, it is possible that when participants were more motivated to perform better, they actually would score higher, and participants who had any

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previous dance experience (not professional) or who enjoy playing games such as Just Dance would score higher, as well.

Figure 3: Mean performance scores for each strategy condition.

DISCUSSION As predicted, the strategic tutorials were effective in improving participants’ ability to learn and remember a dance sequence, and thus improve their performance score on the Just Dance video game. In addition, motivation and experience proved to have significant and positive relationships with participant performance. Working memory capacity, however, did not have a significant relationship with dance performance. After interpreting the results, it is possible to conclude that the counting strategy alone and counting strategy combined with the organization strategy proved to be effective in increasing participants’ scores on the task, relative to the control group. Thus, the next part of this project is to redesign the video game using graphics that can indicate the use of these strategies to their consumers. Currently, the video game does not have any graphics that encourage users to count their movements or to organize movement sequences into a specific pattern. In other words, there are no visual aids in the game that effectively assist learning. Taking the results of this study into consideration, it is possible to alter the visual effects of the video game to include counting information on the screen by revealing a count simultaneously with each movement (see Figure 4). Also, given the fact that most of the songs on the Just Dance games are popular, main stream songs, most of them follow a versechorus-verse-chorus format. The game, just like the music the dances in the game correspond with, are also designed to have repetitive movements each time the chorus occurs. Therefore, it may also be beneficial to users to have an indication about the upcoming section in the dance: either the chorus or the verse (see Figure 4).

PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS and ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 56th ANNUAL MEETING - 2012

Figure 4: Screen capture of suggested redesign of Just Dance video game. Officials of software companies, along with their design teams, claim that “dance games based on motion control have great potential” (Bruno, 2010), and they believe that the success of their game is determined by the “appeal of their graphics or of the controller.” However, there is more to consider when designing a product than a pretty design. It is important for a product to function the way it is advertised to function. If the main goal of designers of Just Dance or any interactive dance-instructional game is to teach people how to dance, they should consider the learning process, techniques, and strategies that are involved in teaching dance. Implementing these changes may have the potential to increase the gratification customers have after purchasing this or any similar physical fitness/instructional product and successfully learning how to dance, with the potential for health benefits related to increased physical activity and exercise. In fact, the American Council on Exercise and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention revealed that an increasing amount of technology-based interactive fitness games are being developed and aimed at young adults and teenagers (Kasland, 2008). Unfortunately, less than 36% of the population is exercising the necessary amount to stay healthy. There is a hope that with the development of a fun and innovative way to exercise (such as an interactive dancing video game), these statistics will increase. REFERENCES Bailey, J. & Oberschneider, M. (1997). Sexual orientation and professional dance. Archives of Sexual Behavior V. 26 (August 1997) P. 433-44, 26, 433-444. Boas, F. (1944). Dance and music in the life of the northwest coast Indians of North America. In The Function of Dance in Human Society. New York: Boas School Bruno, A. (2010). Dance revolution redux. Billboard, 122(13), 18. Chassy, P., & Gobet, F. (2011). A hypothesis about the biological basis of expert intuition. Review Of General Psychology, 15(3), 198-212. doi:10.1037/a0023958 Gilbert, A.G. (2003). Toward best practices in dance

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education through the theory of multiple intelligences. Journal of Dance Education, 3(1) – Special issue. Gobet, F., Lane, P.C.R., Croker, S., Cheng, P, C-H., Jones, Enghauser, R. (2007) The quest for an ecosomatic approach to dance pedagogy. Journal of Dance Education, 7(3), 80-90. Ferdun, E. (1994). Facing gender issues across the curriculum. JOPERD—The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 65(2), 46+. Jefferies, E., Lambon Ralph, M., & Baddeley, A. (2004). Automatic and controlled processing in sentence recall: The role of long-term and working memory. Journal of Memory & Language, 51(4), 623-643. Kaeppler, A. (1978). Dance in anthropological perspective. Annual Review of Anthropology, 7, 31-49. Kasland, K. (2008). Power play: Gamers get up and get moving. Current Health 2, 35(2), 16-19. Kassing, J. & Jay, D.M. (2003).Dance Teaching Methods and Curriculum Design. Logan, B. & Chu, S. (2000). “Music summarization using key phrases,” in Proc. of ICASSP 2000, pp. II–749–752 Giersdorf, J.R. (2009). Dance studies in the international academy: Genealogy of a disciplinary formation. Dance Research Journal, 41(1), 23-44. Perlman, A., Pothos, E. M., Edwards, D. J., & Tzelgov, J. (2010). Task-relevant chunking in sequence learning. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception And Performance, 36(3), 649-661. doi:10.1037/a0017178 Risner, D. (2000). Making dance, making sense: Epistemology and choreography. Research in Dance Education, 1(2), 155-172. Walker, I., & Nordin-Bates, S.M. (2010) Performance anxiety experiences of professional ballet dancers: The importance of control. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 14 (4), 133-145.