ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE (ECE)

Workshop on Encouraging Local Initiatives Towards Sustainable Consumption Patterns (2-4 February 1998, Vienna, Austria)

APELDOORN ON ITS WAY TO A MORE SUSTAINABLE WAY OF URBAN LIVING Case-study prepared by Messrs. Frans Coumans and Marshal Manengkei City of Apeldoorn, Netherlands

UNITED NATIONS Geneva, 1997 This document has been reproduced without formal editing.

ECE/ENHS/NONE/1997/41 GE.97-

1.

Introduction

Considering the dense population of the Netherlands, Apeldoorn can be called a green town. Its surroundings are characterised by relatively extensive natural sceneries and by a great diversity of the landscape. The spatial structure of the urban area has been set up spaciously, featuring predominantly low-rise buildings and one or more parks in each district. Traditionally, Apeldoorn and nature are closely linked to one another, both in the town's image held by the rest of the Netherlands and in the perception of its inhabitants and the municipal administration. When, in the 1970's, world-wide discussions got going on production, consumption, nature and the environment, it was therefore inevitable that the local authorities would revise their urban development policies. This resulted, among other things, in a choice for limitation of the regional growth rate and to contain urban development. In the early 1980's, the Netherlands was faced with a serious economic recession, which was coupled with a rising demand for social services and with drastic cuts in the budgets of the national and local governments. The Government saw the relativeness of its steering ambitions of social development, was not eager to pick up new tasks, and gave priority to stimulating economic development. In this context the municipal administration of Apeldoorn did acknowledge the importance of protecting the nature and the environment, but the implementation of its policy remained somewhat limited. Within the framework of sustainable consumption, a start was made with separate refuse collection, natural management of public green areas, expansion from science to environmental education, promotion of the use of the bicycle, and a more economical use of the available space by increasing the density of the urban expansion areas and by erecting more buildings in the existing residential areas. In the second half of the 1980's, a period of economic recovery started off in the Netherlands, which continues - almost without any interruption - up to the present day. In the policies of both the national and local governments, care for the environment became one of the central goals. The national Government adopted the first National Environmental Policy Plan; in 1990 the Apeldoorn municipal administration formulated as starting point of its policy "that all activities are to be placed under the regime of the environment", and it adopted the Municipal Environmental Policy Plan in 1991. In elaborating this policy, particular emphasis was initially put on sustainable production, e.g. in the form of sustainable construction. This was strongly dependent on the availability of municipal instruments. The traditionally strong involvement of municipalities in the development and management of residential and industrial areas offered, for instance, various effective instruments for drastically limiting the disturbing effects of consumption on the natural environment. With the development of the district of Woudhuis, in the early 1990's, successful experiments were carried out with, among other things, the application of solar energy and nature compensation. The setting up of car-free residential areas, however, was abandoned. It turned out to be conflicting with consumer preferences. With the development of new residential

and industrial areas in the eastern part of the town of Apeldoorn, the concept of so-called sustainable, adaptable and flexible development is now worked with, whereby all decisions are tested, right from the start of the planning process, against their effects on the entire life cycle of the total area and the individual buildings. More attention was focused on promoting sustainable consumption patterns and by awareness-raising for environmental impact and behavioural alternatives. 2. 2.1

The urban development of Apeldoorn From suburbanisation to compact urbanisation

Apeldoorn is surrounded by the vastest continuous scenic areas of the Netherlands, and offers a very specific - very popular living environment. This potential was not developed, however, until after 1876, when Apeldoorn - upon being connected to the national railway network - became attractive, being a royal residence, to the well-to-do from the rest of the country. Within 75 years, the population increased tenfold and Apeldoorn developed into a medium-sized town. After World War II the population in the Apeldoorn region continued to increase strongly both through natural growth and through migration, which strengthened during the 1960's and onwards as a result of business establishments involving a substantial increase in employment in the high-tech industry and the services sector (research, insurance, national government). This concerned in particular the settlement of (middle-income) families. Till 1980, the urban area of Apeldoorn was growing twice as fast as the national average. In the 1970's there was a growing awareness in the Netherlands that suburbanisation needed strict control. In the national Third Policy Document on Physical Planning (1978), one of the central goals was that the outflow from the western Netherlands should be counteracted. To that end, the natural sceneries in the vicinity of Apeldoorn had to be protected. In the municipal Structure Plan Apeldoorn (1978) suburban developments were drastically reduced, and new areas with an attractive living and business environment were placed in, or on the outskirts of, Apeldoorn's urban area. Since then, this policy has been periodically evaluated and reconfirmed by the different authorities. The regional development after 1980 shows that this change in policy has been effective; the population of the region is still growing, yet slower than the national average, and is concentrated almost exclusively in the urban area of Apeldoorn (currently 132,000 inhabitants). While nationally the total space taken up for urban functions per inhabitant is continuously growing, the total built-up area in Apeldoorn has increased only proportionally. 2.2 Current trends in consumer preferences and urban development - some dilemmas From the perspective of sustainable urban development, it would be advisable, among other things, to limit urban expansion, as much as possible, to increase the quality of life in the urban area, and to counteract the growing mobility by car. Current trends in consumer behaviour are sometimes at odds with these goals. Some dilemmas for future urban development are: *

the growth of the urban space

Under the influence of ageing population, individualisation, increasing labour participation and rising incomes, the total space in the Netherlands taken up for urban functions per inhabitant is, in general, constantly growing. In addition, mixed residential/industrial areas and industrial estates along water- and railways dating from the beginning of this century, have, as a result of the strong growth, taken a central position in the urban area. They do not meet the requirements of a living c.q. working environment any more. Reuse of such areas, which is desirable in order to limit the growth of the urban space, is very costly. This is also due to the necessary environmental remediation (soil, noise). In addition, the question arises concerning the large housing estates dating from the first decades after World War II. How can they be adapted to meet today's quality requirements? People living in these housing estates advocate preservation of the current spacious layout, particularly concerning preservation of green areas in the town. Urban expansion sets a limit, due to distances for the bicycle which is traditionally used, and sets therefore high demands on public transport. Intensification of land use and densification is advisable, but is limited by the demand in the housing market - which has been drastically liberalised as a result of the national government policy recently - for owner-occupied, low-rise houses in spaciously designed districts. *

the quality of life in the town centre

The increase in population is accompanied with a growing need for jobs and an increasing consumption of goods and services. In terms of space, this is expressed by more space claimed for central functions. This can be resolved through intensification and reconstruction of the central urban district. For reasons of social safety it is advisable to maintain and stimulate the living function too. This sets high demands on the quality of life in the town centre but at the same time, this leads to increased car traffic, affecting the quality of life. On the other hand, easy access to the town centre is a must for the economic basis of the town centre, necessary in the context of the growing mobility in, e.g. the shopping behaviour and the corresponding competition by other shopping centres in a wide region and large-scale retail-trade establishments outside shopping centres. *

the increase in mobility

Various changes, such as growing differentiation on the labour market, more flexible employer/employee relationships, growing participation of women in the labour market, continuing increase of scale and specialisation of facilities, and changes in leisure habits, all contributes to the fact that people have to move more. Now that the financing institutions demand drastic increase of the cost recovery, subsidising in public transport becomes difficult. As a result, the car threatens to play a more and more important role. The municipal administration tries to solve these and other dilemmas in the preparations for a new municipal structure plan and traffic plan for the period till 2010.

3. 3.1

A more sustainable way of urban living asks for a different working method in town planning Town planning in practice

The Netherlands is a decentralised state, with three government layers: national, provincial and municipal. In most policy areas, there is question of co-administration: all fulfil their respective tasks, whereby accents may differ for each policy area. 3.1.1 Instruments for regulation in the field of spatial planning, etc. In the field of spatial planning, most tasks are performed by the municipal Government. The latter is authorised by law to impose binding regulations on citizens with respect to the use of land, the buildings and structures to be built. The policy framework is constituted by the structure plan, in which the municipal administration gives its vision on the desired spatial development of the municipality, having due regard to the national and provincial spatial planning policies and to other policy areas. The zoning plan itself constitutes one of the testing frameworks in issuing building permits. Due regard is also given to provision of, the Environmental Management Act (noise pollution, odour nuisance, etc.), the Soil Protection Act (soil pollution), the Building Materials Soil Protection Decree, and the local Building Bye-law (e.g. the use of tropical hardwood according to the FSC-mark, and regulations concerning separate collection of building and demolition waste). This spatial planning regulation system has been in force since 1965 and, since then, has been regularly evaluated and refined by the national Government. The experience gained since then in Apeldoorn shows that the system is effective, for instance in safeguarding the ecological main infrastructure by protecting scenic areas against petrifaction, adverse forms of land use, or destruction due to groundwork. A very important role is played by the national Government, which is constantly insisting on strict enforcement of the regulations. Regulations alone, however, cannot enforce realisation of the desired spatial development - other, additional instruments are needed for that. 3.1.2 Regulations in the field of environmental management In the past few decades an extensive system of regulations in the field of environmental protection has been developed in the Netherlands. In the early 1990's these regulations were integrated into the Environmental Management Act and into the Soil Protection Act. For the local policy practice, the Municipal Environmental Policy Plan constitutes the directional framework, which is given further shape through a long-term implementation programme. Since 1995 a statutory obligation has been in force to submit an environmental programme to the municipal council on presentation of the municipal budget for the coming year, which programme must include, as a minimum, the statutory environmental tasks. In addition, the Municipal Executive (burgomaster and aldermen) must present an environmental report every year. Until 1 January 1998, the environmental programme also forms the basis for receiving a contribution from the national funds for the promotion of municipal environmental

policies (the so-called VOGM scheme). The municipal administration sends both the programme and the report to the national Inspectorate for Environmental Protection. In 1989 Apeldoorn, as one of the first municipalities in the Netherlands, started to make preparations for the Municipal Environmental Policy Plan. In the Environmental Policy Plan the commitment to sustainable development is translated into the desired environmental quality, in conjunction with other local governments and with the cooperation of target groups. For each theme, such as waste, indoor environment etc., a strategy has been specified, which results in a large number of measures aimed at influencing the behaviour of consumers, businesses, but also of the municipal administration itself. In the Apeldoorn environmental reports drawn up since 1993 the progress of the policy has been evaluated for the following policy areas: businesses, soil and (ground)water, noise, energy, waste, green areas/nature/landscape, environmental information and education, sewage and the environment, traffic/transport and the environment, spatial planning and the environment, building/living and the environment, and the municipal policy on corporate environmental management. This approach has been a powerful stimulus to the actual implementation of the municipal environmental policy. In the field of sustainable consumption, it has, among other things, strongly promoted the approach to Local Agenda 21. 3.1.3

Other instruments

For the reuse of existing urban areas or development of new industrial and residential locations, the following policies are needed: *

an active land policy

Apeldoorn - just like most Dutch municipalities - disposes of a municipal Real Estate Department, which (sometimes in conjunction with private development corporations) purchases land at an early planning stage, selling it during the implementation of the plan. This land policy makes it possible to exploit the increase in value of land during the planning process for the investments in infrastructure, but also for nature compensation or for the use of sustainable materials during the building process. It also strengthens the municipal position toward the implementing parties during the preparations for building projects. *

an urban investment policy

Sometimes the development of new residential and industrial locations asks for local infrastructure amenities (e.g. roads, green areas, and waterways) or built accommodations that cannot be covered by the exploitation of the area itself. Reuse of existing residential and industrial areas is nearly always accompanied with large investments in renewing and modernizing infrastructure, soil remediation, etc. This asks for an urban investment programme, which also takes into account contributions from other Municipalities.

*

planning in interaction with inhabitants and professional participants in the implementation process

On a local level, the open planning style translates itself into a closer interweaving between the preparation of the public plan and the implementation plans of interested parties in the area. This means that the formulating of the draft plan is preceded by a number of planning stages in which starting points for the planning are publicly discussed with interested parties, while the outlines of the draft plan are also developed together with other interested parties (property developers, investors, etc.) and discussed in public. In this way, the specific expertise of the different players are mobilised at an early stage, interests are brought together, and there is a better understanding of the economic and social feasibility of the plans during the public decision-making process. 3.1.4 Evaluation of experience gained so far on sustainable development of residential and industrial areas Based on the experiences gained, it can be concluded that, as for sustainable consumption, the greatest advantages can be reached at the beginning of the planning and the development of the project, i.e. in choosing the location, in developing the urban development plan, and in setting up the living and working environment. In the Netherlands it is common practice to equip all houses with gas and electricity connections and with (certainly in low-rise houses) individual heating systems. From the perspective of durability, the advisability of this approach may be questioned, considering a term of 10 to 15 years, so district heating and total energy come forward as good alternatives. Such choices on important investment decisions have drastic implications for the layout of the total area and require an intensive discussion with all parties involved at the start of the process. Practice shows that an integral approach to sustainable development of built-up areas is still in its infancy. Besides, the approach used so far has been rather technological, focusing little attention on the cultural and structural conditions for a fundamental renewal of the built-up area and its use. 3.2 Initiatives for a different working method 3.2.1 Policy document "Apeldoorn develops in a Sustainable, Adaptable and Flexible manner" ("SAF-policy document") Recently, the municipal administration of Apeldoorn drew up, in addition to existing policy frameworks with a legal basis, a separate policy document on sustainable, adaptable and flexible development of (new) residential and industrial areas - the policy document "Apeldoorn develops in a Sustainable, Adaptable and Flexible manner" (the SAF policy document). This policy document has no separate legal status, but is brought forward by the municipal administration in the preparations for all spatial plans, building and development plans, as well as in draft plans in other policy areas. The policy document expresses an integral strategy toward bringing about sustainable development - the so-called Ecopolis strategy. The Ecopolis strategy has three lines of approach: the flows, areas and actors. When applied to sustainable development this means that:

*

flows become cycles Many well-known medium and sources of pressure on the environment, such as energy, water, building materials, transport and waste, can be described as flows. What is so characteristic of flows is their movement through space or time. For purposes of sustainability, it is necessary for such flows to be converted into cycles to the largest possible extent. This can be done by limiting unnecessary inflow of energy, water, etc., into an area as much as possible and by pushing back the outflow. Instances of limitation of inflow of energy are application of insulation, use of renewable forms of energy, such as solar energy, and an optimum use of finite sources, e.g. through high-efficiency CH boilers.

*

locations become areas Planning pays attention to the quality of a building or location. Within areas, a location is looked at for its suitability as a biotope for man, animals and plants. With this, scales play an important role; disturbances at the one scale level can have consequences at different levels of scale. This approach is also of importance in maintaining the biodiversity. The strategy is aimed at studying the durability effects of measures, within their mutual relationship, for the different areas and at the different levels.

*

players become participants The planning and building process involves many players (administration, professionals, citizens). Design and construction teams often believe that planning and building constitutes the ultimate goal, without realising that buildings may often last for centuries, while the urban structure lasts even longer. During the very design stage key decisions should be taken to be durable. The strategy is aimed at involving all parties concerned, with their own expertise, at an as early stage as possible of the planning process, in order to find an optimum solution in terms of policy, implementation and use.

An essential characteristic of sustainable development is that what is being built must also be flexible. Adaptable development is a building method that takes into account both current and changing needs of the elderly, the handicapped and people who are faced with ergonomical impediments on growing older; flexible development means knowingly (re)building the living environment, the houses and buildings in such a way that, with a minimum of structural modifications, cost, time and inconvenience, the layout, the furnishings and, sometimes, the size of the space or house can be brought into conformity with the other spatial, functional wishes of (future) inhabitants and users. For the implementation of the strategy it is important to dispose of instruments with which initiatives and developments can be evaluated and, if necessary, adjusted. To that end, three instruments are now used in Apeldoorn:

*

The Plan of Ambitions In this plan, the strategy is worked out per flows (energy, water, green areas, building materials, mobility, and waste) according to clear goals and guidelines at area and house/building levels

*

The checklists These lists include a large number of environmental measures, classified according to theme. The lists can be used at different stages of the planning process. There are checklists for town planning, house building and non-residential construction. Based on the lists, it can be determined whether the high ambition level has actually been attained or whether the plans still need some adjustment.

*

The seniors label. In cooperation with organizations for the elderly, a package of practical requirements and preconditions has been set for living environments, residential buildings, and houses. Houses are designed so that in principle, inhabitants can continue to live in for the rest of their lives. The municipal administration uses this package and the label to evaluate durability.

3.2.2 Framework Policy Document "Urban Renewal" A strategic framework has been developed recently, the so-called Framework Policy Document "Urban Renewal". It is intended to explain the strategic choices for long-term urban development for the sake of public discussions within the framework of the preparations for a new municipal structure plan for the period up to 2010. The policy document outlines a framework for ecology, water, landscape and infrastructure to guarantee sustainable quality and continuity, while the areas lying in-between are concerned with sustainable quality, coupled to social dynamics. On a regional level, this framework provides for preservation and strengthening of the ecological structure in conjunction with the water system. For the urban area, it provides ecological connections "across" the town, preventing the natural water system from being disturbed, and about exploiting the clean-water potential in the existing urban area and in the development of locations for living and working purposes. The richness and diversity of the landscape in the region must be preserved. For the economic vitality of the region, it is essential that these areas can be easily reached, also by car. High-quality public transport is possible by leading the regional and urban bus transport into corridors, possibly in combination with a better exploitation of the rail infrastructure. The urban dynamics, in the form of concentrations of intensive employment and mixed residential/industrial zones, will then be able to focus on such bus corridors and junctions in the rail network. The coarse-mesh network for the car and regional public transport must be supplemented

with a fine-mesh network for the bicycle and small-scale, demand-linked forms of urban public transport. 3.2.3

Sustainable development of new residential and industrial areas

For the implementation of the SAF policy document, the Advisory Body Sustainable Development Municipality of Apeldoorn has been set up. This advisory body consists of a large number of disciplines in the municipal organization, of scientists, of key officials from the regional gas, water and electricity producer NUON, of the water control authority, and of the regional company VAR, which specialises in waste recycling. In the short term, this body aims at three new residential and industrial areas in Apeldoorn. In Apeldoorn-East a new industrial estate is being developed. Companies that wish to set up a business here will have to meet strict requirements as to water, energy, raw materials, waste products and mobility is concerned. In addition, the companies will be making use of joint facilities. This results, for instance, in maximum storage opportunities for rainwater in the area, rather than intensive drainage, as is common practice in the Netherlands, or exploitation of energy from biomass gasification at the waste recycling plant for other local companies. These unusual conditions appear to be acceptable to companies and have by now been laid down by contract for the first large company that will establish itself here. For two new residential areas, i.e. Zonnehoeve and Zuidbroek, together comprising some 6,000 houses, being 10 % of the housing stock, the advisory body is examining different water and energy options. Thus, within the framework of water management, a feasibility study is being conducted into separate water circuits for drinking water, rain/domestic/industrial water, and waste water. Special attention should be paid to the financing method. The financing of development is separated from the financing of the maintenance, so that decisions that are of importance for the maintenance during the development stage are poorly weighed. If the total life cycle of what is being built is taken into consideration, it appears that, the initial investments are higher in a number of respects but, on the other hand, the long-term investments in the management and use of buildings pays back, and there is financial room, both for companies and for inhabitants. Companies will then be able to introduce innovative processes or cut costs, so that competitive positions can be strengthened. It will be obvious that such financing strategies cannot be started in planning, unless future investors in the area sit around the table. So far, it has proved to work in the Dutch situation, only related to house-related costs of rented houses of the housing corporations. But the share of rented houses is falling owing to the sharp increase in the number of owner-occupied houses as a result of central-government policy and current market conditions. 4. 4.1

Care for the existing housing stock Preservation of monuments in Apeldoorn

Within the scope of the zoning plan, the protected town areas, the individual monuments and other characteristic property are subject to limitations. Building and

demolition permits can be granted only after consultation of the urban aesthetics committee, which also includes a monument expert. In addition, a monument permit is required for any alterations. National tax facilities are available for maintenance of national monuments. For maintenance and restoration, subsidies can be obtained from the central and municipal authorities. The municipal administration promotes awareness-raising for preservation and maintenance of cultural heritage, by endorsing publications and events, and by advising and guiding owners of these buildings in obtaining subsidies. 4.2

The existing housing stock - to be renovated or restructured?

Since the mid- 1970's systematic renovations have been carried out on housing. Backed by national subsidy schemes, the life of houses is prolonged through large-scale maintenance programmes, which are usually coupled to energy-saving measures. Nearly all social rented houses built before 1970 were renovated within these programmes. Against the background of the ageing of the population, and to promote a differentiated price level of the housing stock, as well as mobility within districts, in the past few decades the densification of housing estates by building houses that are also suitable for the elderly, in older districts that have not been built up or that have become vacant was put forward. At the moment, Apeldoorn is faced with the task of developing a perspective for the large housing estates that were built during the first decades after World War II. These districts are of great importance in terms of public housing because, at the time, they were built as social rented houses for a major part and now have a rent level at which, under the current market conditions, no houses can be built any more. This is in favour of a new round of large-scale renovations to prolong the life of those houses. On the other hand, the socially one-sided composition of these districts constitutes a potential risk of segregation. The response is densification, and a greater differentiation in prices and ownership together with improvement of the quality of life, such as a planning of public space geared to current demands is carried out. 5. 5.1

Durability - a common goal for all sectors of society The Municipal Environmental Policy Plan

In 1989 the first preparations for the Apeldoorn Environmental Policy Plan were made, with directive framework with a long/term implementation programme. In the Environmental Policy Plan the commitment to sustainable development is translated into environmental quality, in conjunction with other local governments and with the cooperation of the Chamber of Commerce, business club Apeldoorn, entrepreneurs in the building industry, entrepreneurs in the agricultural sector, housing corporations, consumers' association, women's council, recreational community, bicyclists' union, and bus companies. Representatives of ecology and environmental movements also took part in the consultations. From the beginning of the decision-making process, round-table talks without the press being present - offered an opportunity to municipal administration and target groups to conduct a dialogue. Mutual understanding does not only result in participation in the realisation of the municipal policy, but also is a basis for the target

groups own activities. In the consultations with the business sector a breakthrough was made when representatives of the business sector began to realise that in-house environmental management offered major opportunities to cut costs, after which related companies approached each other in developing corporate environmental plans. Evaluations/studies have shown that the representatives of the target groups were under the impression that they were taken seriously as discussion partners and that they had become more involved in environmental management. The consultations passed through some stages, always resulting in a working document that was also discussed in public at meetings of the relevant committees of the municipal council. The results were also published in special bulletins, while attention was also devoted to the issue by the local press on regular occasions. After this dialogue with representatives of target groups during the decision-making process, every citizen had the opportunity to comment, either in writing or orally during the discussion by the council committee, on the draft plans within the framework of the public decision-making process. 5.2

Promotion of environmental awareness-raising and sustainable consumption

To implement the policy, however, environmental awareness-raising among large groups in the population is needed. From the mid-1980's the municipal Centre for Science and Environmental Education in Apeldoorn has been supporting the educational institutions in the region in promoting insight into nature, the environment, and perspectives for own actions for more sustainable consumption. In primary education, this promotion consists of lessons and excursions. The themes of these lessons range from perception of nature to environmental problems, such as air and water pollution, and waste prevention and separation. In secondary education special attention is devoted to guiding teachers on various subjects (e.g. the Common Clouds project in geography education). The willingness of the education sector to participate is great; some 95 % of the Apeldoorn primary schools use products from the Centre for Science and Environmental Education (1996). Experience shows that success is dependent on the following conditions: it must be possible to incorporate the package directly into the curriculum, the package must be based on positive thinking, it must be directed at making conscious choices in consumer behaviour, and it must be geared to the own living conditions. Next to counselling provided to schools, the Centre also tries to increase in other ways the environmental awareness-raising among the population and the knowledge of more sustainable consumption patterns. In the early 1990's courses were developed for adults having opportunities for sustainable consumption in the housekeeping, etc. Evaluation showed that participation in these courses was confined to those who were already environment-conscious. For that reason, a platform is being worked out in the framework of Local Agenda 21, in which a number of representatives of environmental movements participate, as well as a platform consisting of representatives of broad social organizations from economic and socio-cultural fields. In 1997 water consumption was topical. The results were presented to a larger public by means of a big manifestation. The goal of this approach is to independently promote actions for reduction of water consumption, so that the movement becomes less dependent on the municipal government. Regular

publications in the free municipal weekly, distributed among all citizens, is backing that approach. In addition, with effect from 1997, the so-called Environmental Thermometer is distributed with a wide circulation. It gives quantitative insight into the extent to which environmental goals in the various fields are achieved. A campaign was conducted in 1994 aimed at waste prevention, separate collection, and limitation of street litter. After this campaign a distinct improvement in the waste situation in the district could be initially noted. In the long term, part of the improvement has turned out to be structural (waste collection by shops), but there was hardly question of any improvement in terms of correct waste collection and litter prevention in high rise blocks with relatively little social control after six months. 5.3

Durability and communication: inseparable twins

It may become clear from this that ongoing communication is essential for the promotion of environmental awareness-raising and sustainable consumption. In general, it can be stated that the Apeldoorn population was very receptive to new initiatives. With separate waste collection (green refuge, waste paper) very good results were achieved by making available household containers for the different types of waste, in combination with a continuous flood of publicity for a number of years. The removal of old fuel tanks, switching over to natural gas and the promotion of solar panels for domestic hot water supply, was made possible by the combination of both communication and provision of subsidies for households. Communication is not just information provided to the population by the municipal administration and third parties. The Municipality of Apeldoorn offers the Environmental Line, where inhabitants can report their environmental complaints. This shows that an increased environmental awareness-raising among the population also contributes to the enforcement of regulations. Within the framework of more sustainable management of the urban green areas, more natural forms of management were sought after. The prohibition to use chemical weed killers, prohibited both, for public institutions and private persons, is well complied with, and any violations are reported to a municipal team of environment investigators. Without the support from the population and the corresponding social control, such regulations would be hardly enforceable. 6.

On the way to sustainable urban transport

Apeldoorn is hardly faced with big problems concerning the handling of traffic any more; all destinations can be properly reached by car. As for the urban problems Apeldoorn faces, it is actually not the car that causes problems in terms of traffic situations, but it is the tension between the growing mobility by car and the urban living climate that constitutes a dominant theme. Thus, the Environmental Complaints System registers many complaints about noise nuisance in the living environment. First, reduction of car use was striven at through layout measures for the town centre and residential areas, next through stimulation of the use of other means of transportation, while at the moment farther-reaching measures are under preparation. 6.1

Reduction of car use through redesigning of areas

As in most towns, it was decided to close major shopping streets to motorised traffic and to design them as pedestrian areas. Initially, shopkeepers, and other business institutions were not quite charmed by this new phenomenon, but shopping streets were soon to become a big success. Opponents became advocates, the pedestrian area in the town centre expanded gradually, whereby far smaller shopping centres elsewhere in the town were also designed in a more pedestrian-friendly way. In the same period a public demand came into being for reduction of car use in residential areas by designing streets as residential areas subject to speed restrictions. In such residential areas, the car is compelled by all kinds of obstacles to drive slowly and is equal, to all other users of the public space, such as playing children. The residential areas subject to speed restrictions are now out of favour. The traditional street with pavements for pedestrians and with roadways for the other traffic is now preferred, and the national government has proposed an urgency programme for redesigning all residential areas into such areas before the year 2001. The counterpart of the residence areas is constituted by traffic areas, where the flow function occupies centre stage. 6.2

Measures to influence the choice of means of transportation

Since the early 1990's Apeldoorn has been making efforts to influence its citizens in such a way that they will be making use of means of transportation other than the private car. The national government strives at doubling the share of public transport. To the movements within the urban area of Apeldoorn good alternatives are available - the bicycle (currently 45%) and urban bus transport (currently 5%). Specific instances of recent measures to stimulate the use of the bicycle and the bus are: *

* * * *

improvement of the cycling facilities into a coherent network of bicycle routes throughout the urban area; improvement of the cycling comfort (e.g. more bicycle sheds in or near the town centre); and improvement of the safety of the network of bicycle paths; improvement of the urban bus network through short, direct bus lines between town centre and outlying districts, and through good transfer possibilities; introduction of sharply reduced bus fares for late night shopping and on Saturdays; the use of the bus on these times is increasing annually; promotion of traffic management among large employers - both business sector and local government; promotion of bicycle use by municipal staff by making available, as a term of employment.

These measures are financed from the income from parking fees collected in the town centre, where increasingly higher parking rates are charged; The new housing estate Woudhuis (2,000 houses) has been set up as a model project for "bicycle- and public transport-friendly living". A striking element was the attempt at building 100 "car-free" houses in the middle of the estate. Finally, the experiment was not successful. There were too few prospective purchasers for this

kind of houses. Moreover, not possessing a car is not enforceable by law, and there is a risk that future occupants who express in advance that they will not buy a car may be allocated a house partly and thereafter will buy a car. As for regional public transport, the regional bus and the train are the major options. Attempts at realising some suburb stops for the train in the urban area have not yielded results yet. The building of offices, is concentrated around the central railway station and the planned suburb stops. The circulation of regional bus transport in the urban area has been improved, and direct, fast and comfortable bus connections with the centres of some surrounding towns have been introduced. 6.3

An extra effort to be made

During the last few years the municipal administration of Apeldoorn has been holding discussions with other parties on the fact that the present qualities of Apeldoorn will be under pressure, if the car traffic continues to grow without restraint. In the Traffic Policy Plan 1997 clear-cut choices are made, and the priority given to the sustainable means of transportation, i.e. bicycle and public transport, are accentuated. The use of the bicycle is promoted by continuing the existing policy aimed at improvement of the cycling facilities. In addition, a limited number of cycling connections of very high quality between the housing estates and the town centre will be introduced. These connections will be fast and trouble-free thanks to fly-overs, traffic-control priorities, and bicycle sheds near major centres. On the other hand urban transport is currently financed up to as much as 76% through government subsidies, the possibilities of strengthening public transport are extremely limited, especially now that the national government demands a drastic increase in cost recovery (from 24% to 40%) in the short term. It is impossible to imagine life today without the private car. In areas which are dependent on transport of persons and goods by car, the car is accommodated. In other areas the car is tolerated. Where parking facilities have until now been foreseen in various plans by setting minimum standards, now maximum standards are being considered for areas where a high-quality alternative, in the form of public transport, is available. For the new residential areas variations as to distance between house and parking place may be considered, which offers more possibilities to influence the behaviour of people. 7.

Domestic refuse; separate collection and recycling

Up to about 1970, domestic refuse was collected by the municipality without being separated at source. Various clubs collected some of the old paper on a voluntary basis and sold it to the paper industry, which used it in the manufacture of new paper. Old clothes were collected by charities. At the beginning of the 1970's, a national environmental organization and a chain of stores together took the initiative to collect old glass for use in the manufacture of new glass products. The municipality later took over this initiative.

Bottle banks were placed at several locations in the town and free newspapers were used to encourage the public to use these facilities. The quantity of glass collected quickly increased, as did the municipality's income. Glass collections were only introduced at a national level at the end of the 1970's. Glass was later collected separately according to colour: white, brown or green. In about 1980, refuse collection in plastic sacks was replaced by a mini-container for each household in a low-rise building. Although many practical objections to the scheme were made at the start of the experiment, when it was evaluated after one year 91% of the participants were found to approve of it. The parks department found that the dumping of refuse in public areas had decreased drastically. The next step was to collect chemical waste separately. This waste is collected on request by a specially designed vehicle, the so-called Chemokar. It was decided in 1987 to introduce separate collection of "green refuse" (vegetable, fruit and garden refuse), which forms about half of all domestic refuse, by introducing a second mini-container for each household. This green refuse is composted by a regional refuse-recycling company. An attempt to get this refuse composted by individual households in so-called compost bins was not successful and still has not really caught on. This may be due to a fear of it starting to smell and attracting vermin. In 1992, the separation at source of paper was made compulsory. An experiment to collect paper using a special mini-container for each household has since been carried out successfully. Success meant a better separation of refuse in this case, too: the amount of paper in the containers for the remaining refuse decreased drastically. The public was given comprehensive information about every step taken to increase the degree of separation of refuse via a special information bulletin, "Refuse News". In addition to providing information, a team of environment investigators is indispensable in order to actively ensure separate collection of refuse. At the moment, more than 65% of glass is collected separately, more than 75% of old paper and cardboard, and approximately 80% of green refuse. There are separate regulations for refuse from building and demolition work, which make separation into 11 different categories compulsory on building sites. A number of manufacturers of building products have their own logistics departments which collect waste from building sites for reuse in the manufacture of new materials. A regional company which specialises in waste disposal recycles a large part of this waste, which is reused in products varying from new building materials to granules. A second-hand centre has been set up in Apeldoorn as a private initiative. This centre collects used items, repairs them and then sells them. The municipality makes a contribution to the centre's collection costs. The Recydur company is also based in Apeldoorn; it dismantles old refrigerators and other CFC-containing domestic appliances in an environmentally-responsible way.

The developments described here concerning the separation of refuse for collection, in so far as possible, and the subsequent reuse of such refuse are, in part, a forced response to increasingly stringent government regulations, which have recently made it illegal in the Netherlands to dump refuse. This, together with a sharp rise in the costs of refuse disposal (costs of transport to and the operation of large-scale supraregional incinerators), has resulted in other recycling-orientated methods of disposal becoming attractive - also from an economic point of view. Up until now, municipal policy has been primarily aimed at collecting and processing refuse. In recent years, the total amount of domestic refuse collected in the municipality of Apeldoorn (152,000 inhabitants) has remained the same - at about 75,000 tonnes. The prevention of refuse (e.g. minimising the use of packaging materials) has been mainly the task of the national government in the Netherlands. Currently, an investigation is being carried out into whether it is possible to make consumers more aware of the costs of refuse disposal and to provide them with a financial stimulus for refuse prevention by linking their assessment for the municipal refuse collection rate to the actual amount of refuse they produce. This will involve particular attention being paid to the prevention of uncontrolled dumping of refuse. 8. 8.1

Domestic consumption of water and energy Saving water

Apeldoorn obtains drinking water of an excellent quality from groundwater. The areas from which water is collected are protected by national laws; the land use in these areas is strictly regulated in zoning plans. All houses and other buildings in the Netherlands are fitted with an individual water meter. Domestic consumption of drinking water per head of population in Apeldoorn is 120 litres per day (1995). This is higher than in other Dutch cities because of the large number of houses with gardens. The trend in the last few years has been for consumption to decrease as a result of users economising. In the built-up part of Apeldoorn, all houses are connected to the sewerage system. In order to maintain the quality of the sewerage system, a separate Sewerage Fund was set up some years ago, to which everyone contributes according to the size of their household. The sewage is treated to remove oxygen-extracting chemicals, nitrogen and phosphates; the purification rates achieved in recent years have increased considerably and are now, on average, 80%. The remaining sludge is burnt, using a unique, low-energy process (Vertech). At the end of the 1970's, people began to realise that they should be more economical with drinking water. Moreover, a lot of drinking water is used for purposes which do not require such a high quality. NUON-VNB, the regional water company, has undertaken campaigns to try and influence consumer behaviour - among other things, by providing information and subsidies for articles such as water-saving taps and shower heads. Water cycle forms an extremely important subject in sustainable urban development. In this context, financial rewards can be considered for the promotion of sustainable water management, by means of linking the price of drinking water, sewage charges and (water) treatment charges to water consumption. Gelderland, the province in which Apeldoorn is situated, has set its ambitions even higher, by linking

these financial rewards to measures at house and district level, with the aim of minimising the volume and the treatment of waste water from the urban area. Its policy is aimed at three water circuits, the drinking water circuit, the grey water circuit, and the black water circuit. Black water can be used as biomass for energy generation. Strategic bases for this are the optimal deployment of the various types of water, the prevention of unnecessary use, the prevention of residual water, the clean, natural processing of residual water and the reuse of residual/second-quality-level water. The Municipality of Apeldoorn has embarked upon the development of these strategies within the framework of Local Agenda 21. The further development of this policy will, however, take some time yet, because it requires large financial investment. Decreased domestic and industrial water consumption in recent years has already had noticeable consequences for water management in the region (in the form of water damage in some parts of the town), as a result of which forced drainage is now required. In this context, measures are being prepared to restore former streams and springs which have been filled in or covered over as part of the urbanisation process and to reinforce the role of water in the image of the town. 8.2

Saving energy

The consumption of energy for central heating and bath water in Apeldoorn is 2200 m3 of natural gas per year. Electricity consumption is 3000 kWh per household; the regional power station requires nearly 900 m3 of natural gas to generate this. These figures are high in comparison with other Dutch towns. This relatively unfavourable situation is explained by the composition of the housing stock in terms of type (many detached houses), ownership (56% owner-occupiers), and particularly age (23% pre-1945 and 54% between 1945 and 1980, before house insulation became a common issue).

The Municipality of Apeldoorn has an energy policy plan as part of the municipal Environmental Policy Plan, partly financed by the national Ministry of Economic Affairs, while its implementation is being supported financially by the regional power company. The municipal energy policy is aimed at restricting energy consumption, promoting the application of renewable energy, and the efficient use of fossil fuels. Since 1982 the following activities have been undertaken in Apeldoorn, based on these objectives: *

Energy-saving measures in public buildings, and street lighting and traffic control equipment. A computerised Building Management system is in use to which all the local authority schools and gymnasiums are connected, controls the central heating plant and monitors it for efficiency saving 25 - 30 % of gas consumption.

*

Energy-saving measures in the form of home renovation and maintenance.

*

Awareness-raising activities by the municipality, in cooperation with the regional power company. All houses and other buildings in Apeldoorn have individual gas and electricity meters. These activities involve such things as energy lessons in schools, energy-saving advice - on request - for individual households, and informing the consumer about their own energy consumption during the last few years, corrected for weather variations.

*

The use of solar energy in the new residential districts of Osseveld and Woudhuis, being one of the pioneers in the application of thermal and photo-voltaic solar energy in the Netherlands.

*

The application of solar energy in existing houses. The regional power company, with the Municipality of Apeldoorn, has encouraged residents to fit these systems for solar energy into existing houses and considerably reduced prices thanks to subsidies from the municipality, the government and the power company.

*

The Apeldoorn Energy Agency. The agency's activities are aimed mainly at changing the behaviour of the following target groups: small and medium-sized businesses and existing houses.

9.

Conclusions

The preceding information gives an outline of Apeldoorn's path to a more sustainable way of urban living during the last twenty years. It has been characterised by a gradual development of simple activities in specific policy areas into a more coherent influencing of local production and consumption processes. In many areas, sustainability is now an important objective of the municipal activities in Apeldoorn. This development has indisputably been partly determined by the relatively favourable economic situation in the Netherlands and the prosperous state of trade and industry in the last ten years. What has been essential is the broad support which has arisen among the local population for a more sustainable way of urban living. This is closely allied to the changes in the way in which the municipal government is fulfilling its role in society. The role of the municipal government has changed in recent years in the areas of both production and consumption. Policies develop into an open style of planning; the local government's legally dominant position in relation to the other players in society has developed into continuous teamwork, in which the local administration has a special responsibility in directing and coordinating focused on the achievement of a balance between very varied individual interests and the interests of the community as expressed by the democratic majority. Due to the changed role of the municipal government, the importance of communication as an instrument of policy has increased considerably. Sustainable production and consumption require a process of awareness-raising leading to a gradual change of attitude of residents, administration and others associated with the town. This requires that all of those concerned be involved in policy processes at an early stage, which places great demands on the management of the process.

In various areas, up until now mostly "pull" measures have been applied to promote sustainable alternatives for consumption and production. Apeldoorn's municipal administration wants to continue to promote a more sustainable way of urban living. This will involve dealing with extraordinarily complex problems, such as the increasing need for mobility. In connection with this, all efforts, so far, have not led to a fundamental alteration in the choice of transportation in favour of the bicycle and public transport. "Push" measures, which would make car use less attractive, could lead to a conflict between the pursuit of a more sustainable way of living and essential, traditional values, such as the individual's freedom of choice. These could adversely affect the broad support which currently exists for a more sustainable way of urban living, leading to tension arising between what is desirable from the point of view of more sustainable consumption and what is democratically possible. Measures of this sort should, therefore, be avoided as far as possible. For these reasons, sustainable consumption remains an objective which will only be achieved in the long term and by taking small steps. The national government in the Netherlands has, during the period under discussion, made an important contribution to these developments through legislation, financial means and communication. It can play an important role in the future, too, as a sounding board for local policies and for the development of a suitable framework where local instruments for influencing behaviour are missing. This could mean, the promotion of "green financing", the use of fiscal instruments and intensive communication via the national press. Apeldoorn is on its way to a more sustainable form of urban living, but our major work is still ahead.