J Afr Am St DOI 10.1007/s12111-013-9248-3 A RT I C L E S

Understanding the Personal Goals of Black Male Community College Students: Facilitating Academic and Psychosocial Development J. Luke Wood & Robert T. Palmer

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract Similar to 4-year institutions, community colleges are struggling to find ways to increase the success rates of racial and ethnic minority students in general and Black males specifically. According to data from the Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS), compared to their male counterparts, Black males have the lowest retention and graduation rates among their peers. Given this, using national data from BPS, this article has investigated the personal goals of Black males in community colleges and provided context for how community college officials can use these goals to facilitate Black male academic and psychosocial development. Indeed, this article is noteworthy as limited research has focused on personal goals for Black males in community college. The article concludes with implications for practice and future research. Keywords African American . Males . Community college . Goals The college years can be a time of great personal development. During this period, many students' engage in introspection, have their world views challenged, gain exposure to a multitude of philosophical perspectives, and consider alternative outlooks, values, and ways of being (Evans et al. 1998). This occurs as students interact with peers and faculty who may have divergent viewpoints, lived experiences, and sociocultural and political mores (Terenzini et al. 1994). Within these important developmental years, many students reflect upon their futures, establishing academic, career, and personal goals to guide their postcollege lives (Moran 2001). As part of this reflective process, students consider/refine what they want to be (career goals), J. L. Wood (*) Administration, Rehabilitation and Postsecondary Education (ARPE) & Interwork Institute, San Diego State University, 3590 Camino del Rio North, San Diego, CA 92108, USA e-mail: [email protected] R. T. Palmer Student Affairs Administration, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, USA e-mail: [email protected]

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how they will get there (academic goals), and arguably most important, who they want to be (personal goals). The latter consideration, personal goals, is the primary focus of this research. Personal goals are conscious and meaningful objectives pursued by individuals (Brunstein et al. 1996; Elliot et al. 2001), which are non-academic in nature. These goals span multiple domains, including students' intellectual, social, political, economic, and spiritual objectives. While studies have examined students' academic (e.g., Bailey et al. 2005, 2007; Harackiewicz and Barron 1998; Kitsantas 2004; Okun et al. 2006; Ricco et al. 2003) and career goals (e.g., Hull-Blanks et al. 2005; Laanan 2002; Luzzo et al. 1999), limited research has explored college students' personal goals (also referred to as life goals, specifically in the community college context). As such, the purpose of this study was to investigate the personal goals of Black male community college students. The goal-oriented perceptions of Black males are juxtaposed with those of other male students to provide additional insight into the intricacies of the Black male experience. Indeed, investigating Black males in community college is critical given that they represent a disproportionate population served by community colleges. Notwithstanding, they are more likely than their White or Asian American counterparts to prematurely depart from community colleges. Specifically, data indicate that Black males have the lowest persistence and attainment rates among their male peers. For example, of Black males who enter the community college, only 42.2 % will have persisted or attained a degree within 3 years. In contrast, 53.2 % of Latino males, 55.6 % of White males, and 76.7 % of Asian American males1 will persist or attain a degree within the same time frame (BPS 2003/2009). The US Census Bureau (2008) projects that Black, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American populations are expected to comprise approximately 50 % of the total US population by 2050, and community colleges will serve as a critical linchpin to higher education for these populations. Therefore, it is salient that research delineates how to ameliorate success for this group that is underperforming and achieving. Given this manuscript's primary focus, the subsequent section of this article will review literature on personal goals and their relevance to students in postsecondary education. After which, the article will discuss the study's methodology and findings, and conclude with discussions and implications for institutional practice and future research.

Relevant Research College professionals, particularly those in academic advising and counseling, have been (both historically and contemporarily) concerned with the development of the “whole” student (American Council of Education 1937; American College Personnel Association 1994; Hamrick et al. 2002). This focus includes students' personal development, where, as part of this development, college professionals aid students in actualizing their personal goals (Broughton and Neyer 2001; Kitzrow 2009; Sharkin 2004; Stebleton and Schmidt 2010). Primarily, this process is facilitated by engaging students in considering short- and long-term goals (often through goal1

Estimates for Native American males are too unstable to report given a limited sample size.

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setting exercises) in accordance with their personal interests and life purpose (Moran 2001). Goal setting can be a complex process as personal goals can be established in multiple domains. For instance, Roberts, O’Donnell, and Robins (2004) categorized major “life” goals in several primary categories: economic, aesthetic, social, relationship, political, hedonistic, and religious. Economic goals refer to financial wealth and an occupation which is prestigious and influential. Aesthetic goals address creative success (e.g., art, fiction, performance, music). Social goals refer to a desire to help others and engage in one's community. Relationship goals pertain to social bonds with kin (e.g., children, spouse/partner, family) and friends. Political goals consist of being influencing in public life, such as being a political or community leader. Hedonistic goals refer to experiences and activities which are pleasing to oneself. Religious goals refer to participation in religious engagements and a focus on spiritual matters. Much of the prior research on personal goals among collegians focuses on the effect of life goals on safe behaviors. A significant portion of this research has focused on the role of life goals in relationship to substance abuse among students (Lecci et al. 2002; Palfai 2006, 2011; Palfai and Weafer 2006; Williams 2003). Collectively, these studies suggest that students who have formulated goals, have integrated these goals into their identity, and are engaged in pursuing their life goals are less likely to engage in hazardous behaviors. Some research has also explored the relationship between life goals and sexual behavior. For example, Moore and Davidson (2006) found that students who had established life goals were more likely to be religious, have a positive outlook on life, and make safer decisions about sexual intercourse. In contrast, those without life goals were more likely to drink before sexual relations and make riskier sexual decisions. Further, Everett, Price Bergin, and Groves (1996) have examined the role of personal goals in motivating bicycle helmet use among college students. Similar to prior research on substance abuse and sexual behaviors, they found that personal goals can serve as a protective factor against riskier behaviors. As such, students with personal goals have greater use of helmets. Examinations of personal goals have also focused on the duration of goals as well as circumstances indicative of goal enactment. Research on personal goals suggests that these goals tend to guide future actions (Heckhausen 1999; Little et al. 2007; Nurmi 1991). For instance, research on college students from Jo-Tzu (2011) suggests that life goals are lasting psychological dispositions which are maintained over time and predictive of future life goals. Thus, this study's focus on understanding Black male students' life goals in college may provide insight to what their life goals will be in the future. While extant research has shown that an individual's behavior is often directed by their goals (Furby and Beyth-Marom 1992; Maggs 1997), certain circumstances are more likely to result in actualized goals than others. For instance, George, Dixon, Stansal, Gelb, and Pheri (2008) examined goal attainment among collegians. Their research suggests that there are four primary predictors of students' attainment of personal goals; these included: having clearly defined personal goals, healthiness, spirituality, and having strong time-management skills. When these four considerations were in place, personal goals were more likely to be enacted. Similarly, other scholars have found that the more elaborated goals are, the more likely they are to be obtained (Aarts 2007; Nurmi 2004; Shulman and Nurmi 2010).

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Personal goals have also been investigated as motivational factors. Research from Griffin (2006) and Wood, Hilton, and Lewis (2011) have shown that personal goals can serve as motivation toward achievement in college. In particular, students with personal goals cite these goals as drivers for academic achievement. Furthermore, although not labeled as such, personal goals fall within the domain of non-cognitive variables. Research (e.g., Cokley 2003; Palmer and Strayhorn 2008; Swail et al. 2003; Tracey and Sedlacek 1985) has underscored the relationship between noncognitive variables and academic success for Black students across institutional types (e.g., predominantly White institutions and historically Black college and universities). For example, Palmer and Strayhorn (2008) delineated how students' personal goals served as drivers for their achievement, noting that students must “be conscious of their visions and aspirations, stay focused, and work diligently to bring them to fruition” (p. 133). Indeed, while the research discussed is noteworthy, limited research (e.g., Wood and Hilton 2011) has focused on personal goals and Black males in community college. Specifically, research by Wood and Hilton (2011) examined personal goals for Black males in community colleges, but did not discuss how these goals can engender academic and social development among Black male community college students. Given these limitations, research is needed that provides a rounded perspective of the personal goals of Black male community college students and discusses how practitioners and other agents within this context could use these goals to facilitate the psychosocial and academic development of Black male students. Given Tinto's (1975, 1993) assertion that community college students are less socially and academically integrated into the institution's milieu and are more likely to experience stressors from their home environments and communities (CCSSE 2008; Tinto 1993, 1975), having an understanding of the personal goals of Black male community college students and how practitioners could intentionally use them to facilitate students' psychosocial and academic development is critical.

Theoretical Framework This study employed self-determination theory as a theoretical lens for understanding students' goals. Prior studies which have examined personal goals as motivation factors for academic achievement among Black collegians (Griffin 2006) and Black males in the community college (Wood et al. 2011) have also been guided by this lens. Self-determination theory asserts that individuals are motivated when they are provided an opportunity to enact one of three core human needs: competence (the ability to identify and perform function necessary for obtaining desired outcomes), relatedness (the development of social bonds with others, especially those with whom feelings of safety and support are manifested), and autonomy (the capacity to control one's own actions) (Deci et al. 1989, 2006). Self-determination theorists assert that individuals are motivated when an opportunity arises to satisfy one or more of these three needs (Deci and Ryan 2004). Selfdetermination theory distinguishes between goals which are intrinsic and extrinsic in nature. Intrinsic goals refer to goals that are internally situated, based upon a students' true interest or desire; this includes facilitating feelings of connectedness, community,

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and association; healthiness; and personal development. Extrinsic goals are externally situated; these include goals such as attaining fame, power/authority, recognition, financial prosperity, and physical attractiveness (Simons et al. 2004). In general, internal motivations have been found to lead to greater initiative among students (Amabile 1996; Utman 1997). The degree to which external motivations become internalized is also of importance. Greater levels of external messages being integrated into one's drive can lead to external motivations becoming interiorized (Deci and Ryan 2000). These notions of motivation help frame the researchers' understanding of the role of personal goals in the academic and psychosocial development of students.

Methods Data Collection Data used in the study were derived from the Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS). BPS is a national study conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) for the purpose of understanding the experience of students in postsecondary education. BPS is a spinoff survey from the National Postsecondary Student Aid Survey (NPSAS). NPSAS is a large study (more than 101,000 students representing 17.2 million weighted cases) designed to provide researchers and policymakers with information on how students finance their postsecondary education (Wine et al. 2009). For an institution to be included in the NPSAS sample, it must be a Title IV institution. The Title IV designation emerges out of the 1965 Higher Education Act; this classification refers to institutions that are approved to participate in federal student financial aid programs (Cominole et al. 2008, 2010). NPSAS serves as the base survey for the BPS. While the NPSAS includes information pertaining to all collegians, BPS targets those students from NPSAS who are just beginning their college careers. BPS is a panel study which collects data from respondents at three points in time. The first wave of BPS refers to data collected during the base (2003–2004) academic year. The second and third waves of BPS follow up the respondents who participated in the first wave; this occurs 3 and 6 years later. Thus, second-wave data represent information collected from the respondents in 2006; while third-wave data were collected in 2009. This particular study uses data collected during the first and second waves of BPS. BPS employs several collection procedures used in a three-phrase design. In the first phase, respondents participate in a self-administered interview. Students can participate in this interview using either the internet or the telephone. Nonrespondents from phase 1 were followed up during the second phase of collection. In phase 2, students are asked to complete the interview survey using a computer-based telephone system. To increase the response rate, phase 3 follows up students who did not participate in phase 1 or 2 of the study. In phase 3, participants are asked to participate in the study via in-person interviews (Cominole et al. 2007). As a result of these collection procedures, 16,580 of 18,640 eligible respondents participated in the base year, a response rate of 89 %.

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A total of 1,670 institutions participated in this study; these included 380 public 2year colleges, representing 4,830 respondents, consisting of a weighted population of 1,642,180 total students. This sample population of 4,830 was delimited to male students, resulting in 2,200 coarsened student cases. A coarsened case is a modified (rounded) sample size reported by NCES to minimized disclosure risk. Overall, the sample included in this study represents male students who began their academic careers in public 2-year colleges during the first wave of BPS. Variables As noted, this study investigated non-academic goal differences between Black males and other male students in public 2-year colleges. Four control variables (Z) were employed in this study, including: age when first enrolled, income percentile rank, grade point average, and degree plans. These variables were identified based upon their use as controls (in part or totality) in prior quantitative investigations of Black male students in 2-year colleges (see Flowers 2006; Wood and Hilton 2011; Wood et al. 2011; Wood 2011). Age was a continuous variable, reflecting the respondent's age during their initial year in postsecondary education. Given that BPS employs the same base year for all respondents, participants' ages are reflective of December 2003 (the initial survey year). The mean age of males in this study was 22.6 (SE=0.27). Black males in this sample had a mean age of 23 (SE=0.60), while the mean age of all other males (nonBlack males) was 22.5 (SE=0.30). Income percentile rank was a continuous variable, indicating the students' income percentile. Since colleges have students who are dependents and independents, this variable calculates percentile rank separately for each group and then merges them into one scale, ranging from 1 to 100. The mean percentile rank for all males (including Black and non-Black men) was 52.2 (SE=1.11). Further, the mean percentile rank for Black males was 39.2 (SE=2.42) and 54.0 (SE=1.14) for all other males. Collegiate grade point average was also used as a control variable in this study. GPA was a continuous variable that was self-reported by respondents. GPA calculations ranged on a scale from 4 to 400. Essentially, each GPA is multiplied by 100; thus, 3.81 would be 381. The mean male grade point average was 279.1 (SE=2.70). The average Black male GPA was 257.9 (SE=8.32) while the mean GPA for all other males was 281.9 (SE=2.64). This study also controlled for degree goals. This variable was dichotomous, with “0” representing students without degree goals and “1” indicating degree-seeking students. Of all males, 85.8 % had degree goals (SE=1.45) while 85.1 % (SE=1.60) of all other males (non-Black men) had degree goals. Black males had slightly higher degree goals, with 91 % (SE= 1.69) of students being degree seeking. The covariates (X) employed in this study were students' reported measures of importance. During the BPS interview, respondents were asked a series of questions regarding their perceptions of personal goals which were important. Respondents could answer no “coded 0” or yes “coded 1” to these items. These 11 dichotomous covariates included the importance of the following: (1) being a community leader, (2) being financially well of, (3) having children, (4) influencing political structures, (5) having leisure time to enjoy interests, (6) living close to parents and relatives, (7)

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moving away from hometown (the location the student grew up), (8) having steady work, (9) helping other people, (10) having a sense of meaning and purpose in life, and (11) being a recognized expert in his field of interest. Items 1 through 8 were included in both the first and second waves of BPS, while items 9–11 were only included in the second wave. The next section will describe the dependent variable employed in this study and the analytic procedures used in this research. Analytic Procedure Race/ethnicity served as the dependent variable (Y) in this study. Of interest in this study was the effect of the covariates on race/ethnicity. This study employed a twostage research design with several logistic regression procedures being conducted in each stage. In each stage, the control variables and covariates were employed. The first stage of analyses focused on the indicators of importance from the initial wave of BPS. The first analysis in this stage examined Black males (coded 1) in comparison to non-Black males (coded 0). This allowed the researcher to understand how Black males differ from their male peers, in general. However, given the numerous racial/ethnic groups included in the non-Black category, additional analyses were conducted to investigate how Black males compare to single racial/ethnic groups. As a result, the second, third, and fourth analyses examined Black males in comparison to White males, Latino males, and Asian males. These represented all the single-race analyses as standard errors were too unstable to report data for Blacks in comparison to American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander, other, or more than one race. In single-race analyses, Black males remained coded as “1” while the comparison group (e.g., White, Latino, Asian) served as the reference category (coded 0). All the analyses in the first stage examined four control variables and eight covariates. In stage 2, the same protocol (e.g., coding schema) as the first stage was followed; however, the dataset focused on student responses from the second wave of BPS. As a result, the initial analyses compared Black males to nonBlack males with subsequent analyses employing single-race comparisons between Black and White, Latino, and Asian males. The second stage employed the same control variables as the first stage with the addition of three more covariates. Following the protocol established in the first stage, Blacks were coded “1” while comparison groups served as the reference category. In all, eight analyses were conducted, two comparing Black males to all non-Black males and two using single-group comparisons. Logistic regression was the primary analytic procedure used in this study. This procedure was employed given the dichotomous outcome variable employed (racial/ethnic affiliation) and the combination of continuous and dichotomous variables (Menard 2002). Data were weighted to include students who were respondents when they first enrolled in 2003, as well as in subsequent waves (WTB000). Correlations and variable inflation factors were examined in order to reduce the influence of multicollinearity on the models (Hair et al. 1995; Mason et al. 1989; Neter et al. 1983; O’Brien 2007). All data are reported using odds ratios, which depict the probability of an event taking place (Rudas 1998). In this case, the “event” referred to the racial/ethnic affiliation of respondents. Thus, the models employed served to examine the usefulness of the covariates in predicting this affiliation.

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Limitations As with all studies, this study has limitations. The dataset employed in this study had a robust sample size, well beyond the general accepted rules of 51 subjects per variable examined (Lawley and Maxwell 1971; Peng et al. 2002). However, BPS employs a complex sampling design. This design does not adjust for nonresponses; as a result, it is suggested that p values greater than 0.01 be interpreted cautiously (see Broene and Rust 2000; Flowers 2006). This may reduce the likelihood of type 1 error. While the covariates employed address a wide range of topical areas relevant to students' personal goals, these variables may not fully account for the range of considerations which are important to students. As such, this study should be viewed as exploratory in nature. Further, the dataset's restriction of response options of personal goals to a dichotomous choice of “yes” or “no” limited the amount of information contained in each variable. For example, responses to personal goals may be better captured with gradations of importance (e.g., very important, somewhat important, not important). Finally, data used in this study represent the first and second waves of BPS. However, BPS includes the participant's responses in each successive wave, regardless of previous responses. As a result, some students have different responses for each wave, while others participated in the first wave but not the second wave. While differing responses are not limitations, per se, as they give insight to different perceptions across waves, these considerations should be noted. That being said, while goals are identified by respondents, little information is available to determine goal attainment intensity (the degree of effort students place in attainment of said goals) and goal actualization (the attainment of said goals). Despite these limitations, BPS represents the most robust national dataset for examining the collegiate experiences of first-time students over time. Findings Table 1 depicts the percentage distribution of each item from the two waves of BPS employed in this study. From these data, it is apparent that Black males are greatly concerned with several personal goals. In order of importance (based on the percentage of students marking affirmative), the most valued personal goals in the 2004 data are: having steady work (90.1 %), being financially well off (88.9 %), being a community leader (67.2 %), having leisure time (80.3 %), and having children (60.5 %). Many of the items identified as being important in the 2004 data were also of importance in 2006. In addition to these items, Black males also identified several personal goals not included in the 2004 data. Goals identified in the 2006 data (in order of importance) are as follows: being financially well off (89.6 %), helping others (88.1 %), meaning and purpose in life (79.1 %), having steady work (78.5 %), having leisure time (76.9 %), being a recognized expert (67.8 %), having children (67.1 %), and being a community leader (59.7 %). Findings for the first analysis compared factors deemed important by Black males in comparison to non-Black males (based upon first-wave data); see Table 2. Several control variables illustrated significant differences between Black males and nonBlack males. Black males were more likely to be older (p