Tourism Analysis, Vol. 17, pp. 509–522 1083-5423/12 $60.00 + .00 Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3727/108354212X13473157390849 Copyright © 2012 Cognizant Comm. Corp. E-ISSN 1943-3999 www.cognizantcommunication.com

TOWARDS A HIGH-QUALITY RELIGIOUS TOURISM MARKETING: THE CASE OF HAJJ SERVICE IN SAUDI ARABIA Riyad Eid Department of Business Administration, College of Business & Economics, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates

Hajj (Pilgrimage) is a unique, universal Islamic event, taking place annually, in Makkah, Saudi Arabia, accommodating around 3 million Muslims (Ministry of Hajj, 2010). Hajj consists of performing specific prayers at the sacred places and as it is obligatory as one of the five pillars of Islam, it is imperative that the experience is a safe and pleasant one for the pilgrims. This article investigates the quality of Hajj service and the satisfaction level of the pilgrims as “customers.” It is distinguished from other work as it considers the importance of facilities and services required for Hajj with respect to the actual pilgrims’ perceptions (i.e., the demand side) rather than service providers’ and/or planners’ perceptions (i.e., the supply side). Using a sample of 934 pilgrims from five different countries and following Parasuraman’s SERVQUAL model we found that tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy are perceived as being important factors that make safe and pleasant Hajj. Furthermore, the article provides a detailed discussion of SERVQUAL as measurement tool to test the level of pilgrims’ satisfaction of the facilities and services provided during Hajj period. Key words: Service marketing; Hajj; Pilgrimage; Religious tourism; Saudi Arabia; SERVQUAL

year in Makkah, Saudi Arabia, where about 3 million Muslims gather annually, and the numbers are continuously increasing (Ministry of Hajj, 2011). Along with the increase the numbers of pilgrims, the need for quality services during Hajj will keep on increasing. Improving and upgrading the quality of services and making the event safe and pleasant for the pilgrims are of prime importance to the Hajj organizers (Ministry of Hajj, 2011). Due to the importance of this religious ritual, it is considered to be a unique experience that people

Introduction The close relationship between tourism marketing and religion has been extensively addressed in tourism research literature (Battour, Ismail, & Battor., 2010; Chattopadhyay, 2006; Digance, 2003; Henderson, 2010; Sharpley & Sundaram, 2005; Weidenfeld & Ron 2008). Yet, there is a lack of systematic empirical evidence in the area of HAJJ as the most important Islamic event. Hajj is an unusual universal Islamic event that can only happen once a

Address correspondence to Riyad Eid, Department of Business Administration, College of Business & Economics, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 17555, United Arab Emirates. E-mail: [email protected]

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want to enjoy in a safe and pleasant manner (Hashim, Murphy, & Hashim, 2007; Syed, 2001). Quranic evidence (Islam’s holy book) has been presented regarding the vital importance of the facilities and services that are introduced to Pilgrims. The Holy Quran states: That they may witness things that are of benefit (provided) for them, and celebrate the Name of Allah, through the Days appointed (i.e. 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th day of Dhul-Hijjah), over the beast of cattle that He has provided for them (for sacrifice) (at the time of their slaughtering by saying: Bismillah, Wallahu-Akbar, Allahumma Minka wa Ilaik). Then eat thereof and feed therewith the poor who have a very hard time. (Surah Al-Hajj, verse number 28)

However, despite the fact that the government’s intention is to make the experience of the pilgrimage more satisfactory, few studies have been done on the area of religious tourism. Furthermore, recent research has focused only on the safety aspect and ignored the pleasure aspect of Hajj (Ahmed, Arabi, & Memish, 2006; Belhassen, 2009; Clingingsmith, Khwaja, & Kremer, 2009; Reader, 2007). Hence, full-scale research conducted in a highly scientific manner must be undertaken to complement the research that has focused only on the safety aspects. The service provided has to be designed in such a way that ensures that Hajj becomes a safe and pleasant experience for all pilgrims arriving from every corner of the globe. It should also be measured and the impact on the satisfaction of the recipient has to be established. Literature Review The Hajj Hajj is an ancient habit in nations and its purpose is pure religious issue; however, the gathering in Hajj is not free of worldly benefits that increase the moral and material advancement of the nation. The Greeks used to pilgrimage 50 centuries before Christ to Dianna’s temple in Afsone. The Japanese people have been pilgrimaging since a very far epoch to a great famous temple in the state of Asgy, and its visit is obliged on them even for once in a life time. The Chinese people have been pilgrimaging to Tian temple since a very far age. Indians are

still performing pilgrimage to Gagernate’s Temple or Alora’s temple in Haydar Abad (Bremer, 2004; Coleman & Elsner, 1995; Ron, 2009; Sharpley & Sundaram, 2005; Stoddard & Morinis, 1997; Woodward, 2004). Jewish have people been pilgrimaging since the 14th century before Christ to the place where “the ark of the covenant” was (Cohen Ioannides & Ioannides, 2006). They are pilgrimaging now to a piece of the old wall of Solomon’s temple at the west side of “Alaksa Mosque” and they call it “Albourak.” The Christians have been pilgrimaging to Jerusalem since the year 301 AC and they used to go out to it from west Europe in a great celebration. However, when the Slogokians took possession of Jerusalem, the number of European pilgrims to Jerusalem was reduced and they converted their direction to the church of Saint Boutros and Saint Paul in Rome (Cohen Ioannides & Ioannides, 2006; Proser, 2010). The Arabs used to pilgrimage to the Kaaba for 25 centuries before Islam, and they used to go to it annually to rove around it without any party claiming it to themselves excluding others, That is because, for them, it was the house of Allah, and Allah is for all the people. Allah Almighty Says in the holy Quran: Behold! We gave the site, to Ibrahim, of the (Sacred) House, (saying): “Associate not anything (in worship) with me; and sanctify My House for those who compass it round, or stand up, or bow, or prostrate themselves” (therein in prayer). (Surah Al-Hajj, verse number 26)

However, despite the wide spreading of worshipping idols in the majority of the Arab tribes, it wasn’t mentioned that they worshipped the “Kaaba’s Frame” or “the Black Stone,” despite their respect for it. The Hajj season was an engagement between people to carry out their businesses and to accomplish their affairs, due to the difficulty in transportation (Ankawy, 1994). When Islam came, it kept Hajj and made it one of the five pillars of Islam. Aby Abd Errahman Abdullah Ibn Omar Ibn Elkhattab [May Allah (SWT) be pleased with them] narrated that Allah’s Apostle said: Islam is based on five (pillar): To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah (SWT)

TOWARDS A HIGH-QUALITY RELIGIOUS TOURISM and Muhammad is Allah’s (SWT) Apostle, To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly, To pay Zakat (i.e. obligatory charity), To perform Hajj. (i.e. Pilgrimage to Makkah) and to observe fast during the month of Ramadan.

Hajj was imposed in the ninth year of hegira (632–634 AC) (Ibn Othymene, 1999). Allah (SWT) Almighty says in the holy Quran: And proclaim the Pilgrimage among humankind; they come to you on foot and every kind of camel, lean on account of journeys through deep and distant ravines. (Surah AlHajj, and verse number. 27)

Hajj in Islam is performed in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia within a specific geographical territory (Almasha’er Almoukadasa) including the holy mosque in Makkah, Arafat, Muzdalifah, and Mina. It is performed in specific period, from the 8th to the 13th of the 12th month (Dhul-Hijja) according to the hegira calendar. Allah (SWT) says in the holy Quran, (Surat Albakara), verse number 197: “Al-Hajj Ashoron Maalomat” which means that Hajj is performed only at a particular time of the year. In the case of a female performing Hajj, she must be accompanied with Mehrem (the husband, father, brother, uncle, or nephew). She must wear normal ordinary dresses, without any ornaments, covering all her body and hair except her hands and face. These clothing codes for adults apply for children too (Alkholy, 2000; Ibn Othymene, 1991). But in the case of a male’s cloth during Hajj, it is two pieces of cloth preferably white (Ihram), so that everyone stands equally. One of the pieces (EZAAR) is wrapped around the midriff to cover his body from just above his navel to his ankles, and the other (REDA) is draped around his shoulders to cover the upper body (Alhuseni, 2004; Ibn Othymene, 1991). Allah says in the holy Quran: If any one undertakes that duty therein, Let there be no obscenity, nor wickedness, nor wrangling in the Hajj. (Chapter 2, Surat Albakara, verse number 197)

It means that whoever decides to go for Hajj should have good manners, so there shouldn’t be any immortality, sensuality, or arguments in Hajj.

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The Administration of Hajj Responsibility for Hajj management belongs to the Ministry of Pilgrimage, supervised by the Supreme Hajj Committee, which reports to the king as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. It coordinates arrangements at home and overseas, and deals with planning, implementation, and supervision. Other ministries with a part to play are those of Health, Information and Culture, Defence and Aviation, Interior, Religious Affairs, and Telecom­ munications and Information Technology. There is a Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endow­ ments, Call, and Guidance, which cares for mosques and manages their endowments and assets (Ministry of Hajj, 2010). Cooperation among these parties and others such as the National Guard and KSA Red Crescent in preparation for and operation of the annual event is vital and ongoing. An insight into the public costs incurred in enabling visitors to “perform the rites smoothly and comfortably” is the estimated financial requirement of SR14 877 million (US$3,967 million) for the “religious services sector” stipulated in the Eighth Development Plan, which ran from 2005 until 2009 (Henderson, 2010; Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2005). However, the administration of Hajj is extremely complex, with which both public and private bodies are deeply participating. The Tewafa establishments are the principle organizers of the Hajj affairs handled by the private sector. On the other side are two government bodies to manage public affairs: the Supreme Hajj committee at the national level, and the Central Hajj committee local level. However, although it is revealed that great efforts have been dedicated in planning and providing the services, problem still existed, and further research is needed to solve such problems (Ministry of Hajj, 2000). Actual and expected increase of number of domestic and international pilgrims give some cause of concern because the Hajj venues are of limited area and capacity number of pilgrims must be controlled and the services providers should rise the quality of services to satisfy the pilgrims and to make the Hajj journey safe and pleasant. Determinants of Hajj Perceived Service Quality In the service marketing literature, however, there has been some debate concerning the appropriate

512 manner to operationalize the service quality construct, the causal order between satisfaction and quality, and the process by which customers update the evaluations of quality. Whereas service quality is known to be based on multiple dimensions, there is no general agreement as to the nature or content of the dimensions. However, a review of the service quality studies to date shows that European scholars have exerted a great influence on the study of service quality dimensions. That is, the contemporary discussions on the dimensions of service quality have been initiated by many scholars (Asubonteng, McCleary, & Swan, 1996; Babakus & Boller, 1992; S. W. Brown & Swartz 1989; Buttle, 1996; Cronin & Taylor 1992; Ford, Joseph, & Joseph, 1993; Parasuraman, Berry, & Zeithaml, 1990, 1991a, 1991b; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1993, 1994a). Service quality has been defined in terms of physical quality, interactive quality, and corporate quality “image” (Boothe, 1990). Physical quality relates to the tangible aspects of the service (Parasuraman, Berry, et al., 1990, 1991a, 1991b; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al., 1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1993, 1994a). Interactive quality involves the interactive nature of services and refers to the two-way flow that occurs between the customer and the service provider, or his/her representative, including both automated and animated interactions (Parasuraman, Berry, et al., 1990, 1991a, 1991b; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al., 1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1993, 1994a). Corporate quality refers to the image attributed to a service provider by its current and potential customers, as well as other members of the public (Parasuraman, Berry, et al., 1990, 1991a, 1991b; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al., 1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1993, 1994b). Researchers suggest that when compared with the other two quality dimensions, corporate quality tends to be more stable over time (Andersson, 1992; Asubonteng et al. 1996; Babakus & Boller 1992; S. W. Brown & Swartz 1989; Buttle 1996; Cronin & Taylor 1992; Ford et al., 1993; Parasuraman, Berry, et al., 1990, 1991a, 1991b; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al., 1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1993, 1994a). However, the research literature on service quality has identified numerous models by different researchers across the world. However, the SERVQUAL model developed by Parasuraman,

EID Zeithaml, and Berry (1985) has become almost the standard way of measuring service quality. This model, which employed 22 Likert scale items, focus on the differences between the consumer’s performance perceptions of the service and his or her expectations for that service (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al., 1988a) that measures service quality along five factors, namely: reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, and tangibles. Tangibles comprises the physical appearance of the means by which the service has been rendered, reliability is the consistency and dependability the service delivers, responsiveness is the willingness or readiness of the service employees to provide service, assurance is concerned with the ability of the employees to inspire trust and confidence, and finally, empathy relates to the personalized attention the service firm provides to customers (Parasuraman, Berry, et al., 1990, 1991a, 1991b; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al., 1986, 1988a, 1988b, 1993, 1994b). Problems associated with SERVQUAL can be grouped into three main categories: the use of difference scores, unstable dimensionality, and varying interpretations of expectations. SERVQUAL was built on the theory that service quality is the gap between what customers expect and what performance they actually perceive (Parasuraman, Zeithmal, et al., 1988a, 1988b). Service quality is calculated with SERVQUAL by subtracting expectation scores from perceived performance scores. Respondents are first asked to rate their expectations of service from an excellent firm or organization, and then to rate the performance they perceive from a specific organization. However, some researchers (Ahmed, Rafiq, & Saad, 2003; Brady & Cronin, 2001; Conduit & Mavondo, 2001; Cronin & Taylor, 1994; Hartline & Ferrell, 1996; Hartline, Maxham, & McKee, 2000) challenge this from a theoretical perspective, pointing out there is no cognitive evidence that respondents reason in this manner (Van Dyke, Kappelman, & Prybutok, 1997). Other researchers assert there are reliability and validity problems associated with difference scores as used by SERVQUAL (Bahia & Nantel, 2000; T. J. Brown, Churchill, & Peter, 1992; Newman, 2001). A number of studies have indicated that performance scores alone exhibit better reliability and validity than difference scores, and some researchers have suggested that service

TOWARDS A HIGH-QUALITY RELIGIOUS TOURISM quality should be calculated just with performance scores (Babakus & Boller, 1992; Cronin & Taylor, 1994). Even Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al. (1994a) have found that performance scores are operationally superior to difference scores. Hence, the first hypothesis is that performance scores exhibit higher reliability and validity, and explain more variation in library service quality than difference scores. In spite of operational issues, Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al. (1994a) justify the use of expectation scores in SERVQUAL on the grounds that expectations yield richer data for management than performance scores alone. However, Smith (1995) challenges this approach, stating that measuring what service attributes are important to customers may be more meaningful to managers than measuring customer service expectations. Smith found that importance scores were rated lower than expectations, and actually fit a gap-based theory of service quality better than expectations. Teas (1993) has pointed out that there are varying interpretations of expectations, and these lead to a number of measurement problems. Expectations can be interpreted as predictions of service, as an ideal standard, or as attribute importance. Smith contends that a number of SERVQUAL researchers have directly substituted importance measures for expectations, although there is no theoretical basis for this. SERVQUAL is based on a gap between expectations and performance, not on a gap between importance and performance. In an attempt to resolve some of the confusion surrounding expectations, Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al. (1994a) divided expectations into two separate zones, one to measure desired service and one to measure what service would be minimally acceptable. However, dividing expectations into zones of tolerance appears to add only another layer of confusion to the interpretation of expectations, while failing to remedy reliability and validity issues associated with the use of difference scores. The second hypothesis is that importance scores differ from expectation scores, but exhibit similar reliability and validity as expectation scores. However, in an effort to conceptualize the Hajj service quality (by taking in to account all the aspects of customer perceived service quality, including those already addressed in the existing instruments, and those that are left out in the

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empirical service quality literature), Sureshchandar, Rajendran, and Kamalanabhan (2001) identified five factors of service quality as critical from the customers’ point of view. These factors are: core service or service product, human element of service delivery, systematization of service delivery: nonhuman element, tangibles of service—servicescapes and social responsibility. The primary purpose of this study is to diagnose accurately service shortfalls (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al., 1994b) in Hajj, through assessing and comparing the perceptions of the consumers. This model enhances understanding of the consumers’ expectations, and its roles in improving service quality in this great event. The study takes a slightly different approach, and views customer satisfaction as a multidimensional construct, but the underlying factors/items of customer satisfaction are the same as the ones by which service quality is measured. In other words, the current work argues that customer satisfaction should be operationalized along the same dimensions that constitute service quality, and by the same items that span the different dimensions. Such an approach was also advocated by Bitner and Hubert (1994), who argued that although the SERVQUAL items of Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al. (1988a), when measured at the level of the firm’s services, appear to be good predictors of service quality, it is also possible that the 22 items of SERVQUAL, when measured as a function of multiple experiences with the HSP firm, may be good predictors of overall service satisfaction. Research Questions and Objectives To analyze the implementation of a safe and pleasant Hajj by Saudi Arabia Authority, the researchers developed two major questions: 1. How can service provision in the Hajj be evaluated effectively? 2. What factors have an impact on the pilgrim’s satisfaction? These were the overall questions to be answered by the current study, defined by the following two objectives: 1. To measure the quality of services provided to the pilgrims.

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2. To identify the factors which lead to pilgrims’ satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Research Methodology Questionnaires were developed from the sources cited in the literature review. The starting point was the SERVQUAL questionnaire. Questions relating to each of the five original dimensions were supplemented with specific items relating to the Hajj services. The questionnaires used 7-point scales. Respondents were asked to rate each of the dimensions in terms of the importance and the existence they gave to them in their service quality evaluations. Survey Instrument To measure the quality of Hajj service, a modified version of the SERVQUAL model was used. For example, in the SERVQUAL, the statement “When excellent telephone companies promise to do something by a certain time, they will do so,” was changed to “When Hajj Service Provider (HSP) promise to do something by a certain time, they will do so.” In accordance with the original model (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, et al., 1985) tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy were included as quality dimensions. Each of these dimensions was measured by using two to four statements in the questionnaire. All statements were measured by using a 7-point scale (1—completely disagree; 7—completely agree). This scale is suitable for measuring satisfaction and other variables that relate to satisfaction (Hill & Alexander, 2006). Reliability and internal consistency of statements were measured by Cronbach alpha’s coefficient values. Using the native language is more convenient for respondents to understand and complete the questionnaire. Therefore, the English version of the SERVQUAL was translated into Arabic and Malay because the study sample spoke these languages. The translation was made with the help of the number of academic specialists in Arabic language, English language, and an accredited translator in the Indonesian embassy for reviewing and correcting the questionnaire. Two consecutive rounds of pretesting were conducted in order to ensure that respondents could

understand the measurement scales used in the study. First, the questionnaire was reviewed by six academic researchers experienced in questionnaire design and, next, the questionnaire was piloted with four quality experts known to the researchers. The pilot took the form of an interview where the participants were first handed a copy of the questionnaire and asked to complete it and then discuss any comments or questions they had. The outcome of the pretesting process was a slight modification and alteration of the existing scales, in light of the scales context under investigation. Sampling and Data Collection The generalizability of the study relied on the representativeness of the respondents. Therefore, a representative selection of pilgrims was made. However, in this study, the population was large. Consequently, obtaining information from that population would be highly costly, and need a lot of time and effort. Therefore, a sample from the pilgrims was chosen, because it provides a suitable setting to investigate the service quality in Hajj management. According to the national statistics, the numbers of pilgrims who are distributed over 170 nationalities are around 2.5–3 million annually (Ministry of Hajj, 2010). There is a big variance in the number of pilgrim from one nationality to another; some of the countries exceeded 200,000 pilgrims and from other countries, only 10 pilgrims arrived. Regarding the very huge population potentially available for the study, and the difficulty of surveying all the Hajj pilgrims, four countries from four continents, whose pilgrims represent the biggest number in comparison with other countries in the same continent, were chosen. Those pilgrims delegate external pilgrims. Saudi Arabia pilgrims were also chosen to represent the domestic pilgrims. Therefore, the selection included pilgrims from UK, US, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Indonesia. The period of Hajj is six days lasting from 8 to 13 of Dhul-Hijjah, in which pilgrims move from one place to another between the Holy Places, and they perform many rituals and acts of worship. However, the longest period in which they settle in one place is from 10 to 13 Dhul-Hijjah, in Mina. Therefore, the questionnaires were distributed during the period

TOWARDS A HIGH-QUALITY RELIGIOUS TOURISM of 10–13 of Dhul-Hijjah. The pilgrims in this period have accomplished all of the pillars of Hajj moved between all of the Holy Places, have benefited from all of the services offered to pilgrims, and consequently, they have developed knowledge and experience for evaluating the services offered to them during Hajj. A research packet, which contained a covering letter and an anonymous (self-administered) questionnaire, was given to each pilgrim (1,900 in total). This procedure resulted in 934 useful responses or a 49.15 % overall response rate. The sample can be described as follows: a majority of the respondents were male (79.2%), most were younger than 40 years old (80.1%), and a few respondent (approximately 4.5%) were more than 60 years old. That reflects the condition of performing Hajj (capability of physically and financially to perform Hajj) (Holly Quran Al EMRAN verse 97). Usually the people in this phase of age are capable to perform Hajj. With respect to nationality, approximately 10.6% were from the US, 18.2% were from UK, 23.7% were from Egypt, 21% were from Indonesia, and 26.4% were from Saudi Arabia. Finally in terms of education, the majority of respondents (71%) were higher education, (17%) were secondary level, and (12%) were lower education. This indicated the majority of the pilgrims were educated, meaning they were able to evaluate the level of the services provide to them during Hajj and also that they could utilize the facility in the proper way, and respond to the awareness program. To ensure that the valid responses were representatives of the larger population, a nonresponse bias test was used to compare the early and late respondents. Chi-square tests show no significant difference between the two groups of respondents at the 5% significance level, implying that a nonresponse bias was not a concern. Empirical Findings and Discussion First, the psychometric properties of the constructs were assessed by calculating the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient and the items-to-total correlation (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). These coefficients are represented for each of the constructs in Table 1. All scales have reliability coefficients ranging from 0.857 to 0.886, which exceed

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the cut-off level of 0.60 set for basic research (Nunally, 1978). Second, an exploratory factor analysis (with Varimax rotation) was performed to examine if the items for a construct share a single underlying factor (i.e., are one-dimensional). Items that did not satisfy the following two criteria were deleted: (1) dominant loadings greater than 0.5, and (2) cross-loadings less than 0.35 (Hair, Ralph, & Ronald, 1998). The 22 items measuring the Quality of Hajj were subjected to principal component factor analysis. Eigenvalues and scree plot were used to determine the number of factors to be extracted. A five-factor structure was suggested using the criteria of an eigenvalue greater than 1, and the extracted factors account for 72.10% of the total variance. All factor loadings were generally high, and the lowest loading was equal to 0.501, while the Kaiser-MeyerOlkin test of the factor analysis was substantial (0.974). The resulting factor loadings are shown in Table 1 with all factor loadings less than 0.5 suppressed. All items loaded onto the expected factors as they were originally designed. Factor loadings were all higher than 0.5 on their own factors and, therefore, each item loaded higher on its associated construct than on any other construct. Next, to measure the Service Quality Gap (SQG) of the HAJJ services we conducted the one-sample t-test. Table 2 shows the SQG of the overall samples regarding the 22 subcriteria. Finally, Table 3 shows the results of one-sample t-test for all the dimension of all the pilgrims. A closer examination of the table reflects the following insights regarding to the five dimensions. Tangible Hajj is an annual international event, which has to be performed within a specified time and at certain places. Because the large number of people attending this event (more than 3 million pilgrims) facilities such as airports, transportation, systems, roads, means of communication, hospitals, equipment, and well-trained employees are required to be prepared to ensure that the large number of peoples can move from one place to another without crisis and loss of lives. These tangible factors are considered to be the main front for Hajj service providers and more importantly, are viewed by the

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Table 1 Results of Factor Analysis Component Factors Excellent HSP will have modern looking equipment. The physical facilities of excellent HSP will be visually appealing. Employees of excellent HSP will appear professionally dressed. Materials associated with service (such as pamphlets, booklets, TV, programs, signs) will be visually appealing and include all the information needed by pilgrims. When excellent HSP promises to do something by a certain time, they will do so. When pilgrims have a problem, excellent HSP will show sincere interest in solving it. Excellent HSP will perform the services right first time. Excellent HSP will provide their services at the time they promise to do so. Excellent HSP will insist on error-free records. Employees of excellent HSP will tell pilgrims exactly when the services will be performed. Employees in excellent HSP will give prompt service to pilgrims. Excellent HSP will have employees who give pilgrims personal attention. Employee in excellent HSP will always be willing to help pilgrims. Employees in excellent HSP will never be too busy to respond to pilgrims requests. The behavior of employees in excellent HSP will instill confidence in pilgrims. Pilgrims will feel safe while performing their pilgrimage with excellent HSP. Employees in excellent HSP will consistently be courteous to pilgrims. Employees in excellent HSP will have knowledge to answer pilgrims’ question. Excellent HSP will give pilgrims individual attention, especially on welfare issues. Excellent HSP will have operating hours convenient to all pilgrims. Excellent HSP will have the pilgrims’ best interests at heart. Employee in excellent HSP will understand the needs of pilgrims. % of Variance Cumulative % Reliability

Tangibles

Reliability

Responsive

Assurance

Empathy

0.772 0.780 0.648 0.534 0.501 0.563 0.592 0.590 0.684 0.684 0.506 0.618 0.656 0.700 0.658 0.771 0.639 0.553 0.700 0.621 0.537 0.586 19.44 19.44 0.855

14.44 33.88 0.878

14.30 48.19 0.857

12.66 60.86 0.866

11.23 72.10 0,866

HSP: Hajj service provider.

pilgrims as signs of quality, which leads to safe and pleasant experience of the journey (Parasuraman, Berry, et al., 1991a). In addition to the above quantitative results, the interviews results revealed that 50% of pilgrims were not satisfied about the tangible factors at King Abdul Aziz Airport and 61% were not satisfied

about the tangible at the Holy Places, except the development of the Holy Mosque. For example, a pilgrim said that: The capacity of the arrival and departure areas at the airport are not enough. This airport is one of the most important facilities since it receives the

TOWARDS A HIGH-QUALITY RELIGIOUS TOURISM bulk of the pilgrims, and also it is their gateway to the Holy Places.

As was the case in the previous research and based on the results of this study it can be argued that the gap between perception and expectation of pilgrims about Tangible was −0.62034 (Table 3) and indicates that the pilgrims were not satisfied about the quality of physical facilities such airports, transportation, systems, roads, means of communication, hospitals, equipment, and building. Reliability With regards to the SQG related to the reliability factors, the research results revealed that Reliability was 0.782 and the gap for the subcriteria varied from −0.6703 when HSP insist on error-free records to −0.9394 when HSP promises to do something by

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a certain time and they do so and the overall results were significant. Based on these results it can be argued that the gap between perception and expectation of pilgrims about Reliability was −0.78194 (Table 3), which indicates that the pilgrims were not satisfied about the ability of the HSP to perform the promised service dependably and accurately. Responsiveness The promptness to provide services to pilgrims is critical otherwise they will not be able to complete the Hajj duties, thus leading to cancellation. The research results revealed that the difference between perception and expectation of pilgrims regarding responsiveness was −0.775 as shown in table and the gap of all the subcriteria varied from −0.69050 when employees in an excellent HSP will give prompt service to pilgrims to −0.7958 when the

Table 2 One-Sample Test of Statistical Significance of Hajj Test Value = 0 Factors HSP have modern looking equipment. The physical facilities of HSP are visually appealing. Employees at HSP appear professionally dressed. Materials associated with service (such as pamphlets, booklets, TV, programs, signs) are visually appealing. When HSP promises to do something by a certain time, they do so. When pilgrims has a problem, HSP show sincere interest in solving it. HSP perform the services right first time. HSP provide their services at the time they promise to do so. HSP insist on error- free records. Employees in HSP tell pilgrims exactly when the services will be performed. Employees in HSP give prompt service to pilgrims. Employee in HSP is always willing to help pilgrims. Employees in HSP are never too busy to respond to pilgrims requests. The behavior of employees in HSP instills confidence in pilgrims. Pilgrims feel safe while performing their pilgrimage with HSP. Employees HSP are consistently courteous to pilgrims. Employees in HSP have the knowledge to answer pilgrims’ question. HSP give pilgrims’ individual attention, especially on welfare issues. HSP have operating hours convenient to all pilgrims HSP have employees who give pilgrims personal attention. HSP have the pilgrims’ best interests at heart. HSP understand the needs of pilgrims.

t

df

Sig.

Mean Difference

−7.672 −9.373 −7.951

918 898 885

0.000 0.000 0.000

−0.58868 −0.67297 −0.57675

−9.228 −12.048 −10.934 −10.069 −10.877 −8.859 −10.003 −9.444 −11.835 12.623 9.258 7.873 9.547 12.683 9.699 7.954 −10.548 10.904 12.282

893 891 876 888 885 894 884 894 886 876 875 871 881 871 877 872 871 886 897

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

−0.67226 −0.93946 −0.83010 −0.75366 −0.77201 −0.67039 −0.78757 −0.69050 −0.81285 0.89054 0.66210 0.52638 0.65306 0.99656 0.70501 0.53723 −0.79587 0.71477 0.94098

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EID Table 3 One-Sample Test for All the Dimension of All the Pilgrims Test Value = 0

Dimensions Tangibles Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy

t

df

Sig. (TwoTailed)

−10.70 −13.18 –13.31 12.13 12.90

920 920 918 914 913

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

HSP have employees who give pilgrims personal attention and the overall results were significant. In addition the above quantitative discussion, the interviews results revealed that the pilgrims were not satisfied about the performance of the HSP regarding the willingness to help pilgrims and provide prompt service. Based on these findings, it can be argued that pilgrims were not satisfied about performance of the HSP regarding the willingness to help pilgrims and provide prompt service. Assurance The majority of pilgrims performing Hajj for the first time were from round the world. Therefore, as first comers to Saudi Arabia they will have many questions and inquiries. The research results revealed that the difference between perception and expectation of pilgrims regarding assurance was 0.68370 as shown in Table 3 and the gap for the assurance subcriteria varied from 0.52638 when pilgrims feel safe while performing their pilgrimage with HSP to 0.89054 when the employees in the HSP are never be too busy to respond to pilgrims requests. Based on these findings, it can be argued that pilgrims were satisfied about the knowledge and courtesy of the HSP employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence. Safety and security are very important issues in Hajj. Securing a stable atmosphere for pilgrims enables them to concentrate on performing the rituals of Hajj. However, the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

Mean

Mean Difference

Lower

Upper

3.379 3.218 3.224 3.316 3.278

−0.6203 −0.7819 −0.7751 0.6837 0.7216

−0.734 −0.898 −0.889 0.794 0.831

−0.506 −0.665 −0.660 0.573 0.611

concerned with safety and security in Hajj, so in order to guarantee this, all of the Saudi security departments, including the armed forces, participate in maintaining security and organizing Hajj. This creates a sense of feeling safe during the performance of Hajj. Empathy Empathy is one of the important factors that influence pilgrim’s satisfaction. The research results revealed that the difference between perception and expectation of the pilgrims regarding empathy was 0.72166 (see Table 3). The gap for the subcriteria varied from 0.5372, when the HSP have operating hours convenient to all pilgrims, to 0.9965 when the employees in the HSP have the knowledge to answer pilgrims’ question (see Table 2). The overall results were significant. Based on these findings, it can be argued that pilgrims were satisfied about the caring and individual’s attention the (HSP) provides to its pilgrims. Figure 1 represents the results of SQG measurements for tangible, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Conclusion and Implications The purpose of this article is (a) to offer some useful and practical guidelines for Hajj Service Provider (HSP) wishing to successfully provide safe and pleasant Hajj and (b) to enhance our understanding of what affect the pilgrims’ satisfaction. The research results discussed above provide evidence concerning how Hajj can be managed in a

TOWARDS A HIGH-QUALITY RELIGIOUS TOURISM better manner by realizing a number of factors that impact on the pilgrims’ satisfaction and leads to a safe and pleasant experience of this one life time journey. This evidence reveals that there are new values and attitudes that have been gained by the people attending this international event within the last few years. These facts must be realized by the researchers, the government of Saudi Arabia, and the people involved in planning, organizing, and delivering services in this mega-event. There is some evidence and, with the facts in mind, change in architecture practices ought to be encouraged. Service providers must learn through research how to obtain information from different segments of pilgrimages by employing different methodologies (i.e., quantitative and qualitative methods). They also must learn how to make alliances with other disciplines that will be necessary to meet the pilgrims’ needs with respect to the Hajj. The study provides a number of significant findings. First, the study findings have shown that the five subcriteria have recorded negative values for the SQG that measures the perception and expectations of the pilgrims as was the case in the previous research (Buzzell & Gale, 1987; Meister, 1990; Rust & Zahorik, 1993; Zahorik & Rust, 1992). Based on the results of this study it can be argued that there are gaps between perception and expectation of pilgrims regarding the five quality dimensions and indicates that the pilgrims were not satisfied about the quality of physical facilities such

Figure 1.  SQG measurements.

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airports, transportation, systems, roads, means of communication, hospitals, equipment, and building. Second, the results of this research support the findings of Cui, Lewis, and Park (2003) and Gounaris, Stathakopoulos, and Athanassopoulos (2003), who agree that the SERVQUAL scale is suitable for services that largely emphasize the human element of the service in exclusion of the tangibles of service. Third, research findings indicate that there are discrepancies between the differences from one nationality to another and also difference in the elements that record the maximum and minimum discrepancies between the expectations (PE) and the perceptions (PP). The discrepancies were negative values, which mean that the pilgrims’ expectations (PE) are greater than their perceptions (PP). Further research is required to explain why and how the nationality variable affects the pilgrims’ perception and expectation. Third, the study reveals that the best services available during Hajj are the religious awareness program, services of safety and security system at Holy Places, services of food and drink available during the Hajj season, and the gifts presented from Saudi government for the pilgrims at the airport before leaving the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Finally, research results revealed that the worst services provided during Hajj are the transportation services, reception at the airport including procedures of arrival and departure, information, the availability of bathrooms, and pedestrians at the Holy Places.

520

EID Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

As with any study, there are certain limitations that should be recognized. First, Hajj management is an area of research where theory is still inadequate. This pushed for an option to follow an exploratory approach in this study. This is particularly the case, as the research seeks to develop holistic and integrative understanding of Hajj process, a feature that demands broadening the scope of the study in reviewing a large body of relevant literature and collecting a huge set of appropriate data. However, while the researchers have endeavored to meet such a requirement by reviewing various bodies of literature and seeking different types of data from both primary and secondary sources, it is not possible to claim that the empirical investigation has come across all issues related to Hajj. Second, the time frame was one of the main constraints. Given the limited time frame, a complete investigation of the phenomenon under consideration could not be undertaken. Though all possible efforts were made to interview as many pilgrims as possible, unfortunately each pilgrim allowed only one interview, because of lack of time for followup interviews. With more time for investigation, more rich data could have been obtained. Even with the use of a questionnaire survey, more time would have allowed for conducting more than one survey (one for Hajj and one for Umrah) or using the initial analysis of responses to iterate the collection process in order to gain further data. The direction for future research, which emerged from our findings, is empirical testing, refining the proposed factors, and exploring relationships among the various variables by collecting data from different sources. Second, the findings also call for a micro-type of research, where each component is examined through exploratory studies that can provide better understanding of the internal working of their elements and the mechanisms by which the role of each in Hajj facilities and services can be improved. Finally, as the current research has met its objectives, it is believed that the information provided by this research contributes to the overall knowledge concerning Hajj. This information will help in improving the future practices of such an

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