The Formation and Meaning of Latin Stem Compounds Compiled by Ian Andreas Miller A “real” or “stem” compound word in Latin is a word whose stem derives from a combination of other stems. This tutorial will refer to such compounds as Stem Compounds. The instructions in this tutorial describe the most common procedures in creating these words. Exceptions and irregularities are common, so the reader must understand that not every known rule known is listed in this tutorial. A Stem Compound may be either a direct compound or an indirect compound. A direct compound is simply a compound of stems without an additional suffix, as ālipēs from āla (stem ālā-) and pēs (stem ped-); an indirect compound is a combination of stems with an additional suffix, as lātifundium from lātus (stem lāto-) and fundus (stem fundo-) and the suffix -ium (stem -io-). For the sake of convenience, a Stem Compound may be divided into two parts, the Prima, the first part, and the Secunda, the second part. The Prima may be a substantive or an adjectival or a verbal stem, although verbal stems are rarely used, and the the Secunda may be a substantive or an adjectival stem or a verb stem with an additional substantive or adjectival suffix or ending. Before the creation of a Stem Compound begins, stems that are to be compounded undergo preparation to be Primae and Secundae. The Primae of Stem Compounds often end in a Connecting Vowel, which is regularly the letter i in Latin.

Preparation for the Prima The procedures for preparing the Prima is as follows: 1. The stem vowel of a vocalic stem appears as the Connecting Vowel i when the Secunda begins with a consonant. Formation of Prima Word Stem Prima āla ālāāliflāvus flāvoflāviīgnis īgniīgnimanus manumanifidēs fidēfidisēmināre sēmināsēminiterrēre terrēterrivomere vomevomisentīre sentīsenti-

Example in Compound Word Stem Formation ālipēs ālipedāli-pedflāvicomus flāvicomoflāvi-comoīgnispicium īgnispicioīgni-spiciomanipretium manipretiomani-pretiofidifragus fidifragofidi-fragosēminiverbius sēminiverbiosēmini-verbioterrificus terrificoterri-ficovomificus vomificovomi-ficosentificus sentificosenti-fico-

Note: Fidifragus is Medieval Latin. Post-classical words are included in this tutorial for the sake of demonstration.

2. A consonant stem or a semivocalic stem appears in the form it regularly takes before vowels, and the Connecting Vowel i appears immediately after that version of the stem when the Secunda begins with a consonant.

1

Formation of Prima Word Stem Prima pāx pācpācirēx rēgrēgipalūs palūdpalūdicaput capitcapitiimagō imaginimaginisōl sōlsōliflōs flōrflōriops opopios ossossibōs bov- (bou-) boviIuppiter Iov- (Iou-) Iovigrūs grūgruisūs sūsui-

Example in Compound Word Stem Formation pācificus pācificopāc-i-ficorēgifugium rēgifugiorēg-i-fugiopalūdicola palūdicolāpalūd-i-colācapitilavium capitilaviocapit-i-lavioimaginifer imaginiferoimagin-i-ferosōligena sōligenāsōl-i-genāflōricomus flōricomoflōr-i-comoopiparus opiparoop-i-paroossifragus ossifragooss-i-fragobovicīdium bovicīdiobov-i-cīdioIovibarba IovibarbāIov-i-barbāGruiformēs GruiformiGru-i-formiSuiformēs suiformisu-i-formi-

Note: The taxonomic names Gruiformēs, Iovibarba (Jovibarba) and Suiformēs are Neo-Latin.

3. If the Prima is polysyllabic, and the Secunda begins with a vowel, then the Connecting Vowel disappears. Formation of Prima Word Stem Prima grandis grandigrandmagnus magnomagn-

Word grandaevus magnanimus

Example in Compound Stem Formation grandaevogrand-aevomagnanimomagn-animo-

4. If the Prima is monosyllabic, and the Secunda begins with a vowel or consonant, the Connecting Vowel stays. Formation of Prima Word Stem Prima trēs tritritrēs tritri-

Word triangulus triennium

Example in Compound Stem Formation triangulotri-angulotrienniotri-ennio-

5. If the Prima ends in ii, that ii appears as a single Connecting Vowel i, and the i stays as it is if the Secunda begins with a consonant or a vowel. Formation of Prima Word Stem Prima ānxius ānxioānxiifaciēs faciēfaciiglōria glōriāglōrii-

Word ānxianimus facitergium glōrificus

Example in Compound Stem Formation ānxianimoānxi-i-animofacitergiofaci-i-tergioglōrificoglōri-i-fico-

6. Indeclinable substantive, adjective, or verbal word forms may be used as stems for the sake of compounding. If such a form is used as a Prima, and the Secunda begins with a consonant, the Prima does not take an additional connecting vowel. Formation of Prima Word Stem Prima centum centumcentumquinque quinque- quinque-

Example in Compound Word Stem Formation centumgeminus centumgemino- centum-geminoquinquefolius quinquefolioquinque-folio-

2

7. If such an indeclinable form used as a Prima ends in a vowel and is polysyllabic, the final vowel of that Prima disappears when the Secunda begins with a vowel. Formation of Prima Word Stem Prima quinque quinque- quinquoctō octōoct-

Example in Compound Word Stem Formation quinquangulus quinquanguloquinqu-angulooctennis octennioct-enni-

Preparation for the Secunda When a substantive, adjectival, or verbal stem undergoes preparation to be a Secunda of a compound, that Secunda may be one of two types: Homographic:

Heterographic:

The stem or nominative form is the same as that of the uncompounded stem, as ālipēs, from the uncompounded ped-, stem of pēs. Mixed i-stem nouns use the consonant version of their stems when used as Secunda in adjectival Stem Compounds of one termination. Homographic Secunda are found in direct compounds. The stem or nominative singular form has been modified from the uncompounded stem, as flāvicomus, from the uncompounded comā-, stem of coma. The modification from the uncompounded stem may be the result of additional suffixes or endings, or some other phonetic change. Heterographic Secunda are found in indirect compounds.

Secunda with Additional Suffixes or Endings Stems used as Secunda very often combine with additional suffixes or endings to form other Stem Compounds. When these stems do so, the regular procedures of word formation using suffixes apply. Here are some descriptions of the procedures for the formation of the Secundae of these Stem Compounds: 1. Substantive stems that undergo preparation to be Secunda may form compound adjectives by the addition of any of these three sets of adjectival suffixes: Set Types and Suffix Set Type Nom. Sg. I -us, -a, -um II -is, -is, -e III -ius, -ia, -ium

Forms Stems -o-, -ā-, -o-i-, -i-, -i-io-, -iā-, -io-

Compounds Adjectives Decline Like the Words bonus, bona, bonum brevis, brevis, breve ānxius, ānxia, ānxium

When Secundae take the Set Type II suffixes, they very often have a long penult. However, the Secundae animis (-is, -e), comis (-is, -e), and iugis (-is, -e) may take the Set Type II suffixes even though each has a short penult, but even then, the Set Type I suffixes (i.e. -us, -a, -um) may be used instead. Word(s) rāmus cornū nōmen

Secunda rāmis, -is, -e cornis, -is, -e nōminis, -is, -e

Penult Length long long long

3

Compound Example multirāmis, -is, -e ūnicornis, -is, -e multinōminis, -is, -e

anima, animus anima, animus coma coma iugum iugum

animis, -is, -e animus, -a, -um comis, -is, -e comus, -a, -um iugis, -is, -e iugus, -a, -um

short short short short short short

magnanimis, -is, -e magnanimus, -a, -um horricomis, -is, -e flāvicomus, -a, -um multiiugis, -is, -e multiiugus, -a, -um

The use of these three sets of terminations also depends on the declension of the substantive stem. These suffix sets are added in the following ways: a. Substantive stems of the first, second, and fourth declensions use Set Types I and II, making compound adjectives ending in -us, -a, -um or -is, -is, -e. Formation of Secunda Word Stem Secunda coma comācomus, -a, -um coma comācomis, -is, -e uncia unciāuncis, -is, -e rāmus ramorāmis, -is, -e frūctus frūctufrūctus, -a, -um cornū cornucornis, -is, -e

Example in Compound Word Stems albicomus, -a, -um albicomo-, -ā-, -ohorricomis, -is, -e horricomi-, -i-, -itriuncis, -is, -e triunci-, -i-, -imultirāmis, -is, -e multirāmi-, -i-, -imultifrūctus, -a, -um multifrūcto-, -ā-, -oūnicornis, -is, -e ūnicorni-, -i-, -i-

b. Substantive stems of the third and fifth declensions use Set Type I, making compound adjectives in -us, -a, -um. These words rarely use Set Type II, making compound adjectives in -is, -is, -e. Formation of Secunda Word Stem Secunda flōs flōrflōrus, -a, -um nōmen nōmin- nōminis, -is, -e fidēs fidēfīdus, -a, -um

Example in Word multiflōrus, -a, -um multinōminis, -is, -e levifīdus, -a, -um

Compound Stems multiflōro-, -ā-, -omultinōmini-, -i-, -ilevifīdo-, -ā-, -o-

c. Substantive stems of any declension may use Set Type III, making compound adjectives in -ius, -ia, -ium. Formation of Secunda Word Stem Secunda vēna vēnā- vēnius, -ia, -ium via viāvius, -ia, -ium nōdus nōdo- nōdius, -ia, -ium cor cordcordius, -ia, -ium

Example in Word crassivēnius, -ia, -ium trivius, -ia, -ium centinōdius, -ia, -ium torticordius, -ia, -ium

Compound Stems crassivēnio-, -iā-, -iotrivio-, -iā-, -iocentinōdio-, -iā-, -iotorticordio-, -iā-, -io-

2. When verb stems are used as Secundae in Stem Compounds, they are given substantive or adjectival suffixes or endings, and therefore they are always heterographic. These Secunda may make up compounded nouns and adjectives. Examples of Secundae in Compound Nouns Formation of Secunda Example in Compound Word Stem Secunda Word Stem caedere caedecīda, -ae homicīda, -ae homicīdāfacere facefex, -icis artifex, -icis artific-

4

fugere

fuge-

fuga, -ae

aquifuga, -ae

aquifugā-

Examples of Secundae in Compound Adjectives Formation of Secunda Example in Compound Word Stem Secunda Word Stems colere colecola, -a, -a rūricola, -a, -a rūricolā-, -ā-, -āferre ferfer, -ra, -rum lūcifer, -ra, -rum lūcifero-, -rā-, -ropetere petepetus, -a, -um lūcipetus, -a, -um lūcipeto-, -ā-, -oa. Most verbs may form Secundae directly from one of their three stems, although in practice their present stems are used instead of the others. Formation of Secunda Word Stem Secunda colere colecola, -ae fugere fugefuga, -ae legere legelegium, -iī loquī loqueloquium, -iī lūcēre lūcēlūcus, -a, -um petere petepeta, -ae petere petepetus, -a, -um scīre scīscius, -a, -um trahere trahetrahus, -a, -um

Example in Compound Word Stem(s) agricola, -ae agricolāaquifuga, -ae aquifugāspīcilegium, -iī spīcilegioveriloquium, -iī veriloquioastrilūcus, -a, -um astrilūco-, -ā-, -oagripeta, -ae agripetālūcipetus, -a, -um lūcipeto-, -ā-, -oomniscius, -a, -um omniscio-, -ā-, -otestitrahus, -a, -um testitraho-, -ā-, -o-

b. Forms of verbs different from their three stems may be used as Secundae. Certain verbs regularly use their common verb stem, or root, instead of their three stems. Verb stems of any type may also undergo additional phonetic changes. The present stems that have undergone phonetic change appear below in lower case letters while the common verb stems appear in small capital letters. Word agere caedere canere capere frangere facere facere

Present Stem agecaedecanecapefrangefaceface-

Verb Form(s) for Secunda ege-; EG (with phonetic change) cīde-; CĪD (with phonetic change) cene-; CED (with phonetic change) cipe-; CIP (with phonetic change) FRAG (without phonetic change) fece-; FEC (with phonetic change) fice-; FIC (with phonetic change)

Secunda ex, -igis cīda, -ae cen, -inis ceps, -ipis fragus, -a -um fex, -icis ficus, -a -um

Note: In the creation of Secundae, sometimes the phonetic changes that occur in present stems are the same as those that occur in their common verb stems. Since there is not always easy to discern whether the Secundae derive from the present stems or from the common verb stems, the modified present stems and the modified common verb stems appear above.

Some Stem Compounds formed with these Secundae are: Formation of Secunda Word Secunda agere ex, -igis caedere cīda, -ae canere cen, -inis

Example in Compound Word Stem(s) rēmex, -igis rēmighomicīda, -ae homicīdācornicen, -inis cornicin-

5

capere frangere facere facere

ceps, -ipis fragus, -a -um fex, -icis ficus, -a -um

mūniceps, -ipis naufragus, -a -um artifex, -icis vomificus, -a -um

mūnicipnaufrago-, -ā-, -oartificvomifico-, -ā-, -o-

Special Forms of Nominative Forms and Stems as Secunda Certain substantives and adjectives have special forms in the nominative singular and special stems that are used only as Secundae. 1. Some of these Secundae are modifications of their original stems that are much more productive in the formation of Stem Compounds than the original stems:

Word annus annus caput corpus diēs

Formation of Secunda Stem Secunda annoennis, -is annoennium, -iī capitceps, -cipitis corporcorpor, -oris diēduum, -ī

Example in Compound Word Stem biennis biennisbiennium bienniotrīceps trīcipittricorpor tricorportrīduum trīduo-

The words ās and uncia have special irregularities. Ās may form the Secunda assis, but the first letter in that Secunda, a, is often dropped, leaving only ssis, and the connecting vowel before it appears as i, e, or u, depending on the Prima. Uncia may form Secundae normally, except it also may form the Secunda unx, and when the combination qu appears immedinately before any Secunda of uncia, the qu becomes c (e.g. sescuncia instead of sesquuncia, quīncunx instead of quīnquunx).

Word ās ās ās ās uncia uncia uncia

Formation of Secunda Stem Secunda assassis, -is assssis, -is assssis, -is assssis, -is unciāuncia, -ae unciāuncius, -iī unciācunx, -ncis

Example in Compound Word Stem qradrassis qradrassioctussis octussiseptissis septissitressis tressisescuncia sescunciāteruncius teruncioquīncunx quīncunc-

2. It is normal in Latin for most adjectives with stems ending in -ro-, compounded or not, to have special inflections. If their stems end in -ro- after a vowel (except -ē-), they have inflections like miser, misera, miserum. If their stems end in -ro- after a consonant, they have inflections like aeger, aegra, aegrum. But stems in -ēro-, and a few in -ĕro-, are declined like bonus, bona, bonum, instead. Adjective with Stem in -roNominative Singular Forms Stems līber, lībera, līberum lībero-, līberāpestifer, pestifera, pestiferum pestifero-, pestiferāarmiger, armigera, armigerum armigero-, armigerāruber, rubra, rubrum rubro-, rubrāsurruber, surrubra, surrubrum surrubro-, surrubrāsatur, satura, saturum saturo-, saturā-

6

Inflections Are Like miser, misera, miserum miser, misera, miserum miser, misera, miserum aeger, aegra, aegrum aeger, aegra, aegrum miser, misera, miserum

prōcērus, prōcēra, prōcērum properus, propera, properum

prōcēro-, prōcērāpropero-, properā-

bonus, bona, bonum bonus, bona, bonum

Denominative Verbs from Stem Compounds Certain verbs were apparently formed by joining a substantive or adjectival stem with a verb stem, but these compounds actually are denominative verbs formed from real or imagined Stem compounds. Prima Word Form aedēs aediiūdex iū-

Secunda Word Form facere ficdicere dic-

Compound aedifex, *aedificus iūdex

Denominative Verb from Compound aedificāre iūdicāre

Note: Iūdex is for *iūsdex instead of the normal *iūridex.

Multi-Stem Stem Compounds Although it is convenient to think of Stem Compounds as words comprising two main parts, that does not mean that they may comprise only two stems. Thus, two stems may come together to form a Stem Compound, and then a third may be added, and so on. There are a number of multi-stem Stem Compounds, although they are rarely formed. Many of these appear in the works of Plautus: Compound Thēsaurochrȳsonīcochroesides Nūgipolyloquides Vāniloquidōrus

Original Words θησαυρός, χρῡσός, Κροῖσος nūgae, πολύς, loquī vānus, loquī, δῶρον

Meaning of Stem Compounds Stem Compound words may be grouped according to their meanings into four broad classes. A word may fall into one or more of these classes. The functional relation of the parts of compounds varies so greatly that strict boundary lines among the different classes is difficult to establish, and it is not possible for every word to stay within any one class in all situations. 1. In Copulative Compounds, the Secunda is simply added to the first, and a conjunction (e.g. and) may be implied (as in English bittersweet, sleepwalk, deaf-mute). Compound septendecim sexdecim suovetaurīlia

Meaning(s) seventeen, seven and ten sixteen, six and ten sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull

Original Words septem, decem sex, decem sūs, ovis, taurus

2. In Determinative Compounds, the Prima modifies the Secund as an adjective or adverb (as in English eagle-eyed, goldfish, blockhead). Compound lātifundium multifidus

Meaning(s) large estate many-cleft

7

Original Words lātus, fundus multus, findere

omnipotēns

all-powerful

omnis, potēns

3. In Objective Compounds, the Prima has the force of a case, and the Secunda has a verbal force (as in English soothsayer, sightseer, painstaking). Compound agricola cornicen armiger

Meaning(s) farmer horn blower armor bearer

Original Words ager, colere cornū, canere arma, gerere

4. In Possessive Compounds, the Secunda, derived from a substantive stem, is part of a compound adjective indicating possession of the quality denoted (as in English whitehanded, open-hearted, yellow-bellied, redhead). Compound ālipēs flāvicomus magnanimus

Meaning(s) wing-footed yellow-haired great-souled

8

Original Words āla, pēs flāvus, coma magnus, animus

Bibliography Allen, Joseph Henry, and James Bradstreet Greenough. Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar. 2001 ed. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1903. Brown, Roland Wilbur. Composition of Scientific Words. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1956. Chase, George D. The Form of Nominal Compounds in Latin. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 11. (1900), pp. 61-72. Clements, Frederic E. Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature. 1st ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1902. Cooper, Frederic Taber. Word Formation in the Roman Sermo Plebeius. 1975 ed. Trow Directory Co.: New York, 1895. Fuchs, Johanne W., Ediderunt Olga Weijers, and Marijke Gumbert Hepp. Lexicon Latinitatis Nederlandicae Medii Aevi: Fasc. 27, Fidelitas - Formalis. 1st ed. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1987. Hale, William Gardner. A First Latin Book. 1912 ed. Chicago: Atkinson, Mentzer and Grover, 1907. Lane, George Martin. A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges. 1903 ed. New York: American Book Company, 1898. Nicolson, Dan H. and Brooks, Robert A. Orthography of Names and Epithets: Stems and Compound Words. Taxon, Vol. 23, No. 1. (Feb., 1974), pp. 163-177. Nybakken, Oscar E. Greek and Latin in Scientific Terminology. 1987 ed. Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1959. Perseus Digital Library. “Perseus Project Online Latin Lexicon.” http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin (June 7, 2009). Poultney, James W. “The Declension of the Latin Compound Adjectives.” American Journal of Philology, Vol. 74, No. 4. (1953), pp. 367-382.

The

Stearn, William T. Botanical Latin. 4th ed. Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1966. White, John Tahourdin. White's Latin Suffixes. Longmans, and Roberts, 1858.

9

London: Longman, Brown, Green,