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Foreign Language Learning Anxiety in Upper-Level Classes: Involving Students as Researchers Jennifer D. Ewald Saint Joseph’s University

Abstract: While both the causes and effects of students’ language learning anxiety have been a frequent focus of many investigations, few have explored anxiety in the context of upper-level language classrooms. Through a qualitative analysis of questionnuire data obtainedfrom 21 advanced students of Spanish, this study found that, indeed, many OJ these students did report experiencing anxiety in upper-level courses, perhaps an unanticiputed setting given students’ relatively higher levels of proficiency. Students highlighted many issues related to their anxiety and confirmed findings of previous investigations; specijcally, they pointed to the key role of the teacher in producing and i-elieving anxiety. In addition to considering anxiety in an unexplored context, this study serves as a model for involving students in research related to language learning. Key words: action research, advanced students, anxiety, student research, upper-level

language study Language: Spanish

Introduction I do worry because I feel like these [upper-level] classes are very important and I want to do everything “right.” (Student 1)

There are times when I feel sure of myself, but it seems the times of uncertainty outnumber the times of certainty (Student 2 ) There is a little panic. I cope with it. (Student 3 ) Since the mid-l960s, researchers have suspected that anxiety inhibits foreign/ second language learning. Though the findings of a number of studies indicate that some tension can motivate students and even enhance their learning (see Spielmann 6r Radnofsky, 2001, for one example), a larger number of studies (e.g., Elkhafaif, 2005; Gregersen, 2003; Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002; Horwitz, 1995; Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989, 1991; Young, 1986) emphasize the negative effects of anxiety in the classroom. Most expericnced language teachers intuitively recognize that anxiety is not a positive ingredi-

Jcnnqer D. Ewuld (PhD, University of Minnesota) is Assistant Professor of Spanish und Linguistics at Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

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ent of successful learning and, in fact, often go to great lengths to avoid creating undue tension for their students. To that end, language teaching methodologies include specific activities and practices aimed, directly or indirectly, at reducing students’ anxiety in foreign language’ classrooms. For example, communicative language teachers include small-group work to help students form relationships and create a higher comfort level in class. Those language teachers who are interested in input and output processing try to expose students to language they can understand and challenge them with situations they can handle linguistically without unnecessarily increasing their level of anxiety. Although the term low affective filter, which was introduced by Krashen (1982) to describe a decreased level of anxiety in the cIassroom, is not used as frequently as it once was, language teachers who introduce practices (e.g., kinesthetic activities or relaxation techniques) from methods such as Total Physical Response or Suggestopedia seek to keep tension at a minimum and, in effect, lower students’ affective filter by decreasing their feelings of anxiety. Most investigations of foreign language learning anxiety have focused on beginning levels of language classes in which students’ oral proficiency typically ranges from Novice-Low to Intermediate-Mid/ High (Magnan, 19862) (rated according to the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines [ACTFL, 19991). Though crucial for understanding and improving the overall experience and success of language learners, these introductory course levels are not the setting for this study. Rather, this investigation responds both to Horwitz’s (1996) suggestion that “greater attention should be paid to more advanced stages of language learning” (p. 370) and to Phillips’ (2003) call to focus research attention on the higher levels of proficiency. To that end, this study investigates anxiety in the context of upper-level Spanish classes in which students’ proficiency level typically ranges from Intermediate Mid/High to Advancedl

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Advanced High (Magnan, 1986), thereby offering a new perspective on a long-recognized problem. Designed for majors and minors, an upper-level course is perhaps not a level in which one expects to find language learning anxiety. In fact, there is a lack of existing research; my own research did not unearth any investigations focused specifically on anxiety and the upper-level language learner.3 Moreover, while teachers often refer to their introductory-level students’ reticence and notice their tension in class, one rarely overhears teachers discussing the nervous reactions of upper-level students and how little some students participate due to anxiety Some teachers might even assume, perhaps subconsciously, that students who have chosen to specialize in foreign language study either do not experience anxiety or believe that it is a personal aspect of the academic experience that students must manage themselves. In general, as evident in the three students’ quotes in the introduction, many upper-level students in this study claimed to experience more anxiety in upper-level Spanish classes than in lower-level language learning courses or in their other university classes. Raising issues such as the linguistic proficiency of peers, students’ relationships with each other and with the teacher, teachers’ expectations, students’ own class preparation, particular course material, and the classroom atmosphere, these students’ comments highlight the complex and distinct nature of anxiety in the upper-level foreign language classroom.

Foreign Language Anxiety When we wear clothing that is unbecoming or have a “bad hair day,” we feel uncomfortable because not only do we not feel like ourselves, we feel that we are presenting a less positive version of ourselves to the world than we normally do. In an analogous way few people can appear equally intelligent, sensitive, witty, and so on when speaking a second language as

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when speaking their first; this disparity between how we see ourselves and how we think others see us has been my consistent explanation for language learners’ anxieties. (Horwitz, 2000, p. 258) Current literature confirms the existence of an anxiety particular to foreign language learning; some early findings (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; Maclntyre & Gardner, 1989, 1991) even suggest that foreign language courses induce more anxiety than courses in other disciplines. This anxiety, whether stemming from the disparity described above by Horwitz (2000) or from the actual classroom experience itself, produces adverse effects on the learners. Researchers have identified negative reactions including the phenomenon of “freezing,” concentration difficulties, worry, dread, sweating, heart palpitations, lack of comprehension, errors, forgetfulness, overstudying, tension, frustration, communication apprehension, avoidance, absenteeism, and even a complete inability to perform (Aida, 1994; Casado & Dereshiwsky, 2001; Gregersen, 2000; Horwitz et al., 1986; Pappamihiel, 2002; Young, 1991). Indeed, it is easy to see how many of the goals of the language learning process could provoke this anxiety. The Standards for Foreign Language Learning (National Standards, 1996) articulated a series of five interrelated goals for language learners that incorporate important issues of communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities. Omaggio Hadley (2001) points out that “the goals of language study, as outlined in the Standards, represent a challenging view of our mission as language teachers in the years ahead” (p. 41). While she is certainly correct, it is likely that if language learners themselves were infxmed of these goals prior to enrolling in their first foreign language course, their level of anxiety might drastically increase even at the thought of the challenges that lay ahead. The idea that one will be required

to “engage in conversations,” “exchange opinions,” “understand and interpret written and spoken language on a variety of topics,” “present information . . . to an audience of listeners,” “demonstrate an understanding” of another culture, “participate in multilingual communities at home and around the world” (National Standards, 1996), and more, all in a second language, might have a negative impact on the anxiety level of many students. As some studies have suggested, a certain level of anxiety might motivate some language learners and enhance their performance. But how is it possible to expect students who cannot concentrate, who forget previous knowledge, who avoid coming to class, and whose hearts might be skipping beats to learn effectively and perform up to their potential in speech or even in writing? It remains clear that the anxiety felt by many students negatively influences their language learning experience and perhaps even their achievement. Since the ground-breaking study by Horwitz et al. (1986) that proposed an instrument to measure anxiety-the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)-“findings concerning anxiety and language achievement have been relatively uniform, indicating a consistent moderate negative relationship between anxiety and achievement” (Horwitz, 2001, p. 112). Although there has been some debate over the nature of foreign language learning anxiety, whether it is a consequence (Sparks, Ganschow, & Javorsky, 2000) or a cause (Horwitz, 2000) of poor achievement, most researchers agree on its existence in the classroom and continue to explore its effects. For instance, Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, and Daley (1999a) explored the relationship between anxiety and achievement at three stages of language learning: input, processing, and output. In a more recent study of 490 language students of Spanish and French, Frantzen and Magnan (2005) compared the anxiety of true beginners to that of false beginners (e.g., students

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enrolled in Spanish 101 who have prior experience in Spanish) in the same foreign language courses. Their findings confirmed the expectation that the true beginners, in addition to experiencing more anxiety than the false beginners, also received lower overall grades; these students’ perspectives suggest that the role of the instructor is crucial in reducing learners’ anxiety. Thus, the intuition of foreign language teachers that students’ anxiety should be prevented and reduced whenever possible seems to echo learners’ beliefs. Several recent investigations have highlighted specific aspects of language learning anxiety. For example, Kitano (2001) and Spielmann and Radnofsky (2001) focused on the key role of students’ personal expectations regarding language learning. Daley, Onwuegbuzie, and Bailey (1999) distinguished between students who are “enhancers,” students who are unrealistically optimistic about their language learning ability, and “derogators,” students with little or no confidence in their ability to learn a foreign language who tend to experience more language learning anxiety. Several other studies (MacIntyre, Noels, & Clement, 1997; Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley, 1999b) claim that students’ perceptions of their own abilities is a predictor of language learning anxiety, and others (Brophy, 1996; Gregersen Q Horwitz, 2002) have established a link between anxiety and students’ perfectionism. Moreover, Cheng, Horwitz, and Schallert (1999) and Cheng (2002) further emphasize the specific role of self-confidence, suggesting that foreign language writing anxiety and foreign language classroom anxiety are two related, though independent, constructs. Finally, Woodrow (2001) conceptualizes foreign language anxiety as two-dimensional: in-class (anxiety experienced within the learning environment) and out-of-class (anxiety experienced in the target language environment).

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Present Study The present study takes the position that the anxiety experienced by most foreign language learners is primarily negative in effect and undesirable from a pedagogical standpoint. But this investigation sets aside the issue of anxiety’s effect on achievement. Rather, in the spirit of Horwitz (2001), who has recently become “more interested in the experience of second language learning than in the simple prediction of its success” (p. 121), this study explores foreign language learners’ own experiences with anxiety. The investigation was organized around the following seven research questions: 1. Do these students like their upper-level courses? 2. Are these students confident in their own Spanish ability? 3 . Do students experience anxiety in upper-level language courses? 4. What effect do classmates and teachers have on students’ anxiety? 5. What classroom practices contribute to anxiety? 6. Do students have unrealistic expectations of themselves that produce anxiety? 7. How do students react to taking part in investigations such as this?

Pavticigants Data were collected from 21 upper-level, advanced students of Spanish from the same university (i.e., mostly juniors and seniors enrolled in literature, culture, linguistics, translation, or business Spanish courses primarily designed for majors and minors), and all but 2 had officially declared a Spanish major or minor.4 Additionally, 17 undergraduate students who were enrolled in my Methods for Teaching Spanish course participated in this study as coresearchers. For class, these students read and discussed an article by Horwitz et al. (1986), then participated in the data analysis stage of the study. Though I included these Methods students as coresearchers primarily to promote their own reflection on teaching practices, addressing Standard 6a of the ACTFL

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Pmgrarn Slandarzis f o r [he Pipeparation of Foreign Language Teachers (ACTFL, 2002), their insightful contributions proved to be equally valuable to the research project. After we read the Horwitz et al. article together as part of the regular course curriculum. two of the Methods students presented the content of the article in class and led a lively discussion. Although they were not shocked by their classmates’ comments and experiences, I was surprised to discover that these students continued to experience anxiety in their upper-level courses t o the extent that they felt physically sick, dreaded going to class, and considered changing their career plans. Their heightened interest prompted me to further investigate this topic by formalizing a study in which they; as upper-level students themselves, could be involved. Thus, this study offers a unique perspective by focusing on the issue of anxiety in upper-level courses as well as by serving as a model for including students in the reflective research process itself.

Procedures Thc enthusiasm and concern expressed by my Methods students regarding anxiety in upper-level courses inspired the primary goal of this study: to listen to and explore the concerns of these students. Emphasizing the learners’ central role in the language acquisition process supports this type of objective: As Horwitz (1995) wrote, “It is within the power of language teachers t o address the emotional concerns of their students. I t is essential that they do so” (17. 578). Thus, this study is in line with other research that emphasizes understanding a particular pedagogical situation (Allwright, 1999), reflecting on one’s teaching (Johnston, ZOOO), and involving students in language-related research (Auerbach, 1994; Crookes, 1993, 1998). As noted by Spielmann and Radnofsky (2001), many previous studies have attempted to deal quantitatively with variables (e.g., instructional factors, teacher personalities, and students’ previous expe-

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riences) that are virtually impossible to quantify. These authors encourage qualitative research, not simply to strengthen or inform statistical findings but rather to clarify the extreme complexity of the language learning experience. Rather than pursuing a comprehensive or definitive account of anxiety in upper-level language courses, an overambitious and misguided aim, this study, rooted in its own setting (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), offers preliminary findings and an interpretation of those findings that is exploratory and selective (Johnston, Juhasz, Marken, & Rolfs Ruiz, 1998). Thus, initiated and in part conducted by students, this qualitative study sheds light on the complex issue of anxiety among upper-level language students. All three sources of data-( 1) the participants’ questionnaire responses, (2) our Methods class discussion, and ( 3 ) the coresearchers’ follow-up reflections-are highly informed by students’ perspectives. The questionnaire was distributed to the 21 participants (recruited because of their academic status as Spanish majors/ minors and enrollment in upper-level courses). This questionnaire elicited biographical information and posed 20 “mostly agree”/ “mostly disagree” statements (Appendix A), many adapted from the FLCAS (Horwitz et al., 1986). The participants completed and returned the questionnaires anonymously. In class, the 17 Methods students and I worked together to tally and discuss the participants’ r e s p o n ~ e s .To ~ provide my coresearchers with an opportunity outside of class to reflect further on the data and on our class discussion, these students were given a list of three follow-up questions to consider and answer independently (Appendix B). Care was taken to seek triangulation in the data. Participants’ questionnaire responses were evaluated by the coresearchers during the class discussion. The coresearchers’ comments and reactions during that discussion were later reconciled with their written reflections offered in response to the follow-up questions.

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These three-dimensional pictures (Edwards &I Westgate, 1994) shape the content of the data analysis and facilitate in-depth exploration of the seven research questions listed previously.

Findings Do These Students Like Their UpperLevel Courses? An important factor when considering participants’ experiences of anxiety is whether or not they liked taking upper-level courses. The relationship between any kind of anxiety and displeasure should not be simplified. I point to amusement parks for an analogy. Clearly, even adventurous theme park enthusiasts feel some anxiety anticipating and experiencing the newest ride. Sometimes this sensation is the very motivation for standing in long lines in exchange for a few seconds of heart-stopping motion. From traditional roller coasters to more modern thrill attractions, the source of the accompanying pleasure is the combined sense of danger and excitement. In these thrill rides, the anxiety, both anticipated as well as experienced, is central to the success of the event. While the foreign language classroom is clearly a different context, the parallel holds. Anxiety cannot be immediately associated with displeasure or dissatisfaction. That is, even students who like foreign language courses experience anxiety. As in Frantzen and Magnan’s (2005) study of introductory-level language learners, significantly more true beginners, who experienced more anxiety than did the false beginners, planned to continue studying the language. Thus, experiencing anxiety in a foreign language course does not always preclude liking the course or finding it worthwhile. The large majority of participants in this study, 17 of 216 according to Questionnaire Statement (QS) #1,reported that they liked to study in upper-level Spanish courses (see Appendix C). They reasons for their positive reactions included a focus in class on various aspects of language, the greater

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challenge they perceived in completing upper-level courses, and the opportunity to learn in depth about Spanish-speaking cultures. But one student qualified his positive answer by referring to the effect (both positive and negative) that his personal comfort level has on course enjoyment. He wrote: I enjoy the studies when I’m comfortable with the material and my ability to communicate. There are times when I’m not comfortable and don’t enjoy it. Ouan7> Returning briefly to the amusement park analogy, we can anticipate that Juan’s anxiety might allow him to get on a ride (i.e., take the class), but not always enjoy it. His perspective affirms that students’ reactions to a class or course material depend, at least to some extent, on their personal level of comfort. It is also worth emphasizing that these students’ classification of upper-level courses as challenging did not result in negative reactions toward the courses. In fact, those who claimed the courses were challenging also claimed to enjoy them. Their insights provide initial evidence that foreign language learning anxiety in an upper-level class depends more on the level of comfort and confidence experienced by students in the class than on its actual difficulty. Furthermore, students may like a course in spite of feeling anxious.

Are These Students Confident in Their Spanish Language Ability? Only about half of the students in the study claimed to experience a relative level of confidence in their upper-level classes. Specifically, 12 claimed that they “never feel quite sure of [themselves],” while 11 expressed that they “feel confident” when they speak (QS #2 and QS #lo, respectively). Even more surprising is that, given their status as Spanish majors and minors, only 12 of the students reported they “feel more confident now” about their language ability than ever before (QS #20).

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Students attributed this lack of confidence to their awareness of three major factors: lack of grammatical accuracy, classmates‘ perceived ability, and a need for additional grammar teaching. For example, Lisa and Jane both explained that they do not feel confident because they are aware of their own grammatical mistakes. They wwte: I ki10m7 when I speak I’m normally wrong but I don’t mind too much. (Lisa) I find it hard t o conimunicate my thoughts inany times and I know I

make many mistakes with grammar Therefore, I am never very confident in class [I] never feel too confident about my grammar though I’m usudlly confident in the ideas beneath the grammar In other words, I usually feel as though 1 have good ideas that answei the question but with trying to communicate the ideas, I lack confidence (Jane) Marge and Josefina pointed to the knowledge and abilities of fellow classmate5 as a cause of their insecurity I do feel sure of myself, yet when I am in a classroom where I feel there are inore people that are better speakers than myself, then I become unsure of 1 my] speaking skills (Marge) When 1 was younger, and all [of] i t way vocabulary and grammar, I felt more confident because 1 could understand whereas many students in my classes couldn’t. But now that we all understand, it’s more unnerving. Uosefina) About half of the student participants expressed a similar view in that they experience less confidence in university language course5 than they did in high school. While it might be tempting to respond quickly that university-level courses should be more challenging (and thus promote

less self-confidence), the lack of confidence reported by these students cannot be attributed simply to challenging courses. Rather, these students’ comments communicate dissatisfaction with the curriculum and their language classroom experience. Specifically, Bob’s and Marge’s comments suggest a perceived need for more grammar teaching: I feel that I was better at Spanish (especially grammar rules) at the end of high school. Many of these rules I have forgotten by taking culture classes in college. (Bob) I feel that my grammar has been lost long ago. (Marge)

And Juan, in spite of having earned a B+ average in his college Spanish courses, also emphasized his perception that his skills have weakened after having completed college courses: I feel I’ve regressed since my last year of actually learning vocabulary and rules of grammar, which was junior year of high school. (Juan) Ann agreed: I felt better about my ability before college. As previously mentioned, several studies indicate a relationship between students’ anxiety and their expectations of themselves, perception of their own abilities, self-perception, and confidence level (Cheng, 2002; Cheng, Horwitz, & Schallert, 1999; Daley, Onwuegbuzie, & Bailey, 1999; Kitano, 2001; Maclntyre, Noels, & Clement, 1997; Onwuegbuzie,Bailey, & Daley, 1999b; Spielmann & Radnofsky, 2001). It is likely that students who are less confident in their own knowledge and abilities experience more anxiety, while students who are more confident struggle less with anxiety.

Do Students Experience Anxiety in Upper-Level Language Courses? Man) of thesc students (9 of 21) claimed t o experience more anxiety in their upperICL el Spanish classes than in their other non-Spanish classes (QS #14) They pointcd out that courses taught in a foreign language are more difficult because I have to translate all of ni) thoughts from English to Spanish There is more mental work involved in these classes (Rudy)

because you have to worry about knowing the information and how to s q it (Enrique) Furthermore, compared to their beginning and intermediate Spanish classes in high school or college, nearly half (10 of 21) said they feel more nervous in upperlcvcl Spanish courses now ( Q S #17) Two students explained Because of highei proficiency and harder maleiial (Jessica) Everyone knew nothing in early classes. And I caught on easily to the basics. However now there are many different levels that people are at. I don’t feel as though I’m that advanced therefore I get nervous. There is so much more to know now also. It’s hard to know i t all and to put i t all together correctly. (Jane) Although these same students claimed that their classmates were not sources of anxicty because they saw each other as sharing the same language learning experience, i t is clear that their classmates’ knowledge and abilities still cause them to doubt their own, thus producing a certain level of anxiety.

What Effcct Do Classmates and Teachers Have on Students’ Anxiety? Although teachers cannot possibly control all aspects of the learning experience, certainly they can begin to understand the

effect that classmates have on students’ anxiety as well as their own influence as teachers. One student (Carmine) explained that a student’s confidence level hinges on several factors, including the professor, the material, and the student’s own preparedness. By omitting students from her list of factors (and later explicitly stating that it was the teacher and not fellow students who make her feel self-conscious), Carmine reveals that students do not always view their classmates as competitors, but rather as sympathetic company in the language learning process. Nonetheless, a s mentioned before, several (11) of these students believe that their classmates are “better at Spanish” ( Q S #5) than they are. For example: They are definitely better than me in speaking, even though I went on two study abroad semesters to Spain. Uessica) I feel like they speak better and are just smarter than me. (Kayla) I am quite certain that many others are better Spanish speakerskudents than I am. (‘Jane)

Though perceiving others as “better,”i t is worth noting that students reported that they viewed their classmates as being in a similar situation, not always as provokers of anxiety. In fact, 20 out of 21 students disagreed with QS #16, “I am afraid that other students will laugh at me when I speak.” While not denying that perhaps there is cause to laugh at times, they explained their feelings in this way: No one laughs because we are all at the same level. (Patricia) No, because we’re all in the same boat and understand each other’s positions. Uosefina)

I don’t think they would laugh at me because I am just like one of them.

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M o s t students do not speak fluently, so we are on the same page. (Kayla)

Insightfully answering whether he feels self-conscious about speaking Spanish in front of other students, Enrique commented Not really they probably are too busy thinking about what they’re gonna say In sum, although students acknowledge different ability levels in their upperlevel classes, they do not always consider each other as sources of anxiety. Rather, most recognize that they are all in the same prmwbial boat. On the other hand, expanding the finclings of Frantzen and Magnan (2005), students highlighted the key role of the teachcr in producing anxiety. Three students addressed the anxiety involved in speaking in front of teachers rather than classmates, commenting: I didn’t really care about the other students-the professors made me self-conscious. I feel as though there were some professors who thought I was stupid-they intimidated me. (Carmine)

Ccrtain teachers look for mistakes and can‘t wait to correct their students. This is very discouraging (Jessica) 1 know I can speak well; it is just the professor that frightens me. . . . my

teacher corrects “incorrect” interpretations of poetry when other students participate-that’s why I worry that the teacher will do the same for me. . . . I never feel confident because, especially in my literature courses, the teacher always finds other ways (other than my own) to interpret poems and essays. . . . Sometimes I come into my Spanish classes extremely well prepared but never participate because of being apprehensive. In my literature class, 1 constantly worry about being called on because I don’t want to say

what the professor doesn’t want ine to say. (Patricia) These students likely have experienced unfortunate situations through which they came to believe that teachers look for, or in Jessica’s case, even desire, students to make mistakes so they can correct them. One of the coresearchers strongly reacted to this issue, commenting on the statement “Teachers are ready to correct every mistake” by noting: True because they do and make you repeat as if a child, speaking down to you at a lower level. Along with other students, Patricia reported that some professors see course material, including literary study, as having only one right answer, possessed by the teacher who is quick to criticize alternative views.’ Responding to another question, Juan (along with three other students) mostly disagreed with QS #19 that teachers do all they can to help him feel confident to speak in class. He explained his disagreement: While they never criticize me, they don’t really encourage confidence either. (Juan) Juan suggests that simply avoiding criticism of students is insufficient; his comment implies that language teachers should also actively and deliberately build confidence in their students to help them speak in class. On a more positive note, 14 of the students said they believe their teachers do all they can to help them feel confident to speak in Spanish class (QS #19). Kayla summarized: Yes. They are encouraging, patient, understanding, and helpful. This boosts my confidence up. Students also positively evaluated teachers for creating more comfortable environments, facilitating speech, and being uncritical, supportive, and reassur-

l’C3l,at least for some upper-level students-though not for all. More applicable is the conclusion that there is a great deal that teachers can do to promote nonthreatening learning environments for students and, in turn, relieve the anxiety of language learners. Several researchers have offered specific suggestions for teachers to manage students’ anxiety; all of these are relevant to upper-level foreign language courses: 1. Build a friendly, supportive learning environment (Brophy, 1999; Casado & Dereshiwsky, 2001; Gregersen & Horwitz. 2002). 2. Prcsent themselves as helpful instructors concerned primarily with promoting student learning, rather than as authority figures concerned primarily with evaluating student performance (Brophy, 1999; Gregersen &I Horwitz, 2002). 3. Establish the expectation that mistakes arc a normal part of the learning process (Brophy, 1999; Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002). 4. Articulate expectations that stress learning and improvement over perfect performance on assignments (Brophy, 1999; Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002).

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5. Balance cognitive and euphoric tension with curriculum and instructional method (Spielmann & Radnofsky, 2001). 6. Encourage journal writing (Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley, 1999b). 7. Use group work (Casado & Dereshiwsky, 2001; Garrett & Shortall, 2002; Gregersen, 2000) . To their suggestions, I would add several more that are particularly relevant to the upper-level foreign language course setting and are based on the specific findings of this study: 8. Develop and teach challenging courses while keeping in mind that upper-level students must recognize clearly their teacher’s support. This support encourages an adequate level of comfort in order for students to enjoy the learning experience. 9. Work actively to build upper-level students’ confidence and self-perception. When students do something correctly, tell them! Convince them that the challenge of learning to use a foreign language is not outside their grasp. Assure them that mistakes are normal and expected and that even through flawed participation they learn. As Juan implied, “Encourage confidence.” And I add: Discourage a perfectionist attitude. 10.Consider creative and natural ways to review grammatical topics in upper-level courses. Upper-level students recognize that their use of the target language is not always grammatical and this is a source of anxiety for them. They are open to discussions of grammar even in their upper-level courses. 11.Communicate to upper-level students that there is not always one right answer. Do not always evaluate their responses as right or wrong, either in form or in content. 12. Discuss in upper-level classes the fact that everyone is not at the same proficiency level. Make explicit how this

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fact will or will not affect their grades and the expectations for them in class in terms of participation, quality of work, evidence of improvement, and other areas. 13.Find ways to encourage participation without forcing students to speak. Winning the battle of getting an answer is not worth losing the war of securing a student’s trust and future engagement. 14. Always keep in mind that at least some upper-level language students are anxious in class, perhaps more anxious now than they have ever been in previous courses. Consider discussing foreign language learning anxiety in class and ask particular groups of students what can be done to help alleviate their anxiety

Conclusions and Future Research I t should not be assumed that all language teachers are familiar with foreign language anxiety research. Language departments might consider conducting workshops or informational sessions with faculty of all levels to raise awareness of this important issue. Both student recruitment and retention are likely to be affected by students’ perceptions of upper-level courses. The students in this study claimed generally to like their upper-level courses, but pointed out that their enjoyment was influenced by the comfort and confidence levels they experienced in class; teachers should be sensitive to these kinds of circumstances. Not all of these students enjoyed a high level of confidence regarding their Spanish knowledge and ability and some even claimed that their grammatical skills had weakened in upper-level courses in which the focus was not on grammar, vocabulary, and speaking skills. These findings should influence teachers’ interactions with students, perhaps alter the objectives of courses that are not specifically language-oriented, and direct upper-division course offerings. Future investigations of foreign language anxiety in upper-level courses might compare the anxiety that students experience

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studying various disciplines in a foreign language department (literature, culture, linguistics, and so forth) and even compare those results with studies of students’ anxiety in advanced courses in other disciplines to begin to determine how to improve students’ learning environments and, in turn, their actual learning. Many of the students in this study perceived that their classmates’ Spanish knowledge and ability exceeded their own, though they also viewed their classmates as sympathetic companions in the language learning process, not as sources of ridicule. Moreover, they pointed out the powerful role of the teacher in producing and relieving anxiety. Although most did not view the teacher as being primarily interested in correcting their mistakes, several students recounted negative experiences with teachers that clearly provoked anxiety. The majority of students, however, believed that teachers do “all they can” to boost students’ confidence in class by creating more comfortable, amicable environments; facilitating speech; and being uncritical, encouraging, patient, understanding, helpful, supportive, and reassuring. This should instruct and motivate educators to continue to create environments in which students are able to learn without unnecessarily high levels of anxiety, and certainly without inappropriate anxiety caused by their teachers. Future research should explore the specific ways in which anxiety is heightened in upper-level foreign language classes. Several students seemed to suspect that teachers have a “right answer” and reported that they prefer to speak voluntarily rather than being put on the spot. Not being sure of one’s answer provokes anxiety in students; this anxiety can be further intensified by having to speak without preparation or by being called on by a teacher. Particularly alarming is several students’ acceptance of anxiety as an unavoidable, natural element in their language classes. While some level of anxiety may be unavoidable in a challenging learning environment, teachers and researchers should weigh these issues care-

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fully when making pedagogical decisions and judgments. Although the majority of these students said they do not expect to understand their teachers’ every word and do not believe that their teachers expect error-free speech, they experience anxiety due to the awareness that they will make mistakes in speaking and in writing. Students’ own lack of tolerance is certainly an issue worthy of teachers’ and researchers’ attention. Several of the students claimed to experience more anxiety in advanced Spanish courses than in courses in other disciplines or in beginning and intermediate Spanish classes. They highlighted the impact that their classmates’ knowledge and ability have on their anxiety. Although students see each other as being in a similar situation, they are often intimidated by each other’s Spanish language skills and previous experiences. More research on these issues will help teachers begin to know how to support upper-level students as they negotiate these complicated circumstances. Together, these findings confirm Spielmann and Radnofsky’s (2001) claim chat the language learning experience is complex. Language learning anxiety at all levels of instruction clearly requires detailed and targeted attention from researchers, teachers, and language students. Considerable research has been conducted on the various types and sources of anxiety at the introductory levels; some of these same studies should be carried out at more advanced levels of instruction. Given that these students are very likely to use their foreign language in the future, researchers and teachers should seek to better understand and improve their experience at this level. Perhaps researchers should compare the nature and sources of the anxiety of introductory and more advanced-level language students. Furthermore, data should be collected from a larger sample population of uppcr-level students in order to perform a quantitative analysis using the FLCAS, as in Horwitz (1986).

The students who participated in this study as coresearchers articulated these findings as well as expressed their own perspectives on foreign language learning anxiety. In the process, these students were engaged in the research process. Their reactions to this experience were very positive. Involving students in this research project was extremely useful, allowing us to learn from their insights and offering the students an opportunity to reflect on language teaching practice. Thus, language students themselves should be involved as much as possible in research on foreign language learning anxiety. Their insights are very useful to the teaching and research processes.

Acknowledgments I would like to thank the participants in

this project, especially my Methods students whose enthusiasm was contagious and whose insights were invaluable. It was a pleasure to collaborate with them on this project. Also, a portion of this research was presented at the 2003 American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL) Conference in Arlington, Virginia. Thanks, too, to the anonymous reviewers whose comments were truly helpful.

1. This study makes no attempt to distinguish between second language and foreign language learning contexts. Rather, I have chosen to use the more general term foreign language, intending to include contexts in which students study any language that is not their native language. N o political, methodological, or pedagogical implications are intended. 2. Though Magnan’s (1986) data were from French classes, it is likely that students’ proficiency in Spanish classes would be similar. 3. Those investigations that included upper-level students as participants mixed their data with that of other lower-level language students (e.g., see

Dale); Onwuegbuzie, & Bailey, 1999; Kitano, 2001; MacIntyre, Noels, & Clement, 1997; Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley, 1999a, 199913). Four interesting exceptions are studies by Horwitz (1996), Rodriguez (1995), and Young (1986) on the anxiety experienced by language teachers and preservice teachers and a study by Pappamihiel (2002) on English language anxiety experienced by middle school Mexican immigrant students attending a U.S. school. As upper-level. advanced students, these students had already completed a minimum of four courses counting toward a Spanish minor or major. For the purposes of this study, I took written notes to capture the coresearchers‘ comments and reactions during the class discussion because the local Institutional Board on the Protection of Human Subjects in Research did not approve the recording of this session. Since the number of participants in this study was too small to produce generalizable findings, a quantitative analysis would be extremely limited in its usefulness. Thus, students’ overall responses to the questionnaire statements are included in Appendix C and no quantitative analysis was conducted. All participants chose their own pseudonyms; their selections should not be interpreted as indicators of gender, nationality, or ethnicity. One anonymous reviewer expressed concern that in this study, the issue of teachers expecting a “right answer” suggests that the effects of foreign language anxiety might be confounded with the effects of a more rigorous syllabus. Patricia’s comment about teachers being quick to correct mistakes raises the question as to whether the anxiety experienced by upper-level students can be clearly categorized as foreign language anxiety (i.e., related to foreign language learning) or whether their anxiety might be caused by a challenging course or a particularly difficult or

even unreasonable teacher. While an interesting question, the same argument could be made for studies of foreign language anxiety in Spanish 101. Students reportedly experience foreign language anxiety in Spanish 101, which also is a challenging course with a rigorous syllabus (consider the perspective of a foreign language student who doesn’t speak the language and must now function in it with some level of proficiency); moreover, at times, Spanish 101 is taught by particularly difficult or even unreasonable teachers. Thus, the question (regarding the confounding of effects) could be raised in studies of either introductory or advanced contexts. While a broadened view of foreign language anxiety might be suggested by this study, the reviewer’s concern highlights the particularly challenging task of teaching an upper-level foreign language course in which students are simultaneously language learners and students of literature, culture, or linguistics, a situation that can provoke anxiety from multiple sources.

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