Selected Botswana Biodiversity Indicators 2011
Published by:
Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism, Department of Environmental Affairs, Private Bag 0068, Plot 1271, Travaglini House, 2nd Floor, Luthuli Road, Gaborone, Botswana.
Copyright:
© 2012 Government of Botswana
Citation: Botswana Government, 2012, Selected Botswana Biodiversity Indicators 2011, Department of Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Environment Wildlife and Tourism, Gaborone, Botswana. ISBN:
ii
978-99912-948-9-6
Preface Botswana is richly endowed with biodiversity and has managed to conserve it through a network of protected areas and allowing local communities to benefit from its goods and services. Like other countries in Africa, Botswana is faced with challenges of biodiversity loss, which underlines the necessity for effective monitoring. Batswana have always used their Indigenous Knowledge in monitoring biodiversity. With modernization, however, some innovative approaches such as biodiversity indicators are being adopted. The purpose of this booklet is to highlight the current status and trends of biodiversity in Botswana using some selected indicators; identify threats to biodiversity; as well as highlight measures towards its conservation and sustainable use. The booklet targets stakeholders from research institutions, statisticians, government departments, policy makers, NGOs, private sector, CBOs and the public at large. The booklet was produced as part of a regional capacity building project called Biodiversity Indicators Capacity Strengthening in Africa (BICS-Africa) and led by UNEP-WCMC. The presented indicators are, however, meant to form an integral part of State of the Environment Reporting, in order to inform policy makers about the status of biological resources in the country while also guiding them to make appropriate interventions where necessary. The initiative to develop indicators dates back to 2007, when Botswana Environmental Information System was being established. As a party to United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, Botswana is obliged to implement activities under the convention to reduce biodiversity loss. This may be done through research, monitoring and knowledge management. The development of biodiversity indicators is, therefore, recognized as an effective means for enhanced reporting under the Convention.
A Biodiversity Indicator Development Framework has been provided by UNEP-WCMC to guide countries in developing their national indicators. The framework was used in this booklet along with other resources from various institutions including biodiversity monitoring reports and CSO environmental reports. Drafting of the booklet started in 2010 and was finalized in 2011. During the BICS-Africa project it became apparent that very little knowledge about biodiversity indicators existed amongst stakeholders. The few indicators that had already been developed were not being used or reported on and were, therefore, not serving their intended purpose. It was also evident that the country had not provided sufficient resources for biodiversity monitoring. It is hoped that the publication of this booklet will demonstrate the value of biodiversity indicators in policy making and catalyze the allocation of resources towards biodiversity monitoring. The Department of Environmental Affairs is grateful to all those who were involved in the drafting of this booklet especially the Department of Wildlife & National Parks, BirdLife Botswana and Central Statistics Organization. We would also like to thank the sponsors, UNEP-WCMC, for according Botswana the opportunity to participate in the BICS-Africa project.
__________________
Portia K. Segomelo Director, Department of Environmental Affairs
iii
Table of Contents Preface
iii
Acknowledgements
vii
Abbreviations and acronyms
viii
Introduction
1
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■ ■ ■ ■
■
iv
5
Human wildlife conflict Poaching incidents Extent of wild fires Land use change
State Indicators Biomass of large ungulates
■ ■ ■ ■
15
Birds of concern Status of globally threatened wildlife Threatened plant species Status of selected fish species in the Okavango delta
Response Indicators ■ ■ ■
Background The global context Indicators Purpose of this booklet Methodology Selected biodiversity indicators Outline of the booklet
Pressure Indicators
39
Extent of protected areas CBOs involved in CBNRM Income from CBNRM
Glossary
46
Photo Credits
49
References
50
Figures and Tables Figures 17 Changes in mean length of the Okavango Delta’s fish community between 1999 and 2008
35
6
18 Relationship between mean discharge and mean fishery yield between 1998 and 2005 in the Okavango Delta (Time lag = 8 years)
35
Number of conflict incidents reported by district
7
19 Mean monthly catch rates vs. seasonal discharge
35
5
Number of poaching incidents reported by district
9
6
Distribution of wild fires as categorized by areal extent from 2006 to 2010
12
20 Relationship between mean flooded area and mean fishery yield between 1996 and 2008 in the Okavango Delta (Time lag = 9 years)
35
7
Land use change since 1974
13
21 Trends in catch rates of Three-spot tilapia
36
8
Change in biomass of large ungulates between 1994 and 2003
16
22 Trends in catch rates of Red-breast tilapia
36
9
Important Bird Areas in Botswana
18
23 Trends in catch rates of Green-head tilapia
36
10 Annual breeding success of the Lesser Flamingo (1999-2009)
19
24 Trends in catch rates of Tiger-fish
37
11 Breeding success of Lappet-faced vulture in Makgadikgadi
21
25 Trends in catch rates of Sharp-tooth catfish
37
12 Total Species Richness in Botswana
22
26 Botswana’s Protected Areas
40
13 Distribution of globally threatened mammals found in Botswana 23
27 Extent of Protected Areas in Botswana
41
14 Distribution of globally threatened birds found in Botswana
25
28 Number of CBOs in Botswana between 2003 and 2009
43
15 Number of plant species on the Red Data List
33
29 CBNRM annual income
44
16 Seasonal changes in fish diversity (IRI) in relation to seasonal flooding in the Okavango Delta
34
1
Biodiversity Indicator Development Framework
2
2
Pressure-State-Response Framework
3
3
Number of conflict incidents reported by species
4
v
Tables 1
Number of wild fires by size category
2
Globally threatened mammals that occur in Botswana
24
3
Globally threatened birds that occur in Botswana
26
4
Globally threatened fishes that occur in Botswana
29
5
Globally threatened reptiles that occur in Botswana
29
6
Protected Tree Species
30
7
Threatened plant species found in Botswana
31
vi
10
Acknowledgements This booklet was compiled by: Badiredi Piet Boitumelo Sekhute-Batungamile Cyril Taolo David Kehathilwe Dikeme Kgaodi Gorata Maokanyane Ingrid Otukile Kakanyo Fani Dintwa Michael Flyman Olebile Sekwakwa Otsile Chelenyane Senikiwe F. Paseko The following people provided valuable support:
The biodiversity indicators were selected and refined during two workshops, after which the compilation team developed the ideas. The team is grateful to the workshop participants: G. Khwarae, J. De-Wet, M. Selebatso, G. Laletsang, T. Nkwane, G. Keotsene, O. Manene, M. Moshoeshoe, C. Motsholapheko, M. Keaikitse, M. Mosate, K. Ooke, K. D. Mosugelo, M. Tswiio, A. Isaiah, C. Chibidika, N. I. Tobani, D. Otimile, K. Chigodora, T. Lucas, T. Muzila, R. Zimmermann, T. Ntsatsi, S. Motsumi, J. Manga, C. Brooks, J. Perkins, S. Ngwako, B. L. Mokotedi, O. Nkubu, R. M. Kwerepe, B. Keaketswe, F. Monggae, M. H. Sebina, B. B. Sebina, M. G. Marata, M. Monamati, M. Ditlhogo, B. Sesanyane, W. Hambira, L. Seakanyeng, D. Aniku, M. Ntana, Q. Turner. Funds were provided through the Biodiversity Indicators Capacity Strengthening in Africa Project (BICS-Africa) and the United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF). We are grateful to Phillip Bubb for the assistance in obtaining funds from BICS-Africa and BirdLife Botswana for managing the funds.
Pete Hancock (provided text and data on birds of Botswana) Keta Mosepele (provided text and data on fishes of Botswana) Harold Hester (provided text and data on birds of Botswana) Kabelo Senyatso (Provided comments on the draft final manuscript and additional information on birds of Botswana) Dineo Gaborekwe (provided comments on the draft manuscript) Mosimanegape Nthaka (provided comments on the draft manuscript) Ditshupo Gaobotse (provided comments on the draft manuscript)
vii
Abbreviations and acronyms APU
Anti-Poaching Unit
LUMP
Land Use and Management Plan
BCA
Botswana College of Agriculture
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
BICSA
Biodiversity Indicators Capacity Strengthening- Africa
PA
Protected Area
BWP
Botswana Pula
P-S-R
Pressure-State-Response
CBD
Convention on Biological Diversity
SABONET Southern Africa Botanical Network
CBNRM
Community Based Natural Resources Management
UB
University of Botswana
CBO
Community Based Organization
UNEP
United Nation Environment Programme
CHA
Controlled Hunting Area
WCMC
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
CITES
Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species
WMA
Wildlife Management Area
CSO
Central Statistics Office
DEA
Department of Environmental Affairs
DFRR
Department of Forestry and Range Resources
DWNP
Department of Wildlife and National Parks
EIS
Environmental Information System
GIS
Geographic Information System
IBA
Important Bird Area
IRI
Index of Relative Importance
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
LSU
Large Stock Unit
viii
Introduction Background Botswana is a country of extremes with regards to biodiversity. With ecosystems varying from some of the driest and most biologically hostile areas in Kgalagadi and the Makgadikgadi Salt Pans to the lush swamps of the Okavango Delta, the variety of habitats and species is immense, each providing its own spectacular characteristics. Biodiversity is the variability among life forms from all sources including terrestrial, marine, and aquatic ecosystems as well as the ecological complexes of which they are part. It underpins ecosystem goods and services that are vital to human survival and well-being. Despite its importance, there is a growing concern that biodiversity is under threat from both human activities and natural causes. Over the years, there has been a general decline in both the abundance and distribution of biodiversity. It is, therefore, important for Botswana to develop appropriate indicators in order to regularly track the status of biodiversity and take corrective measures to address any observed declines.
The global context Botswana ratified the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1995. Some of the benefits of being a signatory to this convention include access to a legally and internationally recognized regime which seeks to maintain the integrity of biological diversity as well as technical and financial assistance. As an obligation, all parties to the CBD, including Botswana, are required to report on the status and trends of biodiversity in order to demonstrate implementation of the activities of the convention. National reports are periodically produced,
providing information for review and decision-making processes under the Convention. The latest assessments have depicted that there is a high rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national levels (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010). The international community now acknowledges that the continuing loss of species and habitats, which is predicted to accelerate under the growing impact of climate change, will exert even more pressure on the life-supporting ecosystems and that many may risk passing a tipping point. It is, therefore, important for countries to closely monitor biodiversity changes in order to come up with appropriate mitigation measures.
Indicators Indicators are a fundamental way of presenting and managing complex information in a simple and clear manner that can form the basis for future action and be readily communicated to internal or external stakeholders. An indicator is a physical, chemical, biological, social or economic variable which can be measured in a defined way for management purposes (CSIRO Australia, 1998). Numerous indicators have been developed to monitor environmental and sustainable development issues and used to signal key issues to be addressed through policy or management interventions. Indicators can also be used for monitoring the status and trends of environmental phenomena and, in turn, feeding back information on ways to continually improve the effectiveness of policies and management programmes. When used to assess national, regional or global trends, they build a bridge between the fields of policymaking and science.
1
Botswana participated in a project called Biodiversity Indicators Capacity Strengthening in Africa (BICS-Africa) sponsored by UNEP-WCMC from 2008 until 2010. Seven countries in southern Africa participated including Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland, Lesotho, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Through that initiative, technical and organisational capacity was built in developing biodiversity indicators for purposes of national, regional and international reporting.
Purpose of this booklet The purpose of this booklet is to present a selection of indicators in order to demonstrate their usefulness in summarising and simplifying information on the status and threats to biodiversity, as well as highlighting measures towards its conservation and sustainable use. The booklet is an output of the BICS-Africa Project. The significance of environmental indicators as a central part of effective decision-making and adaptive management has long been recognized by the Republic of Botswana. The management of environmental information has steadily evolved and in 2007 a process was initiated towards identifying key environmental issues as well as developing a core set of indicators for Botswana. The process has culminated in the development of a selected set of biodiversity indicators presented in this booklet, with data collected over a number of years. The above indicators will be uploaded in the Botswana Environmental Information System (www.eis.gov.bw), a mechanism with which environmental information is made widely available to stakeholders.
Methodology The Biodiversity Indicator Development Framework approach (Figure 1) guided the development of the biodiversity indicators presented in this booklet, although the actual indicator development process did not strictly follow the framework as outlined.
2
Figure 1: Biodiversity Indicator Development Framework
Selected biodiversity indicators Using the framework above, a set of indicators were selected out of 66 possible indicators, which had been previously identified and grouped according to eight environmental themes, which include: biodiversity; climate; energy; land; and water. The selection was based largely on data availability and the ease of periodically updating the selected indicators. The selected indicators are: Human-wildlife conflicts; Poaching incidents; Extent of wild fires; Land use change; Biomass of large ungulates; Birds of
concern; Status of globally threatened wildlife; Threatened plant species; Status of selected fish species in the Okavango Delta; Extent of protected areas; CBOs involved in CBNRM; and, Income from CBNRM.
Outline of the booklet The biodiversity indicators presented in this booklet have been categorised using the Pressure-State-Response (P-S-R) Framework (Figure 2). The framework lays out the basic relationships amongst the pressures human society puts on the environment; the resulting state or condition of the environment; and the response of society to these conditions to mitigate or prevent negative impacts resulting from the pressures.
According to the above framework, State Indicators have been used to address questions pertaining to the status of biological resources in Botswana; Pressure Indicators address questions pertaining to why the status of biological resources is changing; while, Response Indicators answer questions on what is being done to conserve biological resources or reverse any negative trends. The selected indicators, based on the P-S-R framework, have been categorised as follows: Pressure (depicted in red colour coding)
□ Human-wildlife conflicts
□ Poaching incidents
□ Extent of wild fires
□ Land use change
State (depicted in blue colour coding)
□ Biomass of large ungulates
□ Birds of concern
□ Status of globally threatened wildlife
□ Threatened plant species
□ Status of selected fish species in the Okavango Delta
Response (depicted in green colour coding)
□ Extent of protected areas
□ CBOs involved in CBNRM
□ Income from CBNRM
Figure 2: Pressure-State-Response Framework
3
In this booklet, all the indicators are graphically depicted and trends explained. Further information includes: the lead agency responsible for updating the indicator, frequency of updating data, units of measurement, as well as limitations to data collection and interpretation.
Botswana participants discussing indicators at a regional workshop in Windhoek, Namibia
Participants at a national workshop in Mokolodi Nature Reserve near Gaborone to identify possible indicators
4
Pressure Indicators
5
Pressure
Human Wildlife Conflicts
Human-wildlife conflicts have over the years become prevalent in Botswana as the human population increases, leading to encroachment into wildlife habitats. As development expands and as some activities put people and wildlife in direct competition for limited resources, many wildlife species have come under threat from extinction. It is, therefore, essential to know the trends in human-wildlife conflicts so that efforts to address the root causes can be made and informed decisions taken. This indicator highlights the number of human-wildlife conflicts between 1999 and 2008.
The total number of conflict incidents countrywide increased from 1999 to 2008 when 52 733 cases were recorded. Lions, leopards and elephants accounted for most of the incidents, with wild dogs, hyenas and cheetahs also being reported frequently (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Number of conflict incidents reported by species
At district level, the Central District recorded the majority of incidents, with 3 812 cases in the year 2008, while the previous year had 3 482. The number of conflicts, however, declined in 2010 with 2 678. The other district with a high incidence of problem-animal conflicts is Ngamiland where 2 025 and 2 067 cases were recorded in 2008 and 2010 respectively (Figure 4). A goat allegedly killed by wild dogs near Phuduhudu
6
It is necessary to develop an adaptive management strategy for humanwildlife conflicts, taking into account the unique challenges applicable in each district.
Lead agency
Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Data sources
Ministry of Agriculture; Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Updating the indicator
Annually
Units of measurement
Counts
Key question(s)
What is the trend in human wildlife conflicts?
Limitations
Unreported cases
Figure 4: Number of conflict incidents reported by district
7
Pressure
Poaching incidents
Poaching is the illegal hunting, killing or capturing of animal species. Examples include the killing of wildlife without a license or permit, killing of animals outside designated times of the day or year and use of prohibited weapons or traps. Poaching of wildlife is a major threat to conservation efforts all over the world, particularly where endangered species like rhinoceros are targeted.
Lead agency
Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Data Sources
Law Enforcement Agencies; Community Based Organizations
Updating the indicator
Annually
Units of measurement
Counts
Key question(s)
What is the trend in the number of wild animals poached
Limitations
Unreported cases
8
Most animals in Botswana are poached for game meat. The Anti-Poaching Unit of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks is responsible for the monitoring and control of poaching in Botswana. This indicator highlights the levels of poaching in the country. The map below represents national poaching statistics for the years 2006, 2007 and 2008 (Figure 5). According to the Central Statistics Office, over the survey period 2004 to 2008, impala had the highest number of poaching incidents with 17.1 per cent, followed by elephant (15.7%) and kudu (13.4%) (Botswana Government, 2008). The other species that were poached in relatively high numbers were gemsbok and lion. In 2006, Central District recorded the highest number of cases with 32.4 percent followed by Southern District with 20.9 percent. The most poached wildlife species were impala in the Central District and ostrich in the Southern District. In 2008, the Central District once again registered the highest number of cases, along with Ngamiland with 37 cases each, followed by Ghanzi with 19 cases. The species poached in large numbers were impala in Central, elephant in Chobe and Ngamiland, leopard in Ghanzi, and lion in Kgalagadi. It is noteworthy that, in some districts, the poaching of elephant, leopard and lion have been increasing, thus pointing towards the incidence of commercial poaching in Botswana. Unfortunately, commercial poaching is usually international by nature and would bring the country’s hunting industry under the spotlight of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. It is, therefore, necessary to not only intensify antipoaching activities in districts where poaching is rampant, but to also promote participatory approaches in wildlife management such as CBNRM.
Figure 5: Number of poaching incidents reported by district
9
Pressure
Extent of wild fires
One of the phenomena that affect forest and rangeland resources is the incidence of wild fires. Large tracts of rangeland are burned each year, depleting the land cover and hence posing a threat to biodiversity. Most fires in Botswana are believed to be anthropogenic. Although people have, over years, become adept at using fires to manipulate the ecosystem so as to obtain desired benefits, uncontrolled burning can negatively affect the environment. This indicator will, therefore, provide the basis for analysing the “fire problem” and defining important parameters of the fire regimes in Botswana.
The indicator also raises the level of awareness regarding the occurrence and extent of wild fires, thus contributing to laying a foundation for developing and implementing an effective fire management strategy. Based on statistics from 2006 until 2010, the highest number of fire incidents was recorded in 2008 (278 events), while the least number of episodes was recorded in 2007 with eighty-four events (Table 1). Table 1: Number of wild fires by size category YEAR
Lead agency
Department of Forestry and Range Resources
Data sources
Ministry of Agriculture; Department of Wildlife and National Parks; Community Based Organization
Updating the indicator
Annually
Units of measurement
Hectares
Key question(s)
What is the extent of land area burnt per annum?; What is the severity of fire for each episode?
Limitations
Capacity to analyze satellite imagery
10
Small
Medium
Large
Total
0-20 000 Ha
20 001-100 000 Ha
>100 000 Ha
2006
134
24
10
168
2007
48
24
12
84
2008
223
36
19
278
2009
103
14
4
121
2010
197
51
18
266
Source: DFRR GIS Data
In terms of severity of fires, the year 2008 was the worst with 19 large fires and this is closely matched by the year 2010 with 18 large events. Only four large fires were recorded in 2009. In each year, the majority of fires were small (Table 1). As shown on Figure 6, the existing firebreaks have generally not been effective in curbing the spread of wild fires. Ghanzi and Ngamiland districts have so far been the most affected in terms of large fires, with some sporadic events in Chobe, Kgalagadi and Central districts. Notably, some fires have over the years ravaged some of the country’s
protected areas especially the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (Figure 6). This not only destroys biodiversity but is also a threat to the tourism industry, which is mainly based on wildlife.
Figure 6: Distribution of wild fires as categorized by areal extent from 2006 to 2010
It is evident that Botswana needs a robust fire management strategy which not only promotes fire fighting and suppression, but incorporates a holistic approach including public education and awareness.
2006
11
Figure 6: Distribution of wild fires as categorized by areal extent from 2006 to 2010
2006
2007
2009
2009
2010 2008
Data Sources: Department of Surveys and Mapping & Department of Forestry and Range Resources
12
2007
2010
2008
Pressure
Land use change 100 90 80 70 % Land Use
According to the Revised National Settlement Policy of 2004, some of the issues of concern under land use and tenure are lack of gazetted District Land Use Plans; mismanagement of grazing land leading to degradation; encroachment of human settlements into agricultural and wildlife areas and conversion of arable land to other uses. Land use can have both direct effects on biodiversity especially when it involves harvesting or modifying the land cover; as well as indirect effects such as land use based pollution through pesticides. It is widely accepted that human land use, such as conversion of natural vegetation to cultivated land or grazing areas, has resulted in significant reductions in biodiversity. This indicator, therefore, depicts land use change in Botswana since 1974 (Figure 7).
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
Lead agency
Department of Lands
Quarantine & Botswana Livestock Development Corporation Ranches
Data sources
Department of Surveys and Mapping; Department of Town and Regional Planning
Wildlife Management Areas
Updating the indicator
Every five years
Forest Reserves
Units of measurement
Hectares
Key question(s)
What is the trend in land use change?
Limitations
National Parks & Game Reserves Freehold Land Communal Land
Figure 7: Land use change since 1974
13
As shown on Figure 7, the proportion of various land uses has changed since 1974. The major changes occurred in Communal Land and State Land as a result of a re-allocation of part of the former to create Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs), as specified in the Third Schedule of the Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act of 1992 (Government of Botswana, 1992). The WMAs were set aside primarily for wildlife use and constituted 23% of the country’s land area by 1995. Six Forest Reserves were also established in 1974 constituting a total land area of 419 800 Ha, although this was later reduced by 2.4% (Botswana Government, 2008). The proportion of National Parks and Game Reserves has remained more or less constant since 1974 (Figure 7). Other forms of land use are Freehold Land and government-owned ranches including Quarantine camps, but these constitute a small percentage and have remained largely unchanged. At district level, some changes in land use resulted from the fencing component of the National Agricultural Development Policy in a number of districts including Central, Southern, Ghanzi, Ngamiland and Kgalagadi. This did not, however, constitute an overall change in the proportion of Communal Land in these districts (Botswana Government, 2008). From the perspective of biodiversity conservation, it is necessary to maintain linkages between wildlife systems, including connectivity between National Parks, Game Reserves and WMAs. Wildlife utilization as a comparative advantage in WMAs should also be promoted in order to protect these areas from re-allocation for other competing land uses such as livestock production (Botswana Government, 2010).
14
Livestock keeping (cattle) competes with wildlife for habitats and limited water resources
State Indicators
15
Biomass of large ungulates
16
4 3
2 1 0 -1 -2
Buffalo Cattle Donkey Duiker Eland Elephant Gemsbok Giraffe Hertebeest Hippo Horse Impala Lechwe Reedbuck Roan Sable Sheep/goats Sitatunga Springbok Steenbok Tsessebe Warthog Waterbuck Wildbeest Zebra
Conservation planning requires information on the spatial requirements of wildlife species. The Large Stock Unit (LSU) or Animal Unit approach is widely used to derive such information (Boshoff et al., 2002). The LSU is usually defined as an animal weighing 450 Kg. According to Holechek et al. (1989), ruminants will on average consume about 2 percent of their body mass in dry matter when forage availability is unrestricted, while that of ruminants is about 50 percent higher. An animal with a biomass of 1 LSU (weighing 450 kg) will, therefore, consume approximately 9 – 13.5 Kg of dry matter forage per day depending on whether it is a ruminant or non-ruminant animal and on the quality of the forage available to it. Hence, the weight of an animal is positively correlated with the amount of forage it needs to consume to meet its daily food requirements (Holechek et al., 1989). Forage demand by animals on a given piece of land depends on their total biomass and the length of time they will occupy the land. Therefore, the best way to measure the impact of wildlife and livestock populations on the sustainable use of rangelands is by considering not only their numbers, but also their biomass (Holechek et al., 1989). This information can be used to guide both conservation planning activities and practical conservation management decisions, such as culling or withdrawing some animals in order not to overstock the given area (Boshoff et al., 2002; Du Toit, undated).
Change in Biomass (%)
State
-3
Figure 8: Change in biomass of large ungulates between 1994 and 2003
Except for buffalo and elephant, the biomass of all large wildlife ungulates declined in biomass between 1994 and 2003. Elephant biomass increased by more than three percent while that for buffalo only increased marginally (Figure 8). A more recent survey of elephants and other wildlife in Northern Botswana has confirmed the downward trends for many large ungulates, while elephants continue to increase (Chase, 2011). It is evident from the increasing biomass of livestock that farming activities are expanding (Figure 8). For example, cattle alone contributed the greatest proportion of animal biomass (69%) in both the 1994 and 2003 surveys. Unfortunately, such activities often encroach into wildlife areas leading to compression and habitat fragmentation, which ultimately result in biodiversity losses. It has been demonstrated that where people and livestock are concentrated, wildlife populations are lower (Chase, 2011).
Lead agency
Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Data sources
DWNP Research Researchers
Updating the indicator
Annually
Units of measurement
Large Stock Unit (LSU)
Key question(s)
What is the trend in the biomass of large ungulates in Botswana?
Limitations
Access to spoor and ground counts; Aerial counts: temporal limits (night), size of animals, inter-observer variation; Inconsistent standards and protocols
and
Statistics
Division;
The predominance of elephants in the total animal biomass has sparked concerns about habitat destruction if the carrying capacity in areas where they exist is exceeded. With its reputation as a ‘bulldozer herbivore’ the elephant requires large reserves to contain viable wild populations, and this often precludes alternative land-uses and requires contingents of trained personnel for problem-animal control and anti-poaching activities (Lovett, 2009). According to the Revised Elephant Management Plan, the overall goal for elephant conservation and management in Botswana is to “conserve and optimise elephant populations while ensuring the maintenance of habitats and biodiversity, promoting the contribution of elephants to national development and to the communities within their range at the same time minimizing their negative impacts on rural livelihoods (Botswana Government, 2011).” It is hoped that further development of this indicator will provide some insight on the carrying capacities within the elephant range.
Private
Elephants drinking in the Chobe National Park
17
State
Birds of concern
It is widely acknowledged that birds as indicator species have many advantages as a group to use for biodiversity monitoring. This is because they have aesthetic appeal, occur in all habitats, often reflect trends in other animals and plants, are easy to survey and are sensitive to environmental change. In particular, birds have been shown to be effective indicators of species richness as opposed to other animal or plant groups. The Important Bird Area (IBA) monitoring framework was developed by BirdLife International in 2002 and puts emphasis on the use of a few key indicators that are easy to monitor and assess, consistent methodology, user-friendliness as well as being participatory to encourage community members to partake.
Lead agency
BirdLife Botswana
Data sources
Department of Wildlife and National Parks; Private Researchers; Ministry of Agriculture; UB
Updating the indicator
Annually
Units of measurement
Counts
Key question(s)
What is the status of habitats and species (trigger species) in the existing Important Bird Areas?
Limitations
Financial and human resources; Undefined IBA boundaries; Remote sensing and GIS skills
18
Twelve (12) sites have been identified as Important Bird Areas in Botswana including Chobe National Park, Linyanti Swamps, Okavango Delta, Lake Ngami, Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Makgadikgadi Pans, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Tswapong Hills, Mannyelanong Hill, Phakalane Sewage Ponds and Bokaa Dam (Figure 9). Of the twelve, the Chobe and Okavango Delta IBAs have the richest avifauna with 433 and 464 species respectively. Some sites, though not protected - such as the Tswapong Hills and Mannyelanong - hold globally threatened species or species almost entirely restricted to Botswana, namely Cape Vulture and Short-clawed Lark respectively.
Figure 9: Important Bird Areas in Botswana
On the whole, the status of birds throughout the country is relatively good, with only eight species regarded as nationally threatened, or Birds of Concern. There is, however, no room for complacency and BirdLife Botswana continues to monitor globally and nationally threatened birds. LESSER FLAMINGO
Lesser Flamingo Annual Breeding success (1999 - 2009) 100000
1000
90000
900
80000
800
70000
700
60000
600
50000
500
40000
400
30000
300
20000
200
10000
100
0
98-99
99- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 20082000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
Annual Rainfall (mm)
Estimated breeding pairs/chicks
Monitoring of the Lesser Flamingo population and, in particular, annual breeding success has been conducted for the past eleven years. Large variations in annual breeding attempts and success have been observed (Figure 10). In general, the variations are dependent on rainfall. Although breeding may occur on an annual basis, the proportion of chicks fledged depends on the period of flooding on the pan and this is closely correlated with rainfall. There appears to be a rainfall threshold of approximately 450 mm (the annual average rainfall for Sua Pan), below which the pan dries up before the chicks fledge thereby leading to low breeding success (McCulloch and Irvine, 2004).
0
Wet Season (Nov - Apr)
Estimated breeding pairs
Estimated chicks fledged
Figure 10: Annual breeding success of the Lesser Flamingo, 1999-2009 (The arrows represent annual rainfall).
19
AFRICAN SKIMMER
ENDEMIC SPECIES None of the species in Botswana is endemic. There are only two nearendemics - the Slaty Egret, which has approximately 85% of its global population in the Okavango Delta and the Short-clawed Lark, which has more than 90% of its global population in South-eastern Botswana.
The African Skimmer is classed as Near Threatened. They are found on sandbars and islands in the Chobe River and Okavango Delta systems. Their food consists of small fish which they catch by flying low and just above the water and dipping their lower mandible into the water. Their nest is a deep, unlined scrape on a sandbar. This has led to their demise caused by waves from passing boats swamping their nests.
Slaty Egret
Short-clawed Lark
WATTLED CRANE
OTHER BIRDS OF CONCERN
The Wattled Crane is a key wetland species and a good indicator of wetlands health. This species has been monitored by BirdLife Botswana using aerial surveys covering its range throughout the Okavango Delta. The Okavango currently holds the largest single population of this species. Throughout the rest of its range in Africa, the Wattled Crane has declined as its wetland habitat has been progressively degraded (Motsumi et al., 2007).
Other birds of concern, which are also monitored on a regular basis, particularly in the Bird Population Monitoring Programme, are Kori Bustard, Bateleur, White-backed Vulture and Lappet-faced Vulture.
Kori Bustard
20
Bateleur
White-backed Vulture
Lappet-faced Vulture
Several parts of Botswana, including most of the Linyanti and Makgadikgadi Important Bird Areas and a significant portion of the Okavango Delta Important Bird Area, have been surveyed over the past five years for breeding Lappet-faced Vultures, as part of a project to determine the size of the breeding population in the country. Makgadikgadi has so far been identified as the favoured nesting area with 23 active nests located in 2008 (Hancock, 2008). A decline in the breeding success was, however, observed between 2006 and 2008 (Figure 11).
Breeding success (%)
60 50
40 30 20 10 0 2006
2007
2008
Figure 11: Breeding success of Lappet-faced vulture in Makgadikgadi (Source: Hancock, 2008)
21
State
Status of globally threatened wildlife
Botswana’s rangelands support relatively high concentrations of wildlife, owing partly to the country’s large size and low human densities. As a result, Botswana is one of the last refuges for species requiring open range and still remains a stronghold for some of the world’s globally threatened species including the African elephant and wild dog (Botswana Government, 2009). Figure12 shows the species richness index for Botswana according to available national datasets (Botswana Government, 2007a). Unfortunately, the distribution and status of wildlife in Botswana is generally not adequately known. In particular, there are still substantial gaps in knowledge of plants, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates, while mammals, birds and fishes are fairly well documented.
Lead agency
Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Data sources
IUCN (Red List); BirdLife Botswana; DWNP Research and Statistics Division; Private Researchers; UB
Updating the indicator
Annually
Units of measurement
Counts
Key question(s)
What is the trend in the number of globally threatened wildlife species in Botswana?
Limitations
Access to spoor and ground counts; Aerial counts: temporal limits (night), size of animals inter-observer variation; Inconsistent standards and protocols
22
Figure 12: Total Species Richness in Botswana
Out of all the wildlife species known to occur in Botswana, 12 mammals, 23 birds and two fish species were listed as globally threatened in the Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity released in 2009. Two species of reptiles, namely Nile Crocodile and African rock python, also occur in Botswana and are internationally protected. Although the latter is currently not considered at risk of extinction, it is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Both reptiles are, however, protected in Botswana under the Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act of 1992.
MAMMALS Almost all the species show negative population trends globally except for the African Elephant, which is increasing. Although the populations of both Black Rhinoceros and White Rhinoceros are reported to be increasing, the former has been listed as Critically Endangered since 1996 while the latter is Near Threatened and continues to experience high levels of poaching (Table 2). As already highlighted, Botswana harbours a significant number of the African Elephant, currently estimated at 119, 078 (Chase, 2011). A relatively large population of the African Wild Dog also remains in parts of northern Botswana (IUCN, 2011). The distribution of globally threatened mammal species found in Botswana is shown on Figure 13.
Figure 13: Distribution of globally threatened mammals found in Botswana
African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)
African elephant (Loxodonta Africana)
23
Table 2: Globally threatened mammals that occur in Botswana Red List Year Population History Category Assessed Trend Globally VU NT 2008 Decreasing Leopard, Panthera pardus 1986 VU NT 2011 Increasing White Rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum 1994 EN CR 2011 Increasing Black Rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis 1986 VU VU 2008 Decreasing Cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus 1986 LR-lc NT 2008 Decreasing Straw-coloured Fruit Bat, Eidolon helvum 1996 LR-lc VU 2008 Decreasing Black-footed Cat, Felis nigripes 1996 LR-lc VU 2008 Decreasing Hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius 1996 VU NT 2008 Decreasing Brown Hyena, Hyena brunnea 1986 LR-cd NT 2008 Decreasing Puku, Kobus vardonii 1996 VU VU 2008 Increasing African Elephant, Loxodonta africana 1986 VU VU 2008 Decreasing African Lion, Panthera leo 1996 VU EN 2008 Decreasing African Wild Dog, Lycaon pictus 1986 Species Name
T 1988 LR-cd 1996 EN 1988 VU 1988 LC 2004 VU 2002 VU 2002 VU 1988
T 1990 NT 2002 EN 1990 VU 1990
LR-lc 1996 NT 2003 EN 1994 VU 1994
LC 2002
CR 1996 VU 1996
CR 2002 VU 2002
VU 1990
VU 1994
LR-lc 1996
LR-nt 2000
VU 1988 VU 2002 VU 1988
VU 1990 VU 2004 EN 1990
VU 1994
EN 1996
VU 2004
EN 1994
EN 1996
EN 2004
CR 2003
KEY: Not Evaluated
Data Deficient
Least Concern
Lower Risk-least concern
NE DD LC LR-lc (Refer to Glossary for detailed description of categories)
24
Lower Riskconservation dependent
Lower Risk-near threatened
Near Threatened
Threatened
Vulnerable
Endangered
Critically Endangered
LR-cd
LR-nt
NT
T
VU
EN
CR
BIRDS Out of the 23 globally threatened species found in Botswana, none are critically endangered, while the two endangered species are both vagrants. There are seven vulnerable and 14 near threatened species (Table 3). Two species that were listed as globally threatened in 2008 have since been downgraded to least concern and these are Lesser Kestrel and Corn Crake (IUCN, 2011). There has been an increase in the number of globally threatened birds in Botswana since 2000, when just 11 species were listed. This is, however, due to additional species being listed as globally threatened following declines elsewhere in the world and not a deterioration of the status of birds in Botswana (Hancock, 2008). Indeed, the Egyptian vulture, Basra Reed Warbler, Black Harrier, Blue Crane and Denham’s Bustard are all in the IUCN Red List, but have not been listed by BirdLife Botswana as species of conservation concern (Botswana Government, 2009). Nevertheless, some species like the Wattled Crane and Slaty Egret do have their core populations in Botswana. They, therefore, require special consideration to ensure that their populations remain secure. The distribution of globally threatened species found in Botswana is shown on Figure 14.
Figure 14: Distribution of globally threatened birds found in Botswana It has been found that densities for most species, such as large raptors, are considerably higher in protected areas than in unprotected areas (Herremans, 1998; Herremans-Tonnoeyr, 2000). The high trophic level of large raptors means that they integrate functional disturbance at lower levels, and most species are highly sensitive to human disturbance, particularly when nesting. Other species like game birds and bustards are susceptible to hunting and snaring for food and, as such, they provide a good indication of human pressure on birds as food resources.
Wattled crane (Grus carunculatus)
25
Table 3: Globally threatened birds that occur in Botswana Red List Year Population History Category Assessed Trend Globally LC EN 2008 Decreasing Egyptian Vulture, Neophron percnopterus 2004 EN EN 2008 Decreasing Basra Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus griseldis 2004 VU VU 2008 Decreasing Slaty Egret, Egretta vinaceigula 1994 VU VU 2008 Decreasing Lappet-faced Vulture, Torgos tracheliotos 2000 NT VU 2008 Stable Black Harrier, Circus maurus 1988 VU VU 2008 Decreasing Blue Crane, Grus paradisea 1994 VU VU 2008 Decreasing Wattled Crane, Grus carunculatus 1994 VU VU 2008 Decreasing Cape Vulture, Gyps coprotheres 1994 LC VU 2008 Decreasing White-headed Vulture, Trigonoceps occipitalis 2004 NT NT 2008 Decreasing Lesser Flamingo, Phoeniconaias minor 2004 NT NT 2008 Decreasing Pallid Harrier, Circus macrourus 2004 NT NT 2008 Decreasing Denham’s Bustard, Neotis denhami 2004 LC NT 2008 Decreasing White-backed Vulture, Gyps africanus 2004 NT NT 2008 African Skimmer, Rynchops flavirostris 2004 DD NT 2008 Decreasing Black-winged Pratincole, Glareola nordmanni 2000 Species Name
26
EN 2007 EN 2006 VU 1996 VU 2004 VU 2000 VU 2000 VU 1996 VU 1996 VU 2007 NT 2006 NT 2006
NT 2007 NT 2006 DD 2004
VU 2000 VU 2007 VU 2004 VU 2004 VU 2000 VU 2000
VU 2004
NT 2006
NT 2007
VU 2006 VU 2004 VU 2004
VU 2006 VU 2006
Great Snipe, Gallinago media
NT
2008
-
Latakoo ( Melodious) Lark, Mirafra cheniana
NT
2008
-
Maccoa Duck, Oxyura maccoa
NT
2008
Decreasing
Chestnut-banded plover, Charadrius pallidus
NT
2008
Stable
European Roller, Coracias garrulus
NT
2008
Decreasing
Red- footed Falcon, Falco vespertinus
NT
2008
Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa limosa
NT
2008
Decreasing
Eurasian Curlew, Numenius arquata
NT
2008
Decreasing
NT 1988 NT 2004 LC 2004 LC 2004 LC 2004 LC 2004 LC 2004 LC 2004
-
NT 2004
NT 2006
NT 2007 NT 2007 NT 2005 NT 2005 NT 2006
KEY: Not Evaluated
Data Deficient
Least Concern
Lower Risk-least concern
NE DD LC LR-lc (Refer to Glossary for detailed description of categories)
Lower Riskconservation dependent
Lower Risk-near threatened
Near Threatened
Threatened
Vulnerable
Endangered
Critically Endangered
LR-cd
LR-nt
NT
T
VU
EN
CR
27
FISHES AND REPTILES Only two globally threatened fish species occur in Botswana (Table 4) and both species are listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red Data List. Both are threatened by the alien species Oreochromis niloticus (Nile Tilapia). It is suspected that Greenhead Tilapia (Oreochromis macrochir) could decline by as much as 30% in the next 10 years due to invasion by O. niloticus (Marshall and Tweddle, 2007) while a 100% reduction is projected for Threespot Tilapia (Oreochromis andersonii) in areas where O. niloticus invades (Tweddle and Marshall, 2007). Unfortunately, O. niloticus is being promoted for aquaculture in the Upper Zambezi catchment and this presents a high risk of its escaping and spreading into the Okavango. Although the populations in the Okavango are presently under no immediate threat, this system is intermittently linked to the Zambezi. It is, therefore, inevitable that O. niloticus will eventually invade the system unless a barrier is constructed across the Selinda Spillway to prevent migration (IUCN, 2011). The other threat could come from hybridization with other related species like O. mossambicus, which is currently being extensively cultivated in neighbouring Namibia. It is necessary for Botswana to expeditiously adopt a Threatened Species Policy
28
that would, among other things, promote the establishment of refuges for these species in lakes that are not directly connected to the main rivers or aquaculture. The Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) population in Botswana is listed on CITES Appendix II and protected under the Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act of 1992. The species was listed as Vulnerable until 1990 (Table 5) but is now classified as Lower Risk/Least Concern (Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996). Despite being classified as Least Concern, some of the principal threats still remain including habitat loss, direct conflict with people, uncontrolled hunting for artisanal trade in leather goods, as well as indirect anthropogenic effects like river pollution.
Table 4: Globally threatened fishes that occur in Botswana Species Name
Red List Category
Year Assessed
Population Trend Globally
Threespot Tilapia, Oreochromis andersonii
VU
2007
Decreasing
Greenhead Tilapia, Oreochromis macrochir
VU
2007
Unknown
History
Table 5: Globally threatened reptiles that occur in Botswana Species Name
Red List Category
Year Assessed
Population Trend History Globally
Nile Crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus
LR-lc
1996
Unknown; needs updating
VU 1982
VU 1986
VU 1988
VU 1990
KEY: Not Evaluated
Data Deficient
Least Concern
NE
DD
LC
Lower Lower RiskRisk-least conservation concern dependent LR-lc
LR-cd
Lower Risk-near threatened
Near Threatened
Threatened
Vulnerable
Endangered
Critically Endangered
LR-nt
NT
T
VU
EN
CR
(Refer to Glossary for detailed description of categories)
29
State
Threatened plant species
There is no comprehensive list of threatened species in Botswana and detailed vegetation inventories are lacking. The Forest Act of 1968, as amended by Act No. 8 of 2005, allows for the declaration of certain species to be protected. Only ten tree species are currently protected under the Act (Table 6). Interestingly, none of the 10 species are listed in the 2002 Plant Red Data List compiled by the Southern Africa Botanical Network (SABONET). The list, however, contains 43 plant species found in Botswana (Table 7).
Table 6: Protected Tree Species FAMILY
BOTANICAL NAME
Bombacaceae
Adansonia digitata L.
Ebenaceae
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.D.C
Euphorbiaceae
Spirostachys africana Sond.
Leguminosae
Afzelia quanzensis Welw. Baikiaea plurijuga Harms Brachystegia Benth. Guibourtia coleosperma (Benth.) J.Léonard Pterocarpus angolensis DC.
Lead agency
Department of Forestry and Range Resources
Data sources
DWNP Research and Statistics Division; Private Researchers; Department of Agricultural Research; UB; BCA
Updating the indicator
Every 5 years
Units of measurement
Counts
Key question(s)
How many plant species are threatened?
Limitations
Taxonomy skills; Inconsistent standards and protocols
30
Meliaceae
Entandrophragma caudatum Sprague
Rhamnaceae
Berchemia discolor Hemsl.
Table 7: Threatened plant species found in Botswana Family
Botanical Name
Common Name
Apocynaceae
Adenium boehmianum Schinz
Desert Rose / Bushman poison Endangered
Very small or restricted
Andenium oleifolium Stapf
Desert Rose
Vulnerable
Small distribution and decline or fluctuation
Vulnerable
Declining
Vulnerable
Very small or restricted
Endangered
Declining
Orbeopsis knobelii (E.Phillips) L.C.Leach
Vulnerable
Very small or restricted
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia venteri L.C. Leach ex R.H. Archer & S. Carter
Endangered
Small population size and decline
Lythraceae
Nesaea minima Immelman
Nesaea red
Vulnerable
Very small or restricted
Orchidaceae
Ansellia africana Lindl.
Leopard orchid
Vulnerable
Declining
Eulophia angolensis (Rchb.f.) Summerh.
Vlei orchid
Vulnerable
Declining
Eulophia latilabris Summerh.
The Broad Lipped Eulophia
Vulnerable
Declining
Vulnerable
Declining
Vulnerable
Very small or restricted
Asclepiadaceae Hoodia lugardi N.E.Br Huernia levyi Oberm. O. tapscottii (I.Verd.) L.C.Leach
Carrion flower
Red List Category
Population Trend
Portulacaceae
Anacampseros rhodesiaca N.E.Br.
Sapindaceae
Erythrophysa transvaalensis I.Verd.
Acanthaceae
Barleria matopensis S. Moore
Lower Risk - Least Concern
Unknown
Blepharis bainesii S. Moore ex C.B. Clarke
Lower Risk - Least Concern
Unknown
Lower Risk - Least Concern
Unknown
Lower Risk - Least Concern
Unknown Unknown
Transvaal red balloon
Capparaceae
Boscia foetida Schinz subsp. minima Toelken
Cyperaceae
Pycreus okavangensis Podlech
Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha botswanica Radcl.-Sm.
Physic nut
Lower Risk - Least Concern
Fabaceae
Acacia hebeclada DC subsp. chobiensis (O.B. Mill.) A. Schreib.
Candle pod acacia
Lower Risk - Near Threatened Unknown
Smelly shepherd’s tree
31
Aizoaceae
Asteraceae
Nananthus aloides (Haw.) Schwantes
Data Deficient
Nananthus margaritiferus L.Bolus
Data Deficient
Arctotis rogersii S. Moore
Data Deficient
Arctotis serpens S. Moore
Data Deficient
Erlangea remifolia Wild & G.V.Pope
Data Deficient
Rennera laxa (Bremek. & Oberm.) Kallersjo
Data Deficient
Asclepiadaceae
Ceropegia floribunda N.E.Br.
Cyperaceae
Eleocharis cubangensis H.E. Hess
Data Deficient
Eriospermaceae
Eriospermum linearifolium Baker
Data Deficient
Fabaceae
Acacia hebeclada DC. subsp. tristis A. Schreib. Candle pod acacia
Data Deficient
Orchidaceae
Habenaria pasmithii G. Will.
Bog orchid
Data Deficient
Zeuxine africana Rchb.f.
Jewel orchid
Aristida wildii Melderis
Makarikari grass
Poaceae
Panicum coloratum makarikariense Gooss.
L.
Bushman’s pipe
Mant.
Panicum pilgerianum (Schweick.) Clayton Sporobolus bechuanicus Gooss.
Data Deficient Data Deficient
var.
Panicum gilvum Launert
Data Deficient
Panic grass / Crab grass Panic grass / Crab grass
Data Deficient
Dropseed / Rush grass
Data Deficient Data Deficient
Rosaceae
Grielum cuneifolium Schinz
Data Deficient
Santalaceae
Thesium dissitum N.E.Br.
Data Deficient
Scrophulariaceae Jamesbrittenia integerrima (Benth.) Hilliard
Data Deficient
Jamesbrittenia concinna (Hiern.) Hilliard
(Source: Setshogo and Hargreaves, 2002)
32
The plant species in the SABONET Red Data List are categorized as Endangered, Vulnerable, Lower Risk and Data Deficient. Of the endangered, vulnerable and lower risk species, only one for each category is endemic but for those species with no data (data deficient), five are endemic while ten are potentially endemic (Figure 15). Endemic species are those which are found exclusively in a particular area. They are naturally not found anywhere else. According to Setshogo and Hargreaves (2002), the low level of endemism in Botswana might be due to the fact that the country’s topography and climate are homogeneous, with a fairly undiversified flora. It is evident, however, that a lot of fieldwork is required to determine the taxonomy and ecology of Botswana’s vegetation. Many of the species listed as Data Deficient are mainly known from their type localities and herbarium collections. Furthermore, some of the species are only known from records in herbaria of other countries, which underlines the need for exchange and sharing of information between Botswana and other countries especially those in the region like Namibia and South Africa (Setshogo and Hargreaves, 2002).
25 20 15 10 5 0 Endangered
Vulnerable Endemic
Lower risk
Data Deficient
Potentially Endemic
Figure 15: Number of plant species on the Red Data List (Setshogo and Hargreaves, 2002)
33
State
Status of selected fish species in the Okavango Delta
A basket of indicators developed by Welcomme (1999) has been adopted to monitor and assess the status of Okavango Delta fish stocks. These are mean length; mean catch rates (otherwise referred to as c.p.u.e.); index of relative importance (IRI); species diversity; mean length and the time lag between yield from the fishery (based on fishermen catches) and a flooding variable (that is, discharge) or mean flooded area. According to Hilborn and Walters (1992), time series data of at least 10 years should be used to evaluate exploited fish stocks because of the natural variability (at spatial and temporal scales) inherent in biological populations. This qualitative assessment approach is, therefore, the best method for assessing complex multi-species assemblages where conventional models cannot work (Welcomme, 1999). Data collection and analysis presented in this booklet is described in Mosepele et al. (2011).
Lead agency
Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Data sources
Okavango Research Institute; Private Researchers; Community Based Organizations
Updating the indicator
Annually
Units of measurement
Counts
Key question(s)
What is the breeding success of fish species in the Okavango Delta?
Limitations
Inadequate resources (manpower, vehicles, fish sampling gear)
34
Results show that there has been no significant change in mean length (at both seasonal and annual dimensions), in diversity, in fish community structure, and abundance (Figures 16 to 20). Moreover, the long time lag between fishery yield and discharge (8 years) or between fishery yield and flooded area (9 years) suggest that the fishery is exploiting old fish, which is generally common in underexploited fisheries. All these results suggest that the fish stocks are still healthy.
Figure 16: Seasonal changes in fish diversity (IRI) in relation to seasonal flooding in the Okavango Delta
30 25 20 15 10 5 1999 2000 2001 2002 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Figure 17: Changes in mean length of the Okavango Delta’s fish community between 1999 and 2008
Figure 19: Mean monthly catch rates vs. seasonal discharge
Figure 18: Relationship between mean discharge and mean fishery yield between 1998 and 2005 in the Okavango Delta (Time lag = 8 years)
Figure 20: Relationship between mean flooded area and mean fishery yield between 1996 and 2008 in the Okavango Delta (Time lag = 9 years)
35
COMMERCIAL SPECIES Based on a long term experimental database, trends in catch rates of Threespot tilapia (Figure 21), Red-breast tilapia (Figure 22) and Green-head tilapia (Figure 23) decreased during the monitoring period from 2000 to 2009. These declines were, however, not significant.
Three-spot tilapia (Oreochromis andersonii) Figure 22: Trends in catch rates of Red-breast tilapia
Green-head tilapia (Oreochromis macrochir)
Figure 21: Trends in catch rates of Three-spot tilapia
Red-breast tilapia (Tilapia rendalli)
Figure 23: Trends in catch rates of Green-head tilapia
36
RECREATIONAL SPECIES
SUBSISTENCE SPECIES
Catch rates of Tiger-fish have been increasing, based on long term monitoring data, but the increase was not significant (Figure 24).
Long term monitoring data has shown a downward trend in the catch rates of sharp-tooth catfish, based on numbers caught per net, but the change was not significant (Figure 25). Conversely, catch rates for this species, based on grams per set (weight), significantly decreased. Catch rates for other species did not show any significant changes over the monitoring period.
Picture: Fisheries Division
Tiger-fish (Hydrocynus vittatus) Sharp-tooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus)
Figure 24: Trends in catch rates of Tiger-fish
Figure 25: Trends in catch rates of Sharp-tooth catfish
37
A significant change in any one variable does not automatically suggest that the population of this species is over-exploited. Other factors need to be considered before conclusions can be made about the status of catfish stocks in the Okavango Delta. Overall, these results suggest that the Delta’s fish stocks are still robust, which is consistent with earlier studies (Mosepele, 2000; Mosepele and Kolding, 2003).
Fish stocks in the Okavango are still relatively robust
A DWNP officer catching fish using a net
Fish species on display
38
Response Indicators
39
Response
Extent of Protected Areas
Protected Areas (PAs) have been recognized as the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation. These areas ensure the maintenance of natural processes across the landscape and provide key habitats and refuges for wildlife, while also allowing for species migration and movement. In addition, Protected Areas provide livelihoods for communities living in or around them. The Convention on Biological Diversity defines Protected Areas as “geographically defined areas which are designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives.” The IUCN defines them more broadly as “clearly defined geographical spaces, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.” According to the latter definition, Botswana has set aside 45% of its land area as protected areas. This includes National Parks, Game Reserves, Private Wildlife and Nature Reserves, Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs), Controlled Hunting Areas (CHAs), Forest Reserves and National Monuments (Figure 26). Lead agency
Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Data sources
Department of Surveys and Mapping; Department of Town and Regional Planning; Department of Lands
Updating the indicator As and when gazettement takes place Units of measurement
Hectares
Key question(s)
What is the extent of nationally designated protected areas?
Limitations
40
Figure 26: Botswana’s Protected Areas
The extent of protected areas has increased significantly over the past two decades mainly due to the creation of Wildlife Management Areas (Figure 27). Additional Forest Reserves were also gazetted during the same period and they now constitute 0.8 % of Botswana’s total land area.
Proportion of Total Land Area (%)
30 25 20 15 10 5
Sign post marking entrance to Makgadikgadi Pans National Park at Kumaga
0 1971
1981
1995
2003
2007
National Parks
Game Reserves
Forest Reserves
Wildife Management Areas
Figure 27: Extent of Protected Areas in Botswana
Although Botswana is among the 57% of countries that have reported to have at least 10% of their land areas under formal protection, concerted efforts are still required to maintain the integrity of these areas (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010). In particular, the connectedness of existing Protected Areas could be improved by establishing wildlife migratory corridors. It is noteworthy, however, that Botswana has already lost at least 56% of her original wildlife habitat, based on an assessment by IUCN/UNEP in 1986 (McNeely et al., 1990). It is, therefore, imperative for the country to stabilize the size of protected areas at an amount that would still allow her to meet national development goals including tourism, veld products utilization, agriculture and species conservation (McNeely et al., 1990).
Entrance to Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park at Kaa
41
Response
CBOs involved in CBNRM
Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) is a development approach that fosters the sustainable use and conservation of natural resources and promotes rural development through community participation and the creation of economic incentives. It aims to alleviate rural poverty and advance conservation by strengthening rural economies and empowering communities to manage resources for their long-term social, economic and ecological benefits (Botswana Government, 2007b). Hence, the cornerstone of CBNRM is conservation – based development in which the need to protect biodiversity and ecosystems is balanced with the need to improve rural livelihoods and reduce poverty.
Lead agency
Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism – CBNRM Unit
Data sources
National CBNRM Forum; Community Based Organizations; Joint-Venture Partners
Updating the indicator Annually Units of measurement
Counts
Key question (s)
What is the number of registered CBOs that are actively involved in CBNRM?
Limitations
Facilitation skills; Poor coordination
42
To participate in CBNRM, a community is required to organise itself in a representative and legally registered entity such as a trust or cooperative (commonly referred to as Community Based Organization (CBO)) and demonstrate to the district authorities that a participatory process was observed. The CBO is also required to design and adopt regulations and procedures (constitution and bylaws) that not only define its natural resources management functions but also its accountability and responsibility towards the community members. Where a designated portion of land is to be allocated, the CBO has to prepare a Land-Use and Management Plan (LUMP) conforming to any existing regulations and submit to the land authority for approval. Since inception of the CBNRM programme in 1989, more than 100 CBOs have been registered. Despite the large number of registered CBOs, very few of them are actively operating as viable entities, generating revenue, receiving benefits, managing their natural resources or distributing the benefits within the community (Figure 28). Lack of capacity has been cited as the major contributing factor. On the one hand, CBOs lack capacity within the Boards of Trustees to manage their business enterprises and are not able to adequately account to their communities. On the other, intermediary agencies like Non-Governmental Organizations and various government extension departments lack capacity to equip CBOs with the necessary business management skills and are not able to facilitate the development of better governance capacity in CBNRM communities (Johnson and Peloyame, 2009). The success of CBNRM ultimately depends on the communities themselves. Continued efforts are, therefore, required to build the capacity of communities by government, NGOs and private sector so that they
can become real partners in natural resources management instead of mere recipients. Sufficient time and support should also be allocated to allow CBOs to develop as representative of the different interests of the local resource user groups, thereby ensuring equitable and sustainable participation in management decision-making and benefit sharing (Rozemeijer and Van der Jagt, 2000).
120
Number of CBOs
100
80
60
Registered CBOs
40
CBOs actively involved in CBNRM
20
0
2003
2006
2009
Year
Figure 28: Number of CBOs in Botswana between 2003 and 2009
Sign post marking entrance to CHA KD1 in Kgalagadi
43
Response
Income from CBNRM As shown in Figure 29, income from CBNRM has been decreasing. 18 16
Amount in Millions (BWP)
Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) has directly and indirectly contributed to rural development in several ways including employment creation, income generation and establishment of community facilities, as well as empowerment of local communities. According to the 2009 State of CBNRM Report, at least P52 Million was generated nationally through various CBNRM activities during the period 2006 to 2009. Out of this amount, 88% (P46, 305, 245) was generated by only eight CBOs in the Ngamiland and Chobe Districts. As in previous years, most of the income was realized through wildlife based activities, particularly through hunting (62.7%). CBNRM presumes that communities will protect biodiversity in return for incentives such as monetary benefits, which can be used to improve their livelihoods.
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2006
Lead agency Data sources
Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism – CBNRM Unit National CBNRM Forum; Community Based Organizations; Joint-Venture Partners
Updating the indicator Annually Units of measurement
BWP
Key question (s)
What is the annual income earned from the CBNRM programme?
Limitations
Financial management skills; Poor record keeping
44
2007
2008
2009
Year
Figure 29: CBNRM annual income
Most of the income was realized through wildlife based activities, particularly trophy hunting (62.7%). In recent years, however, the benefit from trophy hunting has been declining due to reductions in wildlife offtake quotas, especially the removal of some highly prized trophy species like lion. The intention to restrict hunting activities in zones around protected areas is expected to further affect CBOs that were allocated those areas (Johnson and Peloyame, 2009).
Although photographic and cultural tourism initiatives have potential to contribute significantly to CBNRM income, they require intensive marketing and a relatively long lead time before realizing the benefits. It is, therefore, necessary to assist CBOs through appropriate training and other initiatives so that they can profitably exploit these alternative CBNRM products. It is also critical to promote the harvesting and marketing of veld products as well as handicrafts production since these currently contribute only 4% to the total CBNRM income (Johnson and Peloyame, 2009).
Handicrafts production is another.
Cultural tourism is one way of diversifying CBNRM income…
45
Glossary Anthropogenic
Caused by humans.
Ecology
Biodiversity
The variety of life including the different plants, animals and micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are a part.
The scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment.
Ecosystem
Biological Resource Any natural resource (timber, plant, aquatic or animal resource) that may have economic value and bring use-benefits today or in the future.
A dynamic complex of plant and animal communities and their associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit.
Fire Break
A gap in vegetation or other combustible material that acts as a barrier to slow or stop the progress of a wildfire.
Fishery Yield
The output of fish by humans both from capture fisheries and aquaculture.
Forage
Plant material (mainly plant leaves and stems) eaten by grazing livestock.
Freehold Land
A category of land tenure which entitles the owner with perpetual and exclusive rights to the land, including the natural resources within the land with the exception of wildlife.
Habitat
An ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or other type of organism.
Biomass
The amount of living matter in a given habitat, expressed either as the weight of organisms per unit area or as the volume of organisms per unit volume.
Birds of Concern
Bird species regarded as nationally threatened
Communal Land
One of three main categories of land tenure in Botswana. It is also called tribal land and held in trust by Tribal Land Boards for the citizens of Botswana. Every citizen has a right to be allocated communal land for residential, commercial or agricultural use.
Conservation
Wise utilization, preservation and protection of natural resources and the environment.
Culling
The act of reducing the population of (a wild animal) by selective slaughter.
Degradation
46
Any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
Human Wildlife Conflict The interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative impacts on people or their resources, or wild animals or their habitat.
Hybridization
The process of combining different varieties of organisms to create a hybrid.
is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.
Indicator
A physical, chemical, biological, social or economic variable which can be measured in a defined way for management purposes.
Least Concern A taxon is least concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened.
IUCN Red List Categories: Extinct
A taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died.
Extinct in the Wild A taxon is extinct in the wild when it is only known to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population(s) well outside the past range. Critically Endangered A taxon is critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Endangered
A taxon is endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
Vulnerable A taxon is vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it faces a high risk of extinction in the wild. Near Threatened A taxon is near threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or
Data Deficient A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. Not Evaluated A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. Land Cover
The physical material at the surface of the earth, including grass, asphalt, trees, bare ground, water, etc.
Land Tenure
The relationship, whether legally or customarily defined, among people, as individuals or groups, with respect to land.
Land Use
The exploitation of land for agricultural, industrial, residential, recreational, or other purposes.
Non-Ruminant
Animal with only one stomach compartment.
Poaching
The illegal taking of wild plants or animals. Poaching becomes commercial when it is done for profit gained by the illegal sale or trade of animal parts, meat and pelts.
47
Protected Area
Quota
Rangeland
A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. A limited quantity of a particular product that under official controls can be exploited, produced, exported, or imported. Land on which the indigenous vegetation is predominantly grasses, grass-like plants, forbs or shrubs that are grazed or have the potential to be grazed, and which is used as a natural ecosystem for the production of grazing livestock and wildlife.
Raptor
A bird of prey.
Ruminant
Animal with a four-chambered stomach designed for digesting coarse plant matter.
Species
A group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
Sporadic Event
Any event that occurs at irregular intervals in time.
State Land
One of three main categories of land tenure in Botswana, which is in the form of national parks, game reserves, forest reserves, cities, towns and townships.
Sustainable Use
Use or uses, which can be sustained indefinitely with the resources provided.
48
Taxon
A taxonomic group of any rank, such as a species, family, or class.
Taxonomy
The science of classification according to a predetermined system, with the resulting catalog used to provide a conceptual framework for discussion, analysis, or information retrieval.
Trophy Hunting
The selective hunting of wild game animals, usually regulated by quotas.
Ungulates
Groups of mammals, most of which use the tips of their toes, usually hoofed, to sustain their whole body weight while moving.
Wildlife Migratory Corridor An area used by animals to pass from one suitable habitat patch to another. Wildlife corridors are generally identified through their use by large migratory mammals such as elephants, zebras and wildebeests.
Photo credits Cover, Zebras; Sunset; Lilac-breasted Roller; and Mokoro polers, Department of Environmental Affairs Cover, Kudus; Crocodile; and Baobab tree, Michael Flyman Pg. 4, Regional workshop, BICSA Pg. 4, National workshop, Department of Environmental Affairs Pg. 6, Man and goat, Department of Environmental Affairs Pg. 14, Cattle and birds at a watering point, Michael Flyman
Pg. 37, Tiger- fish, Fisheries Division Pg. 37, Sharp-tooth catfish, Keta Mosepele Pg. 38, All photos, Department of Wildlife and National Parks Pg. 41, All photos, Michael Flyman Pg. 43, KD 1 signpost, Michael Flyman Pg. 45, All photos, Michael Flyman
Pg. 17, Elephants, Michael Flyman Pg. 19, Lesser flamingoes, BirdLife Botswana Pg. 20, African skimmer, BirdLife Botswana Pg. 20, Wattled crane; and Slaty egret, Pete Hancock Pg. 20, Short-clawed Lark, Ian White/BirdLife Botswana Pg. 20, Kori bustard; Bateleur, BirdLife Botswana Pg. 21, White-backed vulture; Lappet-faced vulture, BirdLife Botswana Pg. 23, African wild dog, Pete Hancock Pg. 23, African elephant, Michael Flyman Pg. 25, Wattled crane, Pete Hancock Pg. 36, Three-spot tilapia; Red-breast tilapia; and Green-head tilapia, Keta Mosepele
49
References Boshoff, A.F., Kerley, G.I.H. and Cowling, R.M., 2002, Estimated spatial requirements of the medium- to large-sized mammals, according to broad habitat units, in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa, African Journal of Range & Forage Science 19 (1) : 29–44. Botswana Government, 1992, Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act, Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism, Gaborone. Botswana Government, 2007a, Botswana Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism, Gaborone. Botswana Government, 2007b, Community Based Natural Resources Management Policy, Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism, Gaborone. Botswana Government, 2008, Environment Statistics 2006, Central Statistics Office, Gaborone. Botswana Government, 2009, Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ministry of Environment Wildlife and Tourism, Gaborone. Botswana Government, 2010, Draft Land Policy, Ministry of Lands and Housing, Gaborone. Botswana Government, 2011, Revised Elephant Management Plan, Discussion Draft, Ministry of Environment Wildlife and Tourism, Gaborone. Chase, M., 2011, Dry season fixed-wing aerial survey of elephants and wildlife in Northern Botswana, September – November 2010, Elephants Without Borders.
50
Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996, Crocodylus niloticus, In: IUCN 2011, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. . Downloaded on 02 March 2012. CSIRO Australia, 1998, A guidebook to Environmental Indicators, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia. Du Toit P.C.V., undated. The stocking rate: Grazing capacity relation. < http://gadi.agric.za/articles/duToit_PCV/stocking_rate.htm> Downloaded on 07 February 2012. Hancock, P., 2008, The status of globally and nationally threatened birds in Botswana, BirdLife Botswana. Herremans, M. and Herremans-Tonnoeyr, D., 2000, Land use and the conservation status of raptors in Botswana, Biological Conservation 94: 31–41. Herremans, M., 1998, Conservation status of birds in Botswana in relation to land use, Biological Conservation 86: 139–160. Hilborn, R. and Walters, C.J., 1992, Quantitative fisheries stock assessment: Choice, dynamics and uncertainty. Chapman and Hall Publishers, New York. Holechek, J. L., Pieper, R.D. and Herbel, C.H., 1989, Range management: principles and practices, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. IUCN, 2011, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2011.2. . Downloaded on 02 March 2012. Johnson, S. and Peloyame, N., 2009, State of CBNRM Report 2009, Kalahari Conservation Society, Gaborone.
Lovett, J.C., 2009, Policy piece: Elephants and the conservation dilemma, African Journal of Ecology 47: 129–130. Marshall, B.E., and Tweddle, D., 2007, Oreochromis macrochir. In: IUCN 2011, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2011.2. . Downloaded on 02 March 2012.
Rozemeijer, N. and Van der Jagt, C., 2000, Botswana Case Study: Community-based natural resources management (CBNRM) in Botswana: How community based is CBNRM in Botswana? In: Shackelton, S. and Campbell, B. (Editors), Empowering Communities to Manage Natural Resources: Case Studies from Southern Africa, Division of Water, Environment and Forestry Technology, CSIR. Pretoria
McCulloch, G. and Irvine, K., 2004, Breeding of Greater and Lesser Flamingos at Sua Pan, Botswana, 1998–2001, Ostrich 75(4): 236–242.
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010, Global Biodiversity Outlook 3, Montreal.
McNeely, J.A., Jeffrey, A., Kenton, R.M., Walter, V.R., Russell, A.M. and Timothy, B.W., 1990, Conserving the world’s biological diversity. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; WRI, CI, WWF-US and the World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Setshogo, M. and Hargreaves, B., 2002. Botswana. In: Golding, J.S. (Ed.), Southern Africa Plant Red Data Lists. Southern African Botanical Diversity Network Report No. 14: 16-20. SABONET, Pretoria.
Mosepele, K., 2000, Preliminary Length Based Stock Assessment of the Main Exploited Stocks of the Okavango Delta Fishery, MPhil Thesis, Department of Fisheries and Marine Biology, University of Bergen (UiB), Bergen, Norway. Mosepele, K. and Kolding, J., 2003, Fish Stock Assessment in the Okavango Delta, Botswana – preliminary results from a length based analysis. In: Bernard, T., Mosepele, K. and Ramberg, L. (Editors), Environmental Monitoring of Tropical and Subtropical Wetlands, University of Botswana, Maun and University of Florida, Gainesville, FLA.
Tweddle, D., and Marshall, B.E., 2007, Oreochromis andersonii, In: IUCN 2011, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2011.2. . Downloaded on 02 March 2012. Welcomme, R.L., 1999, A review of a model for qualitative evaluation of exploitation levels in multi-species fisheries, Fisheries Management and Ecology, 6: 1–19.
Mosepele, K., Mosepele, B., Bokhutlo, T. and Amutenya, K., 2011, Spatial variability in fish species assemblage and community structure in four subtropical lagoons of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 36(14-15): 910–917. Motsumi, S., Senyatso, K.J. and Hancock, P., 2007, Wattled Crane (Grus carunculatus) research and monitoring in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, Ostrich 78(2): 213–219.
51
