Roman Religion & Daily Life Roman Religion The origins of the Roman pantheon began with the small farming community that made up the ancient village of Rome. The foundations of the mythology included nameless and faceless deities that lended support to the community while inhabiting all objects and living things.

Numen, as the belief in a pantheistic inhabitation of all things is called, would later take root in more clearly defined system of gods, but early on this belief that everything was inhabited by numina was the prevalent system. Even though the early Romans were not very concerned with the distinct personalities of each god within their pantheon, there was a rigid clarification of what each particular deity was responsible for. Every family or household was believed to be assigned a guardian spirit known as the Lar Familiaris

(Lars). All family functions included these spiritual guardians in some form or another. Among these spirits that played a role in the spiritual life of Romans were Genii for men and junii for women. Each of these individual deities stayed with a person for life and represented the creative force

that determined gender and allowed individuals to grow, learn and behave morally within society. The Dii Familiaris were so ingrained within the household that several spirits were assigned to specific responsibilities within a home. Forculus protected the door, Limentinus the threshold, Cardea the hinges, and Vesta the hearth. Most of the Roman gods and goddesses were a blend of several religious influences influences. es Many of these were

introduced via the Greek colonies of southern Italy and others had their roots in the Etruscan or Latin tribes of the region. In some cases the Etruscan or Latin names survived throughout the cultural existence of Rome, but many were adopted so completely that they maintained their names from other cultures. In the east, the Greek names remained the choice of the people and the major gods of the system therefore, were known by both. The gods of the Roman pantheon began taking on the forms known today during the dynasty of the Etruscan kings in the 6th century BC. These gods, Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera), and Minerva (Athena), were worshiped at the grand temple on the Capitoline Hill. As Rome's power grew and expanded throughout the known known world, the Roman Empire came into contact with the cultures and religious beliefs of many cultures. The Romans, happy to absorb and assimilate any culture they encountered thereby reaping the benefits of both its wealth and religious influence, were a mosaic of belief systems. Foreign gods and customs not only played major roles but were also given temples and priesthoods within Rome itself. EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES: The goddess Cybele, a Phoenician god was adopted during the Second Punic War to counteract any benefit that Hannibal may have gained. Even after his defeat, Cybele remained an integral part of the Roman system. Another very popular foreign god was the Persian god Mithra. Overwhelmingly supported in the Legions, this deity offered eternal salvation for the immortal soul and its popularity helped pave the way for the later Christian cult whose similarities made its adoption less difficult.

With the passing of the Roman Republic into that of an Imperial system, the nature of Roman religion expanded again to include include the Emperors themselves. Julius Caesar, having claimed to be a direct descendent of Aeneas, the son of Venus, was among the first to deify himself in such a manner. At first, such a system of human divinity was largely rejected by the masses, but the popularity of Caesar helped pave the way for future leaders. Mr. Noble

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Roman Religion & Daily Life As the Imperial system gained hold, it was common practice for the Emperors to accept divine honors before their deaths. These living gods, gods in some cases, required sacrificial rituals as signs of loyalty and ingrained themselves with the older more traditional pagan gods. The requirement of a sacrifice to the emperor, as well as the forced belief in the complete pantheon became a significant source of conflict with early Christians. Christians As Christians refused to worship the emperor as a god, persecution of the Christians and conflict with the cult was a constant source of strife. Emperor worship would continue until late in the western Empire until the reign of Constantine. In the early 4th century AD, Constantine either converted to Christianity or made it an acceptable part of Roman religion, eliminating the emperor deification altogether. Later Emperors such as Julian attempted to revive the old ways. By 392 AD, Emperor Theodosius I banned the practice of pagan religions in Rome altogether and Christianity was, without question, the official religion of the state.

Did you know? Some of the deities and spirits (known individually as numen or collectively as numina) who populated the imagination and religion of the native Latin people were extremely important to the extent that they had rites dedicated to them, others are merely names, with little (or limited) function even in Roman times.

Daily Life In Ancient Rome The Romans, encompassed hundreds, if not even thousands of cultures, and made up a diverse group of ethnic, social, religious and economic standing. The Roman Empire truly was the world’s first melting pot. In this ‘Daily Life’ section we will look at those pieces of every day living that had an impact or were an integral part of the Roman world. From clothing to weights and measures, we will examine all of those things that were as commonplace to the average Roman as our own daily routines are to us today.

1) Roman Numerals The history of Roman numerals and Roman mathematics isn’t well documented. As humans likely began counting by using the simplest things available, the fingers, mathematics developed in a base unit of 10. Actively involved in trade and the use of monetary units, the Romans required a system where counting was more than fingers. The development of the numeric symbols may have been closely related, originally, to the shape of the hand: I for a single finger, V for the whole hand outstretched, X for both hands in the same manner. Aside from the lack of the “zero” unit in the Roman system, the modern system and the ancient are remarkably similar. Considering that the Romans spread their culture throughout the western world, it really isn’t a surprise that many numerical terms have a basis in Latin.

Mr. Noble

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Roman Religion & Daily Life Roman Numeral Chart

Mr. Noble

Arabic or Modern

Latin or Roman

.

.

example - 1, 2, 3, 4...

example - first, second, third, fourth

1

I

unus - una - unum

primus

2

II

duo - duae - duo

secundas

3

III

tres - tria

tertius

4

IV

quattuor

quartus

5

V

quinque

quintus

6

VI

sex

sextus

7

VII

septem

septimus

8

VIII

octo

octavus

9

IX

novem

nonus

10

X

decum

decimus

11

XI

undecim

undecimus

12

XII

duodecim

duodecimus

13

XIII

tredecim

tertius decimus

14

XIV

quattourdecim

quartus decimus

15

XV

quindecim

quintus decimus

16

XVI

sedecim

sextus decimus

17

XVII

septendecim

septimus decimus

18

XVIII

duodeviginti

duodevicesimus

19

XIX

undeviginti

undevicesimus

20

XX

viginti

vicesimus

30

XXX

triginta

tricesimus

40

XL

quadraginta

quadragesimus

50

L

quinquaginta

quinquagesimus

Digit Form

Ordinal Form

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Roman Religion & Daily Life

Mr. Noble

60

LX

sexaginta

sexagesimus

70

LXX

septuaginta

septuagesimus

80

LXXX

octoginta

octogesimus

90

XC

nonaginta

nonagesimus

100

C

centum

centesimus

200

CC

ducenti

ducentesimus

300

CCC

trecenti

trecentesimus

400

CD

quadringenti

quadringentesimus

500

D

quingenti

quingentesimus

600

DC

sescengenti

sescentesimus

700

DCC

septingenti

septingentesimus

800

DCCC

octingenti

octingentesimus

900

CM

nongenti

nongentesimus

1000

M

mille

millesimus

2000

MM

duomilia

bismillesimus

3000

MMM

tresmilia

tresmillesimus

4000

MMMM

quadramilia

quadramillesimus

5000

V

quinmilia

quinmillesimus

6000

VM

sesmilia

sesmillesimus

7000

VMM

septuamilia

septuamillesimus

8000

VMMM

octomilia

octomillesimus

9000

MX

nonamilia

nonamillesimus

10,000

X

decem milia

decies millesimus

11,000

XM

undecim milia

undecim millesimus

12,000

XMM

duodecim milia

duadecim millesimus

50,000

L

quinqua milia

quinqua millesimus

4

Roman Religion & Daily Life 60,000

LX

sexa milia

sexa millesimus

80,000

LMMM

octo milia

octo millesimus

100,000

C

centum milia

centies millesimus

200,000

CC

ducenta milia

ducenta millesimus

500,000

D

quingenti milia

quingenti millesimus

600,000

DC

sescenti milia

sescenti millesimus

700,000

DCC

sepusducenta milia

sepcenti millesimus

1,000,000

M

mille milia

mille millesimus

Did you know? The first evidence of zero is from the Sumerian culture in Mesopotamia, some 5,000 years ago. The symbol changed over time as positional notation, for which zero was crucial, made its way to the Babylonian empire and from there to India, and to the Greeks. Rhe Romans had no trace of it at all.

2) Ancient Roman Clothing Roman men generally wore two garments, the tunica and the toga. The tunica was a short woolen under garment with short sleeves. By contrast, to wear a long tunic with long sleeves was considered effeminate and was generally avoided by society as a whole. It was originally worn mainly by the working class plebes, freedmen and slaves, though its function as an undergarment for any class of people is attested. As the toga was specifically meant as a public display garment, the tunica was also worn by any people within the comforts of their own homes. The tunic worn by patrician men was made from white wool or expensive linen, while the poor would wear whatever fabric was readily available. Similar to the toga, distinct tunics were worn to signify one’s title. Magistrates wore the tunic augusticlavia, and senators wore a tunic with broad strip called the tunica laticlavia. In addition, a belt would be worn around the waist of the tunica to hold the waist of the garment snug, giving the impression of a two piece garment. The classic toga was a distinct Roman garment that only actual citizens were allowed to wear. Its distinct purpose was to indicate peaceful endeavors, as opposed to the sagum cloak, worn during times of war. The toga was a large cumbersome robe like garment of white wool and used up to 9 yards of material. Being such a bulky and uncomfortable article of clothing, it became customary in later times to wear it only on state occasions. During the time of Augustus, however, he implemented a strict moral code requiring the toga to be worn in all facets of public life. As time passed and Roman societal tradition shifted and absorbed new cultures, these rules were relaxed. The more comfortable tunic, covered by a cloak called the lacerna, became commonplace in all facets of society. All togas were not the same and each distinctive type could mark a Roman’s societal status or title. Some common, known types: The toga virilis was a plain, unadorned toga made in off-white color. It was worn by any adult male. Toga praetexta was an off-white toga with a broad purple border. This toga was reserved for Senators and Curule Magistrates such as Consuls. There were minor distinctions between stripe indications for various magistrate positions. Mr. Noble

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Roman Religion & Daily Life Toga pulla was a dark toga worn strictly in times of mourning. Toga candida was an artificially whitened toga worn by candidates for political office. It was important to be white to indicate both purity of intention by the candidate and for the candidate himself to stand out from the crowd. The toga picta was a special all purple toga embroidered with gold thread worn by a Roman general during a triumphal parade. Julius Caesar later adopted it as part of his regular dress and the emperors followed suit by using this type during many state occasions. The picta was likely adapted from the aptly named toga purpura, an all-purple toga worn by the early kings. Roman women also wore tunica in much the same fashion as the men. There were two types, both adapted from Greek fashion. One, the peplos was made from two rectangular pieces of cloth partially sewn together on both sides with the open sections at the top folded down in the front and back. It was pulled over the head and fastened with two large pins, forming a sleeveless dress. A belt was then tied over or under the folds. The more common tunic worn by women was similar to the Greek chiton. This sleeved garment was made from two wide pieces of cloth sewn together near the top. This garment was pulled over the head and fastened with several pins or buttons to form a dress with various styles and fits. A belt could be worn under the breasts, at the waist, or at the hips. Any tunics could be made of various colors and fabric types depending on social status and wealth. Married women were required to wear the loose, toga equivelant, stola. This long sleeveless tunic was strapped at the shoulder, gathered in and girdled at the waist with the garment extending to the feet. In addition, the pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure, and to be worn out of doors. Fashion of the various times also indicated how much make-up, jewelry and perfume would be worn. Suffice to say that such adornments were as popular in the ancient world as in any time. Foot-gear was mainly of two kinds, but was worn in many styles and customs. The rules for shoes weren’t as strict as those for regular clothing. The calceus was a sandal like shoe strapped to the foot, mainly for internal wear. The soleae was a full shoe completely enclosing the foot, much more similar to the modern shoe. Shoes and sandals were made in varying materials and colors, again depending on social status. Leather was by far the most common material and could be easily dyed to reflect position such as red shoes for patricians.

Did you know? A bulla is a type of necklace with pouch that was worn by ancient Roman children as a type of protection from evil spirits. The pouch was made of gold, leather, or cloth depending on how wealthy the family was. The inside of a bulla contained amulets or charms. The bulla was presented to a child at birth. A Roman boy would wear the bulla until he became a man and a Roman girl wore the bulla until she got married. Did you know? Roman prisons were not used to punish criminals, but instead served only to hold people awaiting trial or execution.

Information gathered from various sources, including UNRV Roman History

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