PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE The Sport Psychologist, 2008, 22, 90-108 © 2008 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Performance Enhancement for Ballroom Dancers: Psychological Perspectives Patsy Tremayne University of Western Sydney

Debra A. Ballinger Towson University Ballroom dance has resurfaced worldwide as a highly popular competitive sport and might be added to Olympic medal competition for the 2012 London Games. This resurgence presents opportunities for sport psychologists to provide psychological-skills and performance-enhancement training for ballroom dancers at all competitive levels. Few sport psychologists have the personal experience, expertise, or an adequate knowledge base about the competitive-ballroom-dance environment to provide meaningful intervention strategies for participants. This article was developed to provide initial guidance for sport psychology professionals interested in working in this environment. An overview of the competitive-dance and ballroom-dance environment, strategies used by dance couples for enhanced mental preparation before and during dance competitions, and excerpts from an interview with an Australian championship-level couple provide readers insight into performance-enhancement strategies for DanceSport.

Ballroom dance has long been a venue for lifetime physical activity and social enjoyment. It has resurfaced worldwide, however, as a highly competitive and popular sport as evidenced by the TV ratings in Europe, the United States, and Australia during 2005 and 2006 for Dancing With the Stars, the name for a number of international television series based on the format of the British series Strictly Come Dancing (Green & Hopkins, 2007). According to a 2007 report in The Australian, almost 22 million North American viewers watched the recent debut of the fourth edition of the ABC network’s show Dancing With the Stars, which was the biggest audience yet for a season premiere of the ballroom-dancing show. In Australia, Dancing With the Stars has been one of the most successful programs in Channel Seven’s history (Yahoo7, 2007). Because of primetime airing of replays, challenges by second-place winners, and millions of audience members voting to determine the winners of this program, the competitive environment of ballroom and Latin dancing has become a global phenomenon. There are more beginners attending classes at the professional studios, Tremayne is with the School of Psychology, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia. Ballinger is with Towson University, Towson, MD 21252. 90

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and this might, in time, translate to more competitive dancers. More important, the TV programs have created an awareness and increased respect with regard to the training and fitness level required to perform well, the intricacies of some of the movements, the artistry involved, and the need to work closely with a partner. This resurgence and the accompanying media interest have led to opportunities for sport psychologists to provide psychological-skills and performance-enhancement training for ballroom dance participants at both competitive and recreational levels. Few sport psychologists, however, have either the personal experience and expertise of dance or an adequate knowledge base about the competitive ballroom-dance environment to provide meaningful interventions for participants. As a result of a workshop presentation on the topic of sport psychology applications for ballroom dancers (Ballinger & Tremayne, 2005) and requests for follow-up information, this article has been developed to provide guidance for sport psychology professionals interested in working in this environment. First, there is an overview of the competitive dances and the ballroom-dance environment. This is followed by explanations of the psychological strategies successfully used with dance couples that have led to their enhanced mental preparation for and performance during dance competitions. Interspersed with these strategies are some excerpts from an interview with an Australian professional dance couple, which illustrate how these champions prepare for performance. Given the exploratory nature of the topic, an open-ended, semistructured interview (Drever, 2003) was conducted with the professional dance couple. The questions asked related to topics that were considered important by a number of amateur competitive-dance couples in their sessions with the consultant. Although the interviewer followed an interview guide, the natural flow of the conversation was allowed to dictate the direction of questioning (e.g., Drever, 2003). Thus, some of the answers are amalgamations of several related questions. On conclusion of the interview, both dancers had been asked the main questions from the interview guide.

Overview of Ballroom Dance Dance-Competition Classifications Competitive ballroom dance offers divisions for amateur, professional, and mixedor combined-level couples and from junior through senior age groups. Although DanceSport is the term used to describe any and all forms of dance commonly referred to as “ballroom dancing,” international standards prescribe the specific dance events used for each of the differing competitive classifications as novice, prechampionship, championship, and world class (U.S. Amateur Ballroom Dance Association [USABDA], 2006). Competitive dances can be held in either of two distinct divisions: Latin or Modern (Laird, 1994). Latin competitions include rumba, samba, cha-cha, paso doble, and jive. Modern competitions include the modern waltz, tango, Viennese waltz, slow foxtrot, and quickstep. Competitions in Latin and Modern were the focal points of the Dancing With the Stars television shows. The Modern division dances are used for world-class and championship classifications (Dancesport Australia, 2007) and therefore in the proposed Olympic DanceSport competitions. The president of the International DanceSport Federation advised

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that full recognition has been received from the International Olympic Committee (Freitag, 2007). Consequently, ballroom dancing (Modern division) will be the focus of this article. Sport psychologists, however, might find interested clientele in all classifications in the dance world and can apply their skills similarly to either genre.

Competitive Judging All judges must have passed oral and practical examinations taken from the syllabus of the London Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing in Modern or Latin technique. There are three levels of adjudication. Level 1 is Associate (judging at lower levels of competition), Level 2 is Licenciate (a judge must have this qualification in both Modern and Latin to adjudicate at a championship level), and Level 3 is Fellowship (if one has a Fellowship in both styles he or she can examine judges who wish to move to a higher level). Levels 1 and 2 examinations for adjudicators and professional coaches are conducted by outside organizations. For instance, in Australia the course is called the Coaching Principles Course and is conducted by the Department of Sport and Recreation. The competitive environment might be stressful because dance couples might be selected for final competition from successive rounds that last less than 2 minutes each (Pittman, Waller, & Dark, 2005). The now out-of-date skating system of judging is used, whereby each judge must vote for a specified number of couples to advance to the next round. In the final round, each judge must place the competing couples in order of merit (first, second, third, etc.), and couples must have a clear majority to be selected (USABDA, 2006). The overall impression that judges look for, and couples strive for, is one of harmony, that each dancer in the partnership is in rhythm with the other, and that they are energetic and confident. With experienced competitors, it is not enough to execute technically correct steps. The dancers need to make it look effortless, elegant, and enjoyable. Harmony between the couple is evaluated subjectively, and, as with other sports that combine aesthetic artistry with athletic prowess, judging can lead to unexpected or unpopular results because of its subjective nature. Some judges might prefer a more traditional style, whereas others look for creativity. Dancers must be entertaining while precisely performing their routines and must vie for the eye of the judges to be able to compete in final rounds (USABDA). Some dance couples, in an effort to increase their chances of doing well in competition, will have lessons from a number of different coaches who are also judges so that their routines, which they might change slightly to include coaches’ preferred movements, become familiar to these coaches and catch their eye during competition. This is not always a good strategy, as will be explained later. With other couples simultaneously competing for space and the judges’ favor, space and territory become competitive issues. This distinguishes the competitiveballroom-dance environment from similar sports such as ice dancing or pairs skating, in which only one couple at a time is on the rink. The distractions that ensue on a crowded floor are unique to ballroom dance. Dancers might inadvertently cross the paths of other dancers to complete a figure, and having one’s path blocked by another couple might require adjustments in direction and footwork, without missing a beat and while portraying confidence.

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In ballroom competition, each dance is performed by the couple in a closed-hold position and includes standardized figures combined with the couple’s unique and creative footwork and style. The closed-hold position signifies a firm and strong body position, and the couple must focus on the careful shaping of momentary poses, as well as the upright carriage and posture required during travel around the dance floor. Judges look for body control, posture, shape, footwork, timing, rhythm, and the level of difficulty of the routine (Pittman, et al., 2005). The judges observe all of these components within a very short period of time. Thus, with up to 50 couples on the floor in the early heats and judges eliminating 50% of the couples in 2 minutes (USABDA, 2006), it is understandable that there are stressors that arise on the floor. The judges have a difficult job, and there is no psychological support for them. Many competitors and officials believe that judges sometimes mark their own pupils more generously, which spoils the competitive side of dancing. This has led to a number of talented dancers leaving the sport (National DanceSport Polling Association, 2007).

Understanding the Dance Experience Ballroom dancers are athletes who combine physical activity with artistry and place a premium on the expression of feeling and creation of mood. As a couple, they must cooperate with each other and communicate their intentions through the use of directive projection of energy and pressure at various points of the body. For dancers, the movement problem is how the movement looks, whether the partners are in unison, and the mood it creates. Dancers place a premium on aesthetics of structure and form, technique is well defined and standardized, and each dance has as a foundation with specific positions in which dancers must maintain form but extend with style and theatrics (Nadel & Strauss, 2003). “Understanding dance involves understanding how one ‘presents’ the body—involves body awareness . . . the point of dance is to show what is possible for the body in relation to an idea of perfection . . . involving the fullest potential of mind and body” (Nadel & Strauss, 2003, p. xii). Sport psychology consultants should understand basic terms with respect to the language of dance and movement form and realize that communication—mostly nonverbal and through kinesthetic messages—is a critical component among dance couples. To be most effective, the dancers must move as one body and, through kinesthetic communication, maintain fluid movement in time with the music, regardless of changes in direction and planned pathways. Championship performances require that each movement be extended and exaggerated, with crisp footwork, and postured in a frame of confident elegance. Similar to floor-exercise routines in gymnastics, aerobic and anaerobic conditioning, flexibility, agility, muscle strength, and agility are critical fitness components of dance athletes and the championship team, and a slight fault because of fatigue is often the determining factor between elimination and promotion to the next round (Kassing & Jay, 2003). Practice sessions often last for hours, and tempers can flair. Contrarily, the performance itself is a couple of minutes per dance, and the warm-up period is limited to about 1 minute on the competition floor. Therefore, partners must learn to control personal emotions and feelings and put issues and interfering thoughts on hold during competition. As

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with any sport requiring coacting partnerships, such continuous close contact with another individual creates multiple opportunities for communication breakdown and loss of focus.

Psychological-Skills Preparation Strategies With a better understanding of the dance experience and the performance environment, professionals can implement a psychological-skills training program that will foster enhanced enjoyment, satisfaction, and success of the dancers and increase their physical competence and self-efficacy. There are often situational restraints that do not allow the implementation of a comprehensive psychological-skills training program because of the lengthy competitive season, and an abbreviated program that is specific for a dance couple might need to be devised. Common reasons for seeking interventions include the following goals: a focus on preparation for competition, managing performance anxiety, using imagery to enhance performance, better communication skills with their partner, and dealing with distractions. These will be discussed in more detail in the following subsections. To tailor these goals specifically to each dance couple, it is useful to gather information through an initial interview. A few questions should be targeted at gathering information about the competitive environment (and the dancers’ perceptions of the environment), communication patterns between the couple (also observed by the consultant during their interactions with each other), their appraisals of stressors during the competition, and how they cope with contentious decisions by judges. This information allows the consultant to prepare an effective intervention and performance-enhancement program.

Communication Skills Issues related to communication breakdowns between a dance couple are difficult at times because a number of factors affect the way messages are expressed, including stress, psychological expectancies, fatigue, and selective attention (Tubbs & Moss, 1987). Some interview inquiries can assist the consultant in determining the communication barriers between the partners. The consultant could ask the couple to describe a typical scenario in which one partner is trying to tell the other what to do, performance is breaking down, and anger and frustration are evident. Just observing the way the dancers interact during their description of the scenario will provide much useful information on verbal and nonverbal communication skills between the partners. Male partner: Communication is the “be all and end all” of having a partner and dancing with your partner. There’s just no escaping it—you have bad days, and on those days it’s best to just walk away. You can’t always perform well, and quite often you have to make sure that you don’t allow your feelings to interfere with what’s happening in the partnership. You have to pick your battles. Female partner: Occasionally I will be in a bad mood, and if that mood carries on into one of our training sessions, then the session becomes quite intense as far as I’m concerned. . . . Generally I need to work out what my anger is about

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. . . and will tell [my partner] once I’ve sorted it out and have calmed down. We discuss it and he will tell me his version of it, if it’s a problem between us, but usually it’s just me. We just talk things out and dissolve any tensions. As shown in the aforementioned quotations, it is important to recognize negative mood states and the impact they can have on practice. The comment by the male partner that “it’s best to just walk away” should be challenged. Dancers need to discuss ways whereby, no matter what the mood or situation, they can adjust their training session rather than giving up. We have found that when, for whatever reason, one or both partners are performing poorly in training, the suggestion that they focus on specific components of a step or steps, rather than the complete routine, is useful. Another suggestion is to work separately on particular components of a dance, particularly if the routine is a new one. Research by Hanton and Jones (1999) examined the effects of a multimodal intervention program (goal setting, imagery, and self-talk) on swimmers debilitated by anxiety. Results indicated that swimmers could use self-talk to reinterpret their anxiety so that it became facilitative for performance rather than debilitative. Thus, it would be useful for dancers to select a meaningful cue word or phrase that would enable them to either develop a more positive mood during practice or reframe the mood so that it helps rather than hinders performance. Some cue words we have suggested for changing mood are control, tough, vigorous, and energetic. For persistence we have suggested hang in there, tough it out, solid, and determined. For concentration they are focus, zoom in, block out, and narrow. It is important that each dancer selects his or her own cue word so that it is meaningful. An example of reframing a mood to help performance could be when a dancer attends a training session in an angry mood. Normally, this anger could lead to muscle tension and loss of focus on dancing. The anger could, however, be reframed through a selected cue word to channel that anger into energy or power while dancing. Another challenge for the sport psychologist is the fact that this is a sport in which quality of performance is based on the close interaction between the couple. When a ballroom-dance couple trains and competes, some of the psychological demands to be addressed are within one individual, whereas other demands are in the other individual, and still others arise from the relationship dynamic between the two. As with many other sports, the commitment and financial demands to be a competitive dancer are considerable. This can be exacerbated by periods of time during which a couple is unable to train or have lessons together because of one individual’s illness, injury, extra work commitments, or financial strain. This downtime can be stressful for the other partner, and there can often be depression, resignation, unresolved anger, or frustration. If these emotions are not dealt with, it can affect the harmony between the couple when they return to training together and affect the quality of their dancing. If they want to create effortless rhythm and harmony, which is one of the factors contributing to subjective decisions made by judges, they need to train and compete without any negative emotions toward each other. For instance, anger or frustration can result in physical tension while on the floor, or resignation or depression might lead to a loss of energy and confidence. A leading DanceSport coach and international judge (Paul Cruddas, personal communication, November 2006) stated that the nonverbal skills of communication

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between the dance couple are the most important for increased harmony. These nonverbal skills can be enhanced by introducing imagery of dancing together, feeling the motion of the other dancer, and imagining that these movements come from the same source and have the same intention. Thus, the emphasis for the psychologist is to work on clear communication between the couple. Sometimes communication breaks down between a couple, and one partner will instigate the breakup (often after a major competition) if things have not been going well. For the partner who has been dropped, this can be a very difficult time. It is not easy to find a compatible partner, and according to several dancers, it is a “nightmare.” The potential partner should be the right height, have a similar work ethic, have the time to devote to practice, have similar goals, and exhibit an appropriate standard of dance. DanceSport does have a bulletin board on its Web site in each state for dancers looking for partners, but unless the dancer is highly regarded at his or her level, or able to “sell” herself or himself when writing a description for the bulletin board, the hits are few and far between, and the chances of obtaining anyone suitable via a bulletin board are slight. Some dancers contact all the studios in their area asking if there are people looking for partners. Other dancers have lessons at a variety of different studios and let the coaches know they are looking for a partner and would be prepared to continue dancing with that studio if a suitable partner could be found. The top amateur dancers, especially at the youth or adult level, might look out of state or overseas, via the Internet, for a suitable partner. It can take weeks, months, and sometimes years for a dedicated dancer to obtain another suitable partner. Dancers who are having trouble finding another suitable partner can suffer depression, withdraw from their friends in the dance world, and feel incompetent. So much of their life is tied up with dance, and now they have no one with whom to train and compete and their weekly routines are changed. The hours of training diminish, they might lose some of their fitness, and they might gain weight. The role of the consultant is a supportive one. One cannot find them a partner, but dancers can be helped to stay motivated in their search, to surround themselves with friends and family, to avoid becoming self-destructive by overindulging in food or alcohol, and to maintain their fitness through other forms of exercise. Increased efforts to obtain a new partner are sometimes successful after a major championship or at the end of the season, when there are often breakups. The dancer should be encouraged to continue regular lessons with a professional coach. Because it can take several months to adapt fully to a new partner—for instance, there are subtle differences in the way the kinesthetic messages occur between partners that affect leading and following—the emphasis for the sport psychologist is to encourage the single dancer to focus on his or her personal development as a dancer. Then, if and when there are tryouts with new partners, he or she is able to adapt more readily to an unfamiliar dancer. It is important to ascertain how dancers cope with contentious competition results. All dancers can apply to obtain results immediately after an event if they wish. The written feedback shows judges’ numbers, not names, whereby the dance couples are ranked in relation to other competitors overall and where they are ranked in each specific dance. If one or two judges consistently give poor marks to a dance couple, this becomes apparent. Thus, how the consultant deals with this depends

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very much on the couple and how they feel about the perceived biases. Feedback is useful, however, when it shows that all judges marked down a couple on a particular dance, thus indicating that more work needs to be done on that dance. The low marks and poor outcomes can cause a couple to dwell on the unfairness of it all. This can lead to further deterioration of self-confidence or self-esteem. It is important to discuss any strategies they might be using or wanting to use to decrease these biases. One common strategy is to have lessons with a number of different coaches who have been judges at their events, thus decreasing the perception that they “belong” at a particular studio. It needs to be pointed out that this is expensive, and one cannot always guarantee that these coaches will be judging their event, particularly if they compete out of state or overseas. This strategy also suggests that the couple’s focus is on winning rather than the enjoyment of performing well. The consultant should consider the possibility that one or both partners do not have a strong self-belief in their dancing. Are they focused on outcomes only? Are they passionate about their dancing? Do they train enough? Is one of the partners more dominating and wanting to “play politics”? Possible outcomes are that they could eventually agree to accept with grace the fact that there is judge bias, or they could become further discouraged, seek another partner, or give up dancing. Other couples make the decision not to have lessons at a number of different studios. They rely on the fact that eventually, if they work hard and continue to improve, they will be noticed by even biased judges. Their dancing will speak for itself. This is a healthier attitude for dance couples and should be encouraged by the consultant. When working with ballroom-dance couples, it is useful to be aware of possible gender differences because these can be a source of friction. For instance, Block and Robbins (1993) stated that females display lower self-esteem than males in their teens and early 20s. These differences might have an influence on the way each person approaches training and competition. By questioning the dancers about typical scenarios, the consultant can quickly ascertain if there are repeating issues of competitiveness between partners. In actual performance situations, there are many times when the lead changes. Although the man is generally assumed and required to take the lead in direction and selection of steps, when he is moving in reverse or facing in one direction and his partner spots or anticipates a directional problem such as another couple cutting them off or a miscalculated distance, his partner must assume the lead (Paul Cruddas, personal communication, November 2006). Mutual respect and trust are critical in a successful dance partnership, and communication issues can often be the center of performance breakdown. Furthermore, when two individuals are so interdependent for the success of the pair and spend so much time around one another, tensions and feelings are bound to interfere at times. Peham, Licka, Kapaun, and Scheidl (2001), in their study on dressage, compared the judging system with other sports in which there was an emphasis on artistry and technical expertise. They suggested that when scores included artistic impression, there was less consistency between judges. This inconsistency in marks can become a somewhat common cause of arguments in dancing when one of the partners becomes overly critical of the other. This can occur because the performance has not gone well, and the outcome was not what was expected. When this issue regarding anger or blame is present, the consultant must encourage

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each individual to look inward first and ask how they could first correct their own performance. Better to ask, “What can I do to improve our performance?” than, “How is he or she affecting me?” Dancers, like other athletes, usually have a coach, teacher, or choreographer working with them. Encouraging the couple to rely on an outside and objective viewpoint can often resolve disputes and avoid escalation or blame. (It is advisable that the consultant avoid being placed in a judgmental position to resolve such disputes. Encourage the couple to find an impartial coach or teacher and decline any attempts that place you in the position of judge.) Another strategy is to use the centering breath (described in the next subsection) before reacting to perceived negative feedback or giving criticism. This helps to avoid confrontation because it lowers arousal and provides time for self-assessment. Then, after the breath, praising one’s partner for something well done before providing constructive criticism is useful because it focuses on successful aspects of performance before discussing any errors (Smith & Smoll, 1991). A further strategy used by some ballroom-dance coaches to establish better nonverbal communication, especially when the partners are not focusing on the subtle and varying pressures required to execute the steps in harmony as a couple, is to encourage the woman to practice with her eyes closed while dancing with her partner. Blocking the visual receptors invites other senses to assume greater control of movement and especially enhances the reliance on the kinesthetic sense for balance and motor control. The woman can then contribute harmoniously to the partnership (Paul Cruddas, personal communication, November 2006). Finally, communication and other performance issues can be addressed through the goal-setting process (Shilts, Horowitz, & Townsend, 2004). Discussing each individual’s personal goals increases awareness of similarities and differences that can be addressed in the consulting plan. The professional couple was asked about their goals. Male partner: Sometimes our goal is to beat a couple we’ve been just behind for a few competitions. At other times we might be working on posture to create a bigger top line—we might be working on technique. We generally go to a competition and try to develop one specific thing—just one thing at a time so we can improve and see a difference. I don’t believe we can focus on a lot of things. You can either do power or do top line; you can do clarity and timing or rotation. But you generally focus on the one thing that you feel will make a significant difference at that time. Female partner: I [might] have one thing I want to get worked out for a competition—whether it be the right shoulder and holding that down for the whole routine. You can’t have lots of unachievable goals. It has to be something I can work on, for example, keeping my shoulders down in the foxtrot . . . [or] generally, making it into a final [round]. With this couple, one can see a primary focus on process goals, including posture and technique, as well as an outcome goal of beating a couple or making it into a final round. In this case, their goals were similar and would likely lead to enhanced motivation during practice, whereas if they had competing goals this might lead to disharmony, resentment, or unequal commitment on the part of each

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dancer. Results from a study by Filby, Maynard, and Graydon (1999) indicate that multiple-goal strategies are most effective, and that it is important to use outcome, process, and performance goals. Dancers, like other athletes, use both process and performance goals depending on situational factors, and the consultant should discuss the weighting of performance and process goals with each dancer to ensure that, as a couple, their goals are compatible. For instance, if one partner focuses more on performance goals, and the other partner focuses more on process goals, there is a possible source of conflict, which could lead to motivational incompatibility. They should both have shared process goals that underpin their outcome goals. Shared goals lead to commitment, motivation, and shared feelings of success by the pair (Widmeyer & Ducharme, 1997). Thus, when goals are not the same, the consultant can assist the clients in finding common goals and refocusing their efforts toward reaching mutually desirable outcomes.

Managing Performance Anxiety Most performing artists will at some time experience performance anxiety (Hanrahan, 2005; Wesner, Noyes, & Davis, 1990). It is commonly referred to as a state of nervousness or apprehension, related to the fear of making a mistake or not being able to control one’s actions in front of others (Cox & Kenardy, 1993), and the focus for dancers is on how debilitating the anxiety is and how they can handle it (Hays, 2002). Although performance anxiety often manifests itself in the practice studio, particularly when practicing in front of others, it is emphasized on competition day when evaluations and comparisons are inevitable. Recent research by Biton (2007) comparing the sustainability of performance in elite ballet dancers, athletes, and corporate personnel indicates that dancers approached their training and performances based on outcomes. Such findings complement the work of Poczwardowski and Conroy (2002), who reported the subjective nature of evaluation of performance with performing artists as opposed to the objective nature of sporting reviews. Because it was suggested that some performing artists maintained that “others’ criticisms about their performance were wrong and therefore they were motivated to prove others wrong” (Poczwardowski & Conroy, p. 322), it might be unsurprising that outcomes are the focus of some dancers and that levels of anxiety might therefore be enhanced. What many ballroom dancers have mentioned to the first author is that they were so nervous that they could not remember doing their competitive routines. “I just froze, everything was a blur and I did the steps automatically. I don’t even remember what I did.” In the first author’s experience, this seems to happen more commonly with the less experienced competitive couples. Their anxiety manifests itself during the dances rather than beforehand. As they become more experienced, the tension and anxiety occurs when they are first going out onto the floor and getting into a good position and then subsides once the competition starts. This is captured by the following comments from the professional couple: The biggest factor would be the other couples trying to psych each other out. You take up position and you always try for the biggest hold. So it’s always good to get away from your competitors. As much as you can intimidate them, they can intimidate you as well, so it’s good to do your own thing—not

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let them get involved with your preparation. . . . It is a little bit tense, with everyone stretching out, getting into their position, . . . then you get into hold, and everything settles down into place. The control of performance anxiety and increased focus and readiness to perform in ballroom dance can be enhanced by the centering breath. The technique involves a deep abdominal breath, whereby the focus of attention shifts to the physiological effects of the breath, deliberate consciousness of muscle tension, and then a strong exhalation to relax the muscles. This breath has been identified as promoting physical balance, enhancing relaxation, and allowing performers to refocus after setbacks during competition (Halliwell, 1990; Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002). Competitive dancers are encouraged by their coaches to indicate through their demeanor a readiness to perform before setting up for a dance. In this consultant’s experience, if this centering breath is done consistently by the partners before setting up for every dance in training and in competition, the practice of the breath enables them to find their own center of mass and thus feel grounded and physically ready to perform with their partner. They then set up by walking toward each other and connecting in such a way that synchronization of their body shapes is enhanced. This also increases their focus on the relevant stimuli at the commencement of the activity (Orlick & Partington, 1988). This consultant has, in some instances, adapted the centering technique slightly during intake of the breath because of the female dancer’s resistance to pushing out the abdomen while in front of an audience. Ballroom dancers have successfully been able to do the centering technique before each dance by expanding their ribs and sides to take in air rather than the pushing out the front of the abdomen, which is normally advised for an abdominal breath. The psychologist with the Australian Ballet School has observed dancers waiting in the wings before performing and ensures that they breathe through their nose while waiting. This is a simple technique to reduce intensity and results in breathing that is slow and controlled (Lucinda Sharp, personal communication, August 2005). This breathing is also useful while waiting to walk out onto the ballroom floor. Encouraging dancers to breathe in this way, with the mouth closed, decreases the breathing rate and lowers arousal. Smiling is another technique used often by dancers to indicate to judges that their dancing is smooth and effortless. Smiling that is spontaneous and natural, and not forced, will also dissipate muscle tension related to performance anxiety because it reminds the participants that they are dancing because they enjoy the activity. This consultant was informed by one dancer that she purposefully giggled whenever she made a mistake on the floor and that this helped her relax and focus more readily on the rest of her routine. It also did not alert the judges to an error as she appeared to be smiling happily.

Use of Imagery Elite ballroom dancers do use imagery but not always consistently or with success. Imagery ability can be increased through systematic practice, as demonstrated by Rodgers, Hall, and Buckolz (1991) in their study on figure skating performance.

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There is little guidance from the literature as to the desirable number and length of successful imagery sessions (Landers, 1999). Dancers have reported successful imagery to this consultant when asked to perform four or five trials of about 30 seconds in duration in a consultation session. This is supported in a study by Hinshaw (1991), who found that imagery trials that were less than 1 minute in duration were most effective in increasing performance. Furthermore, six or fewer trials at a time were able to produce large effects on cognitive tasks, whereas simple motor and strength tasks required more trials and more minutes to produce similar results (Feltz & Landers, 1983; Hinshaw, 1991). Dancers unsure of imagery’s effectiveness or having difficulty imaging should be carefully guided using simple and familiar movements to increase their vividness, controllability, and self-awareness to enhance competition-related thoughts and emotions. The success of these simple steps can then strengthen their selfconfidence. Sometimes viewing videos so they can see what they look like when performing, or imagining recently executed skills while associated feelings are fresh in their minds and bodies, can overcome imaging difficulties. Research on imagery ability and modality has focused on visual and kinesthetic information, the two major sources of sensory information (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Murphy & Martin, 2002). In ballroom dancing, each dancer has up to five points of contact with the other while dancing. The varying pressures of these contacts provide sensory information about their own and their partner’s body location and movement. Thus, it is important that the consultant ensures that the dancers use kinesthetic imagery so that their synchronization as a dance couple is enhanced. If the dancers can remember a time when they performed well and can image that performance, the consultant should ascertain whether it is internal imagery, whether it is kinesthetic imagery where the actual movement is imagined, or whether the imagery is experienced in verbal, as well as visual, form. Dancers can also use imagery to recreate a past performance that needs improving and can reconstruct this to improve the performance. For instance, they could be instructed to imagine successfully performing a difficult step or to recover from errors and successfully complete the dance. Our professional couple emphasized the importance of imagery: Male partner: Imagery for me is really very, very important. It gives me confidence in my routines and in my ability to get through a routine. Where there’s been a lack of good preparation leading up to it, [the competition] imagery can be done anywhere. . . . You can visualize how you want it to be without feelings interfering with how you want to perform. Imagery is very important to give me the confidence I need. Female partner: I think about my routines all the time throughout the day. I could be standing at the sink washing up and I could be thinking about my posture, what my routine is (for instance, natural turn, spin turn, turning lock), and I can visualize it and just practice my stance, take up my position in the mirror, even. I do that all the time, not just the week before a competition. Walking around at work I’ll practice heel, ball, toe, heel, ball, toe, stomach in, shoulders down—I do that all the time.

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The use of external imagery allows performers to view their body positioning and shape (Hardy, 1996), for example, when imagining seeing the extension of the head and arms in a shape. Internal imagery allows the performer to rehearse the precise spatial locations, environmental conditions, and timing in skills that depend heavily on perception for successful execution (Hardy & Callow, 1999). For the dancers to rehearse these spatial, environmental, and timing factors both at home for extra practice and in the studio, the consultant should ensure that each dancer develops his or her skill in using internal imagery. According to Cruddas (personal communication, February 2007), the adept use of imagery by dance couples is important for continuing improvement. With less experienced couples, many coaches encourage imagery that relates to kinesthetic body awareness or analogies meaningful to the dancers. Because experienced or professional dancers are more capable of invoking increased artistry into their performances, the imagery relates to advanced concepts such as the projection of dynamic energy between a couple.

Dealing With Distractions There are a variety of possible distractions in ballroom dancing, many of which include the audience and the presence of other dancers. Remembering that the dancers are the experts, allow their responses to guide the intervention strategies needed. As with any counseling intervention, the plan must be matched to the clients’ needs. Their descriptions of the environment will provide clues to the distractions they encounter, their levels of performance anxiety, and the depths of the mental-preparation strategies they already incorporate into their practice sessions. Specifically identified distractions should be incorporated into mental and physical practice sessions in which the distractions are presented, and the dancers practice centering or refocusing on performance-related thoughts. The reduced distractibility is associated with better performance (Meyers, Whelan, & Murphy, 1996; Moran, 1996). This reduced distractibility was demonstrated by one leading amateur couple who mentioned to this consultant during a session a few weeks before a world championship that they were avoiding a particular practice venue because there were always parents of juvenile dancers peering through the windows to watch them dance. Their perception was that they were being criticized. By encouraging the dancers to increase their practice at this venue for simulated competition training, it enabled them to become so familiar with what they perceived was a hostile audience that they no longer found it distracting. They went on to reach the finals of the world championship and reported later that this intervention enabled them to ignore all audience reactions. In addition, distractions that might arise during competition include coming into physical contact with other dance couples and encountering floor surfaces that are too slick or too sticky. Physical practice under those conditions can and should be routinely conducted in the dance studio, to practice recovery and the regaining of focus. These situations should be further developed through physical practice of rehearsed alternative steps and the use of imagery scripts. These scripts should include, and result in, smooth recovery of footwork and floor patterns and smooth transitions back to planned figures and patterns leading to a successful completion

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of the dance. These issues are important to ballroom dancers as demonstrated by the following quotation from the professional dancers: The biggest distraction is the floor . . . you can put oil on the shoes if it’s fast, or you can brush the soles of the shoes if it’s sticky. . . . The other main source of interference is other couples, depending on the size of the floor. You just learn to live with it by taking up a promenade and doing [a previously rehearsed strategy] until you get back into your routine. So if we are distracted or there is another couple in the way, we just use one of our rehearsed groups that then link back into the routine at certain points. Other common distractions include costume problems; broken heels; stepping on a partner’s foot or clothing; music that skips, varies in tempo, or does not start on time; unanticipated cheering for or heckling of the dancers or their competitors from the audience; temperature conditions (excess heat); extra time requirements while waiting for previous rounds to be completed; short times between rounds; and lighting issues. Skilled consultants take their cues from their clients and enlist the dancers’ assistance in developing meaningful trigger words and imagery scripts if they indicate that these distractions are of concern to them.

Preparation Before Competition We asked the professional dancers how they prepared in the days before a competition and the difference between an ideal and less than ideal preparation. Every competition is different. . . . If we’ve had trouble with practice times the week before the competition, then generally the week of the competition we are simply flat out, no technique really, pumping through the routines, working on stamina, making sure that we know the routines from the start to the finish, the changes in timing, the clarity of things that you’ve been working on. If we’ve had a good lead-up, then we’ll refine things, and try to work on the fullness and the shape, the expression, the clarity of timing, the acceleration, the timing, to make sure we’re doing the same things. We hear the music differently, so that’s the fine-tuning that we do in the last week. Even though these answers are from professional dancers, who have more experience than most competitive amateur dancers, there are still aspects for which the consultant might make helpful suggestions. Dancers have reported that if their preparation is well planned and systematic, performance is likely to be enhanced. One of the behavioral measures suggested by this consultant is a detailed checklist of equipment and clothing that needs to be taken to the competition. This checklist includes doubling up on items in case of misadventure at the venue. Having this checklist minimizes worries about forgetting to pack essential items. Elite-level sport is characterized by high demands for optimal performance in a variety of situations including performing under intense pressure. As a result, sport psychology has devoted a significant effort toward developing strategies that enable athletes to cope with pressure, anxiety, and stress, which are attached to both preparation and performance (Woodman & Hardy, 2001). To cope with the pressure and anxiety in the lead-up to competition, Cogan (2006) suggested that

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gymnasts practice simulated competitions, thus enabling the experiences under these training conditions to become familiar and less distracting. This practice is also useful in the dance studio, and it is suggested that in the days or weeks leading up to competition, dancers perform all five dances just as they would in one of the competition heats, with no stopping for breath or discussion of possible improvements between dances. After the simulated competition, the couples are then able to reflect on attention factors causing problems and technical factors needing more work. The use of a training log allows dancers to increase awareness of improvements and also highlights areas needing more specific work. Because of the general reluctance of clients to keep regular diaries, this consultant has increased compliance by minimizing the amount of writing required. Each dancer is asked to evaluate every training session using a number scale from 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent). If the self-evaluations are in the midrange, only the scores need to be recorded. If, however, the evaluations are extreme (very poor or excellent), an explanatory sentence is required. In this way dancers are encouraged, over time, to recognize patterns of self-talk, mood, and observable behavior associated with extreme performances and can make appropriate adjustments to increase the effectiveness of their training program before competition. Through the use of precompetition planning, the dancers are able to maximize their feelings of control. Dancers are encouraged to increase their familiarity with a venue by visiting it the day before the competition. This enables them to plan their positioning for each dance. The experienced professionals indicate the importance of this visit. Male partner: I like to go along to the venue the day before the competition to see the hall, see the floor, get a mental picture of where I’m going to start a routine, which side of the floor I’m going to start on, which end I’m going to start from. Then I turn it around and start from the other end, because on the day it might change.

Preparation on Day of Competition It is important that preparation on the day of the competition be consistent, and the findings of Orlick and Partington (1988) indicated that the best performers had well-established and well-practiced plans of action that were designed to facilitate focus on the process of performance. By ascertaining what dancers are already doing to prepare for competition, there might need to be just minor adjustments to focus thoughts and actions on an upcoming performance. Often, all the dancers need is encouragement to carry out their preparations consistently for every event, regardless of its perceived importance. As they become more experienced, their preparation often becomes more systematic and suited to their lifestyle. This is captured in the following quotation by the professional couple. Male partner: I like to be very calm and relaxed during the day, quite often focusing on other things rather than the competition. I’ll visualize all my routines a couple of times, then I’ll relax and watch some TV, go for a walk, do a little exercise early in the morning [because] we usually don’t dance until the

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evening, try and eat well, have a lot of fluids, and prepare for the competition early (e.g., packing the bag) so that there’s no last minute rushing. Female partner: Generally I don’t think about the competition until about 3 hours beforehand. I’ll do my hair, put my makeup on, and when I arrive at the competition I’ll go through the routines in my head. As noted in the preceding quotations, an important aspect of preparation for dance competition is the use of imagery. On the day of competition, dancers are encouraged to recreate their previous outstanding performances in each dance. This enables them to focus on relevant aspects of each dance and enhances competitionrelated thoughts and emotions, thus increasing confidence for the upcoming event (Garza & Feltz, 1998; McKenzie & Howe, 1997). Research indicates that preperformance routines are extremely beneficial for mental preparation just before performances because they help athletes focus attention, reduce anxiety, eliminate distractions, and enhance confidence (Lidor & Singer, 2000; Southard & Miracle, 1993). Ballroom dancers use a variety of preparation strategies leading up to the day of competition. Many dancers, however, do not use preperformance routines. It is suggested that the consistent practice of a preperformance routine immediately before each dance commences would enable dancers to perform more consistently in their ideal performance state. A body of research indicates that psychological interventions are effective in enhancing performance in sport (Greenspan & Feltz, 1989; Vealey, 1994; Weinberg & Comar, 1994). Thus, if a ballroom dancer has an individualized preperformance routine that is systematically used for every dance, whether it is in practice or competition, this is likely to result in more consistent performance. If anxiety is evidenced through the dancers’ (one or both) descriptions of feelings before competition, the preperformance routine should include relaxation techniques designed to regulate breathing and tension as mentioned earlier. According to Payne (1995, p. 3), relaxation “signifies the release of tension and the lengthening of muscle fibers,” and it also helps to restore clarity of thought. Further probing into competitive goals and self-talk is also useful if anxiety is an overriding concern for one of the dancers. It is useful to turn teaching cues from the coach into brief self-talk phrases because this reinforces positive thought patterns associated with performance enhancement, The ideal preperformance routine to be used before every dance probably would differ for every ballroom dancer, but a typical preperformance routine might include a centering breath as the dancers face each other on the floor followed by the feeling of walking tall and confidently to take up the dance position with head held high. Finally, as the music starts and the dance is about to commence, the dancer thinks of the previously rehearsed technical or confidence-boosting self-talk cue. Using an appropriate and meaningful self-talk cue before every dance, this can facilitate the internalization of positive and adaptive thoughts (Taylor & Taylor, 1995).

The Bottom Line to Providing the Mental Edge Sport psychologists who are interested in consulting with ballroom dancers can apply many skills used in other sports to the competitive-dance environment. This article described the importance of communication, the management of performance

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anxiety, the use of imagery, the environmental distractions that occur, and the preparation that occurs before and on the day of competition. It also outlined some strategies we have used successfully with competitive ballroom dancers. The overview of dance in this article provided basic information regarding the dance-competition classifications, the judging criteria, and understanding the dance experience. Ideally a sport psychologist who has been a ballroom dancer is qualified to teach meaningful interventions, but that does not mean that unless one has familiarity with all sports one cannot work with them. The best practice of the profession requires the consultants to learn as much as they can about the training and competitive environment and the intricacies and issues likely to prevail in the professional role being assumed. By becoming familiar with the DanceSport organization, seeking out expertise and guidance from those most qualified to provide specific services, understanding the language, and acquiring dance-specific knowledge and competency, sport psychologists will be able to confidently work with ballroom dancers. There does not seem to be a particular consulting philosophy that works better with ballroom dancing. There are not many sport psychologists working with ballroom dancers. Partly, this is because of the culture in the dancing fraternity and in Dancesport. It has not previously occurred to many dancers that they could improve their dancing by consulting with a sport psychologist. To gain the requisite knowledge and expertise, psychologists are encouraged to attend regional dance competitions, read about dance and the dance culture, and even take dance lessons. Obtaining competitive-dance schedules and attending the competitions will provide greater insight into the competitive environment and the specific issues related to the pressures of competitive performance. There are a number of organizations that can provide information on ballroom dance. The USABDA Web site (http://www.usabda.org/) and USA Dance provide links to instruction, rules, event, local chapters, and international affiliate organizations. The president of the International DanceSport Federation advised that there are currently 84 national member federations on five continents (Freitag, 2007). All these member federations provide information on DanceSport in their region that is useful for consultants. Once familiar with the sport and the environment, sport psychologists will be not only prepared to apply their performanceenhancement strategies effectively but also better able to contribute to the enjoyment and satisfaction of both amateur and professional dancers.

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