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MILITARY PHYSICAL EDUCATION FROM ANTIQUITY TO PRESENT TIMES Fabiana MARTINESCU 

[email protected] “Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania

ABSTRACT Having as foundation a rich basis of written and iconographic documents, we can say that Physical Education arose from ancient times, linked with the process of work and later to the process of fighting. For centuries man has improved physical qualities, becoming in time physical exercises. „Exercise, physical education, sports have always been put in the service of laudable ideals (...)” [1]. Through physical education and sports we refer to all forms of physical activity aimed at, through an organized or self-expressing manner, improving physical condition and spiritual comfort, establishing civilized social relations and leading to obtaining results in competitions at all levels. The practical importance of the theme is determined by qualitative growth of modern military educational-instructive process. This includes: • Physical and psychical training for the military; • Planning training sessions or Military Physical Education training; • The material assurance of the training and military physical training.

KEYWORDS: history, military physical education, physical training 1. Introduction The need to control the forces of nature and continuous rivalry with animals, man was determined to endeavour physically to procure livelihoods, to defeat opponents, to build their own shelters and tools. The living conditions for humans have always been very difficult, weapons in ancient times being rudimentary and people relying on qualities like strength and skill to overpower opponents and wild animals. An important distinction between humans and

animals occurs when, besides natural fundamental physical exercises, like walking, running, climbing, crawling, escalading, throwing in the distance also occurs. Throwing is a human invention, to defend and knock down opponents. “Interferences between sports, which include a wide range of systematic activities of physical training, physical education and sports competitions, and the military institution have a long history, which goes down during the ancient Greek civilization,

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which was concerned with the cultivation of physical and moral beauty, virtues, heroes of the city, either victors on the battlefields or winners of the Olympics” [2]. Physical exercises are characterized by C. Kiriţescu according to four factors: 1. „Biological factor – the relationship of man with nature (running, jumping, climbing, swimming); 2. Social factor – the relationship of people among them (war, fight, with or without weapons); 3. Mystical factor – the relationship of man with divinity (dances, games); 4. Psychological factor – human relations with himself, the pleasure and joy of movement” [3]. 2. History of Physical Education in General and of Military Physical Education in Particular In ancient times, exercise was practiced as an organized form in schools and freely. Egypt is known to have a stately and original culture. The various periods during the Old Kingdom (3000-2000 BC), Middle Kingdom (2000-1550 BC), New Kingdom (1550-1000 BC) confirms the concerns of Egyptians for physical education. Although the Egyptians were not a warlike people by excellence, they had a well-systematized army, “military exercises demonstrating skills in handling specific weapons: bow, axe, mace, lance, shield. Riding was very little practiced, the horse being used for pulling war chariots, which required skill and force” [4]. In India, the oldest testimony is “the Vedas”, and the poems written in Sanskrit. Here there are certain indications on physical activities, which, according to the ideals of that time, used to complete education indispensable to achieve social and religious ideals. In this society appears, ever since the second century B.C., the division into social groups, “Caste” among which we mention the military caste “kshatrya”.

Education in China is put to a high rank. Physical education was included from 15 years when they learned to use the chariot and archery. Besides classical exercises, the Chinese practiced fights with fists, throwing stones, fencing sword, which were predominantly exercises of a warrior character. “The first Chinese physical education system dates from 2698 BC; it has a medical purpose and is due to doctor Kong-Fu” [5]. He was the pioneer of the system of unlocking organs through a series of exercises accompanied by a correct breathing. These correct breathing exercises are underlying the rich „wushu” of Chinese martial arts, highly known and highly valued nowadays. Japan, through its traditionalist people has kept certain aspects of exercise until today, the features of the “samurai”, of sumo wrestlers or those practicing kendo, also known as fencing with long bamboo sticks. We can also mention jiu-jitsu which was the unarmed defence fighting and kyudo, which consisted in handling a bow with a length of 2.20 (Yumi) and having asymmetrical curvature. For Spartans, physical education was an ongoing concern. The practice of physical education was based on the military concept with purpose on in training for war. A known fact is the obligation that citizens had to be soldiers. This practice began in childhood, when children were taken away from their parents at the age of six and were beginning to learn military customs. “The military concept was typical for the Spartan state, being a natural consequence of origin, but also of the psychological and political structure of this people” [6]. “About the exercises of the Greeks and their role in carrying battles we know from Homer, author of the oldest classical European epics, Iliad and the Odyssey, the travel notes of the Greek geographer and historian or from Pindar’s odes, considered the greatest Greek lyric poet of antiquity”[7].

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Military Art and Science “The sports act provides narrative patterns, symbols, characters. This demonstrates that sport is an active part in the battle for conquering public opinion both in writing and the athletic effort” [8]. Greek conceptions about physiology, hygiene and exercises’ influence on health can be found very detailed in the book of Philostratus (176-249 AD) – “About gymnastics”. In ancient Greece, perfection was embodied by the words “Kalos kai agatos” (beautiful and good man). Noting all the above we can deduce that the phenomenon of sport in general has an extensive history, stretching from ancient times until today. An undisputed example are the ancient Olympic Games that were conducted over twelve centuries in Olympia, “the sacred place place where the best of the sons of Hellas were consecrated” [9]. These ancient Olympic Games lasted for five days. It is very interesting to see that, over these ancient Olympic Games, all hostilities would stop, all soldiers left their weapons at the borders of Elide. After athletes became specialized and “athletics” emerged, corruption and the Christian religion occurred, which was against physical exercise, the Olympics began to depreciate. The latest edition of the ancient Olympic Games took place in 392 A.D., and was abolished in 394 AD by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I. In ancient Rome we find certain competitions organized during celebrations or funerals. However, there are differences between the models of Greek and Roman physical education. Boys who started their military training were thought purely military exercises; swimming was a highly respected and loved type of exercise. Romans, a conquering nation par excellence, tried by wars, used physical exercises for training the military system that has sustained their empire throughout the ages. We can not forget what the Romans believed to be amphitheatre games, namely

403 the well known bloody fights of “gladiators”. An edifice built for these amphitheatre games which still exists today is the “Coliseum”. This building had a capacity of 45,000 seats and 5,000 standing, the arena having 86/56 meters that could be converted and used for water races. Moving from antiquity to the Middle Ages, we notice the domination of Germanic peoples that led the civilization northward, while changing the Greek-Roman lifestyle. Also warrior nations, in their lives, physical exercise played an important part, with emphasis on skills in handling weapons, power and courage. For the ancient Germans, even the death philosophy had a warrior character: the goal was to die on the battlefield, believing that eternal life will also be held in the noise of weapons and battles. Scandinavian education programs are described in legends where there can be noticed the practicing of physical exercises since the early age, both at boys and girls. They were taught to hold the shield, to ride, to wield the sword, to swim. The ways in which ancient Germans practiced exercise varied: running, jumping, throwing – considered by them a war exercise, swimming and diving, horseback riding, skating and walking on skis. Slavs are also part of notable fighter people, brave people, well developed and strong, stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. In this period great emphasis is put on Christian concepts, creating another ideal – the „afterlife”. Christianity led to the decay of physical exercises, one of the fathers of the Christian church, Tertullian argued that “Palaestrica diaboli negotium!” (exercise is the work of the devil). Baths, cleanliness and hygiene were included in the same category. Due to political needs characteristic of that period, the Church was determined to make compromises on practicing physical exercises for military purposes. The Church

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even came to support specific wars considered to be considered fair fights, such as fights against Islam as the Crusades, thus becoming an ideal for all Christian soldiers to become “knights”. This chivalry is characterized by Gautier as “Christian form of the military concept; the Knight is the Christian soldier” [10]. Not only had the knights practiced physical exercises, but also the population of medieval towns. Thus, most team sports practiced today originate in the diverse ball games practiced in the Middle Ages: football, cricket, tennis, billiards. Renaissance belonged to a philosophical current, namely the “humanism”. Humanists brought back physical education among general education concerns. Following this trend, appeared the “realism” that caused significant changes. Teachers tried to apply the realistic ideas in the physical education pedagogy. Most teachers of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries managed to re-establish physical education among educational concerns. An outstanding figure of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century is the Spanish Colonel Don Francesco Amoros y Ondeano. He is the creator of the first French physical education system. He drafted a regulation of military education based on the ideas of the great pedagogue Pestalozzi. He is a pioneer in the scientific substantiation of physical education, drawing on the views of his predecessors Locke, Rousseau, Diderot and Pestalozzi, to which he added his own principles. The man who founded the modern Olympics is the French baron Pierre de Coubertin. The first modern Olympics were held in Athens in 1896. Over times, a broad heritage on perfecting the human being was created. Sports were internationalized, becoming one of the most important events, the sports and social phenomenon. After this formal review of the country's history with great impact on

physical activity we observe that physical activity, through its simplest form of manifestation, the exercise, appeared and evolved with the society. 3. Conclusions The continuous importance of the physical education activity and sports in the social life should be emphasized. Ever since ancient times the manifestations of physical activity are known; they received social and institutional importance given that they were an important means of military arts. Forms of physical activity structures necessary for armed struggles that are found today in contemporary sport (spear throwing, fencing, wrestling, archery). The need of modern man to use his physical activity skills and abilities can be noticed, to fit harmoniously and beneficially into the society, opposing the „pitfalls” that everyday life gives to the contemporary human being. The interdisciplinary nature of this field should be emphasized, as social sciences, informatics, biological, communication, military, foreign languages. The domain is one of the first human activities which were encountered in the process of globalization, along with culture (exchange of athletes, coaches, journalists). For the military personnel, physical activity is the one underpinning the tasks that belong to each of them. Without good physical condition they would not be able to rise to the highest level of professional performance. “Preserving and strengthening the health of military personnel through scientific, conscious and systematic practice of physical exercise falls within the responsibility of the individual and of the institution” [11]. Military training was from the beginning based on physical activity, people realizing how beneficial it is for the military physical training. Exercise has been used effectively by military

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institutions, for their absolute and continuous needs. Military modelling nowadays, by military physical education courses takes place more easily. Efficiency increases gradually through various means of action applied to different physical activity skills and abilities required.

To move from a deeply algorithmized character learned during the military physical education lessons to a real character, it is imperative to implement and check the things learned and assimilated in these lessons learned.

REFERENCES 1. Flavia Rusu, Educaţia fizică şi sportul de la origini la Jocurile Olimpice Moderne, (Cluj-Napoca: Napoca Star, 2004), 5. 2. A. Petrache, Sportul şi Armata, (Bucureşti: Militară, 2013), 11. 3. C. Kiriţescu, Palaestrica – o istorie universală a culturii fizice, (Bucureşti: Uniunii de Cultură Fizică şi Sport, 1943), 17. 4. Flavia Rusu, cit.ed., 19. 5. Ibidem, 21. 6. Ibidem, 28. 7. A. Petrache, cit.ed., 30. 8. V. Bănciulescu, Sport şi cultură, (Timişoara: Facla, 1983), 27. 9. Flavia Rusu, cit.ed., 42. 10. C. Kiriţescu, cit.ed., 29. 11. A. Petrache, cit.ed., 41.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Kiriţescu, C. Palaestrica – o istorie universală a culturii fizice. Bucureşti: Uniunii de Cultura Fizică şi Sport, 1943. Lucas, J.A. Future of Olympic Games. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books, 1992. Petrache, A. Sportul şi Armata. Bucureşti: Militară, 2013. Rusu, Flavia. Educaţia fizică şi sportul de la origini la Jocurile Olimpice Moderne. Cluj-Napoca: Napoca Star, 2004. *** C.O.R., Buletin Informativ, nr. 11, Bucureşti: C.C.P.S., 1996. *** C.O.R., Buletin Informativ, nr. 12, Bucureşti: C.C.P.S., 1996.

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