Materials: Wood: There are two types of wood, hardwood and soft wood.

Hardwoods are more expensive and are more difficult to work with, but a better finish is achieved. Hardwoods are normally used for furniture and expensive items like, jewellery boxes. Oak and Mahogany are examples of hardwoods.

Softwoods are cheaper than hardwoods and are easier to work with. Softwoods are normally used for furniture and in the building trade. Pine is an example of a common softwood.

Manufactured Boards: The third type of material used sometimes in a wood workshop are manufactured boards. There are many different types of manmade boards. Listed below are some examples:

BLOCKBOARD - This is built up with a core of softwood strips bonded together with adhesive and covered with a sheet of plywood on either side. Used as a building material and for furniture manufacture including fitted kitchens / bedrooms.

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CHIPBOARD - This is made up of small chips of wood bonded together with resin and formed into sheets by compression. It is not as strong as plywood and block board but it is not expensive. Chipboard is often covered with a plastic laminate or wood veneer and used in furniture. HARDBOARD - This is made from wood fibres that have been pulped. The pulp is put under pressure until the fibres bond to produce a tough board that is smooth on one side and rough on the other. It is not as strong as the other boards.

MEDIUM DENSITY FIBRE BOARD (MDF) - A quality board, relatively cheap. This board is composed of fine wood dust and resin pressed into a board. This material can be worked, shaped and machined easily. Paint can be applied to it without the need for an undercoat or primer. Used in the building and furniture trades, and on TV shows like changing rooms. PLYWOOD - This is made from veneers (plies) of timber with each grain layer being at right angles to each other and bonded together by resin and pressure. A number of grades are available, designed to suit a variety of situations. 1. Marine plywood that is moisture resistant. 2. Weather and boil proof plywood. 3. Boil resistant plywood. 4. Interior plywood.

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Metal: There are two main groups of metals, ferrous or non-ferrous. Ferrous metals contain iron and non-ferrous metals do not contain iron!

Ferrous Metals: Here are some examples of ferrous metals mild steel, and this is most commonly used in school workshops. This material is also used in general metal products and engineering.

NAME

ALLOY OF

PROPERTIES

Mild Steel

Carbon 0.1 - 0.3% Iron 99.9 - 99.7%

Carbon Steel

Carbon 0.6 - 1.4% Iron 99.4 - 98.6%

Tough. High tensile strength. Can be Most common metal case hardened. Rusts very easily. used in school workshops. Used in general metal products and engineering. Tough. Can be hardened and tempered. Cutting tools such as drills.

Stainless steel

Iron, nickel chromium.

Cast iron

Carbon 2 - 6% Iron 98 - 94%

Strong but brittle. Compressive strength Castings, manhole very high. covers, engines.

Wrought iron

Almost 100% iron

Fibrous, tough, ductile, resistant to Ornamental gates rusting. and railings. Not in much use today.

and Tough, resistant to rust and stains.

USES

Cutlery, medical instruments.

Non – Ferrous Metals: The table below shows common Non-ferrous metals.

NAME

COLOUR

ALLOY OF;

PROPERTIES

USES

Aluminium

Light grey

Aluminium 95% Copper 4% Manganese 1%

Ductile, soft, malleable, Window machines well. Very light. aircraft, ware.

Copper

Reddish brown

Not an alloy

Ductile, can be beaten into Electrical wiring, shape. Conducts electricity and tubing, kettles, heat. bowls, pipes.

frames, kitchen

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Brass

Yellow

Mixture of copper and zinc Hard. Casts and machines well. Parts for electrical 65% - 35% most common Surface tarnishes. Conducts fittings, ornaments. ratio. electricity.

Silver

Whitish grey

Mainly silver but alloyed Ductile, Malleable, with copper to give sterling resists corrosion. silver.

Lead

Bluish grey

Not an alloy.

solders, Jewellery, ornaments.

solder,

Soft, heavy, ductile, loses its Solders, pipes, shape under pressure. batteries, roofing.

Plastics: Introduction: Oil is the main source of plastics. Oil is a finite natural resource which will run out. Companies like ICI and other big firms process the oil and transform it into plastic granules, which are then changed into lots of different types of plastic. Plastic granules come in lots of different sizes and colours much like the range of plastics that are available to buy. Manufacturers take the plastic granules and use heat processes to transform them into the products that we use every day. An example of such a process is Injection moulding.

Types of Plastic: There are two main types of plastic… Thermosetting Plastic: - these types of plastic are heat resistant and hard wearing. They can also be easily cleaned, and come in a variety of different colours. Examples of products that are normally made from thermosetting plastics are: pot handles and light switches, where it is important that the plastic does not heat up or the user of the product could injure them. Thermoplastics: - The plastic that we have been working with in school. This is the type of plastic that your car scraper was made from. These materials go soft when you heat them, they can be bent and shaped into different forms depending on what you want to do. A common thermoplastic that we use at school is acrylic. Everyday products that are made from thermoplastics include chairs, toothbrushes and phones.

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Marking Out on Plastic: Acrylic sheet comes with protective covering on both sides to protect the plastic from the outside elements/conditions. You should leave this covering on the plastic for as long as possible or till your teacher tells you to remove it. There are different ways of marking out on plastic: 1. Use a spirit based (permanent marker) pen which has a fine line tip. You should be able to use this on the protective covering. 2. Use a scriber from metal work which will allow you to mark onto the plastic through the protective covering. But you need to remember to be careful because the scriber will scratch your plastic, so make sure you mark an area that will be cut off.

Finishing off the edges of plastic: Smoothing the edges of plastic the following stages are followed: 1. Cross filling, which is when you file the plastic at diagonals to remove any imperfections in the plastic 2. Draw filling, which is back and forth along the plastic to remove any scratches 3. Use wet and dry paper to smooth further 4. Polish with an abrasive polish, schools normally use brasso

Drilling: Drilling plastic is quite risky as plastic can easily crack and break. To ease the chance of this happening there are several different methods that can help. One way is to centre punch lightly the plastic prior to drilling. Also if you cover where you wish to drill in plastic with masking tape and then drill you will decrease the chance of your plastic breaking.

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A step drill can be used to drill plastics to stop it cracking or breaking. If you drill the holes at slowly increasing diameters, this will help prevent it breaking.

Shaping: A common tool that we use for shaping/forming of plastic is the strip heater.

FOLDING PLASTICS ON A STRIP HEATER V. Ryan © 2002

Plastics such as acrylic can be formed (shaped) in different ways. One of the most popular methods of shaping plastic materials like acrylic is to fold (bend) it on a ‘strip heater’, at different angles. An example of a strip heater is shown below. A heating element extends along the length of the strip heater and gives off intense heat when it is turned on.

STAGES INVOLVED IN USING THE STRIP HEATER

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STAGE ONE: The position of the fold is marked with a china-graph pencil. With this type of pencil the line can be removed easily later.

STAGE TWO: The strip heater is turned on. Some dials allow the user to vary the amount of heat generated by the heating element.

STAGE THREE: The plastic is placed across the rests, above the heating element and the plastic is turned over every 30 seconds - one minute. This stops the heat rising from the element damaging the surface of the plastic.

STAGE FOUR: When the plastic becomes flexible it is placed in a ‘jig’. The jig is made to the correct angle, in the example opposite - 90 degrees. A square section block is then pressed against the

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VACUUM FORMING V. Ryan © 2001

Vacuum forming is a technique that is used to shape a variety of plastics. In school it is used to form/shape thin plastic, usually plastics such as; polythene and perspex. Vacuum forming is used when an unusual shape like a ‘dish’ or a box-like shape is needed. Below you can see the stages involved in vacuum forming. To the right is an example of a vacuum formed toy. The simple 'lorry' mould has been placed in a vacuum former and a compressed polystyrene sheet has been placed above it. The polystyrene has been heated and then vacuum formed to the shape of the mould. Many everyday items have been vacuum formed in this way. Look around your home - list some examples. as a guide - some food products are packaged in vacuum formed materials. THE STAGES INVOLVED IN VACUUM FORMING Below are the stages involved in the vacuum forming of a small 'plastic' dish or bowl

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1. First, a former is made from a material such as a soft wood. The edges or sides are shaped at an angle so that when the plastic is formed over it, the former can be removed easily.

2. The former is placed in a vacuum former.

3. A sheet of plastic (for example, compressed polystyrene) is clamped in position above the mould. 4. The heater is then turned on and the plastic slowly becomes soft and pliable as it heats up. The plastic can be seen to 'warp' and 'distort' as the surface expands.

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5. After a few minutes the plastic is ready for ‘forming’ as it becomes very flexible.

6. The heater is turned off and the mould is moved upwards by lifting the lever until it locks in position. 7. The 'vacuum' is turned on and this pumps out all the air beneath the plastic sheet. Atmospheric pressure above the plastic sheet pushes it down on the mould. At this stage the shape of the mould can be clearly seen through the plastic sheet. When the plastic has cooled sufficiently the vacuum pump is switched off.

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8. The plastic sheet is removed from the vacuum former. The sheet has the shape of the former pressed into its surface. 9. The excess plastic is trimmed so that only the plastic bowl remains the completed item. An enlarged view of the final dish is seen opposite. The final completed dish is the result of vacuum forming. Without a material such as polystyrene or a similar type of plastic, it would be very difficult to manufacture a dish like this. Vacuum forming allows us to make unusual shapes with ease. You may find it is a good technique for your projects.

Wood work Joints: Cross Halving Joint: This joint is used when two crossing pieces of wood need to joint. This is a good joint to use if you are constructing a base for a project, i.e. a lamp.

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Halving Joints: A range of halving joints exist to suit different designs. For instance, the dovetail halving joint shown below can be used where great strength is required. A joint such as this is very difficult to pull apart because of the Tee Halving Joint dovetail shape of one of the pieces. However, marking out and cutting the dovetail halving joint is much more difficult than a simple tee halving. The tee halving and half lap joints can be used where great strength is not required, they are also much easier to mark out and cut.

Bridle Joint: Half Lap Joint BRIDLE JOINTS are used when a light frame is needed and strength is not the main requirement. For example, a picture frame. One part of the joint fits into the other part and is glued permanently in position. The angled bridle joint can be used a a substitute for a mortise and tenon joint, again if strength is not important.

Mortise and Tenon: The mortise and tenon joint is used for strong frame construction. The diagram show how a mortise and tenon joint join together. One of the most common joints used for joining the rails and legs of tables, chairs and other type of furniture is the Mortise and Tenon joint. A large range of mortise and tenon joints exist and the most simple of these is shown below.The tenon is the part that fits into the mortise. A glue such as PVA or cascamite is applied before the joint is pushed together. Clamps are used to hold the joint firmly together, usually for twenty four hours.together

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How to construct a mortise and tenon joint: The Mortise: The mortise gauge is a special type of marking gauge and it is used to mark wood so that a mortise can be cut into it. The diagram to the above represents a typical mortise and tenon joint. The mortise is marked out using the mortise gauge although it must be set to the correct size of mortise chisel very carefully. A mortise chisel is then used to remove the waste wood.

The mortise gauge is normally made from a hardwood such as rose wood with brass being used for the parts that slide along the stem.

1. The distance between the fixed spur and the adjustable spur is set so that it matches the width of the mortise chisel. The width of the mortise chisel should match the width of the mortise to be cut in the wood.

2. A try square and a marking knife are used mark the lines at the top and bottom of the mortise

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3. The stock of the mortise gauge is pressed against the side of the wood. It is then pushed along the wood until the mortise is marked out correctly.

4. The mortise chisel is then used to break the surface of the waste wood by gently tapping the handle with a mallet. 5. The waste wood is then slowly removed, this time, by applying more force to the handle of the chisel with the mallet. The waste is removed until the entire mortise hole has been cut.

The tenon: The mortise chisel is carefully selected. It should be the same width as the mortise to be cut into the wood. The fixed spur and the adjustable spur of the gauge are set to the width of the chisel.

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The width of the tenon is marked all the way round the wood. Normally a marking knife is used to produce a precise line, with the aid of a try square. A pencil can then be used make the line stand out The mortise gauge is used to mark the size of the tenon. The stock of the marking gauge must be held firmly against the side of the wood as wit ill have a tendency to follow the grain of the wood rather than a straight line. A tenon saw is used saw down the gauged lines of the tenon. The wood is normally held firmly in a woodworkers vice. When sawing, take time to check that the saw is cutting straight down and that it is on the waste wood side of the tenon.

The wood is then supported by a bench hook and a tenon saw is used to finally remove the waste wood. This leaves the shoulder of the joint.

A firmer or bevel edged chisel can be used to remove rough edges and to straighten the tenon. The wood must always be held in a woodworking vice as a chisel my slip if the wood moves. If the marking out and cutting have been carried out accurately the mortise and tenon should fit together forming a firm joint.

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How to mark out and cut a rebate joint: A marking gauge is set to half the thickness of the material to be used for the lapped joint.

The marking gauge is used to the end of a piece of wood little. This can be difficult can be used to highlight the

produce a line across and down the sides a to see, so a pencil gauged line.

A try square is then used to extend the line across the side of the wood. The marking out should look like the diagram below when completed. This shows the area of the joint to be cut away. It is good practice to shade the waste wood.

One of the saw cuts can be made using a tenon saw and a bench hook. Normally the wood is clamped down so that it is less likely to move during sawing.

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The second saw cut is carried out with the wood held firmly in a vice.

If working in the same direction as the grain of the wood, a shoulder plane can then be used to finish the joint accurately. Scrap wood is clamped down on top of the joint and it is used to guide the plane.

If working across the grain of the wood, a chisel is used to straighten / clean up the joint. The wood should be G-clamped to the bench with scrap wood placed underneath. This ensures that the chisel is less likely to slip. If the chisel does slip then it will not damage the bench as it will hit the scrap

wood. If a second side of the joint is prepared in exactly the same way, the two should form an accurate lapped joint.

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Housing Joint: A housing joint is a common woodwork joint which is used for cutting a shelf into upright sections. Projects that use a housing joint are: Storage Units and shelfs.

Stages for cutting a housing joint: 1. Square both ends of the wood. 2. Measure the distance/height of the shelf from the end of the wood. 3. Draw a line all the way round the wood with the try square 4. Take the second piece of wood and measure the width of the wood from the existing and draw this line all the way round the piece of wood too. 5. With a marking gauge measure half the dept of the wood and mark this between the two lines on the original piece of work. 6. With a tenon saw cut down the two lines 7. Using a bevel edged chisel, gently remove the excess wood from the wood. 8. Chisel upwards from one end and then from the other to create a roof shape and smooth out the cut.

9. Check the fit with the second piece of wood. Adjust as necessary with rasps, files, chisels and glass paper.

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Types of Screws: Screws are used to fit materials such as chipboard, MDF and natural woods together although there is a type of screw called a self-tapping screw that can be used for joining thin metal sheet. screws can be used to join materials together permanently although as they can be unused with relative ease they are also good as a way of fixing materials temporarily.

COUNTERSUNK - SLOT HEAD: This can be used for general woodworking for example fitting hinges to doors. Because the screw is countersunk it can be tightened 'flush' to the surface of the material.

ROUND HEAD SCREW: These are used for fixing pieces of material together where countersunk holes are not being used. Round head screws can look quite decorative especially if they are made of brass.

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Common Workshop Tools Firmer Chisel – for cutting housing joints

Mortise cutting Mortise and tenon

Chisel

–

For

Bevel Edged Chisel Hand Router – Waste wood can be removed from a housing joint using a chisel and finished off with a hand router

Wooden Mallet – used to hit chisel with.

Bradawl – used to make pilot holes for small screws

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Tenon Saw – Consists of three main parts, Handle, blade with teeth and spine. The tenon saw is used to cut straight cuts into wood. It is useful for a wide range of wood projects.

Remember to keep your arm parallel to the ground when using the tenon saw. Also remember to keep hands and fingers out of the way when using the tenon saw.

Coping

Saw – Curved and

circular cuts can be made in thinner wood with a coping saw or jig saw. A good memory aid for remembering the difference is that ‘Coping saws cope with Curves’.

Marking Gauge – It will scribe a line parallel to the edge

Try-square: Lines can be drawn at right angles to an edge with a try-square.

Shaping:

A Jack plane is used to make long edges straight and square. A shorter smoothing plane is used to make surfaces smooth. The plane blade can be adjusted for straightness using the lever and for depth of cut using the screw.

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Sash Clamps: Sash clamps are used to clamp work together when it is glued. They vary in size and are normally used in pairs. The lengths are normally from 460mm to 1370mm. The bar is made from cold drawn mild steel and the head and slides made from malleable iron.

When in use, the sash clamp is placed below the work to be glued / assembled. The slides are arranged on either side and scrap wood is placed between each face and the work. This protects the work when the thread is tightened. The tommy bar is used to tighten the thread and pressure is increased slowly.

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After clamping a frame, the 'squareness' of the frame should be tested and adjustments made to the position of the clamps if necessary. The internal angles of the corners should be 90 degrees. The 90 degree angle is checked with a try square or a rule. A long ruler is used to check large frames and a try square is used on smaller ones. When using a ruler the diagonal distances are measured. If both measurements are the same, the angles at each corner are correct. If the two measurements differ, the clamps need adjusting until the measurements are the same.

A try square is pushed into the each corner of a smaller frame / box, to check that the 90 degrees internal angle is correct.

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G Cramps: G Cramps are an essential tool in the workshop and they come in a range of sizes and are generally used for clamping work securely to a surface/workbench top. They can also be used to hold parts together whilst glue is drying. The clamp is tightened by turning the small tommy bar which turns the threaded rod. Some G Cramps have a wingnut in place of the bar making it easier to turn by hand. However, if a tommy bar is used more pressure can be applied to the thread in order to tighten the clamp. The thread of a G Cramp is made from hardened and tempered steel which means it is quite resistant to wear. The frame is normally made from drop-forged steel. Diagram 1 shows how a piece of material is clamped down using a G Cramp during drilling. Material should never be held in the hand because it can spin at high speed if the drill bit jams . The G Cramp holds the material down safely. Diagram 2 shows a G Cramp used to secure a piece of wood to a bench so that a chisel can be used on it. This is essential as chisels are very sharp and if the wood were to move the chisel could slip, causing a serious accident.

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Different types of Planes: A large range of planes are available and they are used for different purposes. The body of a plane is made from high grade cast iron with the cutters being tungsten made from vanadium steel. The earliest known examples of planes are from the Roman era but even today they are used for the same purposes - to smooth rough surfaces or the plane down the thickness of a piece of wood to the required size. JACK PLANE: This is the steel equivalent of the wooden block plane. It has a steel body and because it is heavier than the wood block plane it is easier to hold down on the surface of the wood being planed. It is used to plane longer pieces of wood. SMALL BLOCK PLANE: This is a small version of a wood block plane and it is used for light work such as producing 'chamfers'. It is normally held and used in one hand.

SMOOTHING PLANE: A shorter version of the steel jack plane. It is used for general work such as smoothing short pieces of wood. It is lighter and smaller than the jack plane REBATE PLANE: Used for producing shoulders or rebates. A good example is a base to a jewellery box which is rebated into the sides. (See Lapped Joint)

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COMBINATION PLANE: Used in a similar way to a rebate plane. It can be used for creating a shoulder/rebate on the edge of a piece of wood. This plane has an advantage over the rebate plane as it is adjustable for different widths. (See Lapped Joint) How to use a plane: When a pupil uses a smoothing or jack plane for the first time it is difficult to plane a surface accurately or smoothly. The plane tends to stick or to dig into the wood surface with the result being a damaged surface. If a few basic rules are followed this technique can be mastered

1. The wood must be placed level and firmly in the vice. 2. Always plane in the direction of the grain. Examine the wood carefully, it may be obvious which way the grain is flowing. 3. If the plane sticks whilst in use, turn the wood the opposite way round in the vice. Now the grain may be pointing in the right direction. 4. Rub a little candle wax on the bottom of the plane. This will help the plane glide across the surface of the wood. 5. Make sure that little of the blade is sticking out off the bottom of the plane. Too much of the blade will make using the plane very difficult and it may damage the surface of the wood. 6. Always place the plane at the end of the piece of wood and push it firmly across the entire length, without it lifting off the surface. Lift the plane back to the starting position. Pulling the plane back along the wood surface will 'blunt' the blade quickly. 7. Always use a sharp blade.

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The marking gauge: A marking gauge is used to mark a line parallel to a straight edge. The stem and stock are made from beech and the thumbscrew from clear yellow plastic. The better quality gauges have brass inserts at the front of the stock. These help reduce the wear on the stock as it is pushed against the surface of the wood - to be marked. The marking gauge is an extremely important tool for marking parallel lines and preparing for cutting joints.

The gauge has a sharp point called a spur. This is made from hardened steel and is the part that ‘scribes’ the line into the surface of the wood. The distance between the stock and the spur can be adjusted by loosening the thumbscrew which allows the stock to slide along the stem. The thumbscrew can then be tightened once the correct distance has been reached. A ruler is used to set the distance (see diagram opposite). If the spur is replaced with a small knife it is now called a cutting gauge and is used for cutting lines into solid wood surfaces in preparation for veneering or inlaying.

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Marking with the gauge The wood is held firmly to the bench by a G cramp or bench hook. The stock of the marking gauge is pressed firmly against a straight edge of the wood and pushed carefully along it. A little pressure is applied to the spur, too much pressure and the spur digs into the wood marking an ugly line on the surface. It is a good idea to lightly scribe a line along the surface first and then repeat the process two or three times until an accurate scribed line can be seen.

The Engineers Try Square:

The engineers try-square is composed of two parts, the stock and the blade. They are usually made from bright mild steel with the blade being hardened and tempered so that it resists damage. It is normally used during engineering / metalworking projects

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A typical use of an engineers try-square is to mark out material for cutting/shaping. The try square is pushed against a straight side of the material (eg. steel). An engineers scriber is then used to scratch a line onto the surface of the metal. Sometimes engineers blue (a dye/ink) is wiped onto the surface first so that the scratched line can be seen easily. The material is then cut down to this straight line.

The sliding Bevel: The sliding bevel is composed of two parts, the stock and the blade. The stock is usually made from rosewood which is a high quality material. The blade is made from hardened and tempered steel. The blade can be adjusted to a variety of angles and locked in position. This is useful when a line has to be marked at an angle on wood. A typical use is seen below 1. The stock of the sliding bevel is held firmly against the wood and the lock is loosened allowing the angle of the blade to be altered. 2. The lock on the sliding bevel is tightened so that the angle of the blade cannot be altered accidentally. A marking knife is used to mark a line at the correct angle.

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3. The wood is cut to the correct angle using a saw/fretsaw or appropriate tool.

The centre punch and dot punch: The centre punch is made form mild steel with the point hardened and tempered so that it withstands impact with the material it is marking. It is normally used to mark the centre of a hole to be drilled either by hand or on the drilling machine. The dot punch is a lighter and thinner version of the centre punch and is used basically for the same job. However, it is more accurately as the dot produced is smaller Both the centre and dot punches are used in the same way. A ball pein hammer is used to tap the head of the punch and this delivers enough force to the point of the punch to put a small indentation into the surface of the material.

Different Types of Files

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Hand files are used in the workshop to smooth rough edges. They can be used to smooth a range of materials including metals such as brass and steel to wood based materials such as MDF. They are made from high carbon steel and they are heat treated so that they are tougher than the steel or other materials that they are to be applied to. Hand files are normally held in both hands. The file is held flat against the surface it is to cut / smooth. The file is then pushed forward and it cuts on the forward stroke. It is then lifted away from the metal and returned to the starting point for the next push forward. This is called ‘through filing’

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Through filing is normally the first stage in smoothing a piece of metal or plastic. If the surface produced by through filing is not good enough - the next stage is ‘draw filing’. The diagram below shows how the file is held during this process. The file is held in both hands by the blade and pushed forwards and backwards along the material. This will further smooth the material.

The final stage of filing / smoothing a piece of metal / plastic is to use either emery cloth or wet and dry paper. Emery cloth is used for metals whilst wet and dry paper is used for plastics. The cloth / paper is held onto the blade of the file as shown i the diagram below. When using emery cloth on steel a small amount of oil can be added which helps smooth the material even further. A polishing / buffing machine can be used to ‘polish’ the surface of the material (plastic and soft metals only).

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Different Types of Files: The safe edge of a file does not have teeth. This is extremely useful when filing in corners as shown in the diagram below. The safe edge is placed into the corner and because it is smooth it does not damage the surface of the metal.

There are many different shapes / sections of files, some are shown below. They are used for a variety of types of work. Files are classified according to their length, section / shape and cut (tooth shape). HAND FILE: Used for general filing of metals such as steel. They are rectangular in section and are the most common type of file used in

workshops. HALF ROUND FILE: Used for filing curved surfaces. A normal hand file with its flat cutting edges is unsuitable for filing curved surfaces. However, the half round file has a curved surface which is especially useful for filing internal curves.

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THREE SQUARE FILE: Is triangular in section and very useful when filing ‘tight’ corners / angles. The sharp edges allow the file to fit into corners when filing.

KNIFE FILE: Knife files are very useful when filing where there is little space. Knife files are very thin and can fit into small gaps.

SQUARE FILE: The square file is quite thin and fits into corners well. They can be used to file slots in metal or for filing where there is little space

Files are often graded according to the roughness / smoothness of cut. The file that has the least harsh teeth is graded as ‘very smooth’. The most abrasive of files is graded as ‘rough’. Some of the grades of cut are shown below. 34

Grades of Files:

Different Types of Chisel: There are many different types of chisels and each has a particular use. Some of the more common chisels are shown below. The handles of most chisels are made from ash, beech, box wood or plastic and a mallet (not a hammer) is normally used to apply force. Safety is always a consideration when using chisels. The diagram on the left shows a paring chisel being used to shave the edge of a piece of wood a small amount. Each time the mallet forces the chisel downwards a small amount of wood is parred away from the edge. Whatever chisel is selected to be used they all should be sharp. A blunt chisel tends to slip off the surface of the material being cut. If the chisel slips in the direction of the person using it a serious accident can occur. Another rule relating to the use of chisels is that the material being cut should be held firmly in a vice of cramped to a bench top. Furthermore, keep 35

both your hands behind the cutting edge, do not be tempted to place one hand in front of the chisel. One slip with the chisel will cause an accident. The diagrams on the left and right show how easy it is to have an accident with a chisel. Think - safety first.

BEVEL edged chisels are slightly undercut making them easy to push into corners. They are normally used for finishing dovetail joints.

FIRMER chisels have a blade with a rectangular cross-section. This means that they are stronger and can be used for tougher/heavier work.

A PARING chisel is a longer, thinner chisel which can be pushed into long joints such as housing joints. It is used for cleaning up the joint and to make it an accurate fit.

Finishing: When you have finished your project in order to achieve a good finish you first need to remove pencil marks from your wood. This is done by lightly sanding in the direction of the grain. This will help achieve a quality finish to your wood work project. Tips for sanding: 1. Wrap glass paper round a cork block and sand along the grain 2. When the wood is really smooth, dampen the surface to raise the grain and smooth again with fine glass paper. 36

The finish given to a wooden surface will depend on many things and the designer needs to decide which finish to select. A good finish needs to decide needs a well-prepared surface and the varnish or paint should be applied correctly. Finishing a piece of wood well will make it look good, last longer and improve its quality. Stains come in a range of different colours. They are normally applied using a cloth or a brush. When your piece of work is dry, you can smooth down the surface with glass paper and then varnish to add protection to your work. Polyurethane Varnish is a clear and hard-wearing varnish finish which shows the colour and grain pattern of the wood. It is ideal for furniture and interior wood in house. Varnish is applied in several thin coats. This type of varnish is also suitable for exterior woodwork, doors, window frames. Preservative, e.g. creosote, is brushed onto exterior wood to protect it against rot or delay. Painting is used for exterior use for example on window frames. The wood must be primed and undercoated before painting on a top coat. Non-toxic vegetable oil is used on products that are to be used in the kitchen like fruit bowls or copping boards. It offers protection and also increases the aesthetic appeal of the product. Wax Polish is used on turned projects to protect them.

Sand Casting: The procedure for preparing aluminium ingots for casting must to be carried out carefully as safety is one of the key concerns, whether in a school workshop or in industry. Outlined below are the stages involved in heating and charging a crucible and then pouring the molten aluminium. PREHEATING - The crucible is first preheated. This removes any moisture from the furnace and crucible. Usually the gas is turned half on in order to avoid rapid heating. The

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aluminium ingots to be used are placed on top of the furnace so that they warm up. CHARGING WITH ALUMINIUM - once the crucible and furnace have been preheated the lid/top is pulled to one side with a steel hook. Aluminium ingots are then placed into the crucible with steel tongs. All steel tools such as tongs are pre-warmed. The gas pressure is turned up to full.

ADDING FLUX - As the aluminium begins to melt a small amount of ‘flux’ is sprinkled over the aluminium. A spoon can be used to sprinkle the flux powder. The flux prevents oxidisation (oxygen entering the molten aluminium). If oxygen enters the molten aluminium, when it is poured into the mould the final casting can have bubbles which can ruin the finish of the cast shape. POURING THE ALUMINIUM - The two man ladle is then lifted which raises the crucible from the floor. The teacher must always control the pouring of the molten metal and so holds the two handles. The second person (possibly a pupil) holds the single handle allowing it to revolve when the ladle is turned for pouring by the teacher. A third person stands behind the crucible and uses a steel steady to prevent the crucible from falling out of the ladle. The aluminium is poured into the runner and when the cavity is full is rises up the riser. The flow of aluminium should be constant, if there is even a short break in pouring the cast aluminium it may cool and the cast may be imperfect. SAFETY CLOTHING MUST BE WORN !!

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Cope

Drag

More notes on casting: Metal shapes are produced by pouring molten metal into moulds made of damp sand. The first stage of the process is to smooth a wooden pattern the same as the final casting is placed on a flat board. The second stage is to place an open-ended box called a drag is placed over it and packed with damp sand. A specialised part of the manufacturing/engineering world is casting or foundry work as it is properly called. In schools and colleges this usually involves casting molten aluminium. Before any casting can take place a wooden pattern is made precisely. This is called pattern making and in industry this is a very skilful job. Any inaccuracy at this stage will result in the final cast being wrong or even failing. In schools the pattern is usually made from a softwood and its sides are given a draft (an angle) so that it can be removed from the sand easily.

The diagrams to the left shows the pattern on a flat board and a casting

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box called a ‘drag’ being placed over it.

Special casting sand will soon be packed around the pattern but to ensure to can be removed easily from the sand, parting powder is sprinkled over and around it. (parting powder is similar to talcum powder). It stops the casting sand sticking to the pattern and pulling away with it when the pattern is finally removed from the sand.

Casting sand is then shaken through a sieve (called riddled sand) so that only fine particles fall around the pattern. This is called facing sand and it must be fine so that detail on the pattern shows up on the final casting. Different types of sand are available. The safest is called petro-bond. This is a mixture of quality sand and oil. The cheapest is called green sand and this is mixed with water. Green sand must be mixed carefully as if too much water is added - when molten aluminium is poured into the mould an explosion can result.

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The drag is then packed with more casting sand. It is a good idea to sieve all the sand being placed above the pattern and then ram it down firmly using a ramming tool. The tool has two ends, one is cylindrical and is used for general packing down of the sand. The other end is quite pointed and this can be used for packing sand close up to the pattern. When the drag is packed fully it is levelled off (called ‘strickled off’) using a straight steel bar.

A top box called a ‘cope’ is then placed on top of the drag and locating pins are put in position so that the casting boxes cannot move sideways.

Sprue pins are positioned. One usually on the back of the pattern and the other to the side. These will eventually provide an entrance and

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exit for the molten aluminium when it is poured into the sand. The sand is packed/rammed into the cope in the same way as the drag. Parting powder is first applied, followed by facing sand. The sprue pins should be taller than the box and stand out from the sand when it is levelled with a strickling bar. Small depressions are dug into the sand at the top of the two sprue pins. These are useful when the aluminium is poured. The depressions are called the pouring basin and feeder.

The top box (the cope) is then removed and if all is well the cope with the sand inside should lift off the drag (bottom box) without the sand falling out. A small ‘gate’ is cut below the position of one of the sprue pins. This will help the molten aluminium flow into the cavity left by the mould. Small tools are available or can easily be made to dig a variety of shapes in the casting sand. They are similar to small trowels.

The pattern is ‘spike’. The end be threaded and screwed into the pattern. Before

removed using a of the spike can so it can be softwood removing the 42

pattern it is a good idea to gently tap the spike so that it loosens the pattern from the sand. It can then be lifted away from the casting box (drag). The cope (top casting box) is placed back on top of the drag and the locating pins put in position. Before this is done vents can be created using a thin piece of welding rod, pushing it through the sand . This allows gases to escape once the aluminium is poured.

The aluminium is poured with great care. This is discussed in detail on other information sheets. The aluminium is poured down the hole left by the first sprue pin (now called the ‘runner’). As it runs down the runner it flows through the ‘gate’ cut by the trowel, into the cavity left by the pattern and up the riser (the hole left by the second sprue pin). The casting should be left for at least an hour before removal from the sand.

When removed from the sand, the runner and riser are cut away and the casting is ready for machining.

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Hardening and Tempering: Steel can be treated by intense heat to give it different properties of hardness and softness. This depends on the amount of carbon in the steel. In general terms, if steel is heated until it glows red and is quenched in clean water immediately, it becomes very hard but also brittle. This means it is likely to break or snap if put under great pressure. On the other hand, if the red hot steel is allowed to cool slowly, the resulting steel will be easier to cut, shape and file as it will be relatively soft. However, the industrial heat treatment of steel is a very complex and precise science. In a school workshop most heat treatment of metals takes place on a brazing hearth. A rotating table and fire bricks are essential. The fire bricks reflect the intense heat back on to the metal being heated. This is achieved by arranging the bricks in a semi-circle behind the metal being heated. Without the bricks, heat would escape and this would limit the temperature that could be reached

Heat treatment of steel in a school workshop is normally a two stage process. For example, if a mild steel or silver steel screw driver blade has been manufactured at some point it will have to be ‘’hardened’ to prevent it wearing down

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when used. On the other hand it will have to be ‘tempered’. This second heating process reduces the hardness a little but toughens the steel. It also significantly reduces the brittleness of the steel so that it does not break easily. The whole process is called ‘hardening and tempering’. STAGE ONE: The screw driver blade is heated, slowly at first, warming up the whole blade. Then the heat is concentrated on the area at the end of the blade. This gradually becomes ‘red’ hot. STAGE TWO: The screw driver blade is removed quickly from the brazing heart, with blacksmiths tongs and plunged into clean, cold water. Steam boils off from the water as the steel cools rapidly. At this stage the blade is very hard but brittle and will break easily. STAGE THREE: The screw driver blade is cleaned with emery cloth and heated again on the brazing hearth. Heat is concentrated at the end of the steel blade. The steel must be watched very carefully as it changes colour quite quickly. A blue line of heat will appear near the end of the blade and it travels towards the tip as the temperature rises along the blade. When the line of blue reaches the tip the brazing torch is turned off. The blue indicates the correct temperature of ‘tempering’.

STAGE FOUR: The screw driver blade is placed on a steel surface, such as an anvil face. This conducts the heat away and allows slow cooling of the screw driver blade. When cold, the

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blade should be tough and hard wearing and unlikely to break or snap. This is due to the tempering process.

The centre Lathe The Centre Lathe is used to manufacture cylindrical shapes from a range of materials including; steels and plastics. Many of the components that go together to make an engine work have been manufactured using lathes. These may be lathes operated directly by people (manual lathes) or computer controlled lathes (CNC machines) that have been programmed to carry out a particular task. A basic manual centre lathe is shown below. This type of lathe is controlled by a person turning the various handles on the top slide and cross slide in order to make a product / part.

The headstock of a centre lathe can be opened, revealing an arrangement of gears. These gears are sometimes replaced to alter the speed of rotation of the chuck. The lathe must be switched off before opening, although the

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motor should automatically cut off if the door is opened while the machine is running (a safety feature). The speed of rotation of the chuck is usually set by using the gear levers. These are usually on top of the headstock or along the front and allow for a wide range of speeds. However, sometimes the only way to set the lathe to a particular speed is to change the gear arrangement inside the headstock. Most machines will have a number of alterative gear wheels for this purpose.

The centre Lathe – Facing off A very basic operation is called ‘facing off’. A piece of steel has been placed in the chuck and the lathe cutting tool is used to level the end. This is done by turning the cross-slide handle so that the cross-slide moves and the cutting tool cuts the surface of the steel. Only a small amount of material should be removed - each pass of the cross slide. After each pass of the cutting tool the top slide can be rotated clockwise to move the tool forward approximately 1mm. This sequence is repeated until the steel has been levelled (faced off). When using a centre lathe it is always advisable to work patiently and safely. Do not attempt to removed too much material in one go. At best this will caused damage to the steel being worked on and to the expensive cutting tool being used. At worse an accident will occur TURNING A SHORT TAPER

When turning a short taper the topslide is set a the required angle. This is normally done by loosening two small allen screws and then 47

rotating the topslide to the angle and tightening back up the two allen screws. When the chuck is rotating the topslide handle can be rotated slowly by hand in a clockwise direction. A small amount of metal is removed each time until the taper is formed. If too much steels stands out from the chuck the steel will vibrate and the surface finish will be very poor.

Drilling on a centre lathe The tailstock of a lathe can be used for drilling, with the aid of a drill chuck attachment. The drill chuck has a morse taper shaft which can be push into the shaft of the tailstock, locking it in position.

The usual starting point for drilling with a centre lathe is to use a countersink bit. This is used to drill slightly into the material and creates a starting point for other drills that are going to be used. Attempting to drill with a traditional drill bit without countersinking first will lead to the drill bit slipping straight away. It is not possible to drill a hole successfully or safely with out using a centre drill first. If a long piece of material has to be turned on a lathe then a centre drill is used to produce the hole at one end. This allows the drilled end to be supported by the tailstock centre

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Once a hole has been produced by a centre drill, machine twist drills can be used to enlarge the hole and if necessary to drill all the way through. If a large diameter hole is needed then a small hole is drilled first (eg. 4mm dia). Then the hole is enlarged approximately 2mm at a time. Trying to drill a large diameter hole in one go will inevitably lead to the drill bit over heating and then jamming in the material. This is potentially dangerous. When drilling, it is very important to use soluble oil as a coolant. This should be constantly fed onto the drill bit to keep it cool. This will help prevent jamming and over heating. Over heating will blunt the drill bit quickly.

How to use a Knurling tool: A knurling tool is used to press a pattern onto a round section. The pattern is normally used as a grip for a handle. Apprentice engineers often manufacture screwdrivers. These have patterned handles, to provide a grip and this achieved through the technique called knurling. The pattern produced is called a ‘knurled pattern’.

This diagram shows the knurling tool pressed against a piece of round section steel. The lathe is set so that the chuck revolves at a low speed. The knurling tool is then pressed against the rotating steel and pressure is slowly increased until the tool produces a pattern on the steel.

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The automatic control lever is engaged which starts the automatic traverse of the saddle. As the saddle moves along the bed of the lathe the knurled pattern is pressed into the steel along its length. If the traverse of the lathe is stopped and then reversed a diamond pattern is produced.

Depending on the knurling tool selected, a variety of knurled patterns can be produced. Three typical patterns are seen opposite

Wood Turning:

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Woodturning: Safety Always wear a face mask or goggles. Tuck in loose clothing (especially ties), tie long hair back and wear an apron. Before you start turning: Check the wood is free from faults Check the wood is securely held Position the tool rest as near to the wood as possible Check that the turning speed is correct: Slow speed for large work and fast speed for small work

Preparing the timber: 1. Cut more wood than you need to allow for waste at each end. 2. Mark and saw the diagonals at each end of the square piece of wood. The cuts will allow the driving centre to locate in one end and the revolving centre in the other. 3. Plane the corners of the wood until it is octangle (i.e. has eight sides).

Shaping on the lathe The gouge is a good general purpose shaping tool. It rests on at an angle on the tool rest and always cuts with the grain. The parting tool cuts straight into the work after it has been shaped to remove the waste.

Finishing on the lathe Glass paper can be held gently against the spinning work but great care must be taken with this. Wax polish can be applied to the work using a cloth, but not while the lathe is spinning.

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S3 Craft & Design

Anthropometrics & Ergonomics

Anthro·pom·etry. This is the branch of ergonomics that deals with body shape and size. People come in all shapes and sizes so you need to take these physical characteristics into account whenever you design anything that someone will use, from something as simple as a pencil to something as complex as a car.

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Anthropometry Step-by-Step • •

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Decide who you are designing for Anthropometry tables give measurements of different body parts for men and women, and split into different nationalities, and age groups, from babies to the elderly. So first of all you need to know exactly who you are designing for. The group of people you are designing for is called the user population. If you were designing an office chair, you would need to consider dimensions for adults of working age and not those for children or the elderly. If you were designing a product for the home, such as a kettle, your user group would include everyone except young children (hopefully!).

Decide which body measurements are relevant You need to know which parts of the body are relevant to your design. For example, if you were designing a mobile phone, you would need to consider the width and length of the hand, the size of the fingers, as well as grip diameter. You wouldn't be too interested in the height or weight of the user (although the weight of the phone might be important!)

5th to 95th Percentile

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Key Points of the graph • • • • •

The bell graph is symmetrical The graph tails off towards either end because fewer people are extremely tall or very short To the left of average is the 5th percentile is shorter than particular height To the right of average is the 95th percentile is taller than particular height Deciding whether to use the 5th, 50th, 95th percentile depends on what you are designing.

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Anthropometric Diagram

The diagram above shows the different key sizes that are critical to designing for people. Consider the most appropriate sizes and parts of the body for the product. For example when designing a lamp then you need to consider the grip size of the hand. If you are designing a chair you need to consider the height of the users and the length of their legs.

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What is aesthetics? The term 'aesthetics' concerns our senses and our responses to an object. If something is aesthetically pleasing to you, it is 'pleasurable' and you like it. If it is aesthetically displeasing to you, it is 'displeasurable' and you don't like it. Aesthetics involves all of your senses - vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell - and your emotions. Elements of Aesthetics There are many different things that contribute to your overall perception of a product, and to your opinion as to whether it is aesthetically pleasing to you. Vision Hearing Colour Loudness Shape Pitch Pattern Beat Line Repetition Texture Melody Visual weightPattern Balance Noise Scale Movement

Touch Texture Shape Weight Give Comfort Temperature Vibration Sharpness Ease of use

Taste Strength Sweetness Sourness Texture

Smell Strength Sweetness 'Pleasantness'

Your opinion about a product may also be influenced by certain associations that are important to you, such as: how fashionable it is whether it is a novelty, or an old favourite whether it is a symbol of wealth or love how much danger or risk is involved if it provides a link with your past You might also take into account whether it is safe and reliable and fit for its purpose.

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Consistency with a particular aesthetic concept may be a significant factor in creating a product's appeal too, for example, the current appreciation of 'retro' designs. However, such trends are often cultural and almost certainly always short-lived, so their popularity can't be guaranteed.

Aesthetics: Here is an aesthetics checklist to allow you to consider how good your product looks. This is normally carried out at the start of your folio. Colour and Shape are the two aesthetics properties which are easiest to understand. Both colour and shape can be used to create contrast or harmony. Colour is used at the ideas stage to consider different stages and on the actual designs. Form is three dimensional and is developed later in from the 2-D shapes. Proportion small changes to the proportions of simple shapes can help make designs look elegant, classy, stable or sleek. Balance: Most products look balanced or even symmetrical. Experimenting with the balance of shapes and colours add interest to your design. Texture: Could your design look smooth, textured, hard, soft, glossy or matt? Try using more than one surface texture in your design. It will create contract and become an eye-catching feature. Harmony: It may be important to create a design in which all the parts blends in with each other or with the environment in which it will be used. Select harmonious colours or shapes to achieve this. Contrast: Using contrasting colours, textures and shapes can liven up a design and make it more eye catching. Contrast can help your design to stand

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out from the rest, e.g. a designer may want their designs to be noticed by customers. Try mixing straight lines and curves in your ideas. This effect can be quite striking. Pattern: Repeating a design feature to create a pattern can help achieve a unified or more organised look. Line: Different styles of line can create a formal or an informal look to your design. The effects of using different styles of line can be seen in both folios.

Knowledge and Understanding of Design: 1. Is the product suited to it’s purpose? (Function and Environment) If a product is well-designed it will do it’s job well, e.g. the main function of a vacuum cleaner is to remove dirt from a variety of surfaces and floor coverings. Unless it actually does this it is a poorly designed. How would you set up a test to compare how well two vacuum cleaners clean? Consider: Exactly what is the purpose of the product you are evaluating? Remember that products often have both primary and secondary functions, i.e. they do a number of things. What tests would you carry out to find out how well the product performs? 2. Is it easy to use (ergonomics)? A well-designed product is easy to use. Ergonomics may well have been an important consideration in its design, e.g. when operating a vacuum cleaner, the user, whatever his or her size, must be able to hold it comfortably, move it around, reach the controls easily and empty it when full. Consider: Ergonomics Are the controls easy to reach? Does it feel comfortable to use? Are there any functions that are difficult to operate?

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3. Is it safe? (Safety) All the products should be safe to use and be safe when not in use, e.g. accidents frequently happen in homes when small children find, dismantle and swallow things. Designers therefore need to pay close attention to safety considerations when they are designing products. A can opener may itself be safe but not the sharp edge it leaves on the can. Consider: Is the product free of dangerous features? Is it safe to use? Are there warnings given on the product about possible hazards? Does it conform to safety standards? 4. Is it easy to maintain? (Cost) All products need to be looked after to keep them in good working order, e.g. roller blade wheel bolts need to be checked and tightened and the wheel bolts need to be checked and tightened and the wheels need to be rotated to avoid uneven wear. Consider: Are the instructions provided on how to maintain the product? Can you maintain the product yourself with ease? Do you need specialist tools? Is it expensive to replace bits that wear out? 5. Does it look good? (Aesthetics) A well-designed product will look attractive and possibly have a distinctive style. The dyson vacuum cleaner is a good example of this, which helps to explain why so many Dysons are sold. When evaluating how good a product looks, use the list of headings considered under aesthetics. Consider: The shape, size, proportions of the product’s parts The colours, material and textures Does it have a distinctive style? What sort of image does it project?

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6. Is it made well? (Materials and Construction) The qualities of the materials and construction used in a product will determine how well it performs and how long it lasts, e.g. a pair of roller blades has a plastic moulded shell, clips and fastners, a padded lining and wheels that are subject to a lot of hard wear. Consider: What materials have been used for each part? What qualities do these materials have? Are the materials suited to their purpose? How have the parts been joined together? Are there any faults or weaknesses in the product? 7. Is it good value for money? (Cost) When a consumer buys a product he or she must decide how much to spend. Does he or she spend more on a better quality product that will last longer or save money on what may be an inferior product? For example, when you buy a new pump for your mountain bike, you need to check carefully which pump works best and how well each pump is made before choosing one from a range of pumps. Consider: How does the cost of one product compare with others? Will it last a long time? How well does it do its job? Are spare parts costly?

The Design Factors: These are the factors that you must consider when designing a new project within craft & design. This is used to analyse a problem. When designers solve problems, there are important things that they must think about. To make it easier to solve, they break the problem down into smaller design factors. It helps the designer to consider each one in turn to analyse the problem. This part of the folio is called the analysis stage.

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The design specification is a list of things which the final project must do or be. For example, when designing a lamp the base of the lamp must hold a lamp. When designing a car the car must be safe to use. 1. Function: What should the product do? It may have one important, primary function and several secondary functions, such as fashion or style. 2. Ergonomics: Who will use the product? Will it be used by arms, legs, hands, eyes, etc? Will it be used sitting or standing, or for working with? Can it be designed to adjust for comfort or safety? 3. Aesthetics: Is it important that the product looks good? Consider: Colour, line, shape., form, proportion, line, texture, balance, fashion and style. 4. Environment: Will it be used indoors or outdoors? Should it blend in with or stand out from its environment? Could it be designed to be more environmentally friendly? Will it need to withstand extreme conditions? 5. Material and Construction: What are the most suitable materials for the job? Should they be strong, durable, soft, warm? Must they be rigid or collapsible or have moving parts? Can the product be mass-produced? 6. Safety: What safety features have been built into the design? How can it be made safer to use? Does it conform to British Safety Standards?

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7. Cost: Will the product be expensive or inexpensive to make? Who will want to buy it? Is it cheaper or more expensive than its competitors? How much will it cost to run?

Ergonomics: Ergonomics is the study of people in relation to their surroundings and the products they use. The designer uses ergonomics to design products and spaces that match the needs of the people who will use them. Any product, system or environment that has been ergonomically designed will be comfortable, safe and easy to use. Designers often use a scaled down, plastic figure called an ‘ergonome’ to achieve this. Here are some examples of how ergonomics works in action. Headphones must fit comfortably over the user’s head and ears. The controls should be easy to reach and adjust.

Stages in a design folio: There are many different stages in a design folio. Each stage of the folio is important, some sections are larger than others. 1. The Problem: Every designed product starts with a problem that needs to be solved. For example, if your room was always messy and CDs/DVDs where getting broken on because they are on the floor, I am going to design a storage unit to hold these items in.

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2. Research/Analysis of the problem: In this stage of the project, you begin looking at different aspects of the problem. You would look at the seven design factors identified earlier and think of different areas of research that you could do for each. For example, for function for a storage unit you would look at the size of the DVDs/CDs you wished to store and then note all the information on a sheet in your folio. To investigate the safety factor you would look at the safety of existing products and these would be sketched onto your research pages with notes on safety. Another area that could be researched using a focus board would be function, location, style/design influences and other products. Using this technique allows the designer to look at different influences to see what kind of products already exist and how they can design theirs to fit into in the market. 3. The Specification: This is a collection of statements that your design must satisfy. For a project like a lamp, then the specification that you would write would like the statements below: The lamp must be made out of an environmentally friendly wood The lamp must be aesthetically pleasing The lamp must not be any bigger than 300mm in height 4. Generation of ideas In this section of the folio a designer uses different techniques to generate a range of different ideas. One of the idea generation techniques that are used is to generate ideas to use a focus board to look at existing products and develop and expand these ideas. Another method of developing ideas is to different shapes and commercial shapes and using these to generate ideas. At this stage you can also look at

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influences from other designers. For example – Bauhaus and Charles Rennie Mackintosh, or Art Deco. All these different types of idea generation can give you more ways of solving the problem that you have decided to solve. Tips for generating ideas: Build up ideas by sketching quickly. Don’t pause keep your pencil working and think while you sketch. Sketch free hand – a ruler slows you down. Keep your sketches two-dimensional only. Don’t rub out bad ideas. Work on them. If they don’t improve, ignore them. Join overlap and subtract shapes. Use lines to join and balance your shapes. Don’t worry about how you might build your designs that comes later. It is best not to fall into the trap of simply choosing to make one of your first ideas. These may seem promising but it is important to show that you can develop and improve them. Selecting the final Idea/solution: There are various ways to select your solution. 1. Evaluate each idea with your specification and the idea that solves as many of the points from the specification is the one you should manufacture. 2. Combine two or more of your ideas and synthesis (combine your ideas) to create one idea which is better than any of the other ideas. Design Statement/Why did you select the design? Normally after a graphical representation of your design, a statement is added explaining why you made the different design decisions and why your final design looks the way that it does. Stages of Work/Planning for Manufacture: This is where you detail how you are going to make/manufacture your product. This can be completed in a variety of ways. One way is to draw annotated sketches showing the stages to be completed with simple straight

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forward notes. The other that this section can be completed is in lots of sentences that describe in detail how to manufacture the item. The idea behind this is that you can hand your cutting list and stages of work pages from your folio and get someone else to make the project! Working Drawing: This is the page that contains orthographic views of the final design. This page has dimensions on it and should be drawn to a high standard. As with the stages of work, you should be able to hand this drawing to someone else and get them to make your project. Evaluation: This section always comes at the end of the folio. This is your chance to reflect on how the project progressed. It allows you to indicate any areas you would have completed differently. Any design changes you would have made or did make during the construction.

Work Shop Safety: The following rules are general rules that should be followed in every school work shop. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Always listen to instructions Wear all safety equipment provided Don’t work alone in the workshop with out teacher supervision Keep all personal belongings stored off the floor and away from the doors Have no loose clothing on when working on machinery Carry all tools correctly, and do not point them at any one Store all tools on your bench, so that if they were to fall off then they would not hurt anyone. Follow all safety signs.

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Questions: All questions should be answered in sentences 1. Name the three different types of wood that could be used in school workshop? 2. Name and describe three different manufactured boards? 3. Name three parts of the marking gauge? 4. Name a hand tool used to cut curves in wood or plastic? 5. Name a machine that can be used to cut curves straight wood or plastic? 6. Name a machine used to sand the end grain of wood? 7. What makes a mortise gauge different from a marking gauge? 8. Name three parts of the chisel? 9. What would you use a bradawl for? 10. What type of wood joint is commonly used for shelving units? 11. Why should you use protective pads when sash cramping a frame? 12. What is the purpose of dry clamping a frame? 13. Name three different finishes that could be applied to wood? 14. What happens to copper and aluminium when they are beaten or bent? 15. Name two properties that aluminium? 16. Name three tools commonly used commonly used for marking out in metal work?

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17. Name three tools commonly used for marking out in woodwork? 18. What type of saw would be used to cut the tenon in the mortise and tenon joint? 19. Name two types of rivet? 20. Prior to varnishing/finishing wood, what stages should be completed? 21. What is the name given to the cloth used to clean metal projects? 22.What are the four stages in preparing the edges of acrylic (plastic)? 23.What is the name given to the glue normally used in woodwork? 24.What does the term plastic memory mean? 25.What is the name given to the hammer used when riveting? 26.What type of drill bit is used to drill holes? 27.Name three safety precautions you should follow when using the pillar drill? 28.What is meant by the term thermoplastic? 29.What stage is next after the problem stage in your design brief? 30.After completing your design specification you can? 31. Why would you write a sequence of operations in your design brief? 32.Which other section should you refer to from your design brief when writing your evaluation? 33.Why should a mould be good if you were mass-producing a plastic product?

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34.What is the standard depth of a housing joint. This is used to gauge how deep the cuts should be? 35.Name three safety precautions that apply when chiselling? 36.What is the advantage of using a hide mallet on sheet metal? 37.What are the three different types of files used? 38. Why should pencil marks be removed before being glued and cramped? 39.Why would it be important to research the size of spice jars if you were designing a spice rack? 40. Name one way of joining metal together? 41. What is meant by the term ergonomics? 42.Why should you make a paper model/template before manufacturing the actual product? 43.What is meant by the term ferrous metal? 44.What tools would you need to mark a straight line on a piece of metal? 45.What properties tops/worktops?

of

MDF

make

it

ideal

for

making

desk

46.Which part of the marking gauge is used for marking the lines on the wood? 47.How would you finish the edges of plastic after you have filed them? 48.What machine is used to drill holes in plastic, wood and metal? 49.What are the three main types of heat treatment?

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50.Describe two methods of checking that your work is square when cramping it up? 51. How would you prepare would if your finishing it with varnish? 52. Describe how you would prepare wood to turn on the wood lathe and annotate with sketches the names of different tools used? 53.Explain with the aid of diagrams how you would turn a taper on a metal work lathe? 54.Sketch a picture of a metal work lathe and label all the parts? 55. Describe the process of vacuum forming with the aid of diagrams? 56.Outline with the aid of sketches how you would set up and check that your wood was secure on the wood lathe? 57.You have been asked to design a CD storage unit, suggest three possible statements that could appear in the design specification? 58.At what stage of the design process would you need to complete a drawing with sizes on it? 59.You have been asked to design a pair of head phones which aspects/elements of anthropometric data would you need to consider when designing? 60.Aesthetics are important when designing products, suggest two aesthetics reasons that would help improve a design? 61. Ergonomics is a wide topic pick two different elements of ergonomics and describe why these need to be considered early in the design process?

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62. Anthropometric data has been gathered to help designers, design more effectively. How does it do this? (explain and describe with the aid of the graph) 63. Why is it important to use a G –Cramp to clamp your work to a bench when chiselling? 64. You have been asked to design a storage unit for children’s shoes, suggest three of the different design factors you would need to research and explain why these factors are relevant? 65.With the aid of sketches, describe how you would manufacture a mortise and tenon joint? Why would this joint be selected? 66.With the aid of pictures? Describe how a metal work lathe works? 67. What is the special feature that thermoplastic has? Explain why this is useful in school workshops if you make a mistake? 68. You are designing a storage unit and MDF has been selected as the main material. Suggest two reasons why this is a good choice and two reasons why it might be a bad choice? 69. When laminating pine together in strips to create a larger cross section, what way should the grain be facing on the strips. Illustrate your answer with a sketch? 70. Name the different parts used in sand casting and illustrate with a sketch how the equipment is set up for sand casting? 71. What would the purpose of making a prototype model be, in the design process? 72. Describe how you would mark out and cut a housing joint with the aid of sketches?

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