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KINGSTON HARBOUR, JAMAICA — AN OVERVIEW Ivan Goodbody Kingston Harbour, Jamaica (Fig.1; Plate 1), is often considered to be one of the finest natural harbors in the world. It is situated on the south coast of Jamaica at 17º57' N, 76º48' W. The harbor is an elongated bay, or lagoon, extending 16.5 km east–west and 6.5 km north–south with a total surface area of approximately 51 km2 (Wade, 1976a). The city of Kingston, comprised of industrial, commercial and residential developments lies to the north of the harbor and at the western end are modern residential developments of about 10,000 homes, Portmore and Independence City. In its original state the harbor was contiguous at its western margin with a shallow embayment, Hunts Bay. In 1967 the mouth of this bay was partially occluded by a solid causeway with a narrow bridge to permit continued water exchange between harbor and bay. The details of this causeway and its consequences are discussed in Goodbody (1968,1970) and Wade (1976a). The southern margin of the harbor is bounded by a shingle spit, the Palisadoes, built by longshore drift of sediments tying together a number of derelict coral cays to form a 15 km long tombolo (Goreau and Burke, 1966; Hendry, 1978). The entrance to the harbor is a 2 km wide channel in the southwest corner (Wade, 1976a) and this leads naturally into a 12 m deep channel, which curves around the northwest side of the harbor providing navigable access to its inner basins. This channel, usually referred to as ‘the ship channel,’ is a natural formation, probably maintained originally by natural water circulation (cf. Goodbody, 1968,1970), but in recent years the Port Authority has engaged in maintenance dredging to prevent undue sedimentation and permit the continued access of large ships to the Port of Kingston. At the time of writing (early 2002), renewed dredging activity and land reclamation was being undertaken not only to enlarge the channel, but also to expand the port facilities. Some of the spoil material was being used to reclaim land in the northeast corner of Hunts Bay and in a small lagoon between Fort Augusta and the causeway, to the detriment of artisanal fisheries in both locations. It is impossible at this time to forecast what will be the final environmental status of the western end of the harbor. The small town and fishing settlement of Port Royal is situated on the eastern margin of the harbor mouth and is the location of one of the University of the West Indies’ two marine research laboratories. Other small fishing communities also exist on the north shore of the harbor, notably at Greenwich in the west and Rae Town in the east. Port Royal was originally an island, but was finally joined, probably by natural forces, to the rest of the tombolo around 1734 (Hendry, 1978). During their occupation of Jamaica, the Spaniards built fortifications at Port Royal naming it ‘Caguay’. After 1655, the British developed a commercial center and naval base at Port Royal. The Naval Dockyard remained active until after the First World War and is now the site of a modern small craft marina. Goodbody (1970) and Wade (1976a) defined two regions within the harbor, the Outer Harbor comprising a deep basin just inside the mouth and lying between Port Royal on the east and Port Henderson in the west, and the Inner Harbor extending along the main east–west axis of the harbor (Fig.1). According to Wade (loc. cit.) the maximum depth of the Outer Harbor just inside the mouth is about 18.3 m; the Inner Harbor is fairly uniform 249

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Figure 1. Map of Kingston Harbour showing the major features.

in depth (c.15 m.) with occasional shoals covered by turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum). Formerly, beds of bivalve molluscs (Arca imbricata) were found in this turtle grass, but they have not been recorded recently. The eastern end of the Inner Harbor forms a deep basin about 18 m in depth with a soft muddy sediment on the bottom, often giving rise to an anoxic benthic environment (Wade et al., 1972). Goodbody (1970) and Wade (1976a) named this region of the harbor ‘Upper Basin’ (Fig. 1). There is no present day open connection, or channel across the Palisadoes tombolo between the Upper Basin and the open sea to the south, but historically it has been breached on a number of occasions, the most recent recorded event being in the late eighteenth century (Hendry, 1978). In recent times during very stormy weather, the sea has washed over the tombolo between Harbour Head and the International Airport, but no permanent breach has occurred. However, at times the water in the Upper Basin adjacent to the tombolo is very clear and suggests that water may be passing through the base of the tombolo from the open ocean to the harbor and being filtered in the process. Detailed study of the system might reveal the extent of any water exchange. It is likely that in its original state, Kingston Harbour was surrounded by mangrove forest, but only small remnants of that forest remain today. The most significant remaining mangrove forest is on the southern shore of the harbor just to the east of Port Royal (Plate 1). The topography and general ecology of this forest has been documented by Alleng (1990). Details of the lagoons and waterways are given elsewhere in this volume (Goodbody, 2003). Until the construction of the causeway in 1965, a large stand of mangrove forest remained on the western shore of Hunt’s Bay enclosing a large lagoon, Dawkins Pond, which was a source of shrimp for the artisanal fishery and was also an

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Plate 1. Kingston Harbour showing (A) Hunts Bay, (B) the Norman Manley International Airport, (C) the Port Royal mangroves.

important nursery ground for finfish. Most of this forest was destroyed during construction of Portmore and Independence City during the 1960s. A third important remnant of the old mangrove forest existed, until recently, on the northern shore of the Palisadoes tombolo in the vicinity of the present international airport. Much of this forest was destroyed during the construction of the modern airport between 1950–1960, and later by the construction of a marina for the Royal Jamaica Yacht Club and the Maritime Institute of Jamaica. All of these mangrove forests must have contributed significantly to the natural maintenance of nutrient balance and oxidative breakdown of organic materials, and their progressive destruction over a period of years is likely to have contributed to the recent environmental degradation in the harbor. Freshwater inflow into the harbor is intermittent from several different sources depending on prevailing weather conditions. Two rivers, the Rio Cobre and the Duhaney River, enter Hunts Bay and a number of storm gullies draining from the urban areas of the city discharge into both Hunt’s Bay and into the Inner Harbor. Wade (1976a) estimated that 662 km2 of land drained directly into Hunts Bay and only 52 km2 drained into the Inner Harbor. Changing land use patterns will have altered these figures since Wade published his report, but the impact of these input sources remains significant. All such sources are potential carriers of nutrients and other pollutants, ultimately leading to eutrophication and degradation in the water column of the harbor. For a review of the storm gullies and their discharge rates see National Water Commission (1993) and Webber and Wilson Kelly (2003). The two rivers drain from agricultural lands, hence are sources of agrochemicals including pesticides, while the storm gullies drain from residential and industrial areas of the city and carry solid waste as well as heavy metals and other contaminants. A further source of contamination is due to the many residential areas of the city

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that are not connected to a main sewerage disposal system and rely on soak away pits on the premises. The underlying soil is porous over a bed-rock of limestone and the contents of the pits soak through the soil and rock, eventually joining an underground water table leaching both water and dissolved nutrients into the harbor. Steven (1968) reported that by the 1960s, levels of production (measured by radiocarbon uptake) were already high and were in the region of 50 times as high as those encountered in the open ocean outside the harbor. Steven’s work related only to the water column, hence to phytoplankton communities, taking no account of production in seagrass or mangrove communities. The driving force for high levels of production in the harbor is domestic sewage, which for many years has been discharged into the harbor, originally in untreated form and later after being given primary or secondary treatment with varying degrees of success. Wade et al. (1972) used biological indicators to identify the effects of such organic pollution on benthic communities in the harbor, particularly, the development of an abiotic zone in the Upper Basin. The development of abiotic conditions in the benthos of the Upper Basin has also altered the conclusions of Munro (1968), who on the basis of a small trawl survey predicted that there was potential for a small artisanal trawl fishery for shrimp and finfish in the upper basin. Increasing organic pollution in the harbor may, nevertheless, have had beneficial effects on the artisanal fishery, but this remains poorly documented. Fifty years ago, fishermen regularly used drop lines in the harbor for benthic species such as snapper. Pelagic species were not an important element of the catch except where cast nets were used. Increasingly in the period 1970–1980, fishermen took to the use of gill nets, especially in the Inner Harbor; their catch was principally small harengulids and thread herring (Opisthonema oglinum) (Harvey et al., 2003). The inference drawn from this change in fishing patterns is that increased pollution gave rise to increased primary productivity, hence zooplankton abundance; the small harengulids benefited as secondary consumers. Around the same period there was a marked increase in populations of brown pelicans throughout the harbor suggesting that these birds also benefited indirectly by the increase in production and increases in their major prey species, small clupeid fish. An account of the artisanal fishery for small pelagic fishes in Kingston Harbour is related in Harvey (1986) and is summarized elsewhere in this volume (Harvey et al., 2003). It is apparent that over the past 50 yrs, Kingston Harbour has suffered from an increasing load of pollution from anthropogenic sources. During this period, a number of comprehensive studies of Kingston Harbour have been undertaken, the most important of which is an engineering study conducted by Stanley Consultants on behalf of the Government of Jamaica (Government of Jamaica, 1968). This report provides baseline data on physiography and oceanography as it existed around 1960–1965. Around the same time, the Government also commissioned Reid Crowther and Partners to undertake the first of many studies on sewage disposal in the Kingston area and how it affects the harbor (Government of Jamaica, 1970). These studies were complemented by biological studies undertaken by the University of the West Indies (see below) culminating in Wade’s important report (1976a) on The Pollution Ecology of Kingston Harbour. The most recent study of harbor conditions in relation to sewage disposal has been undertaken by SENTAR Consultants of Canada in association with Dr. Dale Webber and the Centre for Marine Sciences at the University of the West Indies (National Water Commission Jamaica, 1993). The original concept of the SENTAR study was to obtain a set of baseline data on exist-

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ing conditions against which the efficacy of rehabilitation measures could be measured as the rehabilitation process proceeds. In 1968, the Governments of Jamaica and the United Kingdom, and the Nuffield Foundation of London provided funding to the University of the West Indies to undertake a comprehensive study of various aspects of the harbor as it affected the biological environment. From this program several significant reports arose, especially those of Wade (1976a) on pollution ecology, Wade (1976b) on benthic diversity, J. Grahame (1974) and S. Grahame (1977) on plankton communities, and Sherwin and Deeming (1980) on water circulation. Wade’s report (1976a) is probably the most significant of all the early studies on environmental conditions in Kingston Harbour, highlighting both problems and potential solutions. Although it was backed up by many other studies and in spite of its quality and significance, the authorities responsible for waste disposal and protection of the harbor environment were slow to respond. Numerous seminars, workshops and public meetings have taken place over a long time period to discuss the problem of degradation in the harbor, but remedial action has not been forthcoming for the simple reason that the costs of such action have become prohibitive. A new international initiative backed by the Global Environment Fund has been formulated and may, in the course of time, give rise to a new approach to sewage disposal, using an Integrated Pond System (UNOPS, 1998). The results of the SENTAR study, referred to above, will provide the baseline data against which the success of rehabilitation can be measured as the process unfolds. The UNOPS document is of particular significance because it concludes that much of the environmental deterioration in the harbor may be attributed to poor management and maintenance of the waste disposal system; it uses a Total Economic Value (TEV) approach to assess the value of the harbor environment in relation to the costs of rehabilitation. The urgency to take remedial measures to reduce pollution in Kingston Harbour is further emphasized by the results of a study, funded by the International Development Research Centre in Canada, and undertaken jointly by scientists from the University of the West Indies and Dalhousie University. This study (Goodbody, 1989) followed the outflow of polluted water along the coast of Hellshire southwest of Kingston and determined that these polluted waters had significant environmental effects on reef structures, thus endangering both fisheries and recreational beaches along a coastline in which residential and tourism development had been planned. During the past 50 yrs, Kingston Harbour has provided a natural laboratory for scientists and students working at the Port Royal Marine Laboratory. The work conducted at this laboratory has contributed significantly to our overall understanding of the Kingston Harbour environment. The work of Alleng Grahame (J & S), Harvey, Hendry, Steven and others has already been alluded to above and the collection of papers presented in this volume of Bulletin of Marine Science is testimony to the continuing contribution being made by the laboratory, its staff and students. The process of understanding Kingston Harbour is far from complete and opportunities will continue to exist for a long time to monitor change and predict future change. Indeed it should be a focus of future research to accumulate sufficient information that will make it possible to predict accurately what the response of the harbor environment will be to any changes that are suggested or planned. Apart from opportunities in oceanographic study, the opportunities for biological research are almost limitless. The communities of animals and plants in the Port Royal

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mangroves, in particular, deserve further long-term study. In spite of a large number of published papers, including descriptions of two new species, it is not certain that the biota of the Port Royal mangroves has as yet been fully documented. Many opportunities exist for experimental ecology to examine the inter-relationships between various elements of the sessile community and how they share the rich resources of the lagoonal environment. LITERATURE CITED Alleng, G. P. 1990. Historical development, present status and management guidelines for the Port Royal mangal, Jamaica. M.S. Thesis, University of the West Indies, Mona. 171 p. Goodbody, I. 1968. The impact of development on Kingston Harbour. Jam. Arch. 2: 442–47. ___________. 1970. The Biology of Kingston Harbour. J. Sci. Res. Coun., Jamaica. 1: 12–34. __________, ed. 1989. Caribbean Coastal Management Study: The Hellshire Coast, St. Catherine, Jamaica. Univ. West Indies Mar. Sci. Unit Res. Rep. No. 1. 176 p. ___________. 2003. The Ascidian fauna of Port Royal, Jamaica, I. Harbor and Mangrove dwelling species. Bull. Mar. Sci. 73: 457–476. Goreau, T. and K. Burke.1996. Pleistocene and Holocene geology of the island shelf near Kingston, Jamaica. Mar. Geol. 4: 207–225. Government of Jamaica. 1968. Kingston Harbour Study. Stanley Consultants. Vols.1–4. 265 p. ___________________. 1970. Sewerage study of Kingston and St. Andrew. Reid Crowther Consultants. Vols. 1–3. 180 p. Grahame, E. S. 1977. The ecology of plankton in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica 2. The phytoplankton. Sci. Rep. Zool. Dept., Univ. West Indies, Mona. No. 4. 102 p. Grahame, J. 1974. The ecology of plankton in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica Part 1. The zooplankton. Res. Rep. Zool. Dept., Univ. West Indies, Mona. No. 4. 92 p. Harvey, G. C. McN. 1986. Aspects of the biology and artisanal fishery of three Caribbean Clupeids (Pisces: Clupeidae) in Jamaican waters. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. West Indies, Mona. 522 p. ________________, I. Goodbody and K. A. Aiken. 2003. The Artisanal Fisheries of Kingston Harbour, Jamaica. A Review. Bull. Mar. Sci. 73: 421–432. Hendry, M. D. 1978. Evidence of shoreline evolution for the Palisadoes, Kingston. J. Geol. Soc. Jamaica. Vol. XVII: 39–48. Munro, J. L. 1968. Prospects for a small-scale trawling industry in Jamaica. Inform. Bull. Sci. Res. Coun., Jamaica. 8: 91–96. National Water Commission Jamaica. 1993. Kingston Harbour Environmental Project Phase1 Report Volume.2. Appendix 1 Harbour Condition Assessment. Prepared by Sentar Consultants Ltd., N.W.C. Kingston. 186 p. Sherwin, J. and K. R. Deeming, 1980. Water circulation and its relation to pollution in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica. Project Report U 80-1. UCES Marine Science Laboratories, Menai Bridge, Anglesey. 97 p. Steven, D. M. 1968. productivity of inshore waters off Jamaica: a comparative study at four stations. In Beers, J. R., D. M. Steven and J. B. Lewis. primary productivity in the tropical north Atlantic off Barbados, and the Caribbean Sea of Jamaica. Office of Nacal Research, Final Report NONR 1135 (05). Section II: 64–87. UNOPS, 1998. United Nations Office of Project Services. Draft Final Report, Regional Project RLA/93/G41. Planning and Environmental Management of Heavily Contaminated Bays and Coastal Areas in the Wider Caribbean. Output 1.4: An integrated investment plan designed to address the technical, institutional, legislative, and financial factors that have contributed to the contamination and deterioration of Kingston Harbour. 188 p. Wade, B. A. 1976a. The pollution ecology of Kingston Harbour. Vols 1–3. Research Report from the Zoology Department, Univ. West Indies, Mona. No. 5. 294 p.

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_________. 1976b. Benthic diversity in a tropical estuary. Mem. Geol. Soc. Amer. 133: 499–515. _________, L. Antonio and R. Mahon. 1972. Increasing organic pollution in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica. Mar. Poll. Bull. 3: 106–110. Webber, D. F and P. Wilson-Kelly. 2003. Characterization of sources of organic pollution to Kingston Harbour, the extent of their influence and some rehabilitation recommendations. Bull. Mar. Sci. 73: 257–271. ADDRESS: Department of Life Sciences and Centre for Marine Sciences, University of the West Indies, Kingston 7, Jamaica.