Volume 5, Issue 6(1), June 2016

International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-21-4,Saraswathi Nivas,Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev

Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco

Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai

Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru

Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University

Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan

Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam

Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam

Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam

Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria

Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia

Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia

Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A

Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram

Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi

I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia

Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA

Dr. N.S. Dhanam Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr.B.S.N.Murthy

Dr.T.V.Ramana

Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University Visakhapatnam

Department of Economics Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao

Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi

Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam

Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science

Dr.S.Kannan

University of Pune,Pune

Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram

Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic

Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol

Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia

Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Engineering & Technology Sundargarh, Odisha

Prof.Shobha V Huilgol

Dr.E. Ashok Kumar

Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar

Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Dr.K.Chaitanya

Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur

Department of English GITAM University Hyderabad

Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China

Prof.Francesco Massoni

Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam

Al-Mustansiriyah University College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq

Dr. Bipasha Sinha

Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado

Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome

Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya

S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta

Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines

Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh

Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V

Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir

Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati

Librarian Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu

® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

CONTENTS Volume 5 S. No 1.

Issue 6(1)

June 2016

The Inviting and Rejecting Rain Text Balinese Migrant Community in Sumbawa: Analysis Systemic Functional Linguistics Ni Wayan Mekarini

Page No 1

2.

Attitude of Female Students Participation in Sports A.Praveen,Shobha K.S. and Prasannakumar Shivasharanappa

25

3.

The Early Christian Community : A Study A.V.Krishna Rao

29

4.

Enhancing the Interest of Students in Secondary Schools in Abakaliki Urban, Ebonyi State of Nigeria Using Instructional Scaffolding Azih Nonye and Nwosu B. O.

38

5.

What Justifies the Punishment?

51 Renu

6.

Empowerment of Women through Dwcra Scheme R.Raghupathi Reddy

65

7.

Employee Productivity of Indian Commercial Banks During 2001-02 To 2012-13 V. KrupaVani, Abdul Noorbasha and S.M. Reddy

75

8.

The History of Indian Penal Code

102 G.Devadas

9.

Socio-Economic Households

Profile

of

Sample

Children

and

115

V.Sreenivas 10.

Epistemic Norms, Foundations and Representations: A Historical Study K.V.Prasanna

139

11.

Problems and Prospects of Self-Help Groups-A Study with Reference to Select Groups Sponsored by APGVB of Visakhapatnam Region P.V.Mohini and A.Vinod Kumar

153

12.

Elementary Education in India: An Analytical Study Girish Chandra Tewari

172

13.

A History of Gymnastics: From Ancient Greece to Modern Times Reeta. K, A.Praveen and Prasannakumar Shivasharanappa

184

14.

Domestic Violence: A Threat to Study Skills of Children Nisanth.P.M and Amruth G Kumar

188

15.

Inclusive Banking Initiatives and Practices – A Study with Reference to Public Sector Banks in India K. Srinivasa Rao

201

16.

Indian Agriculture – A Study

214 P. Chinnurappa

17.

Employees Perception Towards Training Outcome in Some Selected Manufacturing Organisations of Dehradun D. S. Chaubey, Hem Chandra Kothari and Sumati Kapoor

225

18.

Indian Competition Law: Mapping the Trajectory Shashi Sawhney and Vinay Gadi

238

19.

Mainstreaming of School Dropouts in the Study Area: An Empirical Analysis H.Ramachandra

245

20.

Benefits of Teaching in Physical Education Vijaykumar S.D,Mallikarjun and Prasannakumar Shivasharanappa

280

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India

ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor :3.318(2015) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16

Editorial…… You will be happy to know that we have entered the fifth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it. We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharitha Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor –in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.

Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW

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THE INVITING AND REJECTING RAIN TEXT BALINESE MIGRANT COMMUNITY IN SUMBAWA: ANALYSIS SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS Ni Wayan Mekarini Lecturer, Lector Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata Triatma Jaya / Jl. Kubu Gunung Dalung Badung-Bali Indonesia Abstract The research on inviting and rejecting rain (IRR) texts by Balinese migrant community in Sumbawa is neceessary to hold to fill large gap between text popularity and people understanding about it. People even involved in the text remain not familiar with the steps, utterance, and meaning of offering used. Besides that, there arise a basic question on how somebody is able to invite or reject the rain. The research was aimed to get comprehensive texts features since they were locked to public. The problems raised were schematic structure, mood structure, transitivity, voices, themes, and reference system which is at the end lead to text type and novelty. Data was collected by recording, deepen in an interview and corpus then analysed based on Systemic Functional Analysis. The final interpretation was taken by conserning triangulation of data, theory, and confirmation fom the key informant. The connotation to the text is given situasionally. The nerang ‘rejecting rain’ which is regarded as protective text in Bali is labelled nonfunctional and dangerous. Therefore nerang was replaced by nyelang galah which is more cooperative and the key participant is given no special title. On the other hand, neduh ‘inviting rain’ text is accepted as a tradition

along with

farmers need and change its

character into blessing rain. The key participant is the chef pamangku who takes responsibilities in tradition and represent the community to the others. www.ijmer.in

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IRR is procedural text which requires conventional steps. Its procedure also shown by the domination of imperative clause and request. However, the text had a unique gradation of politeness especially on the monologue with The God. The monologue which began with imperative mood, later followed by request, expression of relation, abilities, and acceptance. At the end, the listener is welcomed to do certain things on his abilities in accordance to the people wish. This honourable gradation of listener foregrounding strategy indicates that the success of the wish depend on the God. Based on the languages code, text combines active and passive languages to create vertical and horizontal relation. The clauses in Sanskrit and Ancient Javanese is initialed by Om ‘Oh God’. Horizontal harmony to symetrical entities stated in Balinese with inital Ih or I. Thus, it is understood that IRR involved harmony with the God, others, and environment as the Tri Hita Karana ‘triangle harmony’ in Hindus concept. Exophorically, the text has close relation to dualistics and brotherhood principles, such as white and black figures and “the four brothers”. This reference shows IRR involved some invisible figures to do such services under the God permission. Therefore, IRR which is labelled as a sorcery activity must be revised since the success of the wish represented the Almighty God blessing which aimed for man livelyhood. Keywords: procedural, honorable gradation, dualistics, brotherhood, livelyhood. 1. Introduction 1.1 Background The rejecting and inviting rain text are generally carried out by many ethnics, one of them is Balinese. The rejecting rain can be found in rural and urban areas as a religious protection. However, those texts are locked from public. It means, getting involved in it does not bring

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enough understanding. This condition forced the researcher to explore the text as the research subject. The subject research is also supported by the results of the studies previously conducted by Mbete (1990), Satyawati (2009), Jamarani (2009), Putra (2010), Malini (2011), Wolf and Liebert (2001). Those five first researchers found out that the habit and tradition brought by the migrants from where they originally came from were repeated in migrant area as native language, habit, and perception. This finding was not supported by what was stated by Wolf and Liebert (2001). Wolf and Liebert found that water crisis is a significant factor to make a change in people’s cognition and habit, since it is a vital human need. For instance, the environmental care decreased to apathies when water became a commercial commodities. Thus, it is necessary to find out whether the texts is potentially preserved and practiced in the migrant centre as it was or it has been modified in accordance with local condition. Other questions raising are whether it has a certain connotation, structure of sequences, and how men might be able to hold or invite rain. Though there is no research conducted on the rejecting and inviting rain text yet, some Balinese culture observers, such as Hooykaas (1980), Suyadnya (2006), and Badra (2009) classify the rejecting and inviting rain text as a magical activity or sorcery. It is it since combining a variety of symbols and spells and also involved imagination figures in it. Badra (2001) stated that text was locked from public because of the warning especially awye wera, ila-ila dahat ‘do care, very dangerous, shouldn’t be shared with others’. This warning also comes with fine or punishment, meaning that there is a large gap between the text productivity and public understanding. It is necessary to find out which figures involved, how they can do help to succeed the wish, and utterance structures to activate them. The research is

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aimed to bring proportional explanation for Balinese and also other community with different culture. 1.2 Problems This research was intended to obtain comprehensive description about the Inviting and Rejecting Rain Text (IRR) of the Balinese Migrants Community in Sumbawa regency. The research problems are formulated as follows. (1) What is the schematic structure of IRR like? (2) What are the IRR mood structure and voices like? (3) What is the transitivity structure of IRR like? (4) What is the IRR thematic structure and its referential system like? 1.3 Research Objectives This research was aimed at having a comprehensive overview of the research subject so that the inviting and rejecting rain text can be understood by the speakers of Balinese and other language speakers. Specifically, the present study was expected to provide adequate description of the research problems formulated above. The research objectives are: (1)

Describing IRR schematic structure;

(2)

Analyzing IRR mood structure and its voices;

(3)

Describing IRR structure of transitivity;

(4)

Describing IRR thematic structure and its referential system.

1.4 Significance of the Study The research was intended to provide academic (theoretical) and practical significances. Academically, the results of this research may be taken as references or source of information, thoughts, and literary data for cultural studies of both the Balinese and other ethnic cultures.

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In practice, it was intended to give contribution to tradition and language preservation. The research may be deemed as stimulus for migrants to use their native language and transfer it to the next generation, since there is a big pressure from the local language and Indonesian. In this way, Balinese as a non native population in Sumbawa can be treated parallel with other ethnic groups. This research also serves as a way for agricultural documentation to enrich cultural assets, since migrants play a significant role in population growth and spread, as well as land conservation and development. In this case, this research can bring cultural understanding and ethnic diversity. 2. Literature Review, Concept, Theoretical Framework, and Research Model. 2.1 Literature Review Some books written by Halliday and his followers are taken as references. They are (a) Exploration in the Functions of Language (1973), (b) Cohesion in English (1975), (c) Language as Sosial Semiotic (1978), (d) Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social Semiotic Perspective (1985), (e) An Introduction to Functional Grammar (1985), (f) An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2004), dan (g) An Introduction to Systemic Functional Grammar (1994). In addition, some research results were reviewed, among others are, Hooykaas (1961, 1980), Pastika (2002, 2006), Arfinal (2004), Setia (2008), Usman (2009), Rasna (2010), Sutama (2010), Sutjaja (2011), dan Netra (2011). The reserach is classified into three category: (a) magical texts, (b) research with the same theory, and (c) research related to the similar problems.

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2.2 Concepts The IRR research uses some basic concepts, among others are text, inviting and rejecting rain text, Balinese migrant community, and code language. 2.2.1 Text Text is the language used when doing the task. Text is made up of semantic units and is arranged in such a way to obtain specific intentions. Lexicon is chosen and mapped to form a structure that reflects experience, interpersonal relation, and meaning organization. A clause does not only contain meaning of its pieces of lexicon, but also accommodates pragmatic aspects (Halliday, 1978: 122). Text is always interlocked with its environment or context (Halliday, 1985: 5). Text has its structure or texture that is the composition which has interrelation among its parts (Halliday, 2004: 5). 2.2.2 Inviting and Rejecting Rain (IRR) Text Inviting and rejecting rain text is a text which is used to cause clear the sky or the art of making wind and rain. IRR is the art of cause rain to fall or to stop the rainfall (Hooykaas, 1980: 45). The word neduh is derived from teduh ‘shady, not hot’. Warna (1993: 706) 2.2.3 Transmigrant Community The concept of community refers to a group of people who live in a particular area and have the same origins, customs, and others. Community can be defined as a group of organism, men, and others has interaction to each other in a region. Community refers to people of group (KBBI: 2008: 722). Transmigrants are people who move from one place to another through transmigration program which held by the government (Setiawan, 1994: 11).

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2.2.4 Language Codes The concept of language refers to the language code used in encoding text. The code covers passive language, that is, language that is not used in daily interaction, such as Sanskrit, Old Javanese or Kawi Bali. The Balinese language with has honorific-non honorific form is an active language (Sidemen, 2000: 91). 2.3 Theoretical Framework IRR was analyzed based on the Systemic Functional Linguistic theory that accommodates linguistic and nonlinguistic aspects. Basically, Systemic acknowledges the alternation in expressing meaning, while options appear to be discrete. What is meant is that although the language potentially provides a variety of options to construe meaning, the speaker must choose one of the alternations provided. Dimensions and principles of language, if systemically reviewed, consist of the following five dimensions. First, the dimension of the structure, which is also called a syntagmatic sequence, composites aspects of the language in terms of constituency. In a writing system, the principle of order in the form of a multi-layered level established by the interdepartmental relationships such as a word consisting of morphemes, a clause consisting of a number of words or phrases, and clauses drafted by one or more groups of words. The strategy is not limited to language (indeterminacy) in utilizing clauses, words, and punctuation. Second, the dimension of the system formulating the concepts of delicacy in the paradigmatic order. Every device of choice is a system in which the value containing propriety (delicacy) is carried by the circuit realization lexis as well

as grammar.

Appropriateness serves

expression to the higher aspects of the system into the language realization. www.ijmer.in

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Third, the dimension of stratification which indicates recitation strata in language, for example, the study of the writing system (phonetic), sound system (phonology), word formation (morphology), and grammar. The difference angle permitted by the study of language as a language is a recognition of the reality of a complex semiotic system. The complexity of the system of meaning makes a closer relationship between grammar and vocabulary so that the two are no longer seen as different strata, but united in terminology of lexicogrammar. Lexico-grammar characteristics position grammar and vocabulary in one stratum, which includes: (a) the characteristics of lexis: open system, which has a specific meaning, and collocation, (b) the grammatical characteristics: closed system, which has a general meaning and unstructured (Halliday, 2004: 43). Thus, syntactic and morphological aspects are regarded as a part, because of the proximity of the structure of the grammar and structure of the clause characterizing a universal language. Fourth, sampling (instantiation) refers to the relationship between the sample and underlying sample. This relates to the desire to explain how language is organized and how the arrangement relates to the function of language to meet the basic need of human beings, and it is always difficult to make everything clear. It is triggered by an effort to maintain two views at once, which is a view of language as a system and view of language as text. Fifth, the dimension of the basic functions of language metafunction which is associated with the social environment. The language is used to describe the human experience, name objects, and the outlines of objects into a certain category. Later, the categorization of objects is described into more specific taxonomy. When using language, there are other things going on simultaneously, for example, when interpreting something, language also plays a social relationship with those around. Thus, a clause in the grammar is not just an idea, but www.ijmer.in

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also represents some processes, such as do, feel, say, and others which involve participants and certain conditions. Mode meaning difference is not from outside, but from the representation of the grammatical system and the social system. It indicates that any message containing the contents is addressed to a person as a target of a message, without coercion forms and ways, but a consideration of text construction. 2.4 Research Model The model of the research can be illustrated as follows.

Balinese Cultural

TEKS Rain (IRR) Inviting and Rejecting Text by Balinese Migrants Community in Sumbawa Schematic Structure

Linguistics Aspects

Structural Mood & Voices

Transitivity

Non-structural Themes & Reference

Findings / Conclusion

3. Research Methods This research can be classified as field research, because the researcher plunged herself into the research area where text was applied. The method allowed the data obtained to be complete and accurate. The data collected in the form of oral speech in procession of inviting and rejecting rain in the center of the Balinese transmigration www.ijmer.in

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areas of Lunyuk, Utan, Rhee, Plampang, Labangka, and Labuan Badas districts. Data collection was done by recording and interviewing using the technique of involvement, questioning, taking notes, and recording. The corpus was the data in Balinese, while the data in Sanskrit, Old Javanese or Balinese Kawi were classified as residue. The corpus was processed first before entering the analysis stage based on the Systemic theory. Interpretation was built through triangulation of the data, theory, and informant confirmation. Furthermore, the results of the analysis were presented in the form of descriptive exposure, supported by tables, and figures as an effort to clarify the exposure. Discussion and interpretation was shown in chapters according to the problem formulation. 4. General Description of Research Location Research is held in Sumbawa Regency, West Nusa Tenggara Province, especially district of Lunyuk, Utan, Rhee, Plampang, Labangka, dan Labuan Badas. Those location is known as Balinese migrants centre since mid year 1969. Most migrants use their Lek Nusa dialect as communication media internal community. In intraethnics communication, it is used Indonesian with some Sumbawa vocabularies, and even some Balinese migrants can speak Sumbawanese fairly. Balinese dialect only spoken in families who come from Bali island. 5. Results of Discussion The inviting and rejecting rain is the hope for water obtained for dry land agriculture. Text is used not only for inviting rain, but also change the rain character into rain of blessing. How somebody can call or reject rain is necessary to discuss. how wouls the The condition in Sumbawa which has low rainfall caused the rejecting rain regarded as non-functional text. However, the inviting rain text is accepted as livelihood preservation text which involved harmony with God, others, www.ijmer.in

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and environment. IRR can be categorized as procedural text which dealt with some physical activities done by participants. This claim supported by the schematic structure and grammatical evidence. Meanwhile, the study of referential system led to the fact that text involved some invisible figures. 5.1 Schematic Structure Schematic structure refers to the string of events realized by a choice of lexical, grammatical, and meaning that reveals the texture in a systematic pattern. Schematically, IRR has some levels of structures; among others are the structure of language, formal structure, macro structure, and functional structure. The structure of language shows that IRR uses active and passive languages. The Balinese language is used in all parts of the preparation phase. The Main phase and Closure phase are opened by passive languages like Sanskrit, Old Javanese or Balinese Kawi, while the content is encoded in the Balinese language. Thus, the text mainly spoken in Balinese and wrapped with passive languages. Based on the formal structure, the inviting rain text has a preparatory phase and main phase realized by discussion, meeting, notification, and inviting rain. The formal structure of the rejecting rain text consists of three phases, namely the preparation, main, and closure which are realized in stages of asking for help, submitting the means, rejecting rain, and closure. Based on the existence of closure phase, the rejecting rain text seems to have more complex stage which implies that conducting phase must be ended. The rejecting rain structure is fixed but the inviting rain stages can be simplified. The macro structure of the text indicates fields, participants, the way chosen in the implementation of the text. Almost all stages of the text are conducted at temple chairman’s house. The preparation stage is done by a two-way dialogue, while the main stage and closing are www.ijmer.in

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done through monologue. The inviting rain stage is usually performed in the temple functioning as a symbol of prosperity (Ulun Suwi), river or sea. In the macro structure, the temple chairman acts as a key participant who decides the best time, facilities, and participant. Functionally, part of preparations contains the phrase acceptance, problem exposure, discussion, decision making, and parting. Those steps might be repeated in accordance to the problem discussed. Each step is connected by a transitional phrase which leads participant to enter the next session. The first part of the inviting and rejecting rain consists of purification, forgiveness, protection and worship of God. The main part states type of request, reason, asking for help, and offering for figures for their help. The last part contains a request of fulfillment and gratitude. Text is free from jokes or humors that indicate it’s an ethic not to behave or state something out of the ritual genre during the process. 5.2 Mood Structure Baline mood system is simpler than English which has Finite and tobe. Without those two element, Balinese language cannot be tested with the form of tag or short answers. Therefore the process can be the position to differ Mood from Residu. In the unmarked clause the Mood structural come on preprocess position, and the rest is Residu. Mood element is Subject-Modality, while Predicate- ComplementAdjunct belong to Residu. The Modal Adjunct like aspect markers, frequency, probability, obligation, and inclination come up in a limited number as the low intention from the speaker to confince listeners. The text is dominated by the exchange of services which stated in form of Proposal. This Proposal is realized in imperative mood which conveys instruction and request where change in behavior becomes a major orientation.. The imperative meaning to the imagination figures has a unique honourable gradation. The instruction slowly become www.ijmer.in

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expression of relation, ability, and acceptance. The gradation of honour is realized by nunas ‘beg’, and continued with imperative meaning with active verbal marked {-ang},

attribute, in order, and pleased

to.

From the gradation, it is understood that the wish fulfilment depent on the Almighty. The mood system shows dominatin of goods and services commodities in the form of Proposal. This evidence goes along with domination of imperative and request which oriented on nonverbal response. IRR needed participants’ physical activities to realized the guidelines. Text also has nontypical mood, taht is mood on its second layer function. Effort to honor others, genre, and power lead the participant to choose the nontypical mood. By doing so, the meaning conveys in a good manner and tends to have positive respons. 5.3 Structure of Transitivity The transitivity structure based on the predicator analysis is associated with the type of process. The classification process produces material, mental, verbal, behavioral, existent, and relational processes. In these processes the Subject is classified as Actor, Senser, Sayer, Behaver, Existent, and Token. The material process clause contains information that says 'what X do’ or 'what X do to Y'. The mental processes contain information 'what people think / know / desire / perceive of X’. The verbal process contains what X says to Y'. The behavioral process behavior states what X as physiological and psychological fusion of events. The existent declares the existence of a process form, while relational processes state relation. IRR transitivity analysis showed domination of material processes that reflected the nature of the text that needed some doing activity. Human activity mostly raised in preparation stage, while invisible working came at the main and closure phase. In the second place, the existence of objects which is realized by the existent is www.ijmer.in

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approximately 26%, meaning that the successful wish potentially requires the presence of various entities. In other words, IRR is closely related to various real work and presence of entities in the world. IRR has verbal process with two dimensions. The verbal processes such as nauhin, nanginin or ngarahin 'notify' does not only state the message but also implies certain activities to take. The Target has to realize them in action, time, and relevant way. The targets that ignore these verbal notification processes may be fined. Thus, the two-dimensional verbal has both declarative meaning and command implications in it. 5.4 Voice System Points of view in voice system based on Systemic theory is dealts with process and agency. Voices classification raises categories of effective and medial voice. The effective voice is characterized by the presence of Agent, meanwhile clauses with no Agent feature is classified as Medial voice. Effective voice consists of Operative voice and Receptive voice. The Operative voice has active process, opposed to passive one. The operative clause structure has basic structure and reversibility structure. This alternation is influenced by the nasal prefix {-} on the Predicator. The Operative voice forms the structures (a)

Subject/Agent–-Predicator-Complement/Medium

and

(b)

Subject/Medium--Predicator-Complement/Agent. The two structures have active process and Agent in obligatory status. Argument. The Operative clause with three arguments can bring structures (i) Subject/Medium--Predicator-Complement/Agen-Complemen2

or

(ii)

Subject/Medium--Predicator- Complement/Agen- Komplemen1/OBL. The reversibility is done by dropping the prefixs, while the sufixs might be still attached on the Predicator. Thus, the Operative voice can emphasize the Agent or Medium. Receptive clause has passive process www.ijmer.in

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and the Agent is arbitrary present. This voice usually marked with {ka} on high style or {-a} in ordinary style. IRR mostly used the {ka-} construction. Not each Receptive Agent can be raised arbitrarily. The agent is obliged to be present in the form of natural forces agent such as the wind, time, or wild animals. Thus the Receptive voice has two structures, namely (a) Subject/Medium-ka-Predicator-Adjunct/Agent, or (b) Subject/Medium-ka-Predicator-Complements/ Agent. It means Receptive clause can give emphasized on Medium and Agent. In relation to process types, the Operative clause is formed by material, mental, verbal, and behavioral processes. These processes can also form Receptive voice. The relational and existent processes contain Medial voice because the predicator state no activity in it. The study found that the Medial and Operative clause domination indicated the speaker’s intention to emphasize the Agent and relationships. The use of Receptive was lack in the stage of offering, that is, to whom the offering was intended, the type of the item offered was stated clearly rather than the Agent. The balance of focus on Agent and Medium could be seen as a sign that the subject position of the community was not solely concerned with the Agent, but also events or relationships in the environment. Thus, there were three process categories related to voices, namely (i) the material, mental, and verbal formed Operative and Receptive voice, (ii) the relational and existent process clauses formed Medial voice, and (iii) the behavioral process could shape Operative voice but failed to form Receptive voice. 5.5 Thematic Structure In terms of thematic structures, Themes are generally placed in the initial clause position, and followed by Rheme. Text can develop a Theme on the following sentences in many ways. In IRR there are three ways of developing theme, such as reiteration, zigzag, and multiple. Reiteration strategy seems to explore a certain Theme. The www.ijmer.in

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zigzag develops both Theme and Rheme, while the multiple develops Theme factors. A clause has minimal single theme, that is, Topical theme taht is the representation of experience, such as Actor, Goal and Circumtance. However, there is potential to accentuate other components to form multi themes, that is by placing interpersonal and textual theme before the topical. Therefore multi themes can be composed of textual themes, interpersonal theme, and experiential theme. In the present study the interpersonal theme was realized in the form of vocative, while

the

textual

themes

could

be

Adjunct

continuity

or

conjunctive. The structure of the multi themes was then classified as marked clause because it was loaded with pragmatic interests. To have Adjunct/Theme was easier than the Complement. It indicates loose relationship between Subject and Circumtance. Complement placement in initial was only possible with the support of supra segmental. Thus, the choice of multi themes indicates that the Balinese culture is not only concerned with emphasizing the Agent, but also information, conjunctions, or the next speaker. On the other hand, the language provides a way to place components of non theme to be a theme in the subordinate clause in hypotactic relations. A Rheme component in higher clause can be a theme in the subordinate clause with relative form of ane, sane 'that' or causal relationship yen 'if'. Thus, subordinate clauses are dependent on the components of higher clauses. The limited number of hypotactic clauses indicates that the the migrant community preferred independent clauses in a simple structure while dealing with ritual genre. 5.6 Referential System Referential systems include nonstructural components that are not based on the sort order of the constituents, but the relationship among the components in the text or linkages with other texts. The www.ijmer.in

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relationship between the internal components of the text or endophorical reference can be either cataphoric or anaphoric. The nature of endophorical reference is co-reference and interchangeable, the text linkage to other related texts has exophoric references. This study found that the anaphorical reference was more dominant compared to the cataphoric reference. This reference connected a group of words with a group of words or clauses that preceded it, that is, the Bali community preferred to add information to the given information obtained previously. In other words, the information was referred back after deposited in the memory of the reader/listener. The antecedent is not only a group of words, but an also refer to a clause or more. For this function, there is one to one or encapsulation relationship. The relation of encapsulation forms reference to one or more clauses. This study found that the frequency of occurrence of one to one reference was more dominant than the type of encapsulation. The condition showed that it was easier to understand the linkage connecting nouns compared to clauses. Encapsulation was preferable to refer to a series of information that would be delivered, or summaries. On the other hand, the cataphoric reference gave great information or general detailed information that appeared later. Unlike the anaphoric reference that could reach several clauses preceding it, cataphorical reference antecedents appeared immediately after the general noun. Cataphorical could be seen as the speaker’s strategy to prepare the listener to receive detailed information or substitution. Exophorically IRR connects entities coming from other texts, especially the figures of Sanghyang Agama, I Wenara Petak, I Sampati, Ratu Ngurah Tangkeb Langit, I Gusti Wayan Teba, I Gusti Made Jelawung, I Gusti Nyoman Pengadangadang, dan I Gusti Ketut Petung. I Wenara Petak and I Sampati as black and white figures who work for Ratu Sanghyang Agama. I Gusti Wayan Teba, I Gusti Made Jelawung, I Gusti Nyoman Pengadangadang, and I Gusti Ketut Petung www.ijmer.in

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are Ratu Ngurah Tangkeb Langit guards. The study found IRR is linked to the concept of dualistics and brotherhood. As guardians, it is interpreted that these figures only act and provide help on the Almighty God permission. Therefore, invisible participants involvement in the text is not absolutely sorcery, but the realization of the God will and blessing. 6. Research Findings The IRR research findings can be classified as field findings. The findings are explained in the following. (1) The connotation given to text based internal situasion. It may cause different connotation inter places or time. Balinese migrants in Sumbawa regarded the rejecting rain as non-functional text since people are rainfed farmers. The rejecting text can wash away the rain for longer time and bring deases to key participant. The negative point of view is not only given to the ritual, but also the lexicon. Nerang ‘rejecting rain’ covers strong force, egoistic and natures exploitation. That is why the nerang then replaced by nyelang galah which covers cooperative and permissive meaning. On the other hand, neduh ‘inviting text’ is accepted as protective text for calling rain and change its character into rain of blessing. Neduh is a way to face the dry season and bless people life. IRR is lead by a chef pamangku without special label as a rain expert. The leader of the text must be the chef pamangku or other pamangku on duty. He must lead each religious event and have a wide range of view to handle issue and pressure from other group. As the key participant, the pamangku may modify the sequences, decide the best time, and ritual offering. Therefore, pamangku can control tradition preservation and handles most questions like offering, temples, marriage, and others religious application. Different views to others can cause disputes among people and in www.ijmer.in

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this case, pamangku represents community to others. He also can do nonmedical cure, religious speech, or foresight. This ability made people trust and follow him.Thus, a chef pamangku leads religious events and group representative in wider community. (2) This study classified IRR as a procedural text which

phasing

patterns applied could not be interchanged, due to a series of stages of accepting the goal. It was dominated by imperative and request mood. The imperative meaning in the main phase shows unique honour gradation. The imperative meaning then was moved to relation, abilities, and acceptance. Here, the God was foregrounding as a participant who has high ability in doing things and pleased to do so. At the end of this process, the sayer positioned himself as one invite to accept, not a wish blower. The gradation of honorific is raised along the monolog with The God and his manifestation. This honor shows that facing hard problem, men may raise a wish to The God, hope to be fulfilled, and accept the answer. Active and passive languages encodes the text shows vertical and horizontal relation. Monologue with the God and his manifestation is uttered in passive languages, such as Sanskrit and Ancient Javanese, including statement of begging, purification, and honour. After having vertical relation, monologue with paraentities raised and coded in Balinese. This triangulation harmony gets along with the Tri Hita Karana principles, that is people harmony with the God, others, and the nature. Exophorically, the text had a close relation to the concept of brotherhood and dualistic concepts. Text required some invisible figures, such as black and white figures or four brothers. God blessing through those figures may succeeded the wish and for their help, offering is served. Relation with invisible figures should not be understood as sorcery since the completion depend on The God and aimed for lively-hood.

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7. Conclusions and Suggestion 7.1 Conclusions This study found out sufficient answers of the problems. It raised these six conclusion below. (1) First, schematically IRR is a wish text that has multiple layers of structure, such as language structure, formal structure, macro structure, and functional structure. (2) IRR has simpler Mood-Residu composition than English. It occurred because Balinese don’t have copula, finite, and concord. Most imperative meaning covers honourable gradation where people is positioned as a God’ help receiver. (3 In the transitivity structure, the text showed procedural one which required participants physical activities and things existence. The absence of behavioural process indicates that IRR did not relate to physiological dan psychological aspect. However, IRR had verbal process with dual dimension which covers verbal and material process. (4) IRR Operative clauses got two subject structure. They are Subject/Agent in Operative or Subject/Medium in reversibility structure. The Reseptive Agent like natural forces must be implicitly stated, such as Titiang kabanda antuk galah ‘I was tied by the time’ Operative voices are usually formed by material, mental, and verbal process, while existensial and relational process showed Medial clause. (5) Thematic analysis found out three ways of developing theme, such as re-iteration, zigzag, multi themes. Multi themes structure is formed by placing interpersonal and textual theme precede the topical theme. (6) IRR built on endophorical and exophorical referent. Exophorically, there is a text link to the concept of brotherhood and dualistic concepts. This relationship shows that IRR requires support of invisible figures. 7.2 Suggestions The results of this study need to be supported by other studies in order to obtain deeper cross-ethnic investigation. www.ijmer.in

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researchers can use the results of this study as a foothold to explore migrants or communities in other areas. It means there would be an effort to enrich our cultural references and understanding from a range areas along the archipelago as well as keep the mother language being fluently spoken by the generation born in the transmigration area. The next researcher must aware of plural conditions in migrant area which may light conflict and takes part to educate people of diversity. Theoretically, the application of the Systemic Functional Theory in this research can answer each problems raising. It brings no rest problem. Therefore, it is recommended to use Systemic theory to explore languages structure word wide ethnics. References 1. Artawa, K. 1998. ”Ergativity and Balinese Syntax”. In Dardjowijoyo, S., dkk., ed. Nusa: Linguistics Studies of Indonesian and Other Languages in Indonesia. Vol.12. 2. Austin, J. 1976. How to do Things with Words. Bristol: J.W. Arrow Smith Ltd. 3. Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Sumbawa. 2011. Kabupaten Sumbawa dalam Angka 2010. Sumbawa Besar: Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Sumbawa. 4. Bonvillain, N. 2003. Language, Culture and Communication: The Meaning of Messages. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. 5. Coupland, N. and Jaworski, A. 1997. Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook. London: Macmilland Press Ltd. 6. Dhanawaty, M. 2002. “Variasi Dialektal Bahasa Bali di Daerah Transmigran Lampung Tengah” (disertation). Jogjakarta: Universitas Gajah Mada. 7. Dijk, T. 1985. ”Introduction: Level and Dimensions of Discourse Analysis”. In Dijk, T., ed. Dimensions of Discourse. Volume 2. Amsterdam: Academic Press. 8. Dijk, T. 1985. “Semantic Discourse Analysis”. In Dijk, T, ed. Dimensions of Discourse. Vol. 2. Amsterdam: Academic Press. 9. Eggins, S. 1994. An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: Pinter Publisher Ltd. www.ijmer.in

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10. Eggins, S and Slade, D. 1997. Analyzing Casual Conversation. London: Equinox Publishing Ltd. 11. Fairclough, N. 1989. Language and Power. Longman Group UK Limited. 12. Fairclough, N. 1995. Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. New York: Longman Publishing. 13. Givon, T. 1979. “Syntax and Semantics”. In Givon, T., ed. Discourse and Syntax. Vol.12. Colorado: Academic Press. 14. Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. Language as Social Semiotic. London: Edward Arnold. 15. Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen. 1985. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London : Edward Arnold. 16. Halliday, M.A.K. 1973. London: Edward Arnold.

Exploration in the Functions of Language.

17. Halliday, M.A.K and Hasan. 1985. Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. Victoria: Deakin University Press. 18. Halliday, M.A.K. and Longman.

Hasan. 1975. Cohesion in English. Sydney:

19. Halliday, M.A.K. 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. 20. Hasan and Jonathan. 2005. Language, Society and Consciousness. London: Equinox Publishing Ltd. 21. Hodge, R. and Kress. 1988. Social Semiotics. Oxford: Polity Press. 22. Hooykaas, J. 1961. Ritual Purification of a Balinese Temple. Amsterdam: N.V. Noord Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschsppij. 23. Hooykaas, J. 1980. Drawings of Balinese Sorcery. Leiden: E. J. Brill. 24. Hopper, P. 1979. “Aspect and Foregrounding in Discourse”. In Givon, T., ed. Syntax and Semantics. Volume 12. Los Angeles: Academic Press. 25. Jamarani, M. 2009. “A Study of Language and Cultures in Contact among Iranian Female Immigrants in Australia” (disertation). Brisbane: University of Queensland SLCCS. 26. Kardji, W. 1999. Ilmu Hitam dari Bali. Denpasar: CV Bali Media. 27. Kearns, J. 1984. Using Language: The Structure of Speech Acts. Albany: State University of New York Press.

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28. Kovecses, Z. 2006. Language, Mind and Culture, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 29. Kress, G. 1985. Ideological Structure in Discourse. In Dijk, T,. ed. Dimension of Discourse. Volume 2. Amsterdam: Academic Press. 30. Larson, M. 2010. Meaning-Based Translation. New York: University Press of America Inc. 31. Levinson, S. 1987. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 32. Lucy, N. 1995. Social Semiotics: Course Study Guide and Reader, Perth; Murdoch University. 33. Malini, L. 2011. “Dinamika Bahasa Bali di Daerah Transmigran di Provinsi Lampung” (disertation). Denpasar: Program Pascasarjana Linguistik Universitas Udayana. 34. Moreno, A. 2003. “The Role of Cohesion Devices as Textual Constraints on Relevance: A Discourse as Process View”. In Scheu, Dagmar and Lopez Maestre, ed. Journal of English Studies: Discourse Analysis Today. Spain: University of Murcia Vol. 3. 35. Netra, M. 2011. “Wacana Ritual Melong Pare Bulu Komunitas Petani Adat Bayan, Lombok Utara: Kajian Etnopragmatik” (disertation). Denpasar: Doctorate Program of Linguistics , Udayana University. . 36. Palmer, G. 1996. Toward a Theory of Cultural Linguistics. Austin: University of Texas Press. 37. Pastika, W. 1999. “Voice Selection in Balinese Narrative Discourse” (tesis Ph.D). Canberra: The National Australian University. 38. Setiawan, N. 1994. Satu Abad Transmigrasi di Indonesia: Perjalanan dan Pelaksanaan 1905-2005. Bandung: Pusat Penelitian Kependudukan Universitas Padjajaran. 39. Schiffrin, D. 1994. Approaches to Discourse. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 40. Suharno, I. 1982. ”Linguistik Kultural: Peranan Manusia dalam Telaah Bahasa”. In Indonesian Journal of Cultural Studies. Jakarta: Fakultas Sastra Universitas Indonesia. 41. Sudaryanto, 1993. Metode dan Aneka Teknik Analisis Bahasa. Jogjakarta: Duta Wacana University Press. 42. Sunaryo, A. 2010. ”Penggunaan Tenaga Prana untuk Menolak Hujan”. http://www.pranaindonesia.wordpress.com.

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43. Sutama, P. 2010. “Teks Ritual Pawiwahan Masyarakat Adat Bali: Analisis Linguistik Sistemik Fungsional” (disertation). Denpasar: Program Studi Linguistik, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana. 44. Sutjaja, I. G. M. 1988. Semantic Interpretation of the Nominal Group in Structure in Bahasa Indonesia (disertation). Sydney: Department of Lingusitics University of Sydney. 45. Sutjaja, I G. M. 2005. Teks dan Rekayasa Teks. In Linguistika Vol. 12. Denpasar: Program Studi Magister and Doktor Linguistik Universitas Udayana. 46. Suyadnya, I. G. N. 2006. Aywa Wera dan Pemahamannya. Denpasar: Paramita 47. Tannen, D. 1994. Gender and Discourse, New York: Oxford University 48. Usman, F. 2007. “Tawa dalam Pengobatan Tradisional Minangkabau: Sebuah Kajian Linguistik Antropologi”. (disertation). Denpasar: Program Studi Linguistik, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana. 49. Vallin, R. 2005. Exploring The Syntax-Semantics Interface. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 50. Windia, K. 1972. Kanda Empat. Denpasar: Kantor Dokumentasi Budaya Bali. 51. Wolf and Liebert. 2001. ”The Sociohistorical Dynamics of Language and Cognition”. In Fill, A. and Muhlhaulsler, ed. The Ecolonguistics Reader. London: Creative Print and Design.

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ATTITUDE OF FEMALE STUDENTS PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS Dr. A.Praveen Physical Education Director Shri Hampi Virupakshswara First Grade College Vidyaranya ,Kamalapur

Shobha K.S. Physical Education Director G.F.G. Govt First Grade College Koppal

Dr.Prasannakumar Shivasharanappa Assistant Professor (Contact Basis) University of Agricultural Science Dharwad Karnataka Abstract Females continue to be poorly represented in sport as participants, coaches, advisers and as team administrators and are seldom seen in the capacity as managers of different sporting codes. This article sets out to determine the different psychosocial factors that influence female sport participation .This article will provide knowledge that will aid the understanding of the phenomenon of participation and nonparticipation. Several factors were identified as influential determinants of whether Female decides to participate or not to participate in sport. The following factors were identified: financial benefits; family support; career opportunities; stereotypes about female sport participation; physiological nature of females; self-esteem; ability; motivation; competitions; need for recognition; coaching preferences and how well females get the recognition over their male counterparts. Introduction Female participation in sport has come a long way. Efforts have been and are being made in getting more females to participate in sports. www.ijmer.in

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However, a lot more effort is still required to generate greater female participation in the world of sport. Attitudes regarding female sport participation are changing, as there are females who have made sport part of their daily lives. In the history of South African sport, females are underrepresented and this tendency has filtered through to the educational institutions and the community in general. There are more girls who do not participate in sport than those who do participate This article will focus on the important role played by psychosocial factors influencing why some women participate and while others do not participate in sport. Focusing on the above, dimensions will reveal positive reasons that cause girls to participate in sport and negative reasons that cause many girls to choose not to participate in sports. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING FEMALE SPORT PARTICIPATION Developmental influence The physical fitness of women in sport has always been questioned because of a variety of physiological concerns including the menstrual cycle, reproduction, damage to breasts and genitals. Early studies argued that females should not be involved in sport, due to the deleterious effects of physical exertion on the frequency of menstruation and the fact that the reproductive organs of female can be affected. Pregnancy Anecdotal evidence shows that pregnancy does not hamper performance of women who choose to participate in sport throughout their lives.Argue that Irwin, who was a female athlete, won an Olympic medal in diving when she was four months pregnant. Another example is that of Hays who successfully completed the world championship www.ijmer.in

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rodeo as a bareback rider when she was eight months pregnant. It also appears that athletes return to top form rather quickly after having had children. Concluded by saying that females could look forward to having an active and exciting sports life uncomplicated by irregular menses, pregnancy and Hormones Females who participate in sports often experience delayed menarche and this could have both positive and negative consequences. Historically delayed menarche, which was often associated with high levels of training, was a problem as it compromised fertility. There is insufficient evidence examining the relationship between delayed menarche in athletic females and bone density. Delayed menarche can have positive effects in that the early onset of menarche has been associated with increased risk of breast cancer. Taking part in sport or regular exercising may also reduce the possibility of childhood obesity, Body Form Discussed EW myths that excluded females from sports. In the process of playing sport, it is believed that females might damage their breasts. There is no evidence that shows that the breasts or reproductive organs are at risk at any point when females take part in sport. Breasts are the least vulnerable organ of the female body. The uterus is said to be the most shock resistant organ. In fact, males are more susceptible to injury and trauma because their sexual organ is external CONCLUSION The level of status for Indian sport should be raised, and sports participation should be nurtured and instilled from pre-primary school carried through to primary, secondary and tertiary level. In the process of grooming and moulding players they are subsequently introduced to Provincial and then National teams for different sporting codes. If the standard of sport is to improve in schools, the implication is that www.ijmer.in

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there would be a need to provide facilities, equipment, qualified teachers, coaches and sports psychologists. It would be the role of all the agents to encourage and motivate all the learners with special focus on the girls. The focus should be on developmental dimensions, which help to make links between social requirements, individual needs, and personal interests. As indicated in this chapter, choices that are made in life are usually influenced by physiological, psychological and social factors. References 1. "Department of Sports". YAS. Retrieved 1 August 2010. 2. "S". Yas.nic.in. Retrieved 1 August 2010. 3. http://www.cppr.in/article/government-is-a-spoilsport/ 4. "Sports Authority of India, Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports – Government of India". Sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in. Retrieved 1 August 2010. 5. "Indian Olympic Association". Olympic.ind.in. Retrieved 1 August 2010. 6. http://yas.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/6831719428.pdf 7. Dr. Ramakrishnan .K.S. 2 Vidyalaxmi V 3 Dr. Sarathbabu.V. "Development SPORTS Profession as A Life Time Professional Career in Sports - A Prospective Study." Shodh Sangam 2.special (2012): 248-255–Uttar Pradesh ,India". http://shodhsangam .org/article/january-2012-special-issue-volume-2/8.html. Retrieved 13 May 2015. External link in |publisher= (help) 8. Abhinav Bindra wins 10m air rifle gold 9. Medalists – India, The official website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games 10. New York Times: With India’s First Gold, Suddenly a Billion People Notice the Olympicss

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THE EARLY CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY : A STUDY A.V.Krishna Rao Director MSFS Dhyanashram A Center for Spirituality and Renewal Visakhapatnam Introduction This article presents us with the information about, the earliest Christian communities. It briefly explains of Jesus and his apostles and their mission and the problems, conflicts and the compromises that they had faced with in defending their faith. It also deals with the various other defenders of faith like Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Tatian, Clement, Origen, Constantine, Arius and Eusebius of Caesarea who one way or another- contributed their share for the welfare of the church. Jesus and the Apostles The earliest Christian communities believed Jesus Christ as an example and teacher of the way of truth and righteousness. They also saw him as Messiah, a prophet and the king. Hs cured many people out of compassion and taught them the kingdom values of love and forgiveness even to enemies. He taught, the relativity of earthly authority which caused a threat to the high-priestly families of Jerusalem. Finally he was betrayed, humiliated and was crucified. But it was not the end. He was raised up again (Easter) but it was not accessible to the methods of historical investigation. Resurrection was understood not as resuscitation but a mysterious going to God. The apostolic community experienced the presence of Jesus in their worship, in the sacraments and in the proclamation of divine forgiveness and renewal. This presence was the sign of the kingdom of God on earth. They saw Jesus not as the founder of the community but as the climax. The Christians believed that by the death of Jesus, God www.ijmer.in

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had formed a new covenant not only with the Jews but with the entire human community. The apostles commissioned by Jesus proclaimed the message of repentance in view of God's imminent kingdom. Among the apostles Peter held a position of Leadership and it is he who took the lead in opening membership of the church to the Gentiles. a) St. Paul He was a Hellenized Jew with Roman citizenship. He held a radical position in the church. He was converted by confrontation with a vision of the Risen Lord. He was commissioned to carry the way of Jesus even to the gentile world. He proclaimed the need of Unity and a sense of Fellowship between Jews and Gentiles. He faced many problems in his mission. He understood Jesus as the way to the father and he identified Jesus of History with the Christ of his faith. 2. Gnosticlsm Most of the Gnostic sects claimed to be Christian but they interpreted the teachings of Jesus to suit their own teachings. In one form or another it has permanently remained an underground concomitant of the church. So the church constructed fences against it. They could not accept Christ's incarnation and enduring crucifixion. They denied the significance of the Baptism and Eucharist. Mani attacked the church for using wine, he thought of it as an invention of the devil. They treated Sacraments as magic and mere symbols. They criticized Bishops, Priests and Deacons but they allowed the positions of leadership and the liturgical presidency to women, as the orthodox communities did not. Gnostic idea of radical dualism of spirit and matter, their idea of salvation, their tendency to merge myths and cults were not acceptable to the church. Moral virtue was of little interest to them. Their teachings were highly mythological. Finally they were attacked by Pagan Platonists like Plotinus and his successors. Plotinus

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attacked Gnosticism as pretentious mumbo-jumbo. He disliked their deep pessimism about the visible material world. a) Marcion The Gnostic critique listed the moral contradictions between the Old and New Testaments. He felt that even the apostles themselves had misunderstood the intentions of their Master. He had great appreciation towards St. Paul and his writings. He excluded many other writings of the church as non-canonical. 3. New Testament canon Gnostics unlike Marcion welcomed numerous gospels other than the four. So the need arised to check what is corresponding to the apostolic tradition of faith and what is not. Sometimes it was a very sensitive issue because it also based on the consensus among the communities. Before the term ‘canon’ came to be used for the list of accepted books it was also used for the standard of authentic teaching given by the baptismal confession of faith. a) Montanism Montanus and two women namely Prisca and Maximilla led a charismatic movement. Their uttarances were considered as direct statements by the paraclete and montanist prophets required everyone to acknowledge their utterance as the true work of the Holy Spirit. But the church did not recognize it. b).A book Religion. It is to give Christianity something of the character of a ‘book religion’. The books of the Bible are marked by a rich diversity of genre, content and manner. So some expositors like Cyprian, Origen spoke of the books as a single book because they are given by the one author, God. So the different standpoints within the biblical books should be harmonized and the authority of the sacred writings be diminished. www.ijmer.in

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The tradition of the words of the lord was largely oral transmission rather than written. So to form a New Testament canon was to give special importance to the written tradition and it brought a concept of inspiration. There are two views about inspiration. (i) It is an enhancement of natural, rational discernment, not a suspension or abolition. (ii) Mantic possession: It implies that the words are divinely given. There are different pressures towards the standardization of these views but Augustine and Origin presupposed the first view of inspiration. 4. Rome Peter and Paul were the founders of the Roman church. Iraneus felt that all believers must be in agreement with Rome as an apostolic foundation. Roman Bishops were faithful to the authentic tradition of the apostolic writings. There were some tensions faced by the East and west with regard to the date of Easter celebration. These tensions ultimately resulted in the establishment of Synods between Bishops. They began meeting not only when crisis existed, even otherwise on regular basis every year. Their decisions were unanimous. Cyprian of Carthage said a bishop is responsible to God alone. However he has a duty to safeguard the unity of the church. He also said that bishop was the vehicle of sacramental order. a) Bishops The evolution of the threefold ministry of Bishop, Presbyter and Deacon was the much earlier development then the biblical canon. The apostles were not merely witnesses to the Lord’s resurrection but also a source of decision-making or pastoral jurisdiction in the early communities. The mother church at Jerusalem in the apostolic age had a single head in the person of James, the Lord’s brother. In the Gentile churches spiritual leadership might be in the hands of presbyters. www.ijmer.in

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Bishop had a special position in both worship and charitable administration. b) The social role of the clergy Tertullian said that we, Christians must have everything in common. Taking care of the poor, widows and orphans became a prime task of Bishops. Church funds also used for the emancipation of Christian slaves, but the church did not have a general progrmame of the abolition of slavery. When plague struck Carthage in 252, Bp. Cyprian sent his people out to nurse the sick and bury the dead. So the clergy did not only minister word and sacraments but also performance social roles for their flock. c) Sex and Marriage The church found it hard to enforce Chastity within marriage yet it emphasized the need of mutual trust between husbands and wives to each other. Tertullian wished well-to-do Christians to take widows into their houses as spiritual spouses. A striking difference between pagan and Christian attitudes to sex and marriage appears in a curious duality. Many pagan religious and philosophical moralists considered sexual activity as obstruction to the higher aspirations of the soul yet the reproduction is good in the sense of survival of human society. Christians viewed Human sexuality not as a cause of sin but as a prime expression of selfish egotism. Some early Christian groups of ascetics highlighted the supernatural character of their chastity by the sexes cohabiting, yet without sexual contact. Apostles taught that marriage and procreation are good but not as good as celibacy. St.Peter was married and his wife accompanied him an apostolic journeys. Jerome was confident that even married apostles lived in mutual continence, after the example of their unmarried Lord and his ever virgin mother. Western churches came to expect celibacy for Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons. www.ijmer.in

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5. The Church and the World The Christian community inherited from its Jewish matrix a strong sense of being ‘called out’ to the world. The world was the gift of the Lord. Yet the world is also a term in Christian usage for something alienated from God and hostile to him, corrupted and apart from the sustaining hand of grace, a place of chaos and destruction. A place which find expression in the driving lust for power, wealth, and sexual indulgence. But the values preached by Christ are reversal to it, for example Beatitudes. They condemned the worship of created order (Idolatry etc) and emphasized the worship of creator himself. So they viewed world both as positive and negative. They failed to see the presence of God in the creation. 6. Martyrs: The defenders of the Faith The Christians called those heroic persons who gave witness to Christ as martyrs by their sacrificial death. Tertullian said that the blood of the martyrs is seed of faith. For historical as well as liturgical significance their anniversaries were carefully observed. The ancient churches prayed for God’s continuing grace for the faithful departed but they did not pray for martyrs rather the martyrs prayed for them. a) Justin Martyr He was converted to Christianity. He wrote a book Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, where in he interpreted Old Testament prophecies which he saw fulfilled in Jesus. He wrote not only to defend the faith against persecuting governors, sceptical philosophers, and combative rabbis, but also to uphold the authentic tradition against Simon Magus followers or the adherents of Marcion and the Gnosticizing Platonist valentine. He said redemption is not from the created order but of it and within it. His teachings became important to Irenaeus. Irenaeus understanding of the faith is strongly biblical and he

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asserted the relation and the unity of the two testaments as a progressive education of humanity. b) Tertullian The most important and eloquent theologian, a lay Christian of carthage. He coined the terminology, for example, Trinitis or of Christ. In his work, Agaisnt praxeas he defended the distinctness of Son and Father. He believed in the authority of the apostolic rule of faith and scripture. c) Tatian He was the disciple of Justin. He was influential in bringing harmony between four gospels. He said that a believer must aim at perfection to which God called. He suffered reputation because of his influence on Gnostic themes. His chronographic calculations were gratefully exploited by Clement of Alexandria. d) Clement His principal achievement was his trilogy, that is (i) Protreptikos: an exhortation to conversion (ii) Paidagogos (tutor) providing a guide to ethics and etiquette (iii) Stromateis (miscellanies) here he attacked the Gnostic denial of the goodness of the created order. He was faithful to apostolic rule of faith and life. He was against eroticism in art and literature. He said wealth should be made use in the service of God and not to be possessed just as in marriage sexuality be treated as a means to an higher end rather than an end in itself. With regard to Incarnation he said that by which God does not change His will rather he wills a change in humanity. e) Origen He was a good philosopher and his character was marked by an ascetic renunciation. His work On First Principles brought him reputation. To interpret the Bible he exploited the Platonists tripartite www.ijmer.in

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division of the cosmos into matter, soul, and mind. The exegesis of Scripture by homily or commentary became his main life work. He said Father and Son are distinct realities and this view gave vehement reaction in Syria, after his death. f) Paul of samosata He became Bishop of Antioch. He said jesus was a man like all others but in him the word and wisdom of God dwelt in a unique degree. He brought many changes into liturgy and amassed wealth by exploitation, so other bishops attacked him. g) Diocletian and the rise of Constantine Roman empire collapsed in the middle decades of the third century and In 284 the Emperor Diocletian took power and reorganized the empire. He established law and order. During his reign church prospered. Later on church suffered due to schism. Afterwards Constantine came to power and he had faith in Christ. Under his rule church owned property legally. h) Arius Origen said that the father son relationship is intrinsic to the divine life. But Arius differed from Origen in seeing the coming forth of the divine word as a service to the inferior created order. He said god is beyond Jesus. During his time the title ecumenical synod was already in use. In the Synod the matters concerning the interpretation of the creed were discussed. 7. Retrospect A retrospect on the progress of the church in the two and half centuries between St.Peter and Constantine must include substantial astonishment. Christians were predominantly, world-renouncing but in the course of time they integrated the worldly values into their religion in a balanced manner. Eusebius of Caesarea discerned in rise of www.ijmer.in

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Constantine the time promised by the prophet when the earth would be full of the knowledge of God. Origen was convinced that the Gospel brought a new song to the world. Egalitarianism by which Aristocrats and their slaves shared in one and the same Eucharist was praise worthy. 8. Conclusion The study on Early Christian Community: A Study , personally enriched me and it gave me a good piece of information about the early Christian life situations. It helped me to have some historical understanding of early Christianity as well as the awareness of its problems and its strengths. References 1.

Bourgel, Jonathan (2010). "The Jewish Christians' Move from Jerusalem as a Pragmatic Choice". In Jaffé, Dan. Kaiphas: der Hohepriester jenes Jahres : Geschichte und Deutung. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-18410-4.

2.

Cook, John Granger (2011). Roman Attitudes Toward the Christians: From Claudius to Hadrian. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-150954-4.

3.

Croix, G. E. M. de Sainte (1963). "Why Were The Early Christians Persecuted?". Past and Present 26 (1): 6–38. doi:10.1093/past/26.1.6.

4.

Dunn, James (1992). Jews and Christians. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-4498-9.

5.

Durant, Will (2011). Caesar and Christ: The Story of Civilization. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-4760-0.

6.

Ehrman, Bart D. (2006). Whose Word is It?: The Story Behind Who Changed The New Testament and Why. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-9129-9.

7.

Aylor, Joan E. Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-814785-6.

8.

Thiede, Carsten Peter. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity. Palgrabe Macmillan (2003). ISBN 1-4039-6143-3.

9.

Valantasis, Richard. The Making of the Self: Ancient and Modern Asceticism. James Clarke & Co (2008) ISBN 978-0-227-17281-0.[1]

10. White, L. Michael. From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins (2004). ISBN 0-06052655-6.

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ENHANCING THE INTEREST OF STUDENTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ABAKALIKI URBAN, EBONYI STATE OF NIGERIA USING INSTRUCTIONAL SCAFFOLDING Azih Nonye Dept of Business Education Ebonyi State University Abakaliki

Nwosu B. O. Dept. of Business Education Ebonyi State University Abakaliki

Abstract This study was carried out to investigate the effects of instructional scaffolding on the interest of students in financial accounting in Abakaliki Urban of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. A pretest, posttest, control group, non randomized quasi experimental design was used in this study. The population of the study comprised all SS II students in all the secondary schools in Abakaliki Urban offering financial accounting. Four secondary schools were selected out of the fourteen secondary schools in Abakaliki offering financial accounting. Two schools were assigned to the treatment group while the other two were assigned to the control group. A total of one hundred and sixty-three (163) students offering financial accounting were used for the study. Two instructional packages were developed, one for the treatment group and the other was for the control group. The treatment group was taught using instructional scaffolding while the control group was subjected to the conventional method of teaching financial accounting. The financial accounting interest inventory was used for data collection. The data were analyzed using mean and standard deviation while the analysis of co-variance was used to test the hypothesis. Summary of result revealed that instructional scaffolding method was superior to the conventional method in improving the interest of students in financial accounting. The test of interaction showed that www.ijmer.in

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gender had no significant interaction with teaching approach on students’ mean interest. It was concluded that instructional scaffolding is a good teaching method for teaching financial accounting and the researcher recommended that financial accounting lessons should be scaffolded for effective teaching and learning. Introduction Instructional scaffolding is the role of teachers and others in supporting the learner’s development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level (Raymond, 2000). It is a teaching strategy that depends heavily on the idea that children come to any educational setting with a great deal of pre-existing knowledge some of which may be naïve or incorrect. It is the process of building on what a student already knows that makes scaffolding an effective instructional technique. Olson and Prath (2000) observed that in instructional scaffolding, a more knowledgeable other provides scaffolds to facilitate the learner’s development. The scaffolds facilitate a student’s ability to build on prior knowledge and internalize new information. The activities provided in scaffolding instruction are just beyond the level of what the learner can do alone. An important aspect of scaffolding is that the scaffolds are temporary. As the learners abilities increase the scaffolding provided by the more knowledgeable person is progressively withdrawn. Finally, the learner is able to complete the task or master the concepts independently (Chang, Sung and Uhem, 2002) Igberi 1999 defined financial accounting as the process of collecting, recording, presenting and analyzing/interpreting financial information for the users of financial statements. Financial accounting is one of the subjects studied in the senior secondary schools. It is among the subjects offered in West African School www.ijmer.in

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Certificate Examination and National Examination Council, which equips its recipients with reasonable skills that will prepare them for gainful employment. It prepares students for further study of accountancy, business education and other management courses in institutions of higher learning; and enables students prepare simple accounts of small business organizations and be able to read and interpret correctly financial statements of organizations. The poor performance of students in financial accounting is evident in the overall results of students in such examinations as the general certificate in education (G.C.E); Senior Secondary School Certificate Examinations S.S.C.E and National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB) (Ekwue, 2004). Lack of interest in financial accounting seriously affects the level of performance of the students in financial accounting. The traditional methods of teaching financial accounting such as the discussion method, demonstration method, Socratic method and project methods have been used but they seem to have failed to increase the level of interest students have in financial accounting. Okon (2002) equally believes that these traditional methods are not challenging enough to the interests of the students. Scaffolding is believed to be an effective teaching technique provided it is executed effectively. Hartman (2002) observed that research and theory suggest that the educational outcomes of scaffolding can be positive, particularly when the instructor is well prepared and aware of the theoretical basis for the technique irrespective of the gender of the students. This study therefore tries to ascertain the effects of instructional scaffolding on the interest of students in financial accounting.

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Purpose of Study The major purpose of study was to ascertain the effects of instructional scaffolding on the interest of students in financial accounting. Specifically, the study: sought to: 

Ascertain the effects of instructional scaffolding on the interest of students in financial accounting.



Determine the effects of instructional scaffolding on the interest of male and female students in financial accounting.

* Identify the interaction effect of teaching method and gender on the interest of students in financial accounting. Research Questions The study was guided by the following research questions: 

What is the effect of instructional scaffolding on the interests of students in financial accounting?



What is the effect of instructional scaffolding on the interests of male and female students?



What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on the interest of students in financial accounting?

Hypotheses The following null hypotheses, which were tested at an alpha level of 0.05, guided the study: Ho1: There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of senior secondary school students taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding and those students taught using the conventional method. Ho2:

There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of

male

and female students taught financial accounting using

instructional scaffolding. www.ijmer.in

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Ho3:

The interaction effect of gender and instructional approach on students mean interest in financial accounting will not be

significant. Methodology The study used pre-test, post-test, control group, nonrandomized quasi experimental research design. The experimental and control groups were used and there was no randomization of subjects hence intact classes were used. The population of the study comprised all SS11 students in fourteen (14) secondary schools offering financial accounting within the three local government areas in Abakaliki Urban. Four secondary schools made up of two coeducational schools, one boys school and one girls school were sampled out of the entire population. Out of the four schools sampled two of them were assigned to the treatment group while the other two were assigned to the control group. The instrument for data collection was a financial accounting interest inventory (FAII) which is a 4 point likert scale designed to measure students interest in financial accounting. The academic, leisure, vocational interests of students in financial accounting were measured. The experimental procedure was carried out as thus: Two instructional packages were developed by the researcher. The first package was based on Instructional Scaffolding method while the second package was based on traditional method. The questions were drawn from the same curriculum. At the beginning of the experiment, the subjects in both treatment and control groups were given as the pre-test. After the pre-test the regular financial accounting teachers began the experiment in their respective schools ensuring that they follow the lesson procedure developed from the instructional package during the pre-experimental training. The treatment groups were taught using the instructional package for the experimental group

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while the control groups were taught using the instructional package for the control group. This experiment lasted for six weeks and it was conducted during the normal school periods according to the school time table. The post test was administered to the subjects in the two groups at the end of the experiment. The data was collected using this procedure: At the beginning of the experiment, the FAII was administered to both treatment and control groups as pre-test. This was performed by the subject teachers. After filing the instrument, they were collected from the students. The same instrument was administered to the students at the end of the experimental period, which is six weeks. These served as post-test. The responses obtained from the pre-test and post-test were subjected to analysis using both inferential and descriptive statistics. The collected data was analyzed. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while the analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at an alpha level of 0.05. Results What is the effect of instructional scaffolding on the mean interest score of students in financial accounting This research question was answered using the data collected from the financial accounting interest inventory for the pretest and posttest results from the treatment and control group as shown in table 2:

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Table 2: Mean interest scores of male and female students taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding Group

Mean

Instructional scaffolding

55.60

Conventional method

39.80

Standard D

N

8.00

83

9.82

80

The result of the study shows that instructional scaffolding fosters higher interests in the students than the conventional method of teaching financial. The instructional scaffolding approach had a mean score of 55.6 and standard deviation of 8.00 while conventional method has a mean score of 39.80 and a standard deviation of 9.82.. What is the effect of Instructional Scaffolding on the mean interest scores of male and female students in financial accounting? The researcher in answering this question separated the financial accounting interest scores of male and female students who were taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding approach. Summary of result is presented thus: Table 2: Mean interest scores of male and female students taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding Group

N

Mean

Male

19

53.16

9.09

Female

64

56.38

7.57

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Standard Deviation

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The results of the data analysis shown in table 2 indicate that instructional scaffolding approach does not have much differential effect on the interest of male and female students. Male students had a mean of 53.16 and a standard deviation of 9.09 while female students had a mean of 56.38 and a standard deviation of 7.57. What is the interaction effect of instructional approach and gender on students mean achievement in financial accounting? The mean interest score for the male and female students that were subjected to instructional scaffolding and those subjected to conventional method were used for assessing the effect of the interaction. Summary of the result obtained is shown in below: Table 3: Interaction effect of gender and instructional approach on mean achievement of students in financial accounting Group

Male

Female

Instructional scaffolding

53.16

56.38

Conventional method

37.53

45.77

The analysis of the result as shown in table 3 shows no interaction effect of instructional approach and gender since both the mean interest scores of male and female students are higher for instructional scaffolding. Ho1: There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of male and female students taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding method and those taught using conventional method. Ho2: The interaction effect of gender and instructional approach on students mean interest in financial accounting is not significant. www.ijmer.in

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Hypotheses 1 and 2 were tested using analysis of covariance. The summary of the result is presented in table 4. Table 4: Analysis of co-variance for students’ interest scores in financial accounting based on teaching methods and gender Sources of variation Covariates

Sum Squares

of

Df

7376.056

Mean Square

F

f.cv

7376.056 1

266.227

Main effect

11260.683

2

5630.342

203.218

Methods

5141.185

1

5141.185

185.563

3.86

74.756

1

74.756

2.698

3.86

Explained

18711.495

4

4677.874

Residual

4377.536

158

27.706

Total

23089.031

162

142.525

2 way interaction (Method & Gender)

168.840

The results of ANCOVA test for hypothesis 1 show that the fcalculated value for the teaching method is 185.563 while the f-critical value is 3.86 at an alpha level of 0.05. Since the decision rule is to reject the null hypothesis when the calculated value exceeds the critical value at the given alpha level, the researcher therefore rejects the null hypothesis. The conclusion is that there is a significance difference in the mean interest of students taught financial accounting using scaffolding approach and those taught using the conventional methods. On the test of interaction between the instructional scaffolding approach and gender on students mean interest in financial accounting, the summary of result in table 4 reveals that the calculated f-value is 2.698 while the critical value is 3.86. Since the www.ijmer.in

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calculated value is less than the critical value, the researcher accepts the null hypothesis and concludes that the interaction effect of gender and instructional approach on students mean interest in financial accounting is not significant Ho3: There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of male and female students taught financial accounting using the instructional scaffolding approach. Data obtained with the interest inventory for the treatment group only was used to test this hypothesis. Summary of the result is presented in table 5: Table 5: Analysis of covariance for students’ interest in financial accounting for treatment group by gender _____________________________________________________________ Sources of

Sum ofdf

Variation

Square

Covariates

2295.067

1

2295.067

151.630

1

151.630

Explained

2446.697

2

1223.348

Residual

2804.460

80

35.056

Total

5251.157

82

64.038

Gender

Mean

f

f.Cv

Square 65.469 4.325

3.86

34.895

_____________________________________________________________ In hypothesis 3, results of ANOVA test show that the fcalculated value is 4.325 while the critical value is 3.86 at an alpha level of 0.05. The decision is to reject the null hypothesis when the calculated value is higher than the critical value at a given alpha level. The null hypothesis is rejected by the researcher and she concludes that there is significant difference in the mean interest scores of male www.ijmer.in

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and female students taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding approach. Discussion: The study found out that instructional scaffolding approach is superior to the conventional method in developing students’ interest in financial accounting. The test of significance shows that the fcalculated is greater than the f-critical value, the researcher therefore rejects the null hypothesis and concludes that there is a significant difference in the mean interest scores of students taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding and those taught using the conventional methods. The arousal of students’ interest as a result of teaching financial accounting using instructional scaffolding is in line with the view of Akaniwor (1990) who maintained that the teaching strategies to be adopted by an accounting teacher should inspire the students to seek to develop more accounting knowledge. Such strategies should create and maintain higher interest in accounting and help the students to reason very creatively. The interest scores of the female students taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding approach is a little higher than their male counterparts; the test of significance also shows a significant difference in the mean interest scores of male and female students taught financial accounting using instructional scaffolding approach. The interest of female students was greater than males because females are affectively disposed to any positive treatment that recognizes their female quality as a weaker sex. Scaffolding recognizes their weakness by providing some activities like prompts, modeling of desired behaviours, offering explanations etc. this could be the reason why their interest level was higher. This confirms the view of Dickson (1992) that variety of strategies and techniques should be used to keep students in class and avoid boredom.

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On the issue of interaction effect of Gender and Instructional Approach on students’ interest in financial accounting, the result of the data analysis on test of interaction shows no interaction between instructional approach and gender on students’ mean interest in financial accounting. The treatment administered to the male and female students on interest in financial accounting showed that both exhibited a very high measure of interest because of the instructional scaffolding approach used in teaching and learning of financial accounting. The mean interest scores are higher for instructional scaffolding approach at all levels of gender. In the test of significance the calculated f values are less than the critical values on the students mean interest in financial accounting as shown in the table. This means that both male and female students benefited equally from the instructional approach. Conclusions Instructional scaffolding is better than the conventional methods of teaching financial accounting in enhancing students’ interest in financial accounting. Female students taught using instructional scaffolding were superior in the development of interest in financial accounting than their male counterparts. Recommendations Curriculum planners should adopt instructional scaffolding as an adequate teaching method for teaching financial accounting. Workshops, seminar, and symposiums should be organized for teachers on the importance of using instructional scaffolding approach in teaching financial accounting. References 1. Abubule C. J. (1991). Development of interest in accounting. Business Education Journal, 2(2), 53-59.

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2. Akaninwor, G.I.K. (1990). Industrial education and technology in Nigeria development and current trends. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique Publishers. 3. Chang, U.Sung A. & Uhem O. (2002). The effects of concept mapping to enhance test comprehension and summarization. The Journal of Experimental Education, 71 (1), 5-23. 4. Dickson, A. K. (1992). Handbook for accounts teachers. London: Evans Brothers Ltd. 5. Ekwue, K. C. (1993). Teaching of accounting in secondary schools: An appraisal of instructional materials. Business Education Journal, III (1), 28-32. 6. Igberi, R. O. (1999). Financial accounting made simple. Lagos: ROI Publishers. 7. Hartman, H. (2002). Scaffolding and co-operative learning: Human learning and instruction. New York: College of City University Press. 8. Okon E. C. (2002). Strategies for improving students’ interest in accounting in secondary schools in Akwa Ibom /State. Unpublished M. Ed. Thesis. University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 9. Olson, J. & Prath, T. (2000). The instructional cycle: Teaching children and adolescents with special needs. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. 10. Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive characteristics learners with mild disabilities. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.

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WHAT JUSTIFIES THE PUNISHMENT? Dr. Renu Research Scholar Delhi University, Delhi Abstract Punishment, asapplied ethics issue, involves discussion of determining ‘What justifies the Punishment?’From ethical point of view, it is wrong to deliberately inflict suffering on another person, yet punishment consists in doing precisely this. Thus, the philosopher’s interest in punishment is connected with questions of justification. What kind of considerations, the philosopher asks, would count toward a justification? For example, if a person had committed a crime that would clearly be relevant to question of whether this man should be punished to say that punishing him would deter others? Or assuming that criminals ought to be punished, how should we set about deciding appropriate punishments for crimes.There are two theories of punishment, which seek to give an answer of these issues, namely Utilitarian theory and Retributive theory. By contrast,some philosophers have criticized these theories and exposed flaws in popular justification of punishment, given by supporters of these theories. Thus,this article is focusedtopresent critical analysis of theories of punishment and finally, it seeks to conclude the criteria in general system, which any particular act of punishment must satisfy. Key words: Punishment, Crime, Justice, Utilitarianism, Deterrence, Reformation, Retribution, Justification Introduction There are many social problems that can be said the reasons of conflict that we find among the people, punishment is one of them. Punishment includes mental and physical pain or suffering. The word ‘punishment’ is used in varying context. Since, there are many ways in which people www.ijmer.in

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can be punished by others for their wrong deeds. For example, when children misbehave, their parents punish them by speaking harshly to them or not giving pocket money to them. When a husband cheats on his wife, his wife can punish him by being thrown out of the house or not giving permission to meet children. When a criminal commits a crime, the punishment meted out by the state to him. However, in this article, we will be talking about only legal punishment. Definition of Punishment Every society or state determines certain rules or laws, so that citizen of the society can live together a good life. It is also expected by the citizen of the society that the person who violates these rules must be punished by state or authority. In this sense, punishment can be defined as suffering that inflicted by authority or state to that person who commits a crime or violating intentionally any state law. Many philosophers have defined crime as moral evil1and punishment is said to be the physical evil occurring as a result of that, for which human being is said to be responsible. As great philosopher, Immanuel Kant wrote, “Punishment in general is physical evil occurring from moral evil.”2 Similarly, the famous utilitarian philosopher, Jeremy Bentham said that all punishment is evil and mischief.3 It is also regarded as a means of doing justice. Professor Antony Flew has suggested five criteria for the use the word ‘punishment’ in primary sense. I.

It must involve an ‘evil, an unpleasantness, to the victim’;

II.

It must be for an offence (actual or supposed);

III.

It must be of an offender (actual or supposed);

IV.

It must be the work of personal agencies (i.e. not merely the natural consequences of an action);

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V.

It must be imposed by authority (real or supposed), conferred by the system of rules against which the offence has been committed.4

Thus, it is clear from above discussion that Kant and Bentham have defined punishment as an evil, whereas Professor Flews’ analysis of the word ‘punishment’ has suggested that punishment must be imposed by the authority to an offender for violating legal law. Theories of Punishments From ethical point of view, the main question about punishment is ‘What justifies the punishment?’ To answer this question, philosophers have propounded various theories that are called theories of punishment. They are normative theories, telling us how criminal ought to be treated, but they do not tell us why crimes are committed. They state the condition under which punishment is said to be justified and that provides the basis for assessing the correct punishment.5 From these theories of punishment, two are noticeable i.e. Utilitarian Theory and Retributive Theory. 1. Utilitarian Theory Utilitarian theory is future oriented, that is, it looks forward to consequences that might occur from punishing someone. According to this theory, punishment is not good in itself (apart from consequences). On the contrary, it is an evil since it causes unhappiness or suffering as it deprives offenders of something they value - their freedom (imprisonment), some of their money (when they are fined) or even their life (capital punishment). Punishment is justifiable if and only if this is done to uphold the greatest amount of happiness for allparticipants in the society. Famous utilitarian philosopher Bentham said:

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All punishment is mischief: all punishment in itself is evil. Upon the principle of utility, if it ought only to be admitted in as far as it promises to exclude some greater evil.6 Thus, utilitarianism justifies the punishment solely in terms of its good consequences outweigh the evil involved. It states that punishment is justified if by punishing offenders we can prevent them from repeating their crime or deter potential offenders from committing similar crimes. The main function of punishment is to reduce crime and to do general welfare of the society.7 Form purpose point of view, utilitarian view of punishment can be classified into two categories as follows: - 1. Deterrence theory, 2.Reformative theory. 1.1 Deterrence Theory ‘Deterrence’ word comes from Latin word deterrere or ‘frighten from’. It means literally discouraging or restraining somebody by fear from some course of action. According to this theory, the purpose of the punishment is to deter others from committing similar future crimes. A criminal is punished to make an example of ‘to deter others’ from committing same offences. If punishment could deter people or former criminals from committing future crimes, it would be worthwhile. The assumption behind this view is that if people see or hear of offenders being punished for crimes they have committed, then they themselves will be deterred from committing any future crime. A well-known maxim expresses deterrence theory, as “you are not punished for stealing sheep, but in order that sheep may not be stolen”. This theory justifies capital punishment because of its deterrent effects. A man, who has taken life of another man, ought to be deprived of his life. The supporters of this theory are Jeremy Bentham, Cesare Beccaria, H. L. A. Hart and Van Den Haag etc.It seems that they hold that www.ijmer.in

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considerations of social utility are the primary justification of punishment. However, it is noticeable that there are several problems with the deterrence theory, which need consideration. First, in most legal systems only those who have broken any society’s law or criminal law are punishable. Bututilitarians (who supports deterrence theory) state that the main purpose of the punishment is to secure the general welfare by deterring others from committing crimes, but it can be possible that the general welfare will be served by punishing an innocent person, who has not committed any crime. So this theory would justify to punishing an innocent person, since this punishment would serve to deter others from similar crimes just as well as would punishing a person who was really guilty of committed such a crime. For example, a little girl has been raped and the public is highly outraged by this crime. The public’s cry for justice could be satisfied by punishing the wrong person as well as right one, and then according to this theory, to punish an innocent person would be right. However, from moral point of view, of course, we should not punish innocent for crimes of others because it is unjust or unfair to use any person as means for the benefit of the society. Similarly, it might be possible that the general welfare is promoted by punishing people excessively- since a greater punishment in response to small crime, have a greater deterrent effect, and then this theory would justify it. However, it should be considerable here that first, to give someone greater punishment in response to his small crime is the violation of justice. Second, the question arises that ‘Does punishment of someone really deter others from committing crimes?’ It can be said here that there is no conclusive proof or evidence that punishment of someone deters anyone else from committing similar crimes. Statistical studies are showing time to time that there is no discernible difference

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with regard to homicide rates between countries that have abolished capital punishment and those that have it is in use. Moreover, it also seems unjust to punish someone for deterrence because it is morally wrong to use a person as a means to an end. Since, criminal is also a person and every person has its own value. Although, many philosophers have criticized to punish someone as a means to an end, Kant was the one, who strongly opposed to that. He argued that a person should be punished if only and only if he deserves, it is not for he should be ‘made an example of’ or ‘to deter others’. To punish any person for deterrence is to use him as a means to an end (welfare of the society), but no person should be used merely as a means to an end. It is worth to quote his famous lines:Judicial punishment ….can never be inflicted simply and solely as a means to forward a good, other than itself, whether…of the criminal, or of civil society; but it must at all times be inflicted on him, for no other reason than because he has acted criminally. A man can never be treated simply as a means for realizing the view of another man….He must, first of all, be found to be punishable, before there is even a thought of deriving from the punishment any advantage for himself or his fellow-citizens.8 Thus, it can be said that Kant might argue that consideration of utility or proper balance between benefits and obedience may serve as secondary justification of punishment while justice or desert should be the primary justification of punishment. 1.2 Reformative Theory The word ‘Reformation’ implies a change of character and moral disposition. According to this theory, the purpose of the punishment for wrongdoer is to reform and rehabilitate them, so that they do not www.ijmer.in

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commit the same offence and any other in future. It states that punishment is justifiable only when it makes offender a better person and therefore a better member of the society. A well-designed system of punishment might have the effect of rehabilitate criminals. Criminals often commit crimes because of unusual circumstances or with emotional problems, who find it difficult to function well in society. They are often ill educated and unable to hold down jobs. Considering this, we should respond to crime by attacking the problems that give rise to it. It should be noted that this theory admits that if a person commits any crime or break society’s rules, should first be imprisoned, but it also emphasizes on rehabilitation of that criminal, that is, while he is there, his problems should be addressed with psychological therapy, job training, educational opportunities, as appropriate. So that he can eventually be returned to society as a productive citizen, rather than a criminal, both he and society will benefit.9 Indian thinkers, Mahatma Gandhi and Vinoba bhave also supported this theory. Gandhi was not in favor of punishment. He said ‘condemn the sin, not the sinner.’ According to him, the solution to crime problem is not counter-violence; it is not danda but prāyaścitta. He stresses that non-violence is the most effective way to tackle offenders. The path of ahimsa is found to be most effective in treatment of such people who are cruel, criminal and as commit crimes.10 Thus, it can be said that the supporters of this theory believe that less frequent use of imprisonment, attempt to use prison as training rather than a pure punishment, parole and providing educational training should be the aim of punishment in prison. Prison can reform criminal with the moral re-education of them. However, many philosophers have simply rejected reformative theory as a primary theory of punishment. Friedrich Paulsen said that the reform of a convict by education is not included in the purpose of www.ijmer.in

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punishment as such.11 According to H. L. A. Hart, reform can only have a place within a system of punishment as an exploitation of the opportunities presented by conviction or compulsory detention, but it is not an alternative general justifying aim.12 Moreover, we cannot deny this fact that reformation can work out on only those people who can be reformed or want to reform themselves, but there are some people who cannot be reformed like hardcore criminals, highly educated and professional criminals. Nevertheless, it can be said here that these criticism cannot be said correct in all cases. Sometimes a person commits a crime due to certain unavoidable circumstances, and then we have to take decision according to that and give him a chance to reform himself by training in prison. We all are familiar with the cases in which unskilled and uneducated criminals have developed skills in prison, which transformed them into useful citizens. Thus, it would be unjust to consider the noble concept of retributive theory as a total failure. 2. Retributive Theory ‘Retributive’ word is derived from the Latin verb re + tribere means ‘again to give’. As a transitive verb, it means‘to give in return’ or ‘to retaliate against person’ and ‘to repay’.13Earlier, legal system is grounded in vengeance and retaliation. ‘An eye for an eye and Tooth for Tooth’ is an example of this attitude. However, new reform form of retributive theory is based on justice, right and desert concepts. According to this theory, punishment is justified only if a person really deserves and only to the extent that it is deserved. The offender deserves to be punished because of his wrong deeds and no any consideration such as social utility relevant to punishment outweighs the offenders. F.H. Bradley, Immanuel Kant and Hegel etc. support this theory.

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Retributivism sees punishment good in itself because justice requires it. According to retributivist, offender should be punished for two reasons. First, to reestablish the balance of morality, that is disturbed when someone violates the law. Since, certain laws are established by state in order to achieve a balance in society between individual rights and welfare of the society, when crime is committed, this balance is disturbed and punishment is the only way to correct this balance. Second, for justice because justice demands that guilty should be punished. Retributive theory is concerned with past rather than the future, that is, the punishment should be imposed solely “because of” a person has committed a crime rather than, as opposed to utilitarian, “in order to” do general welfare of the society such as deter offensive behavior in society. F.H. Bradley states this point of view when he said: Punishment is punishment, only where it is deserved. We pay the penalty, because we owe it, and for no other reason; and if punishment is inflicted for any other reason whatever than because it is merited by wrong, it is a gross immorality, a crying injustice, in abominable crime, and not what it pretends to be.14 Similarly, Immanuel Kant, supporter of retributivism, regards punishment as a matter of justice. He says that, if guilty are not punished, justice is not done.15 For Kant, it is categorical imperative, which requires people to act on the maxims only if they can be universalized and made to apply as a universal law.16 He sees punishment as the right of society to inflict evil on a person who commits a crime or wrongdoing.17 It is perfect duty of justice to intentionally inflict pain on an offender without considering him as a mere means to an end. He admits that guilt is a sufficient condition for

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justifying punishment. He states that punishment should be governed by two principles:1. People should be punished only because they have committed a crime or they really deserve that punishment. 2. Punishment should always be proportional to the gravity of the offense. Small punishments may suffice for small crimes, but big punishments are necessary for heinous crimes. He says:But what is the mode and measure of punishment which public justice takes as its principle and standard? It is just the principle of equality, by which the pointer of the scale of justice is made to incline no more to the one side than to the other….Hence it may be said: “If you slander another, you slander yourself; if you steal from another, you steal from yourself; if you strike another, you strike yourself; If you kill another, you kill yourself.” This is ….the only principle which…can definitely assign both the quality and the quantity of a just penalty.18 Thus, it can be said that retributive theory shows respect for people by treating them, as they deserve to be treated. The retributivist refuses to consider the beneficial consequences of punishment for justification. They state that punishment treats people as ends in themselves. It is justified because wrongdoers deserve to suffer for what they have done. It is why this theory is also called retrospective, that is, it looks only to the crime, whereas utilitarianism is called prospective because it looks to the beneficial consequences of punishment as its justification rather than to the facts. In all these respect, the retributive theory seems to be superior to utilitarian theory. However, various objections have been raised against this theory. First, the retributive theory allows criminals to be punished without reference to the consequences of punishment. This www.ijmer.in

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theory focuses on what had happened but does not on what has to be done in future for prevention of crimes. But it should be noted here that the state has function to protect its citizen and punishment is an instrument for such protection. Thus, object of punishment is not only punishing criminal but to prevent the crime in future also and retributivist fails to consider criminal law’s future direction. They do not rely on the consequences of punishment to justify it. Second, if we accept the retributive theory, the case for punishing the offender becomes unclear. For example, retributivist claims that offender deserves to suffer for his past acts. But suppose someone who already suffer either as a result of their crime or independently of it, for example a criminal breaks his hand in the course of committing crime, then moral question arises that ‘should the state make them suffer more by giving punishment?’ Again, it might be argued that if a person, who committed crime, is old and sick and deserves capital punishment or life imprisonment, then critics of retributivism could ask ‘should not his age be considered to decide his punishment?’19 Moreover, the retributivist states that the general rule of punishment is ‘the more serious the crime, the more severe the punishment.’ But the problem is ‘how can one determine which crimes are serious and which punishments are the most severe?’ People differ in these issues. For example, some people feel that life imprisonment is the severe punishment for murder, while others strongly urge the capital punishment. The answer of the question ‘which is most deserved?’ is not clearly given by the retributivist. Thus, retributivists have failed to elaborate any guidelines or principles for proportionate punishment that makes difficult task for law- makers to measure punishment for crimes.

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Conclusion As we have seen in above discussion that utilitarian and retributive, both theories have advantages as well as disadvantages and difficulties exist if we try to apply them singly to the problem of punishment. Hence, it can be said that all theories of punishment are partially correct according to the situations and perhaps a compromise or a synthesis might work for the moral justification of punishment. From the retributive theory, we could consider that only those who have voluntarily broken the law and deserve punishment, should be punished and that their punishment must ‘fit to crime’, that is, proportionate to the gravity of the offense, not excessive. From deterrence theory (utilitarian), we could adopt that the goal of punishment is to prevent or reduce crime. If we consider another utilitarian theory, reformation, we could adopt the humanistic view that we must reform or rehabilitate criminals in prison by re-education or providing job training, so that would become better person. Thus, it can be concluded that deterrence, reformation and retribution or justice, all three purposes actually justifies punishment together and synthesis of punishment theory might work out if we organized it carefully.If we punish those who voluntarily breached any state law, and we punish them in order to prevent them from repeating their offences or to deter potential offender, and in prison, we provide training program for their rehabilitation, then it can be said that we are not use them unfairly and doing justice with both victims and offenders. Hence, it can be said that this should only be the criteria in general penal system, which any particular act of punishment must satisfy.Although, we cannot deny this fact that sometimes to reform an offender is not possible, and we have to give capital punishment to that person for deterrence effect or because he really deserves this punishment such as for terrorism, though if,as far as possible, we can

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follow the synthesis (that has been mentioned above) of punishment theories to decide punishment of any offender, then we must do that. References 1.

“Moral Evil is the result of any morally negative event caused by the intentional action of an agent. It consists in voluntary violation of moral law. An example of a moral evil might be murder, terrorism or any other evil event for which someone can be held responsible or culpable.”See ‘Moral Evil’ at hptts://en.m.wikipedia.org.; Access date 5-5-16.

2. Kant, Immanuel, “Lecture on Ethics” in Approaches to Ethics, ed. W.T. Tones Fredrick Sonata, Morton O. Becker, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1969, p. 290. 3. Bentham, Jeremy, Introduction to principals of Morals and Legislation, ed. W. Harrison, 1948, Ch. XIII, Sec. I & 2, p. 281. 4. Flew, A., “Justification of Punishment” in The Philosophy of Punishment, ed. H.B. Acton, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., 1969, pp. 85-86. 5. Ten, C. l., “Crime and Punishment”, in Companion to Ethics, ed. Peter singer, Blackwell, London, 1990, p. 366. 6. Bentham, Jeremy, Introduction to Principles of Moral and Legislation, p. 281. 7. Ten, C. l., “Crime and Punishment”, p. 366. 8. Kant, Immanuel, The Metaphysical Elements of Justice, Trans. John Ladd, The Macmillan Publication company, London, 1965, p. 100. 9. Rachels, James, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Fourth Edition, 1996, p. 135. 10. Tantinen, Unto,Non-Violent Theories of Punishment: Indian and Western, Motilal Banarsidass Publication, Delhi, 1983, Ch.-V, pp. 47-56. 11. Paulsen, Friedrich, A System of Ethics, Trench & Trubner Co., London, 1899, p. 611.

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12. Hart, H. A. L., Punishment and Responsibility, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968, p. 26. 13. Tantinen, Unto,Non-Violent Theories of Punishment: Indian and Western, p. 74. 14. Bradley, H. Francis, Ethical Studies, Oxford University Press, London, 1927, pp. 26-27. 15. Rachels, James, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, p. 138. 16. It seems that for Kant, categorical imperative should be true of criminals in negative version. The justification of punishment, as it emerges in this argument, requires that the criminal’s maxim be universalized and applied to him. If he kills, his killing should be universalized and applied to him.- See Fletcher, George P., “Punishment and Responsibility”, in A companion to philosophy of Law and Legal Theory, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Second edition, 2010, Ch. 36, p. 517. 17. Murphy, Jeffrie G., “Does Kant Have a Theory of Punishment?” in Columbia law review: 37, 1987, p. 520. 18. Rachels, James, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, p. 137. 19. Ten, C. l., “Crime and Punishment”, in Companion to Ethics, p. 368.

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EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH DWCRA SCHEME Dr.R.Raghupathi Reddy Lecturer in Political Science Government Degree College Pattikonda “You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of its women” - Jawaharlal Nehru “No country can ignore prosper if it ignore the prosper of women” - Swami Vivekananda

Abstract From the point of view of the poor themselves, their involvement in and ownership of a successful institution enhances the collective strength and empowerment that come with organization. Poverty is characterized by vulnerability , powerlessness and dependency as well as by lack of income. Collective organization and ownership of wealth – the capital fund and thus of a significant economic and social structure, both address the psychological consequences of being poor and challenged the wider structures of society. INTRODUCTION : The present paper deals with empowerment of women through DWCRA (Development of Women and Children in Rural Area) scheme about 75% of our country’s population live in rural areas and of them nearly 50% are women. Most of this women folk is uneducated. But there is an important place to be filled up by the women in the financial matters of the family. As it is becoming more hard to load a family, there is need for the women also to earn. There is lot of efficiency, dedication and integrity in the women force. We have to tap such forces for the overall development of the society in general and the family in particular, there should be co-operation and co-ordination between the ruled and rulers. www.ijmer.in

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DWCRA is undoubted by a born in the rural areas through which the govt. is providing professional training and financial are instance to the uneducated women and the interested the govt. is providing all these through the centers and showing a way for self employment to women by this the women is able to have benefits and along with it, she is also providing employment to some other women. All the rural development programmes planned by the govt. will be processed through these DWCRA groups. Govt. provides the loan facilities to these groups in the lowest interest rate of 3% per anum. Activities connected with women welfare, child education, health, family planning etc.. are to be looked after through these groups. Revival of small scale industries is possible only through DWCRA groups. The products of DWCRA groups can be marketed directly without any mediation. NABARD is also assisting these groups financially. In my point of view, if more number of women come forward and take part in these groups, no doubt in the coming days, the women empowerment become a reality. GOVERNMENT’S SUPPORT : Government of Andhra Pradesh has taken up the theme of women’s empowerment as one of the main agenda items to tackle Rural Poverty and Socio-economic issues. Self help movement through thrift and savings has been taken up as a mass movement by the women – a path chosen by the women to shape their future destiny. Development Agenda of the state in the last few years has been to place the poor, especially women in the forefront formation of a large number of Self Help Groups throughout the length and breadth of the state. There are more than 40 lakh women from poor families of these groups, majority of them saving one rupee a day. State Government is consciously making a effort to assist these Revolving Fund under DWCRA. www.ijmer.in

Self Help Groups by providing

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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES : DWCRA recognizes that banks do not cater to the consumption needs of rural women, hence they selected ‘Thrift and Credit ’, for self reliance. 

Improving the status and quality of life of poor women and children in the rural areas.



A unique feature of DWCRA, unlike other IRDP components, was that along with the improvement in income, it also focused on access to health, education, safe drinking water, sanitation and nutrition.



Improving the impact of ongoing development programmes by stimulating, supplementing, strengthening and integrating them.



Involving the community in planning and implementing the programmes so that need based development activity will be carried on by the communities even after outside assistant is withdrawn.



Employment of rural talk.

It is also necessary that the women who were beneficiaries of DWCRA should know about its aims and objectives in order for it to work effectively and smoothly. The present investigation was carried out to assess the knowledge of beneficiaries regarding different perspectives of DWCRA. Success of DWCRA groups depend on 1. Groups of women in poverty with a purpose. 2. Savings as an entry point for the members to get together. 3. Democratically managed and collectively managed and collective decision making groups. 4. Least dependence on external marketing support.

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DISTRICT WISE DETAILS OF SHG’s AND MEMBERS 2014-15

Sl.

District Name

No. of SHG’s

No. of SHG Members

No. 1.

CHITTOR

62,800

6,20,747

2.

SRIKAKULAM

37,051

4.16.548

3.

PRAKASAM

51,165

5,01,804

4.

VISAKHAPATNA

35,950

3,95,543

M 5.

KRISHNA

56,670

5,75,814

6.

KURNOOL

43,289

4,50,078

7.

VIZIANAGARAM

28,498

3,16,076

8.

ANANTAPUR

52,053

5,45,703

9.

KADAPA

34,002

3,28,628

10.

GUNTUR

59,657

6,04,737

11.

NELLORE

35,707

3,62,962

12.

WEST GODAVARI

59,728

5,83,192

13.

EAST GODAVARI

79,642

7,85,304

SUB TOTAL

6,71,289

68,71,178

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SHG BANK LINKAGE 2014-15 DISTRICTWISE TARGET & ACHIEVEMENT REPORT UPTO MARCH-2015 Sl.No.

District Name

Year target 2014-15 No. of

Amount

SHGs

Total Limits No. of

Amount

SHGs

Achievement % % of

% for

SHGs

Amount

1.

CHITTOR

43837

1777.43

39336

1513.2

90.00

85.00

2.

SRIKAKULAM

24098

735.77

17434

476.81

72.00

65.00

3.

PRAKASAM

30127

933.28

16989

539.67

56.00

58.00

4.

VISAKHAPAT NAM

17806

580.92

9749

312.8

55.00

54.00

5.

KRISHNA

28783

1036.67

15830

553.53

55.00

53.00

6.

KURNOOL

24663

712.00

13837

372

56.00

52.00

7.

VIZIANAGARA M

16958

476.09

7991

215.48

47.00

45.00

8.

ANANTAPUR

34132

1160.66

16158

516.11

47.00

44.00

9.

KADAPA

20974

696.00

8576

273.79

41.00

39.00

10.

GUNTUR

25174

808.46

9947

309.52

40.00

38.00

11.

NELLORE

22435

668.90

7711

231.68

34.00

35.00

12.

WEST GODAVARI

32754

1130.96

10105

328.24

31.00

29.00

13.

EAST GODAVARI

38233

1240.25

10990

352.22

29.00

28.00

SUB TOTAL

359974

11957.40

184653

5998.04

51.00

50.00

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STATUS OF SHG’s IN ANDHRA PRADESH 2014-2015  Total SHG’s in the state

671289

 No. of women covered

68,71,178

 Women saving ( Crores )

193.30

 Government Assistance (Crores)

12.00

 Total Corpus (Crores)

205.30

 Groups formed in 2014-15

2,410

 Groups to be formed by 2015-16

1,442

 Groups formed upto September 2014

1,224

REASONS BEHIND SUCCESS OF DWCRA IN A.P. : Generally, many of the poverty alleviation programs initiated by the GOI were seen to lack people's involvement. Authorities from government departments visited the rural areas just before the programs were launched, and announced the details of the programs. Though the media publicized them too, the rural poor, who were the target groups of the programs, remained largely unaware of them because of the low media penetration in rural areas. Generally, the non government organizations (NGOs) which worked in the rural areas, informed them about the programs. However, it was a different story in AP. There the state government acted as a catalyst in bringing about a change in the lives of the rural women by empowering them through the DWCRA groups. Impact of DWCRA : According to reports, DWCRA has had a very positive impact on the lives of the rural women. According to a study undertaken by the government, DWCRA women were able to provide an additional income to their families. This improved the standard of living of the families and reduced their dependence on money lenders to a great extent. It was also reported that www.ijmer.in

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women who were members of DWCRA were aware of the need for immunization and were open to ideas such as family planning, and education of the girl child Empowering women : 'Export orders for the pickles produced by DWCRA group.' 'Export order from South Africa worth Rs 0.8 million' - these were just two of the success stories of the Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) groups in the southern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh (AP). While DWCRA's success was attributed to many factors, analysts felt that the government had played an important role in the success of the movement. The involvement of several corporates, too was responsible for making the program successful. The benefits of DWCRA were many. The microfinance available through DWCRA helped rural women start income generating activities.

Not only that, women were also becoming more aware of their rights and more socially responsible. According to newspaper reports, DWCRA had made rural women realize the importance of education. The number of girls going to schools also increased due to this awareness. However, not all were convinced about the success of the DWCRA program. Some analysts were critical about the role played by the government. They felt that the government was using DWCRA as a political weapon rather than to change the lives of the rural poor. They also pointed out that lack of training and failure to adapt to industry's needs, would lead to the inevitable failure of some of the DWCRA-groups. In spite of all these criticisms, it was generally accepted that the DWCRA program had been successful in bringing about much needed change and awareness among the rural women. INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES PURSUED BY WOMEN www.ijmer.in

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GROUPS                                     

Farm Sector : Agriculture Land development Horticulture Floriculture Sericulture Permaculture Minor Irrigation Borewells with Pumpsets Inwell Bores Filter points with pumpsets Dug wells with oil engines Non-Farm Sector Value Addition to Primary Sector Value addition to milk and its products Pickles Manufacturing and other household consumption items Tailoring and Readymade Garments Construction technology Adda leaf plate making etc.. Screen printing Bakery, Flour mill , Papad making Handloom sector Sericulture sector Restaurant, Super Bazaars etc.. Service sector Drying technology for fruits, vegetables, fish, prawns etc.. Agro industries for jams, squashes etc.. Floriculture Transport sector activities Automobile mechanics Multipurpose mechanics Animal Husbandry Dairy Development – Milk Animals Sheep Rearing Poultry Development Duck rearing Fisheries Pisciculture

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EFFORTS FOR CAPACITY BUILDING Sustainability flow of additional monthly incomes to the DWCRA families is motivating the groups to work as a cohesive entity.Regular meetings of the members, effective leadership, democratic and transparent functioning, efficient financial management and recovery of revolving fund and loans, accessing institutional credit by providing their credit worthiness, improved skills and technologies through training and capacity building exercise is taken up for sustaining the groups interests. A training and Technology Development Centre (TTDC) is also planned in each district to study the existing potential of skills, assess the need for new technologies and to train the youth to acquire new skills. There is a need to expose women to modern food processing and packaging technology. Improving designs and making raw material available providing marketing support to promote women’s income generating activities is recognized. Training for capacity building of the women is taken up by organizing training in Mahila Pranganams and other local institutions. There members of a group are usually neighbors, friends and fellow workers. The savings groups provide an opportunity for social interaction. Under new Co-operative Societies Act,1995, name Andhra Pradesh Mutually Aided Co-operative Societies Act, local groups promoted by Voluntary Agencies came together to poor their funds and their expertise and to facilitate intermediation between Savers and Borrowers and beyond the local communities. CONCLUSIONS With the support from the Government of Andhra Pradesh, the rural women have now transformed their lives into full time and active entrepreneurs with lot of hope and are able to lead a life with self-esteem. Once they were passive recipients of Government’s doles, but now they are www.ijmer.in

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active participants and stakeholders in the programmes. They have risen to the levels of ‘self-management ’. They have realized the importance of their numbers and have become capable of asking for their rights/entitlements like equal wages, better working condition, health, education, nutrition for their children etc.. Thus DWCRA has become a powerful tool in bringing women together, in the remote rural areas and thus helped to emancipate the once mute sufferers in silence, to march forward towards collective community progress/development, on a substantial basis. References 1. AP Mahila Abhyudaya Society,

2001,

Secondary Self

Help

Institutions, its strategy, Hyderabad, AP.PP-10-20 2. Kumar, KG, 1999, Rural Credit and Self Help Groups, Micro finance Needs and Concerns in India, Sage Publications, New Delhi.PP-3039 3. NABARD, 2014, Focus Paper, Andhra Pradesh, Regional Office, Hyderabad.PP-43-48 4. Puhalendi, 2000, Study of Self Help Groups in Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh, NABARD, Head Office, Mumbai.PP-32-43 5. Economic survey of India 2012-2014.PP-51-59

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EMPLOYEE PRODUCTIVITY OF INDIAN COMMERCIAL BANKS DURING 2001-02 TO 2012-13 V. Krupa Vani Head Department of Commerce VSR and NVR College, Tenali

Abdul Noorbasha Professor Dept. of Commerce & Business Administration Acharya Nagarjuna University,Guntur

S.M. Reddy Post-Doctoral Fellow Department of Economics Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Abstract Indian government has undertaken a process of regulatory reform to bring about market discipline in the usage of inputs and to increase the employee productivity in baking industry. Banks, just like any other firm, need to transform inputs into outputs at an efficient rate in order to maximize productivity and to survive under competitive conditions. In this situation, for survival and growth management in banks is adopting different strategies to improve employee productivity. The focus of this paper is the estimation employee productivity in the Indian banking sectors. To analyze the employee productivity of the banks six parameter like deposits, advances, total business, total income, total expenses and net profit are selected and statistical tools like average, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, Herfindahl– Hirschman Index and statistical tests like t-test and sign test have been used for analyzing the data. The time period selected for the study is 2001-02 to 2012-13.

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Introduction Productivity defined as the relationship between physical output of one or more of the associated physical inputs used in production. When single input is used to measure productivity, it is called ‘factor productivity’ (Kopelman, 1986). Productivity is the ratio of output produced by per unit of input (Ahuja, 2006). Productivity is the goods and services produced per unit of labour, capital or both. The ratio of output to labour and capital is a total productivity measure. In simple words, Productivity is the output per unit of input employed (Vivek, 2013).The basic formula of productivity is often used as a traditional measure of productivity in the banking sector is productivity = (output/inputs). Higher the output per unit of input, higher is the productivity (RBI, 2008). Productivity is the measure of how well resources are brought together in the organization for accomplishing a set of results”. Productivity is the combination of efficiency and effectiveness (Mali,1978). In the present changing economic scenario, the importance of productivity analysis has assumed a crucial significance for the viability of banks. The productivity analysis may be said as an evaluative activity of the performance of an organization (Ahmed. 2014). Productivity measures can perform as principal indicator for evolving strengths or weaknesses of the banking system and may enable the policy makers and regulators to take appropriate steps as and when necessary (Kumar &Dalip, 2014). In this present research paper made an attempt to analyze the productivity performance of banks in India on the basis of Employee Productivity. The variables selected for the study are Deposits, Advances, Total Business, Expenditure, Income and Net Profit. To analyse the productivity performance of banks with the above indicators over the period 2001-02 to 2012-13 Mean productivity,

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Standard Deviation (SD), Coefficient of Variation (CV) and Herfindahl– Hirschman Index (HHI) are calculated. The time period was divided into 4 sub-periods viz. time period-1 (2001-02 to 2003-04), time period-2 (2004-05 to 2006-07), time period-4 (2007-08 to 2009-10) and time period-3 (2010-11 to 2012-13) for the purpose of our study. Overall average included over the period 2001-02 to 2012-13. Review of literature Angadi and Devraj (1983) measured productivity of Indian banks for the period 1970-80. The results indicated that the productivity of the banking system as a whole witnessed a considerable decline during the years 1970-75. The results found that in the case of foreign banks, the productivity was always higher than other bank groups. Ramamoorthy (1997) measured the productivity of Indian commercial banks for the period 1991 to 1996 using business per employee as the measure of productivity. The results showed that productivity for the whole banking system had gone up during the postreform period (1992-96). This prime position was taken over by private sector in the year 1995-96. He observed that the productivity figures of new private sector banks and foreign banks were incomparable with others due to their limited network, class banking character and fully automated conditions Kumbhakar&Sarkar

(2003)

analyzed

the

relationship

between deregulation and total factor productivity (TFP) growth in the Indian banking industry using a generalized shadow cost function approach. TFP growth is decomposed into a technological change, a scale, and a miscellaneous component. Private sector banks have improved their performance mainly due to the freedom to expand output, public sector banks have not responded well to the deregulation measure. www.ijmer.in

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Kumar & Sreeramulu (2007) in their study made comparison of the employee productivity and employee cost ratios between the traditional banks and modern banks from 1997 to 2008. The study concludes that the performance of the modern banks (foreign and new private sector banks) was much superior to the traditional banks (public sector and old private sector banks). Sanya l& Shankar (2011) investigated the effect of ownership and competition on Indian bank productivity since the 1991 reforms. The results find that Indian private banks dominate the public and foreign banks both in terms of productivity levels and productivity growth, with the new Indian private banks leading the charge. Singh & Kamlesh (2013) focused in this paper is the estimation employee productivity in the Indian banking sectors. While comparing the 11 year’s data from 2002 to 2012 on productivity factors, it was observed that the performance of the private banks on all the eight variables has shown an increasing trend. From the financial year 2001-02 to 2005-06 the performance of new private sector bank is better than old private sector bank regarding selected productivity indicators but after 2005-06 the old private sector banks compete with the new private sector banks and perform better than new private sector banks. Gupta &Kaur (2013) analyzed the productivity performance of public sector banks in India on the basis of Employee Productivity and Branch Productivity. Based on the findings the banks are divided into four categories i.e. excellent, good, fair and poor for the period under study. Finally, appropriate policy suggestions are made for improvement of productivity in public sector banks in India. Bhatia&Mahendru (2014) were evaluated and compared the productivity performance of the banks in India. All the public sector, private sector and foreign sector banks in India constitute the sample of www.ijmer.in

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the study. The results show that foreign sector banks have the highest average for all the productivity parameters. The average for all these parameters is next highest for private sector banks (PVBs) whereas public sector banks (PSBs) have the lowest average. Need for study Indian

banking

system

has

experienced

a

significant

transformation since last twenty years after the implementation financial reforms. From the early 1970s through the late 1980s, the role of market forces in the Indian banking system was almost missing due to industry was heavily controlled by the State. Banks were subjected to a large number of limitations by regulators. The high degree of regulation and government control, banks were lost flexibility in their operations, and consequently experienced a fall in productivity. To overcome the financial repression structural reforms were initiated by the Government in the early 1990s. Strengthening of regulatory framework for ensuring financial stability and improvement of productivity of banking industry is the core agenda of the RBI and GOI. Therefore, any attempt to evaluate the productivity of commercial banks in India will assist in policy making and enable the bank’s management to improve the way in which they allocate and use resources in the production process. In this context it would be appropriate to conduct analysis to measure precisely the performance of Indian banking as more than two decade shave elapsed in the liberalization era in terms of employee productivity. With this in mind, we outline the objectives of the present study.

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Objectives 1. To analyses the financial performance in terms of employee productivity of Indian commercial bank groups. 2. To examine the differences between Public Sector Banks and Non Public sector Bank groups in terms of productivity. Hypothesis H0: The employee productivity ratios do not differ significantly between the Public Sector Banks and Non Public sector Bank groups. Methodology The study is mainly based on secondary data obtained from the annual report of various banks. The relevant data have been collected from various issues from IBA annual publications. Productivity ratios, CV analysis, Herfindahl - Hirshman Index, paired t –test and sign test are employed along with descriptive statistics for data analysis. Sample Banks Banking Industry of India consists of the following segments presented in below table. This categorization taken from IBA annual report published for public sector banks, private sector banks and foreign sector banks. In each group banks those included have been operating continuously since 2001 and banks those discontinued have not been considered for the present study. The sample banks for the study Sl. No

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Sample group

No. of Banks

1

Nationalized Banks

19

2

State Bank of India

1

3

State Bank Associates

5

4

Total State Bank Group

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5

Total Public Sector Banks

25

6

Old Private Sector Banks

13

7

New Private sector Banks

7

8

Total Private Sector Banks

20

9

Foreign Banks in India

23

Again the sample bank groups of the study divided in to 2 categories purposively i.e., public sector bank groups and non-public bank groups. Public

Non-public

Nationalised Banks

Old Private Sector Banks

State Bank of India

New Private sector Banks

State Bank Associate Banks

Total Private Sector Banks

Total State Bank Group

Foreign Banks in India

Total Public Sector Banks

Total non- Public Sector Banks

Results and discussion Deposits per Employee: Table-1 shows the data relating to the average productivity of deposits per employee. The overall average of all banks in India under study was Rs. 507.65 lakhs. The overall average productivity of deposits per employee varies between Rs. 157.39 lakhs and Rs. 604.90 lakhs. The value of CV was one percent and 3125.67 was HHI. The high average productivity of deposits per employee was observed in foreign banks in India, new private sector banks, total private sector banks and nationalized banks.

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In foreign banks in India the average productivity of deposits per employee was Rs. 529.87 lakhs during the period 2001-2003. This amount represented an increasing trend during the study period and reached up to Rs.1019.38 lakhs. The overall average amount during the study period was Rs. 697.82 lakhs. The value of CV was 33 percent and 2705.99 was HHI value. In case of new private sector banks average productivity of deposits per employee was Rs. 543.15 lakhs during the period 2001-2003. In the next periods the amount represented a mixed trend the study period. The overall average amount during the study period was Rs. 5266 lakhs. In total private sector banks average productivity of deposits per employee amount was Rs. 289.53 lakhs. This amount showed an increasing trend during the study period and went upto Rs. 532.74 lakhs during the study period. The overall average amount was Rs. 416.07 lakhs. The CV was 25 percent and 2607.22 HHI value.In the table it is observed that the banks such as state bank of India, total state bank group, old private sector banks and state bank associate banks were obtained low amount of average productivity of deposits per employee during the study period. In state bank of India is average productivity of deposits per employee amount and Rs.141.58 lakhs. This amount showed an increasing trend and reached upto Rs. 476.70 lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs. 293.44 lakhs. The CV value was 48 percent and 2998.94 was HHI value. In total state bank group average productivity of deposits per employee was Rs. 138.68 lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount was steadily went up and reached upto Rs.496.31 lakhs. The overall average of deposits amount was Rs. 496.31 lakhs. The CV was 49 percent and 3025.41was HHI value.

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Table – 1 Deposits per Employee during the Period 2001-02 to 2012-13 (Rs. Mean value in lakhs) 2001-02 Category of Banks

to 2003-04

2004-05 2007-08 2010-11 to

to

to

2006-07 2009-10 2012-13

Overall Average

SD

CV

HHI

Nationalised Banks

148.17

234.41

439.66

712.75

383.75

233.47

0.61

3302.86

State Bank of India

141.58

201.57

353.92

476.70

293.44

141.23

0.48

2998.94

State Bank Associate Banks

130.50

232.00

405.89

564.87

333.31

177.52

0.53

3120.40

Total State Bank Group

138.68

209.79

366.98

496.31

302.94

149.30

0.49

3025.41

Total Public Sector Banks

144.64

227.75

423.19

646.00

360.39

207.77

0.58

3220.14

Old Private Sector Banks

182.58

253.18

377.32

511.95

331.26

134.25

0.41

2858.67

New Private sector Banks

543.15

569.07

452.66

541.76

526.66

82.11

0.16

2517.52

Total Private Sector Banks

289.53

411.96

430.04

532.74

416.07

104.03

0.25

2607.72

Foreign Banks in India

529.87

528.59

713.42

1019.38

697.82

227.29

0.33

2705.99

All Banks in India

157.39

850.76

417.55

604.90

507.65

507.41

1.00

3125.67

Source: Computed from IBA annual reports various issues from 2001-02 to 2012-13.

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Advances per Employee: Table-2 presents the data pertaining to average productivity of advances per employee during the study period. It is evident from the data that all banks in India overall average advances amount was Rs. 350.01 lakhs. The advances amount varies between Rs. 83.79 lakhs and Rs. 474.11 lakhs during the study period. The CV was 90 percent and 3121.01 was HHI value. In case of advances per employee the banks like foreign banks, new private sector banks, total public sector banks, nationalised banks were obtained considerable amount of advances per employee during under study. In foreign banks the average productivity of advances per employee amount was Rs. 400.09 lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount steadily increased and reached upto Rs.873.15 lakhs during the study peiod. the CV value was 37 percent and 2764.12 HHI value. In new private sector banks average productivity of advances per employee amount was Rs. 418.69 lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount represented mixed trend during the study period. The advances per employee amount was reached upto Rs. 459.79 lakhs. The CV value was 16 percent and 2516.95 was HHI value. In total private sector banks average productivity of advances per employee amount was Rs. 191.77 lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount steadily increased during the study period and reached upto Rs. 433.40 lakhs. The CV value was 32 percent and 2687.11 was HHI value. In case of nationlised banks average productivity of advances per employee amount was Rs.76.8 lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount considerable increased under study and reached upto Rs. 529.04 lakhs. The CV value was 70 percent and 3559.89 was HHI value. However, the bank like old private sector banks, state bank of India, total state bank group, state bank associate banks were recorded low level of average productivity of advances per employee during study period. In old private sector banks average productivity of advances per employee amount was Rs. 97.27 www.ijmer.in

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lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount continuously went up and reached to Rs. 367.01 lakhs. The overall average meant during the study period was Rs. 218.72 lakhs. The CV value was 50 percent and 3036.99 was HHI value. In state bank of India average productivity of advances per employee amount was Rs. 66.62 lakhs. This amount showed an increasing trend and reached upto Rs. 400.02 lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs.218.63 lakhs. The above analysis reveals that the performance of foreign banks and new private sector banks were showed more satisfaction. When we compared to old private sector banks and state bank of India, in the average productivity of advances per employee during period under study.

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Table – 2Advances per Employee during the Period 2001-02 to 2012-13 (Rs. Mean value in lakhs) 2001-02 2004-05 2007-08 Category of Banks

to

to

to

2003-04 2006-07 2009-10

2010-11 to 2012-13

Overall Average

SD

CV

HHI

Nationalised Banks

76.80

149.91

310.11

529.04

266.47

185.91

0.70

3559.89

State Bank of India

66.62

137.38

270.51

400.02

218.63

138.23

0.63

3353.85

State Bank Associate Banks

71.09

156.99

302.52

443.21

243.45

152.01

0.62

3349.66

Total State Bank Group

67.79

142.65

278.46

409.58

224.62

141.12

0.63

3347.57

Total Public Sector Banks

73.44

153.43

308.95

497.87

258.42

173.96

0.67

3483.91

Old Private Sector Banks

97.27

160.58

250.00

367.01

218.72

108.31

0.50

3036.99

New Private sector Banks

418.69

442.60

367.50

459.79

422.15

66.99

0.16

2516.95

Total Private Sector Banks

191.77

301.86

332.36

433.40

314.85

99.53

0.32

2687.11

Foreign Banks in India

400.09

451.95

540.16

873.15

566.34

207.31

0.37

2764.12

All Banks in India

83.79

533.67

308.48

474.11

350.01

314.07

0.90

3121.01

Source: Computed from IBA annual reports various issues from 2001-02 to 2012-13.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 6(1), JUNE 2016

Business per Employee: Table-3 presents average productivity of business per employee during the study period. In average productivity of business per employee the banks like foreign banks in India, new private sector banks total private sector banks were obtained a high level of business per employee. The all banks in India overall average amount was Rs. 857.66 lakhs. This amount varies between Rs. 241.18 lakhs and Rs.1079.01 lakhs under study period. The CV value was 96 percent and 3115.03 HHI value. In foreign banks average productivity of business per employee was Rs. 929.97 lakhs. This amount steadily increased and reached to Rs.1892.53 lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs. 1264.16 lakhs. The CV value was 39 percent and 2729.61 was HHI value. In new private sector banks average productive of business per employee was Rs. 961.84 lakhs. The amount showed mixed trend in the study period. It went uptoRs.1001.55 lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs. 948.80 lakhs. The CV value was 15 percent and 2516.28 was HHI value. In total private sector banks average productivity of business per employee was Rs. 481.30 lakhs. This amount represented an increasing trend in the study period it is increased to Rs.966.14 lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs. 730.91 lakhs. The CV value was 28 percent and 2639.19 was HHI value.Further, the banks such as state bank of India, total state bank group, old private sector banks and state bank associate banks were obtained low level of average productivity of business per employee under study. In state bank of India average productivity of business per employee was Rs.208.21 lakhs in the period 2001-2003. In total state bank group average productivity of business per employee was Rs. 206 lakhs. This amount steadily increased and reached upto Rs.905.88 lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs.527.56 lakhs. www.ijmer.in

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The above analysis shows that the average productivity of business per employee under study gives more satisfaction with foreign and private sector banks. The performance of public sector banks is not satisfaction in the average productivity of business per employee under study. Table – 3Businesses per Employee during the Period 2001-02 to 2012-13 (Rs. Mean value in lakhs) 2001-02 2004-05 2007-08 2010-11 Overall Category of Banks to to to to Average 2003-04 2006-07 2009-10 2012-13 Nationalised Banks 224.97 384.32 749.77 1241.79 650.21 State Bank of India 208.21 338.95 624.43 876.72 512.08 State Bank Associate Banks 201.60 388.99 708.41 1008.07 576.77 Total State Bank Group 206.48 352.45 645.44 905.88 527.56 Total Public Sector Banks 218.08 381.18 732.13 1143.87 618.82 Old Private Sector Banks 279.85 413.75 627.33 878.96 549.97 New Private sector Banks 961.84 1011.67 820.16 1001.55 948.80 Total Private Sector Banks 481.30 713.81 762.40 966.14 730.91 Foreign Banks in India 929.97 980.54 1253.58 1892.53 1264.16 All Banks in India 241.18 1384.42 726.03 1079.01 857.66 Source: Computed from IBA annual reports various issues from 2001-02 to 2012-13.

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SD

CV

HHI

419.33 279.22 329.45 290.25 381.66 242.41 146.88 203.18 431.30 819.19

0.64 0.55 0.57 0.55 0.62 0.44 0.15 0.28 0.34 0.96

3403.86 3138.53 3212.75 3152.99 3325.18 2925.13 2516.28 2639.13 2729.61 3115.03

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Hypothesis Testing: For testing the statistical significance of differences in productivity per employee for given indicators (Deposits per Employee, Advances per employee and Business per Employee) between Productivity of Public Sector Bank Groups and Non Public Sector Banks Groups, we have applied paired t-test and Sign test. Table-4 provides the results pertaining to these tests. Panel A of Table - 4 presents the results of a series of paired ttest with the null hypothesis that the estimated mean productivity of given indicators of Public Sector Bank Groups and Non Public Sector Banks Groups are same. The null hypothesis of no difference in mean productivity and its distinct components is rejected in all the instances as calculated t-statistics significant at 1% level. This indicates that the mean productivity of banks for selected parameters is understated significantly differ between the Public Sector Bank Groups and Non Public Sector Banks Groups. Panel B of the table provides the results of the Sign test, which also support above inference that there is difference in productivity of banks for selected parameters significantly differ between the Public Sector Bank Groups and Non Public Sector Banks Groups. The results revels that that differences in productivity per employee for given indicators (Deposits per Employee, Advances per employee and Business per Employee) between Productivity of Public Sector Bank Groups and Non Public Sector Banks Groups statistically significant.

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Table – 4Hypotheses Testing with Key Indicators of Total Business Volume per Employee Hypothesis testing- Productivity differences between bank groups =

=

=

(Deposits/

(Advances/

(Business/

No. of

No. of

No. of

Productivity measure

Employees)

Employees)

Employees)

Panel A: Paired t-test H0 : Mean Productivity of Public Sector Bank Groups = Non Public Sector Banks Groups t-statistics

6.646*

7.190*

6.919*

p-value

0.000

0.000

0.000

Reject H0

Reject H0

Reject H0

Inference Panel B: Sign test

H0: Productivity of Public Sector Bank Groups = Non Public Sector Banks Groups No. of positive differences p-value Inference

12*

12*

12*

0.000

0.000

0.000

Reject H0

Reject H0

Reject H0

Source: Computed from IBA annual reports various issues from 2001-02 to 2012-13. Note: * significant at 1%level.

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Expenditure per Employee: From the table-5 it is evident from the data the banks such as foreign banks, new private sector banks, and total private sector banks were recorded high level of average productivity of expenditure per employee. The overall average productivity of expenditure per employee of all banks in India was Rs. 48.35 Lakhs. This amount varies between Rs. 17.26 Lakhs and Rs. 59.33 Lakhs under study. The CV value was 95 percent and 3033.79 HHI value. In foreign banks in India the average productivity of expenditure per employee was Rs. 80.61 Lakhs. This amount represented mixed trend during study period and reached upto Rs. 141.10 Lakhs. The overall average was Rs. 99.55 Lakhs. The CV value was 33 percent and 2696.50 was HHI value. In new private sector banks the average productivity of expenditure per employee was Rs.71.34 lakhs. This amount was drastically reduced in the study period and stood at Rs. 62.06 Lakhs in the period 2010-2012. The CV was 26 percent and 2524.30 was HHI. In total private sector banks average productivity of expenditure per employee was RS. 46.17 Lakhs. This amount showed an increasing trend in the study period and reached upto Rs. 59.97 Lakhs/ The CV was 28 percent and 2609.65 was HHI.Further, state bank of India, total state bank group, old private sector banks were recorded low level of average productivity of expenditure per employee during study period. In state bank of India average productivity of expenditure per employee was Rs. 15.94 Lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount represented an increasing trend under study and reached upto Rs. 47.94 Lakhs in the period 2010-2012. The overall average amount was Rs. 29.15 Lakhs. The CV was 47 percent and 2967.25 was HHI. In case of total state bank group average productivity of expenditure per employee was Rs. 15.57 Lakhs. This amount was represented an increasing trend under study period and went upto Rs. 29.88 Lakhs. www.ijmer.in

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The above analysis reveals that the average productivity of expenditure per employee during study period was much better in foreign banks and private sector banks under study as compared public sector banks under study. Table – 5Expenditure per Employee during the Period 2001-02 to 2012-13 (Rs. Mean value in lakhs) 200102 to 200304

200405 to 200607

200708 to 200910

201011 to 201213

Over all Aver age

SD

CV

HHI

Nationalised Banks

15.12

19.00

37.09

63.83

33.76

20.99

0.62

3312.05

State Bank of India

15.94

19.58

33.15

47.94

29.15

13.71

0.47

2967.25

State Bank Associate Banks

14.53

20.13

38.07

56.48

32.30

17.78

0.55

3147.90

Total State Bank Group

15.57

19.73

34.37

49.86

29.88

14.63

0.49

3008.81

Total Public Sector Banks

15.29

19.85

37.29

60.42

33.21

19.29

0.58

3212.14

Old Private Sector Banks

19.76

21.86

35.02

50.37

31.75

13.38

0.42

2871.29

New Private sector Banks

71.34

56.42

56.69

63.80

62.06

15.93

0.26

2524.30

Total Private Sector Banks

35.21

39.30

50.21

59.97

46.17

12.92

0.28

2609.65

80.61

68.56

107.95

99.55

32.44

0.33

2696.50

17.26

77.25

39.63

48.37

46.06

0.95

3033.79

Category of Banks

Foreign Banks in India All Banks in India

141.1 0 59.33

Source: Computed from IBA annual reports various issues from 2001-02 to 2012-13

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Total Income per Employee: Table - 6 presents the data relating to average productivity of total income per employee during study period. It is observed from the table the banks namely foreign banks in India, new private sector banks, and total private sector banks were obtained high level of average productivity of total income per employee. The overall average of all banks in India average productivity of toal income per employee was Rs. 54.27 Lakhs. This amount varies between Rs. 19.13 Lakhs and Rs.66.52 Lakhs in the study period. The CV was 95 percent and 3036.64 was HHI value. In foreign banks in India average productivity of toal income per employee was Rs. 94.37 Lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount was showed mixed trend during the study period and reached upto Rs. 177.66 Lakhs. The overall average amount Rs. 120.84 Lakhs. The CV was 35 percent and 2732.67 was HHI Value. In new private sector banks average productivity of total income per employee was Rs. 77.92 Lakhs. This amount represented mixed trend during the study period and increased to Rs. 75.68 Lakhs. The overall average was Rs. 70.57 Lakhs. The CV value was 25 percent and 2519.80 was HHI value. In total private sector banks average productivity of total Income per employee was Rs. 38.88 lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount was steadily increased and went up to Rs. 70.30 Lakhs during study period. The CV value was 30 percent and 2633.91 was HHI value. Further, the banks such as state bank of India, total state bank group and old private sector banks were obtained low level of average productivity of total income per employee in the study period. In state bank of India average productivity of total income per employee was Rs. 17.41 Lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount was continuously increased and reached upto Rs. 53.05 Lakhs. In total state bank group www.ijmer.in

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average productivity ot total income per employee was Rs. 17.17 Lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount was steadily increased during the study period and reached upto Rs. 55.08 lakhs. It is clear from the aboveanalysis the performance of foreign banks in India and private sector banks are achieved extraordinary progress in the average productivity of total income per employee when we compared to public sector banks under study.

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Table – 6Total Income per Employee during the Period 2001-02 to 2012-13 (Rs. Mean value in lakhs) 2001-02 to 2003-04

2004-05 to 2006-07

2007-08 to 2009-10

2010-11 to 2012-13

Overall Average

SD

CV

HHI

Nationalised Banks

16.78

21.35

41.82

70.42

37.59

22.98

0.61

3292.81

State Bank of India

17.41

21.83

37.41

53.05

32.42

15.30

0.47

2968.34

State Bank Associate Banks

16.50

22.43

42.26

62.17

35.84

19.34

0.54

3126.87

Total State Bank Group

17.17

22.00

38.61

55.08

33.22

16.20

0.49

3004.40

Total Public Sector Banks

16.93

22.22

41.89

66.63

36.92

21.17

0.57

3198.30

Old Private Sector Banks

22.17

23.33

39.26

56.77

35.38

15.35

0.43

2895.49

New Private sector Banks

77.92

64.62

64.06

75.68

70.57

17.38

0.25

2519.80

Total Private Sector Banks

38.88

44.09

56.64

70.30

52.48

15.63

0.30

2633.91

Foreign Banks in India

94.37

82.79

128.54

177.66

120.84

42.45

0.35

2732.67

All Banks in India

19.13

86.71

44.71

66.52

54.27

51.70

0.95

3036.64

Category of Banks

Source: Computed from IBA annual reports various issues from 2001-02 to 2012-13 www.ijmer.in

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Net Profit per Employee: Table -7 present data relating to average productivity of Net Profit per employee of different banks under study. The overall average productivity of net profit per employee of all banks in India was Rs. 5.89 Lakhs. This amount varies between Rs. 1.86 Lakhs and Rs. 7.18 Lakhs during study period. The CV was 96 per cent and 3063.39 was HHI value. The banks such as foreign banks in India, new private sector banks, and total private sector banks were gained high level of average productivity of net profit per employee in the study period. In foreign banks in India average productivity of net profit per employee was Rs. 11.68 Lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount was steadily increased and reached upto Rs. 36.45 Lakhs. The overall average amount was rs. 20.73 Lakhs. The CV was 54 percent and 3040.54 HHI value. In new private sector banks average productivity of net profit per employee was Rs. 6.58 Lakhs. This amount represented an increasing trend and reached upto Rs. 11.87 Lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs. 8.52 Lakhs. The CV was 32 percent and 2641.51 was HHI value. In total private sector banks average productivity of net profit per employee was Rs. 3.67 Lakhs. This amount steadily increased and went upto Rs. 10.33 Lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs. 6.31 Lakhs. The CV was 46 percent and 2898.88 was HHI value.However, the other banks such as state banks of India, total state bank group and state bank associate banks were gained low level of average productivity of net profit per employee in the same period. In state bank of India it was Rs. 1.48 Lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount represented an increasing trend and went upto Rs. 5.11 Lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs. 3.27 Lakhs. In total state bank group average productivity of net profit per employee was Rs.1.60 Lakhs in the period 2001-2003. This amount showed an increasing trend and reached to Rs. 5.22 Lakhs. The overall average amount was Rs. 3.33 Lakhs. www.ijmer.in

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It is clear from the above analysis that the foreign banks in India and private sector banks were showed extraordinary performance in the average productivity of net profit per employee than that of public sector banks in the study period. The reason is that recoveries and non performing onsets are very high in the public sector banks. Table – 7 Net Profit per Employee during the Period 2001-02 to 2012-13 (Rs. Mean value in lakhs)

Category of Banks Nationalised Banks State Bank of India State Bank Associate Banks Total State Bank Group Total Public Sector Banks Old Private Sector Banks New Private sector Banks Total Private Sector Banks Foreign Banks in India All Banks in India

2001-02 to 2003-04 1.67 1.48 1.96 1.60 1.64 2.40 6.58 3.67 11.68 1.86

2004-05 to 2006-07 2.32 2.25 2.30 2.27 2.35 1.48 8.24 4.81 14.20 9.45

2007-08 to 2009-10 4.74 4.25 4.19 4.24 4.60 4.24 7.37 6.43 20.60 5.07

2010-11 to 2012-13 6.60 5.11 5.69 5.22 6.21 6.40 11.87 10.33 36.45 7.18

Overall Average

SD

CV

HHI

3.83 3.27 3.54 3.33 3.70 3.63 8.52 6.31 20.73 5.89

2.12 1.64 1.65 1.60 1.95 2.04 2.73 2.87 11.16 5.66

0.55 0.50 0.47 0.48 0.53 0.56 0.32 0.46 0.54 0.96

3159.43 3001.31 2952.72 2980.31 3100.16 3172.32 2641.51 2898.88 3040.54 3063.39

Source: Computed from IBA annual reports various issues from 2001-02 to 2012-13

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Hypotheses Testing To test the statistical significance differences in productivity per employee for given indicators between Public Sector Bank Groups and Non Public Sector Banks Groups, we applied a series of parametric and nonparametric statistical tests. For testing the statistical significance of differences we have used paired t-test and Sign test. Panel A and Panel B of Table-8 provides the results pertaining to these tests. Panel A of Table-8 presents the results of a series of paired ttest with the null hypothesis that the estimated mean productivity per employee of Public Sector Bank Groups and Non Public Sector Banks Groups are same for the selected productivity measures. The null hypothesis of no difference in mean productivity and its distinct components is rejected in all the instances as calculated t-statistics significant at 1% level. This indicates that the mean productivity per employee of banks for selected parameters is understated significantly differ between the Public Sector Bank Groups and Non Public Sector Banks Groups. Panel B of the table provides the results of the Sign test which also support above inference that there is difference in productivity per employee of banks for selected parameters. Table – 8 Hypotheses Testing with Key Indicators of Profit per Employee Hypothesis testing- Productivity differences between bank groups Productivity measure

= (Expenditure/ No. of Employees)

= (Income/ No. of Employees)

= (Net Profit / No. of Employees)

Panel A: Paired t-test H0 : Mean Productivity of Public Sector Bank Groups = Non Public Sector Banks Groups

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t-statistics p-value Inference

12.853*

14.883*

7.001*

0.000

0.000

0.000

Reject H0

Reject H0

Reject H0

Panel B: Sign test H0: Productivity of Public Sector Bank Groups = Non Public Sector Banks Groups No. of positive differences p-value Inference

12*

12*

12*

0.000

0.000

0.000

Reject H0

Reject H0

Reject H0

Source: Computed from IBA annual reports various issues from 200102 to 2012-13. Note: * significant at 1%level. Summary According to employee productivity during the study period for business indicators, foreign banks in India (lakhs Rs. 1264.16), new private sector banks (lakhs Rs. 948.8) and total private sector banks (lakhs Rs.857.66) are occupied top 3 positions whereas state bank of India (lakhs Rs.512.08) is in last position. Regarding to income per employee, Old private sector banks are in top position with average Rs. 120.84 lakhs followed by state bank associate banks with Rs.70.57 lakhs and state bank of India with Rs. 54.27 lakhs. New private banks are in lost position with average Rs. 32.42 lakhs. In the case of expenditure per employee, new private banks are better situation with average Rs. 29.15 lakhs while total state bank group is worst situation with average Rs. 99.5 lakhs. Foreign banks in India are better position according to net profit per employee followed by new private sector banks. The lowest ratio of profit per employee has been observed in state bank of India. www.ijmer.in

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With regards to employee productivity, non-public sector bank groups have noticed higher performance than public sector bank groups during the study period. The mean differences of employee productivity and its distinct components are observed during the study period between public sector banks and non-public sector banks excluding burden per employee. The parametric and nonparametric statistical tests rejected the null hypothesis that there are no differences employee productivity indicators between public sector banks and non-public sector banks in majority of cases. The results reveal that there are significant differences of employee productivity between public sector banks and non-public sector banks. Conclusion Foreign banks are playing lead role in the commercial banking industry at employee level productivity performance of Indian banking sector. Deposits, advances and net profit are predominant role in performance at employee level productivity. The productivity performance of all Non Public sector bank groups are showing better then Public sector bank groups with regard to employee level productivity. There are significant differences of employee productivity between public sector banks and non-public sector banks. References 1. Ahmed, J., (2014), “Productivity Analysis of Rural Banks in India: A Case of Meghalaya Rural Bank”, The NEHU Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 53-76. 2. Ahuja, H. L., (2006), Advanced Economic Theory: Microeconomic Analysis, Sultan Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. 3. Angadi, V. B., &Devaraj, V. J., (1983), “Productivity and profitability of banks in India”, Economic and political Weekly, Vol. 18, No. 48, pp. M160M170. 4. Bhatia, A., &Mahendru, M., (2014), “A Comparative Study of Labour Productivity in Public, Private and Foreign Sector Banks in India”, AsiaPacific Journal of Management Research and Innovation, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 239-251. www.ijmer.in

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5. Gupta, G., &Kaur, A., (2013), “An Economic Analysis of Productivity and Performance of Public Sector Banks in India” Universal Journal of Industrial and Business Management, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 117-136. 6. Kopelman, R. E., (1986), Managing productivity in organizations: A practical, people-oriented perspective, McGraw-Hill College, Singapore. 7. Kumar Sharma, S., &Dalip, R., (2014), “Efficiency and productivity analysis of Indian banking industry using Hicks-Moorsteen approach”, International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, Vol. 63, No. 1, pp. 57-84. 8. Kumar, S., &Sreeramulu, M., (2007), “Employees’ Productivity and Cost– A Comparative Study of Banks in India During 1997 to 2008”, Reserve Bank of India Occasional Papers, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 35-50. 9. Kumbhakar, S. C., &Sarkar, S., (2003), “Deregulation, ownership, and productivity growth in the banking industry: evidence from India”, Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 403-424. 10. Mali, P., (1978), Improving Total Factor Productivity: MBO Strategies for Business, Government and Non-for-profit Organisations, John Wiley & Sons. 11. Ramamoorthy, K. R., (1997), “Profitability and Productivity in Indian Banking: International Comparisons and Implications for Indian Banking”, IBA Bulletin, Vol.9, No.11, pp. 8-17. 12. RBI, (2008), “Efficiency, Productivity and Soundness of the Banking Sector”, Report on Currency and Finance, Reserve Bank of India, Mumbai. 13. Sanyal, P., & Shankar, R., (2011), “Ownership, competition, and bank productivity: An analysis of Indian banking in the post-reform period”. International Review of Economics & Finance, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 225-247. 14. Singh, H., &Kamlesh, (2013), “Employee Productivity of Private Sector Banks in India”, International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research, Vol. 2, No. 10, pp. 64-79. 15. Vivek,S., (2013), “Analysis of Productivity of Indian Banks: A Comparative Study of Selected Private Banks”, International Journal of Computing and Business Research. Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 22-26.

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THE HISTORY OF INDIAN PENAL CODE Dr.G.Devadas Post Doctoral Fellow Department of Law S.K.University, Anantapur (AP) The Indian Penal Code (IPC) is the main criminal code of India. It is a comprehensive code intended to cover all substantive aspects of criminal law. The code was drafted in 1860 on the recommendations of first law commission of India established in 1834 under the Government of India Act 1833 under the Chairmanship of Thomas Babington Macaulay. It came into force in British India during the early British Raj period in 1862. However, it did not apply automatically in the Princely states, which had their own courts and legal systems until the 1940s. The Code has since been amended several times and is now supplemented by other criminal provisions. After the partition of the British Indian Empire, the Indian Penal Code was inherited by its successor states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, where it continues independently as the Pakistan Penal Code. The Ranbir Penal Code (RPC) applicable in Jammu and Kashmir is also based on this Code. After the independence of Bangladesh from Pakistan, the code continued in force there. The Code was also adopted by the British colonial authorities in Colonial Burma, Ceylon(modern Sri Lanka), the Straits Settlements (now part of Malaysia), Singapore and Brunei, and remains the basis of the criminal codes in those countries. History The draft of the Indian Penal Code was prepared by the First Law Commission, chaired by Thomas Babington Macaulay in 1835 and was submitted to Governor-General of India Council in 1837. Its basis is the law of England freed from superfluities, technicalities and local www.ijmer.in

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peculiarities. Elements were also derived from the Napoleonic Code and from Edward Livingston's Louisiana Civil Code of 1825. The first final draft of the Indian Penal Code was submitted to the Governor-General of India in Council in 1837, but the draft was again revised. The drafting was completed in 1850 and the Code was presented to the Legislative Council in 1856, but it did not take its place on the statute book of British India until a generation later, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The draft then underwent a very careful revision at the hands of Barnes Peacock, who later became the first Chief Justice of the Calcutta High Court, and the future puisne judges of the Calcutta High Court, who were members of the Legislative Council, and was passed into law on 6 October 1860. The Code came into operation on 1 January 1862. Macaulay did not survive to see his masterpiece come into force, having died near the end of 1859. Objective The objective of this Act is to provide a general penal code for India.[5] Though not an initial objective, the Act does not repeal the penal laws which were in force at the time of coming into force in India. This was so because the Code does not contain all the offences and it was possible that some offences might have still been left out of the Code, which were not intended to be exempted from penal consequences. Though this Code consolidates the whole of the law on the subject and is exhaustive on the matters in respect of which it declares the law, many more penal statutes governing various offences have been created in addition to the code.

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The Indian Penal Code,1860 Council of the Governor General of India Citation

Act No. 45 of 1860

Territorial extent

India (except Jammu and Kashmir)

Enacted by

Legislative Council

Date enacted

6 October 1860

Date assented to

6 October 1860

Date commenced

1 January 1862

Committee report

First Law Commission

Amendments see Amendments Related legislation Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 Status: Substantially amended

Structure Main article: List of sections of Indian Penal Code The Indian Penal Code of 1860, sub-divided into twenty three chapters, comprises five hundred and eleven sections. The Code starts with an introduction, provides explanations and exceptions used in it, and

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covers a wide range of offences. The Outline is presented in the following table: INDIAN PENAL CODE, 1860 (Sections 1 to 511) Chapter

Sections covered

Classification of offences

Chapter I

Sections 1 to 5

Introduction

Chapter II

Sections 6 to 52

General Explanations

Chapter III

Sections 53 to 75

of Punishments

Chapter IV

Sections 76 to 106

General Exceptions of the Right of Defence (Sections 96 to 106)

Chapter V

Sections 107 to 120

Of Abetment

Chapter VA

Sections 120B

Criminal Conspiracy

Chapter VI

Sections 121 to 130

Of Offences against the State

Chapter VII

Sections 131 to 140

Of Offences relating to the Army, Navy and Air Force

Chapter VIII

Sections 141 to 160

Of Offences Tranquillity

Chapter IX

Sections 161 to 171

Of Offences by or relating to Public Servants

Chapter IXA

Sections 171I

Of Offences Relating to Elections

Chapter X

Sections 172 to 190

Of Contempts of Lawful Authority of Public Servants

Chapter XI

Sections 191 to 229

Of False Evidence and against Public Justice

Chapter XII

Sections 230 to 263

Of Offences relating to coin and Government Stamps

Chapter XIII

Sections 264 to 267

Of Offences relating to Weight and Measures

Chapter XIV

Sections 268 to 294

Of Offences affecting the Public Health, Safety, Convenience, Decency and Morals.

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120A

171A

to

to

against

the

Private

Public

Offences

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Chapter XV

Chapter XVI

Chapter XVII

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Sections 295 to 298

Of Offences relating to Religion

Sections 299 to 377

Of Offences affecting the Human Body.  Of Offences Affecting Life including murder, culpable homicide (Sections 299 to 311)  Of the Causing of Miscarriage, of Injuries to Unborn Children, of the Exposure of Infants, and of the Concealment of Births (Sections 312 to 318)  Of Hurt (Sections 319 to 338)  Of Wrongful Restraint and Wrongful Confinement (Sections 339 to 348)  Of Criminal Force and Assault (Sections 349 to 358)  Of Kidnapping, Abduction, Slavery and Forced Labour (Sections 359 to 374)  Sexual Offences including rape (Sections 375 to 376)  Of Unnatural Offences (Section 377)

Sections 378 to 462

Of Offences Against Property  Of Theft (Sections 378 to 382)  Of Extortion (Sections 383 to 389)  Of Robbery and Dacoity (Sections 390 to 402)  Of Criminal Misappropriation of Property (Sections 403 to 404)  Of Criminal Breach of Trust (Sections 405 to 409)  Of the Receiving of Stolen Property (Sections 410 to 414)  Of Cheating (Section 415 to 420)  Of Fraudulent Deeds and Disposition of Property (Sections

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 

421 to 424) Of Mischief (Sections 425 to 440) Of Criminal Trespass (Sections 441 to 462)

Chapter XVIII

Offences relating to Documents and Property Marks  Offences relating to Documents (Section 463 to 477-A) Section 463 to 489 -  Offences relating to Property and E Other Marks (Sections 478 to 489)  Offences relating to Currency Notes and Bank Notes (Sections 489A to 489E)

Chapter XIX

Sections 490 to 492

Of the Criminal Breach of Contracts of Service

Chapter XX

Sections 493 to 498

Of Offences Relating to Marriage

Chapter XXA

Sections 498A

Of Cruelty by Husband or Relatives of Husband

Chapter XXI

Sections 499 to 502

Of Defamation

Chapter XXII

Sections 503 to 510

Of Criminal intimidation, Insult and Annoyance

Chapter XXIII

Section 511

Of Attempts to Commit Offences

Controversies Various sections of the Indian Penal Code are controversial. They are challenged in courts claiming as against constitution of India. Also there is demand for abolition of some controversial IPC sections completely or partially. Unnatural Offenses - Section 377 Whoever, voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment of life, or with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to ten Years, and shall also be liable to fine.

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Explanation - Penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offence described in this section. 

Section 377 The Delhi High Court on 2 July 2009 gave a liberal interpretation to this section and laid down that this section can not be used to punish an act of consensual sexual intercourse between two same sex individuals.



On December 11, 2013, Supreme Court of India over-ruled the judgment given by Delhi High court in 2009 and clarified that "Section 377, which holds same-sex relations unnatural, does not suffer from unconstitutionality". The Bench said: "We hold that Section 377 does not suffer from… unconstitutionality and the declaration made by the Division Bench of the High Court is legally unsustainable." It, however, said: "Notwithstanding this verdict, the competent legislature shall be free to consider the desirability and propriety of deleting Section 377 from the statute book or amend it as per the suggestion made by Attorney-General G.E. Vahanvati."

Attempt to Commit Suicide The Section 309 of the Indian Penal Code deals with an unsuccessful attempt to suicide. Attempting to commit suicide and doing any act towards the commission of the offence is punishable with imprisonment up to one year or with fine or with both. Considering long-standing demand and recommendations of the Law Commission of India, which has repeatedly endorsed the repeal of this section, the Government of India in December 2014 decided to decriminalise attempt to commit suicide by dropping Section 309 of IPC from the statute book. Though this decision found favour with most of the states, a few others argued that it would make law enforcement agencies helpless against people who resort to fast unto death, self-immolation, etc., pointing out the case of anti-AFSPA activist Irom Chanu Sharmila. In February 2015, the Legislative Department of the Ministry of Law and Justice was www.ijmer.in

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asked by the Government to prepare a draft Amendment Bill in this regard. In an August 2015 ruling, the Rajasthan High Court made the Jain practice of undertaking voluntary death by fasting at the end of a person's life, known as Santhara, punishable under sections 306 and 309 of the IPC. This led to some controversy, with some sections of the Jain community urging the Prime Minister to move the Supreme Court against the order. Section 497 The Section 497 of the IPC has been criticised on the one hand for allegedly treating woman as the private property of her husband, and on the other hand for giving women complete protection against punishment for adultery. Death Penalty Sections 120B (criminal conspiracy), 121 (war against the Government of India), 122 (mutiny), 194 (false evidence to procure conviction for a capital offense), 302, 303 (murder), 305 (abetting suicide), 364A (kidnapping for ransom), 364A (banditry with murder), 376A (rape) have death penalty as punishment. There is ongoing debate for abolishing capital punishment. Criminal justice reforms In 2003, the Malimath Committee submitted its report recommending several far-reaching penal reforms including separation of investigation and prosecution (similar to the CPS in the UK) to streamline criminal justicesystem. The essence of the report was a perceived need for shift from an adversarial to an inquisitorial criminal justice system, based on the Continental European systems.

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Amendments The Code has been amended several times. S. No.

Short title of amending legislation

No. Year

1

The Repealing Act, 1870

14

1870

2

The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1870

27

1870

3

The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1872

19

1872

4

The Indian Oaths Act, 1873

10

1873

5

The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1882

8

1882

6

The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1882

10

1882

7

The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1886

10

1886

8

The Indian Marine Act, 1887

14

1887

9

The Metal Tokens Act, 1889

1

1889

10

The Indian Merchandise Marks Act, 1889

4

1889

11

The Cantonments Act, 1889

13

12

The Indian Railways Act, 1890

9

13

The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1891

10

14

The Amending Act, 1891

12

15

The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1894

3

16

The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1895

3

17

The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1896

6

1896

18

The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1898

4

1898

19

The Currency-Notes Forgery Act, 1899

12

1899

20

The Indian Penal Code Amendment Act, 1910

3

1910

21

The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1913

8

1913

22

The Indian Elections Offences and Inquiries Act, 1920

39

1920

23

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1921

16

24

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1923

20

25

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1924

5

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26

The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1924

18

27

The Workmen’s Breach of Contract (Repealing) Act, 1925

3

29

The Obscene Publications Act, 1925

8

29

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1925

29

30

The Repealing and Amending Act, 1927

10

31

The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1927

25

32

The Repealing and Amending Act, 1930

8

33

The Indian Air Force Act, 1932

14

34

The Amending Act, 1934

35

35

The Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) N/A 1937 Order, 1937

36

The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1939

22

37

The Offences on Ships and Aircraft Act, 1940

4

38

The Indian Merchandise Marks (Amendment) Act, 1941

2

39

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1942

8

40

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1943

6

41

The Indian Independence (Adaptation of Central Acts N/A 1948 and Ordinances) Order, 1948

42

The Criminal Law (Removal of Racial Discriminations) 17 Act, 1949

43

The Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal 42 Procedure (Amendment) Act, 1949

44

The Adaptation of Laws Order, 1950

N/A 1950

45

The Repealing and Amending Act, 1950

35

46

The Part B States (Laws) Act, 1951

3

47

The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1952

46

48

The Repealing and Amending Act, 1952

48

49

The Repealing and Amending Act, 1953

42

50

The Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act, 1955

26

51

The Adaptation of Laws (No.2) Order, 1956

N/A 1956

52

The Repealing and Amending Act, 1957

36

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1949

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53

The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1958

2

54

The Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958

43

55

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1959

52

56

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1961

41

57

The Anti-Corruption Laws (Amendment) Act, 1964

40

58

The Criminal and Election Laws Amendment Act, 1969

35

59

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1969

36

60

The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1972

31

61

The Employees’ Provident Funds and Family Pension 40 Fund (Amendment) Act, 1973

62

The Employees’ State Insurance (Amendment) Act, 1975

38

63

The Election Laws (Amendment) Act, 1975

40

64

The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1983

43

65

The Criminal Law (Second Amendment) Act, 1983

46

66

The Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act, 1986

43

67

The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous 33 Provisions (Amendment) Act, 1988

68

The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988

49

69

The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1993

42

70

The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Act, 1995

24

71

The Information Technology Act, 2000

21

2000

72

The Election Laws (Amendment) Act, 2003

24

2003

73

The Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act, 2005

25

2005

74

The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2005

2

2006

75

The Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008

10

2009

76

The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013

13

2013

Acclaim The Code is universally acknowledged as a cogently drafted code, ahead of its time. It has substantially survived for over 150 years in several jurisdictions without major amendments. Nicholas www.ijmer.in

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Phillips, Justice ofSupreme Court of United Kingdom applauded the efficacy and relevance of IPC while commemorating 150 years of IPC.[20] Modern crimes involving technology unheard of during Macaulay's time fit easily within the Code[mainly because of the broadness of the Code's drafting. References 1.

Universal's Guide to Judicial Service Examination. Universal Law Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 9350350297.

2. Lal Kalla, Krishan. The Literary Heritage of Kashmir. Jammu and Kashmir: Mittal Publications. p. 75. Retrieved 19 September 2014. 3.

"Law Commission of India - Early Beginnings". Law Commission of India. Retrieved 19 September 2014.

4.

B.M.Gandhi. Indian Panel Code (Paper Back) (2013 ed.). EBC. pp. 1–832. ISBN 8170128927.

5.

"Government decriminalizes attempt to commit suicide, removes section 309". The Times of India. 10 December 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2015.

6.

"Attempt to Suicide". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved15 August 2015.

7.

"Rajasthan HC says Santhara illegal, Jain saints want PM Modi to move SC". The Indian Express. Retrieved 15 August 2015.

8.

"Rajasthan HC bans starvation ritual 'Santhara', says fasting unto death not essential tenet of Jainism".IBN Live. CNN-IBN. 10 August 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.

9.

"Wife is private property, so no trespassing". The Times of india. 17 July 2015. Retrieved 15 August2015.

10. "Adultery law biased against men, says Supreme Court". The Times of India. 3 December 2011. Retrieved 15 August 2015. www.ijmer.in

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11. "IPC Reform Committee recommends separation of investigation from prosecution powers (pdf)" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-05-23. 12. Parliament of India. "The Code" (PDF). childlineindia.org.in. June 2015.

Indian

Penal Retrieved 7

This article incorporates text from this source,

which is in the public domain. 13. The Indian Penal Code, 1860. Current Publications. 7 May 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015. 14. Henry Scholberg, The return of the Raj: a novel, NorthStar Publications, 1992, ... People were saying, 'Twenty plus Four equals Char Sau Bees.' Char Sou Bees is 420 which is the number of the law that has to do with counterfeiting ... 15. Star Plus, The Great Indian Laughter Challenge – Jokes Book, Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-7991-343-7, ... Tazeerat-e-hind , dafa 302 ke tahat, mujrim ko maut ki saza sunai jaati hai ... 16. Alok Tomar; Monisha Shah; Jonathan Lynn, Ji Mantriji: The diaries of Shri Suryaprakash Singh, Penguin Books in association with BBC Worldwide, 2001, ISBN 978-0-14-302767-6, ... we'd have the death penalty back tomorrow. Dafa 302, taaziraat-e-Hind ... to be hung by the neck until death ... 17. D. P. Mishra, Great masters of Indian cinema: the Dadasaheb Phalke Award winnersGreat Masters of Indian Cinema Series, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 2006, ISBN 978-81-230-1361-9, ... Badti Ka Naam Dadhi ( 1975), Chhoti Si Baat ( 1975), Dafa 302 ( 1 975), Chori Mera Kaam ( 1975), Ek Mahal Ho Sapnon Ka (1975)

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF SAMPLE CHILDREN AND HOUSEHOLDS Dr. V.Sreenivas Guest Faculty (Assistant Professor) Centre for Rural Development Studies Gnannabharathi Bangalore University Bangalore INTRODUCTION The socio-economic profile of

the sample children and

households needs to be examined in order to understand the circumstances in which the school dropouts have grown up, the quality of their living standards, and the factors responsible for their dropping out from school. In this chapter, an attempt is made to analyse the socio-economic characteristics of the sample children and households in terms of religion, caste category, demographic characteristics, education status, schooling status of children, occupation status, working status of children, land owned, ownership of house, type of house, amenities in the house such as drinking water, electricity, and toilet facility, movable assets and indebtedness. The analysis is done on the basis of gender of the sample children with a view to understanding the differences between the households comprising male and female school dropouts. COMPOSITION OF SAMPLE CHILDREN The sample children chosen for the study stood at 240, out of which 105 were males (44%) and 135 females (56%). Thus, there was greater proportion of females than males among the sample Children. All the sample children were in the school-going age group of 6-14 years.

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RELIGION OF SAMPLE CHILDREN In Indian society, religion is one of main social considerations of an individual. The distribution of the sample children by religion is presented in table 4.1. It may be noted from table 4.1 that a vast majority (89%) of the sample children were Hindus, while the remaining 11 per cent Muslims. The percentage of Hindus was higher among the male children (91%) when compared to that of females (87%). Thus, there is not much difference between the male and female sample children in regard to religion being pursued by them. Table 4.1 Distribution of Sample Children by Religion S. No. 1

Religion Hindu %

2

Muslim

No. of Children Male

Female

Total

96

117

213

91.4

86.6

88.7

9

18

27

%

8.6

13.3

11.3

Total

105

135

240

100.00

100.00

100.00

%

Source: Field Data CASTE CATEGORY OF SAMPLE CHILDREN In Indian society caste is an important parameter, which determines the social status and position of an individual, especially in rural areas. The political and economic empowerment of people largely depends on the caste to which they belong. The distribution of sample children by caste category is given in table 4.2. It could be seen from table 4.2 that a majority (51%) of the sample children belonged to Backward Classes (BCs), being higher in respect of female children (54%) when compared to males (48%). The Scheduled Castes (SCs) accounted for nearly 33 per cent of the sample children, being higher www.ijmer.in

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among males (37%) as compared to females (29%). After BCs and SCs, Muslim minorities take the next important place in the case of sample children; about 11 per cent of the sample children belonged to Muslims, being higher in respect of female children (13%) when compared to males (9%). About 3 per cent of the sample children belonged to Scheduled Tribes (STs), while the other castes (OCs) accounted for only 2 per cent of the sample children. Thus, a vast majority of the sample children belonged to weaker sections of the society in terms of social status. It follows from the above a greater proportion of SCs are found among the school dropouts as compared to the proportion of SCs in total population at the district level. Table 4.2 Caste Category of Sample Children S. No.

Caste Category

1

Scheduled Castes (SCs) % 2 Scheduled Tribes (STs) % 3 Backward Classes (BCs) % 4 Muslim Minorities % 5 Other Castes (OCs) % Total % Source: Field Data

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No. of Children Male 38 36.9 5 4.8 50 47.6 9 8.6 3 2.9 105 100.0

Female 40 29.2 2 1.5 73 54.1 18 13.3 2 1.5 135 100.0

Total 78 32.5 7 2.9 123 51.3 27 11.3 5 2.1 240 100.0

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DEMOGRAPHIC

CHARACTERISTICS

OF

SAMPLE

CHILDREN HOUSEHOLDS The households to which the sample children belonged were referred to as the sample children households. The demographic characteristics of the sample children households such as sex composition, household size, age group, marital status, etc., are examined here under. Sex Composition The sample children households comprised 1207 persons, out of which there were 573 males (47.5%) and 634 females (52.5%). The sex ratio (number of females per 1000 males) worked out to 1106, which is very high when compared to the district average of 988 according to 2011 Census. Household Size The average household size of the sample children households worked out to 5.0, which is higher as compared to the district average of about 4.5. Thus, it may be inferred that the households comprising school dropouts had a higher sex ratio and household size, when compared to general population. Distribution by Age Group The distribution of members in the sample children households by age group is presented in table 4.3. It may be noted that the children in the school-going age group (6-14 years) accounted for 45 per cent of the total members in the sample children households, comprising a greater proportion of females (47%) as compared to males (43%). The percentage of children aged 14 years and below comprised about 47 per cent of total members in the sample children households, which looks on the high side when compared to that of general population. Persons belonging to the age group of 25-44 years accounted for about 31 per www.ijmer.in

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cent of total members in sample children households, comprising more females (33%) than males (28%). About 13 per cent of members in the sample children households belonged to the age group of 15-24 years. The percentage of members aged 60 years and above formed 1.4 per cent of the total in the case of sample children households. On the whole, the percentage of members belonging to economically productive age group of 15 – 59 years stood at about 52 per cent of the total members in the sample children households. Table - 4.3 Distribution of Members in the Sample Households by Age Group S. No.

Age group (Years)

1

0–5

2

6 – 14

% % 3

15 – 24 %

4

25 – 44 %

5

45 – 59 %

6

60 + % Total %

No. of members Male Female Total 13

11

24

2.3 246 42.9 81 14.1 161 28.1 63 11.0 9 1.6 573 100.0

1.7 296 46.7 80 12.6 209 33.0 30 4.7 8 1.3 634 100.0

2.0 542 44.9 161 13.3 370 30.7 93 7.7 17 1.4 1207 100.0

Source: Field Data Marital Status In the Indian society the marital status of a man/woman decides his/ her social and economic role in the society. The family obligation www.ijmer.in

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drives the people to search for higher incomes or supplementary incomes. Table 4.4 presents the marital status of members in the sample children households. It is evident from table 4.4 that most of the members in sample children households were unmarried. About 59 per cent of females and 58 per cent of males in the sample households were not married. About 41 per cent of the members in sample households are married with a living partner. Among the married, the males slightly outnumbered females. Those who were widowed or separated constituted less than 1 per cent of members in the sample households. Table 4. 4 Marital Status of Members in the Sample Households S. No. Marital Status No. of members Male Female Total 1 Unmarried 334 374 708 % 58.3 59.0 58.7 2 Married 238 256 494 % 41.5 40.4 40.9 3 Widowed 0 4 4 % 0.0 0.6 0.3 4 Separated 1 0 1 % 0.2 0.0 0.1 Total 573 634 1207 % 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Data EDUCATION STATUS Generally, education plays crucial role in taking rational decisions on all social and economic issues. The educated parents and family members are expected to understand better the importance of education to the children as compared to the uneducated. The education status of members, aged 7 years and above, in the sample children households is presented in table 4.5. www.ijmer.in

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Table 4.5 Education Status of Members in the Sample Households (7 years and above) S. No. Education Status No. of Members Male Female Total 1 Illiterate 271 364 635 % 48.9 59.8 54.6 2 Just Literate 6 2 8 % 1.1 0.3 0.7 2 Primary (1-5) 213 212 425 % 38.4 34.8 36.5 3 Upper Primary (6-8) 30 17 47 % 5.4 2.8 4.0 4 High school (9-10) 22 10 32 % 4.0 1.6 2.8 5 Technical and College 12 4 16 % 2.2 0.7 1.4 Total %

554 100.0

609 100.0

1163 100.00

Source: Field Data It is clear from table 4.5 that the educational status of members in sample children households is at the lowest level. Illiteracy levels were very high among both males and females at 49 per cent and 60 per cent, respectively, the average for all the members being 55 per cent. Only about 4 per cent of members in the sample households had education at upper primary level. Only about 3 per cent of members in the sample households had High School education, and just 1.4 had technical/ college education. As such, the educational levels of members in the sample households could be considered poor. The literacy rate of 45 per cent for all members in the sample households could be considered very low when viewed against the district average of 60 per cent as per 2011 Census. Likewise, the male www.ijmer.in

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and female literacy rates of 51 per cent and 40 per cent, respectively, could be considered very low as compared to the district averages of 70 per cent and 50 per cent, respectively, according to 2011 Census. Thus, it may be said that the literacy levels and educational status of members in the sample households were low compared to overall picture at the district and state level. It follows from the above that high levels of illiteracy and low levels of educational status among the members of the sample households could be one major factor responsible for the school dropout problem. OCCUPATION STATUS The income of a household largely depends upon the nature of occupation pursued by its members. Occupation can be in any sector, organized or unorganized. Compared to unorganized sector, organized sector involves less physical strain and more leisure. The wage difference is also high between these two sectors. Hence, it is important to examine the occupation status of members in the sample households to ascertain the sustainability of income sources. The occupational status of members in the sample households is given table 4.6. Table 4.6 Distribution of Members in the Sample Households by Primary Occupation No. of Members S. No. Primary Occupation Male Female Total 166 242 408 1 Agricultural Labour % 29.0 38.2 33.8 2 Non-Agricultural Labour 129 173 302 % 22.5 27.2 25.0 3 Cultivator 76 34 110 % 13.3 5.4 9.1 4 Small Business 2 2 4 % 0.3 0.3 0.3 5 Salaried 5 1 6 www.ijmer.in

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% 4

Cannot Work %

5

Student % Total

0.9 20 2.5 175 30.5 573 100.0

0.2 24 3.8 158 24.9 634 100.0

0.5 31 2.6 334 27.7 1207 100.0

% Source: Field Data Table 4.6 shows that about 34 per cent of members in the sample households were engaged in agricultural labour as their primary occupation. About 25 per cent of members in the sample households were dependent on non-agricultural labour as their primary occupation. The percentage of females was higher than that of males among those pursuing agricultural labour and non-agricultural labour as their main occupation. It means that in the study area female members contributing a lot for the economic wellbeing of the family. Only about 9 per cent of members in the sample households were dependent on cultivation as their main occupation. The percentage of members pursuing small business and salaried jobs together constituted just 1 per cent of the total members in the sample households. The students accounted for about 28 per cent of the total members in the sample households, being higher in the case of males when compared to females. The remaining members cannot work (2.6%). Thus, it becomes clear that a large majority of the workers were dependent on wage labour – either agricultural labour or nonagricultural labour, and therefore are in a highly vulnerable situation because the availability of wage labour is uncertain. Thus, the sample households are deprived of sustainable sources of income, which could be one major reason for the existence of large number of out-of-school children on account of their inability to send them to school.

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SCHOOLING STATUS OF CHILDREN It is important to examine the schooling status of children in the school-going age group of 6-14 years in order to assess whether all the children in this age group were going to school or not. The schooling status of children in the age group of 6-14 years in the sample children households is presented in table 4.7. Table -4. 7 Schooling status of Children (6-14 years) in the Sample Households No. of Children S. Schooling Status No. Male Female Total 1 In School 167 150 317 % 67.9 50.6 58.5 2 Dropout 38 71 109 % 15.4 24.0 20.1 3 Never Enrolled 41 75 116 % 16.6 25.3 21.4 Total 246 296 542 % 100.0 100.0 100.0 It may be noted from table 4.7 that only about 68 per cent male children and 51 per cent of female children aged 6-14 years in the sample households were going to school at the time of field survey, the average for all the children being 59 per cent. The dropout children accounted for 20 per cent of total children in the school-going age group, while the never enrolled children constituted 21 per cent. In the case of dropout children, females (24%) outnumbered males (15%). Similarly, the percentage of females (25%) was higher than that of males (17%) even among the never enrolled children. Thus, the situation with regard to the out-of-school children is very grim in respect of the sample households. Despite the fact that 240 children from the sample households (240) were covered under NCLP, there were still 109 dropout children and 116 never enrolled children in these households. The large-scale www.ijmer.in

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presence of out-of-school (OOS) children in respect of the sample households is a clear indication of high potential for child labour in the study area. It makes a mockery of the efforts made for mainstreaming the OOS children. Another cause of concern is the persisting gender inequalities in the schooling status of children in the sample households; in the study area, the parents seem to be giving priority to males when compared to females while sending children to school. WORKING STATUS OF CHILDREN It is also important to examine the working status of children in the school-going age group of 6-14 years to understand whether the OOS children are doing some work, and, if yes whether it is on full-time or part-time basis. Table 4.8 shows the working status of children in the sample households. It may be seen that the children not taking up any work constituted about 46 per cent of total children in the age group of 6 – 14 years in the sample households; it is these children who were going to school. The percentage of males was on the high side (55%) when compared to that of females (39%) among those who were not doing any work and going to school. On the other hand, a majority of children (54%) in the schoolgoing age group were doing some work or the other. It was found that about 41 per cent of children were taking up work on full-time basis, while the remaining 13 per cent were undertaking part-time work, mostly in the agricultural sector. Those who were taking up full-time work were engaged in agricultural and non-agricultural labour and other stray jobs. The percentage of females was higher (49%) than that of males (32%) among those children taking up work on full-time basis. Thus, gender disparities are evident in the matter of taking up work by the school-going aged children in the sample households.

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Table -4. 8 Working status of Children (6-14 years) in the Sample Households No. of Children S. Working Status Male Female Total No. 1

Full-time %

2

Part-time

3

Not working

% % Total

78 31.7 32 13.0 136 55.3 246 100.0

146 49.3 36 12.2 114 38.5 296 100.0

224 41.3 68 12.6 250 46.1 542 100.0

% Source: Field Data LAND OWNERSHIP The economic status of a household depends on the land possessed, more so in in rural areas. As such, it is important to examine the land ownership status of sample households. Table 4.9 shows the land possessed by the sample children households. Table 4. 9 Land Possessed by the Sample Children Households S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Land owned (acres) Nil % 1.0 % 2.0 % 3.0 % 4.0 % 5.0 % Total %

Male 60 57.1 9 8.6 2 1.9 10 9.5 8 7.6 16 15.2 105 100.0

No. of Households Female Total 87 147 64.4 61.3 13 22 9.6 9.2 6 8 4.4 3.3 7 17 5.2 7.1 7 15 5.2 6.3 15 31 11.1 12.9 135 240 100.0 100.0

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It becomes clear from table 4.9 that a majority (61%) of the sample children households do not possess any agricultural land. Of those who possessed some agricultural land, most of them possessed agricultural land to the tune of 1-3 acres; about 20 per cent of the sample households belonged to this category. While 6 per cent of the sample households possessed 4 acres of land, those possessing 5 acres of land constituted 13 per cent of the total. None of the sample households possessed more than 5 acres of land. Thus, it may be inferred that over 60 per cent of the sample households were landless, and of the remaining, a majority of them possessed land to the tune of 3 acres or less. It is also important to note that although 39 per cent of the sample households possessed some land or the other, yet there were just 9 per cent members in the sample households pursuing cultivation as their main occupation. It follows from the above that the land owned by the sample households is rain-fed and unviable for cultivation, unable to generate income on a sustainable basis. HOUSING SITUATION The housing situation of the sample households indicates the quality of life of household members. Table 4.10 presents the housing situation in respect of the sample children households in terms of ownership of house, type of house and access to amenities such as electricity, safe drinking water and sanitation. Ownership of House It could be seen from table 4.10 that about 66 per cent of the sample households were residing in their own house, more so among the female children households (70%) when compared to male children households (60%). About 31 per cent of the sample households reported that they resided in government-given houses. Only about 3 per cent of the sample households lived in rented houses. Thus, as far as

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ownership of house is concerned, a majority of the sample households either lived in own houses or government-given houses. Table 4.10 Housing Situation in respect of the Sample Children Households No. of Households S. Particulars Male Female Total No. (N=105) (N=135) (N=240) Status of House 1 Government-given

36

39

75

34.3

28.9

31.3

63

95

158

60.0

70.4

65.8

6

1

7

5.8

0.7

2.9

31 29.5 47 44.8 27 25.7

31 23.0 57 42.2 47 34.8

62 25.8 104 43.3 74 30.8

88 83.8 17 16.2

123 91.1 12 8.9

211 87.9 29 12.1

8 7.6 97 92.4

6 4.4 129 95.6

14 5.8 226 94.2

12

8

20

%

11.4

5.9

8.3

93

127

220

%

88.6

94.1

91.7

100.0

100.0

100.0

% Own house % Rented % 2

Type of House Katcha % Pucca % Semi-Pucca %

3

Electricity Connection Yes % No %

4

Sanitation Facility Yes % No %

5

Drinking Water Facility Public Bore well Public Tap Total

Source: Field Data

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Type of House The type of house in which a household lives denotes its economic status. If the sample children households are living in unsafe dwellings, their educational achievements may be adversely affected. The data in table 4.10 shows that about 43 per cent of sample children households lived in pucca houses and 31 per cent in semi-pucca houses. About 26 per cent of the sample households lived in Kachha houses or huts. Thus, only 43 per cent of the sample households resided in safe dwellings and the remaining 57 per cent either lived in semi-pucca or kachha houses. Electricity Connection It becomes evident from table 4.10 that a vast majority (88%) of the sample children households had the electricity connection in the study area; the corresponding figures for male and female children households stood at 84 per cent and 91 per cent, respectively. However, about 12 per cent of the sample children households had no electricity connection, being higher in respect of males (16%) as compared to females (9%). Thus, a vast majority of the sample households had electricity connection. Sanitation Facility A vast majority (94%) of the sample children households had no access to sanitation facility (individual toilet), as per the data presented in table 2.10. Only about 6 per cent of the sample children households had the individual toilet facility. Thus, the access to sanitation is very low among the sample households. This is despite the Total Sanitation Campaign launched in the country over a long time.

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Source of Drinking Water Table 4.10 shows that as many as 92 per cent of the sample children households depended on public tap as the main source of drinking water. The percentage of sample households depending on public tap as the main source of drinking water was slightly higher in the case of female children households (94%) when compared to male children households (89%). Nearly 8 per cent of the sample children households depended on public bore well as the main source of drinking water. Thus, the sample children households were deprived of safe drinking water facility. POSSESSION OF MOVABLE ASSETS Table 4.11 shows the possession of movable assets in the sample children households. It may be noted that the most of the households do not possess even the common assets such as electric fans and Television. Only 35 per cent of the sample households possessed the electric fans, while those possessing Television stood at just 24%; no substantial variations were found between the households comprising male and female sample children in this regard. Another important asset possessed by the sample households was gas stove, more so among households comprising female dropouts than those comprising male dropouts. About 28 per cent of the households had access to gas stove, obtained by them under Deepam scheme of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. Another important asset possessed by the sample children households include motorbike (24%). Further, about 35 per cent of the sample households reported possession of silver ornaments to some extent, while those possessing gold ornaments to a very limited extent stood at 15 per cent. Only one per cent of the sample households possessed bicycle. Thus, it is clear the asset position of the sample households in respect of movable assets is poor.

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Table 4.11 No. of Households Possessing

S. Name of the Assets No 1

Television %

2

Motorbike %

3

Bicycle %

4

Gold %

5

Silver %

6

Gas Stove %

7

Electric Fans % Total (N)

Male

Female

Total

26

31

57

24.8

23.0

23.7

21

30

51

20.0

22.2

21.2

3

0

3

2.9

0.0

1.2

22

15

37

21.0

11.1

15.4

25

59

84

23.8

43.7

35.0

21

44

66

20.0

32.6

27.5

31

48

79

29.5

35.5

32.9

105

135

240

Possession of Movable Assets by the Sample Children Households Source: Field Data Table 4.12 shows distribution of sample households by the value of movable assets possessed. It may be seen from table 4.12 that about 17 per cent of the sample households did not possess any movable www.ijmer.in

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assets. The value of the household assets possessed by a majority (70%) of the sample households was only up to Rs.10000. Only about 11 per cent of the sample households possessed movable assets worth Rs.10000 – Rs.25000. Only about 1 per cent of the sample households possessed movable assets worth above Rs.25000. There were no substantial variations between the two categories of households comprising male and female sample children with regard to the value of movable assets possessed. Table 4.12 Value of Movable Assets Possessed by the Sample Children Households No. of Households S. Value of Movable No. Assets (Rs.) Male Female Total 1 Nil 23 18 41 % 21.9 13.3 17.1 2 Up to 10000 65 104 169 % 61.9 77.6 70.4 3 10000 – 25000 15 11 26 % 14.3 8.2 10.8 4 25000 – 50000 2 2 4 % 1.9 1.5 1.7 Total 105 135 240 % 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Data EXTENT OF INDEBTEDNESS The educational opportunity of children in a particular household depends upon the economic position of that household. A household drowned in debts cannot afford to provide even the basic education of children. Instead of sending their children to school, the parents ask them to take up some work and earn something for the economic betterment of the family. Therefore, it becomes important to study the extent of indebtedness of the sample children households, as presented in table 4.13.

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Table 4.13 Distribution of Sample Children Households by Outstanding Debt S. No.

Outstanding debt (Rs.)

1

Up to 25000

No. of Households Male 90 85.7

Female 121 89.6

Total 211 87.9

%

14 13.3 1 1.0

12 8.9 0 0.0

26 10.8 1 0.4

%

0 0.0

2 1.5

2 0.8

%

105 100.0

135 100.0

240 100.0

% 2

25000-50000 %

3

50000-75000

4

75000-100000 Total

Source: Field Data It may be noted from table 4.13 that all the sample households had some amount of indebt. But a preponderant majority, i.e., 88 per cent, of the sample households had an outstanding debt of less than Rs.25 000. About 11 per cent of the sample households had an outstanding debt ranging from Rs.25000 to Rs.50000. Only one household had an outstanding debt in the range of Rs.50000 to Rs.75000, while two households had an outstanding debt in the range of Rs.75000 to Rs.100000. Thus, even though all the sample households were in debt, the amount of outstanding debt is less than Rs.25000 in most cases. Perhaps, the low levels of indebtedness among the sample households could be due to low asset position of the households in terms of house, land and movable assets.

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SUMMING UP To sum up, it may be said that most of the sample children pursued the Hindu religion and a majority of them belonged to weaker sections of the society in terms of both social and economic status. A majority of the sample children hailed from BCs, followed by SCs and Minorities. The demographic characteristics of the sample children households revealed that the sex ratio and household size were higher when compared to general population at the district level. The literacy rates were very low both among the males and females in the case of the sample households when viewed against the averages at the district and state level. Most of the members in the sample households had low levels of education, mostly confining to primary or upper primary level. Very few members had High School and College education. Most of the members were engaged as agricultural or non-agricultural labour, and a few as cultivators. The occupational diversification is very poor in respect of the sample children households; only a negligible proportion of members were pursuing small business or salaried jobs. It is matter of serious concern that there were a sizeable section of OOS children (41%) among the school-going age group of 6-14 years, and most of them were engaged in work on full-time or part-time basis. Thus, a large-scale presence of child labour in the sample households, despite the fact that one child from each of these households was covered under NCLP, makes a mockery of the Constitutional provisions relating to child labour and RTE Act, 2009. A majority of the sample households were landless, and most of those who were in possession of land had 1-3 acres. About two-thirds of the sample households had own houses, while the remaining lived in government-given houses. Not even half of the sample households lived in pucca houses. Even though a vast majority of the households had access to electricity, their access to sanitation and safe drinking water was very much limited. The position of the sample households could be www.ijmer.in

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considered very poor in terms of amenities and movable assets. All the sample households were in debt, although the amount of outstanding debt was less than Rs.10000 per household. Thus, the socio-economic profile of the sample children and their households indicate that they hailed from a very poor social and economic background. References Agarwal,

(2013) “Child Labour in the Diamond Industry”, International Labour Organization. pp. 51-53. The New York Times, February 26. Alliance for Excellent Education, (2007) “The High Cost of High School Dropouts What the Nation Pays for Inadequate High Schools” www. all4ed.org. Amarendra Das, (2007), “How Far Have We Come in Sarva Siksha Abhayan”, Vol – XLII No. 01, January. Anil Kumar.V (2011), “State, Civil Society and the Eradication of Child Labour in Karnataka”, Vol – XLVI No. 03 January 15, 2011. Anugula N. Reddy and Shanta Sinha, (2010), “School Dropouts or Pushouts? Overcoming Barriers for the Right to Education”, National University of Educational Planning and Administration, Research Monograph No. 40, July. Balagopalan and Subramainan (2003), Dalit and Adivasi Children in Schools: Some preliminary research themes and Findings IDS Bulletin, Vol.34, no.1, pp.6-15. Basumatary, (2012), “School Dropout across Indian States and UTs: An Econometric Study”, International Research Journal of Social Sciences,Vol. 1(4), 2835, December, pp.28-35. Bhattacharya Abhijit “Assessing School Drop-out Rate at Primary Level in Eastern Region of India” Advances in Management, Vol. 1, No.3, September, 2008, pp. 5-8. Bill and Melinda Foundation, (2006), “The Silent Epidemic: perspective of High School Dropouts”. Choudary, (2006) “Special Article”, V0l – XLI No. 51, December 23. Dev Nathan and Ann George, (2012), “Corporate Governance and Child Labour” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. - XLVII No. 50, December 15. Dev S. (2004), “Female Work Participation and Child Labour”

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Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIX No. 07, February 14. Govindaraju.R and Venkatesan.S (2010), “A Study on School Drop-outs in Rural Settings” Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, No.1, pp.4753. Jaba Guha and Piyali Sengupta (2002), “Enrollment, Dropout and Grade Completion of Girl Children in West Bengal”, Review of Women’s Studies Review Issues Specials, Vol - XXXVII No. 17, April. Jeyaranjan J (2004), “Women Studies Review Issues Specials”, Vl – XXXIX No.44, October 30. Jobin Joy and M. Srihari, (2014), “A Case study on the School dropout Scheduled Tribal students of Wayanad District, Kerala”, Research Journal of Educational Sciences Vol. 2(3), 1-6, June, pp.1-6. Jomo K.S. (1984) Early Labour: Children At Work On Malaysian Plantations. Kuala Lumpur and London: INSAN, the Institute for Social Analysis and Anti-SIavery Society for the Protection of Human Rights, p. 37. Khatu, K.K et al: (1983) Working Children in India. Baroda: Operations Research Group, p. 69. Kotwal, N.and Rani, S., “Causes of School Dropouts among Rural Girls in Kathua District”, Journal of Human Ecology, Vol.22, No.1, July 2007, pp. 57-59. Krishna Kumar and Latika Gupta, “What Is Missing in Girls’ Empowerment”, Vol – XLIII No. 26-27, June 28, 2008. Kukreti Manoj Kumar Saxena B.R, (2004), “Dropout Problem among Tribal /Students at School Level: A Case Study,” Kurukshetra, Vol.52, No.11, September. Kundu, (1984), “Tribal Education in India: Some Problems”, Journal of Indian Education 10(2), pp.1-7. Mario Biggeri, Ratna M Sudharshan and Santosh Mehrotra (2009), “Child Labour in Industrial Outworker Households in India”, Vol – XLIV No.12, March 21. Mehta C, (2006) “Drop-out Rate at Primary Level: A Note based on DISE 2003- 04 & 2004-05 Data “ National Institute of Educational Planning and administration, New Delhi. Mehta, Arun C (2008). “Elementary Education in India: Progress towards UEE”, New Delhi: NUEPA. www.ijmer.in

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Mohinder Singh: (1987-88) “Planning and Performance. Closing the Gap In Primary Education”, Future. Development Perspective on Children. 22-23, Winter, New Delhi: UNICEF, p. 29. Monica and Kelly Hallman, (2006), “Pregnancy-related Dropout and Prior School Performance in South Africa”, Working Paper No.212, Population Council, New York. Naik J.P (1975) Equality, “Quality and Quantity. The elusive triangle in Indian Education”, New Delhi: A11ied Publishers Private Limited, p. 117. Neera Burra, (1987) A Report on Child Labour in the Gem Polishing Industry of Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. New Delhi: prepared for UNICEF, October, mimeo, p. 37. Nithiya Amirtham S and Saidalavi Kundupuzhakkal, (2013), “Gender Issues and Dropout Rates in India: Major Barrier in Providing Education for All”, Educationia Confab Vol. 2, No. 4, April , pp.226-233. Pal S.P and D.K. Pant (1995), “Strategies to improve School Enrollment” Journal of Educational Planning and Administration Vol. IX, NO. 2, April 1995. pp. 159-168. Peter.S, Raman K.J and Ravilochanan.P (2006), “School Dropouts of SC and ST Students in Chennai Corporation Schools”, The Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol.68, Issue 2, April 2007, pp.248-258. Poromesh Acharya, (1982) “Child Labour”. Seminar, 275, July, pp. 18-19. PROBE Team (1999), Survey suggests that if a child is unwilling to go to School. London School of Economics, (last accessed on 2011 July). Rani, U.R., “Reasons For Rising School Dropout Rates Of Rural Girls In India- An Analysis Using Soft Computing Approach”, International Journal of Current Research, Vol.3, No.9, January 2011, pp.140-143. Ranjan Ray (2000), Poverty, Household Size and Child Welfare in India, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXV No. 39, September 23. Ranjan Ray (2002), “Simultaneous Analysis of Child Labour and Child Schooling”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XXXVII No. 52, December 28, 2002. www.ijmer.in

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Reddy V.N (1995), “Gross Enrolment, Drop-Out and Non-Enrolment Ratios in India: A State Level Analysis”, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, Vol. IX, No.3, July. pp. 229-254. Rupon Basumatary, “School Dropout across Indian States and UTs: An Econometric Study”, International Research Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 1, No.4, December 2012, pp 28-35. Sarada Balagopalan, (2004), “Free and Compulsory Education Bill, 2004”, Vol – XXXIX No. 32, August 07, 2004. Saravanan, (2002) “Women's Employment and Reduction of Child Labour”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXVII No. 52, December 28. Satadru Sikdar (2012), and Anit N Mukherjee, “Enrolment and Dropout Rate in School Education”, Vol – XLVII No.01, January 07. Subrahmanyam (1986), “Problems of School Dropouts: A Study with Special Reference to SC and ST in Andhra Pradesh”, Education Quarterly, 38(3), pp.28-32. Usha (2007), “How High are Drop-out Rates in India?”, Economic and Political Weekly March 17, p.982. Venkata Narayana.M (2009), “Out of school children: Child labourers or educationally deprived” , Economic and Political Weekly, vol 39, No 38 p 4219. Venkatanarayana. M (2004), “Out-of-School Children”, Vol,XXXIX No.38, September.

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EPISTEMIC NORMS, FOUNDATIONS AND REPRESENTATIONS: A HISTORICAL STUDY Dr.K.V.Prasanna Department of Philosophy University of Hyderabad Hyderabad Introduction The aim of this paper was to understand the broad contours of traditional epistemology, which constitute the received tradition in terms

of

three

meta-epistemic

concepts,

namely,

normativity,

foundationalism, and representationally as they figure in the theories of major philosophers whose works constitute the milestones in the history of epistemology. Though they are many philosophers who have worked

in

the

concept

of

normativity,

foundationalism

and

representationally I have focus on three major philosophical traditions Kant, Logical Positivists and Popper’s Epistemology whose works are substantial enough to understand these three concepts. The basic features of these three concepts are the flowing: 

Normativists argue that quality of the reasons that converts true beliefs into knowledge. The quality of the reasons is assessed by certain norms. The normative epistemology holds that it can discover historically invariant and universal norms that ought to be met by any knowledge claim to be considered as valid.



Foundation lists hold that our belief or hypothesis can be justified by drawing a connection with something called ‘basic belief’ or ‘facts’ or ‘evidence’ etc. The main argument is that foundational propositions that are basic beliefs have autonomous justification.



According to representation lists what we are directly aware of is

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not external objects, but our own mental states, the mental states which represent those objects. By representing them they facilitate description of things existing out in the world. Ideas (in Descartes and Locke) or “representations” (in Kant) thus formed a kind of bridge, both causal and experiential, between the inner and the outer world. I Kant’s Epistemology The Epistemological breakthrough in modern philosophy associated with the names of Descartes and Locke is somewhat outdone by the radical transformation that epistemology underwent in the hands of Kant. One of the main planks of Kant’s radical departure from the tradition he inherited lies in his attempt to reconcile rationalism and empiricism. The main thrust of Kant’s enquiry was to show how “Though all Knowledge begins experience, all Knowledge does not arises out of experience”(Thilly, Frank.1924:329)The first half of the quoted remark of Kant namely “All Knowledge begins with experience” is pro-empiricist and anti-rationalist in its force, whereas the second half of the remark namely, “All Knowledge does not arise out of experience” is anti-empiricist and pro-rationalist. So is the case with Kant’s dictum “Percepts without concepts are blind; concepts without percepts are empty”. (Thilly, Frank.1924: 399)By “concepts” here Kant means “non-mathematical”a priori concepts called “categories” whose application is a necessary condition for the objectivity of experience. The first part of the dictum is anti-empiricist and pro-rationalist whereas the second part of the dictum is anti-rationalist and proempiricist. However, Kant does not stand equidistant from rationalism

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and empiricism. The synthesis of the two rival theories of knowledge however tilted towards rationalism. The pro-rationalist tilt of the balance is too obvious to be missed by even a preliminary survey of the critical philosophy of Kant. After all, Kant himself claims that his Epistemology brought about a Copernican revolution in philosophy by replacing the object-centered view of knowledge by a subject-centered view of knowledge. That the former is the core of empiricist epistemology with its idea of mind as tabula-rasa is self-evident. Though the rationalists did not accept the object-centered view of knowledge by claiming that the mind is equipped with innate ideas that decided the shape of knowledge, they did not elaborate upon the precise mode of such a shaping. It is Kant who came to their rescue. But in the process of rescuing rationalism Kant subjectifies knowledge. However, this subjectification is sought to be limited by him in a manner which is consequential. If the subject applies the categories to objects not given in experience or indulges in applying ideas to alleged but not genuine objects of experience the subject is guilty of misuse of categories and ideas. Such a misuse or spurious application produces theoretical hallucinations

which

constitute

an

illegitimate

enquiry

called“Metaphysics” as it is traditionally practiced. In fact, Kant goes one step further. According to him, knowledge in this strict sense constitutes cognitive experience which involves the application of categories whose legitimate employment concerns their application to what is given to us in experience that is, perception or intuition. Hence, moral experience or aesthetic experience cannot be cognitive and moral judgments and aesthetic judgements are not knowledge claims strictly

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speaking. Though, they may be so in a broad and loose sense. Moral judgements and aesthetic judgements are not purely subjective either in the sense of being expressions of personal likes and dislikes as Hume thought, nor are they objective in a strict sense. Thus the fact-value dichotomy which was erected by the twentieth century movement called “Positivism” as a philosophical principle has been considered by the critics of such a dichotomy as a product of Kantian or neo-Kantian legacy. Such an accusation against Kant is understandable though it may not be easy to justify it. The normative thrust of Kantian Epistemology is all too palpable as the above discussion shows. However, such a normative thrust is given enormous force by what Kant considers to be the central question of epistemology which is “How is knowledge possible”. By raising thisquestion Kant gave a radical turn to epistemology. This question as well as the way Kant articulates it, and consequently the character of his solution constitute the second and major plank of Kant’s radical departure from tradition. The novelty and the radical potential of this question can be appreciated better when we compare it with the standard question that epistemology till Kant centered itself around, namely “What is the source of knowledge”. By the question, “How is knowledge possible”. Kant means “What are the a priori conditions [that is, conditions distinct from empirical conditions such as physical, physiological and psychological factors necessary for the production of knowledge] of the possibility of knowledge”. The discovery of the synthetic a priori principle of pure understanding, Kant claims, ought to facilitate the identification of such a priori conditions.

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Kant’s approach to knowledge is normative in a thoroughgoing sense. Our knowledge claims remain genuinely so only if they are the results of the application of categories as dictated by or governed by the synthetic a priori principles of pure understanding whose discovery is a task of an a priori enquiry or transcendental enquiry. The recognition of the normative character of knowledge on one hand and the recognition of the need for non-psychological and therefore nonempirical, that is, an apriori enquiry into knowledge on the other are the two sides of the Kantian approach toknowledge. According to Kant, epistemology prior to Hume lacked sufficient focus on the normative character of knowledge and hence such an epistemology was not pure ora priori or transcendental and it compromised with psychologism. By Kant’s assertion that his enquiry into the possibility of knowledge is pure or transcendental or a priori, Kant implies that his predecessors in general and empiricists in particular did not adopt a completely non-empirical approach to the nature of knowledge. To that extent, they did not recognize the purely non-natural dimension of knowledge. In short, their commitment to the normativist ideal of epistemology was a diluted one. In the language of contemporary epistemology, their approach to knowledge tended to be descriptive rather than normative and they willingly adopted a naturalistic perspective towards knowledge. Unlike his predecessors Kant argues the very need of epistemic norm for knowledge claim. Equally conspicuous is the foundationalist character of Kantian Epistemology. The synthetic a priori principles of pure understanding constitute the foundations of knowledge (apartfrom providing axioms of

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a pure science of nature on one hand and Metaphysics of Nature on the other) as they underlie cognitive experience as its presuppositions. They constitute the framework of knowledge as representation. Kant’srepresentationalism is also unprecedented. Though the idea of knowledge as representation is shared by Kant and his predecessors and in that sense he stands within the received view of epistemology, nevertheless he re-works the notion of representation itself in a fundamental way. This is the consequence of his view that what is represented has its locus in the subject itself. But that does not make representation itself subjective. This is the thrust of Kant’s transcendental deduction of categories according to which there is an “It” because there is an “I”. In Kant’s own terms the “transcendental unity of apperception”, that is, self-consciousness is a necessary condition of the application of thecategories which is the necessary condition for the experience of object, that is, objective experience. However, the application of categories ensures that the condition called “transcendental unity of apperception” is realized. The distinction between noumenon and phenomenon in no way affects or dilutes the representationalist core of Kant’s Epistemology. After all “Noumenon” according to him, is a limiting concept and a negative concept. It is impossible to represent it. It does not even make sense to attempt to do it. It is only the phenomenon that can be represented because it alone is Knowable. That means, what is knowable is representable. This point is reinforced by Kant when he says that his position is one of empirical realism, that is, the position that objects of knowledge are given to us immediately and he is a

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transcendentalist idealist only in the sense that according to him what we know are things in themselves. He rejects empirical idealism as either dogmatic or problematic. The normativist, the foundationalist and the representationalist dimension of Kant’s epistemology are seen by some contemporary philosophers to be the height of the intellectual arrogance of philosophy. For instance, according to Rorty Kant only construes knowledge as a product of mind’s mirroring of nature but also that only the philosopher with the knowledge of synthetic a priori principles can understand the mechanism of such a mirroring. Thus one of thewellknown critics of the received view of epistemology considers Kant’s work to be the climax of the traditional epistemology which took for granted

the

validity

of

its

normativist,

foundationalist

and

representationalist pretensions. 2. Logical Positivists’ Epistemology The twentieth century philosophical movement called positivism traced its anti-metaphysical stand to Hume. The Positivists explicitly stated their commitment to empiricism. They called themselves “neoempiricists”. And they differentiated their position from the classical empiricists on the ground that, the classical empiricists articulated their epistemological position in terms of psychological locutions like “sensations”, “impressions”, “ideas”, “judgments” etc. The Positivists instead sought to use neutral or logical locutions to characterize their position such as “sense data”, “concepts”, “propositions” etc. So as to avoid both physicalism as well as psychologism, however, they sought to work out a normativist and foundationalist

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epistemology by working out an organic relation between sense datum statements which they thought indubitable and our empirical claims. Such a relation was supposed to be quasi-deductive and hence with their rationalist and empiricist predecessors they accepted whole heartedly the deductive ideal of knowledge. It is obvious that the acceptance of the deductive ideal reinforces their normative orientation which they inherited from the tradition. Ironically, notwithstanding their valorisation of science as the paradigm of all knowledge, their perspective in epistemology does not have any relation to the actual practice of science which is anything but normative. The deductive ideal became a guiding principle in the philosophy of science. Because Positivists are empiricists their theory of scientific method is inductivitist. However, they were acutely aware of the need for solving Hume’s problem. That is, the task of providing rational justification of the principle of induction. The Positivists sought to do so by showing that pure observation statements constituting the substructure of science are quasi-deductively related to the super-structure of science constituted by scientific theories. It is a different matter that they failed to establish the purity of observations and thus the indubitability of observational statements. It is clear that Logical positivists too works with in these thematic concepts. 3. Popper’s Epistemology Karl Popper put forth a widely appreciated epistemological theory which he calls “Critical Rationalism”. Though critical rationalism is normativist in its orientation, it differs from previous versions of

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normativism. First of all, he rejects not only traditional empiricism but also traditional rationalism. According to him, both traditional rationalism and traditional empiricism were answers to the timehonoured question in Epistemology namely, “What is the source of knowledge” -a question, which, according to Popper, is both presumptuous

and

dangerous.

It

is

presumptuous

because

it

presupposes that there is something called the sources of Knowledge such that whatever that emanates from it should be accepted as knowledge -a fallacy which he calls “Knowledge by pedigree”. It is dangerous because such a view leads to dogmatic acceptance of certain knowledge claims. In its stead epistemology, therefore, must address a new question, namely, “Given anything to be the source of knowledge, how can we check our mistakes?” According to Popper this change in the character of Epistemology is analogous to the desirable change in political theory. According to Popper, until now political theory has focused on the question “Which is the best class to rule”. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle identified the intellectual class and the middle class respectively to be the best class to rule and Marx found the working class to be such a class. However, the question presumes that only one class has been ordained by History or God to be the best class for this purpose. Apart from being questionable such an assumption encourages blind acceptance of the rule of such a class resulting in autocracy. Hence, political theory must reject this question and now onwards must grapple with the question Whoever be the rulers and whichever class be the ruling class; how can the ruled avoid misrule by putting in place institutional checks and balances.

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Thus, Popper’s Epistemology is rationalist only in the sense that he is not an empiricist since according to him the mind is not a bucket collecting experiences as empiricists thought but it is more like a search light. Therefore, his rationalism is quite removed from traditional rationalism because unlike the rationalists he does not believe that reason is the source of Knowledge (just as he does not accept experience to be the source of knowledge). It is easy to see how Popper’s Epistemological approach is different from that of the positivists who, as we have seen, by calling themselves neo-empiricists distinguish their position from that of the traditional empiricists. Though Popper is normativist like the positivists in so far as he believed that there exist abiding norms that must be satisfied by a genuine Knowledge claim, he rejected the foundationalist orientation of the positivists. This is very well brought out in his attacks on the notion of pure observation, which is the corner stone of the positivist philosophy of science. Nor does Popper share the rationalist version of foundationalism which identified foundations with some indubitable a priori truths, wired into reason and hence have their locus in the subject. Against such a view Popper claims to have worked out in his epistemology the idea of “Epistemology without a knowing subject” (Carr, Brian .1950:214). Thus, Popper is a normativist without being a foundationalist. The normativist spirit of the Popperian position in epistemology is well brought out in his idea that the objectivity of our Knowledge consists in its inter-subjective testability/ criticizability. This norm is

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most perfectly met in the case of scientific knowledge wherein falsifiability acts as the criterion of scientificity. In this connection it must be noted the Popper’sEpistemological canvas is broad. Though according to him, scientific theories are the paradigm cases of genuine Knowledge since they are falsifiable, Metaphysical claims are, nonetheless, cognitively significant. He even goes to the extent of saying that if there was no Metaphysics there would not have been science,

since

scientific

problems

are

Metaphysical

problems

transformed in such a way as to provide them falsifiable solutions which are tentative and at best corroborated solutions. Thus Popper does not deny cognitive significance to Metaphysical claims and in this sense he rejects the fundamental contention of the positivists according to whom Metaphysical claims have no cognitive content since they are not verifiable even in principle. However,

the

question

is

“What

is

the

basis

criticizability/testability/ falsifiability

as

the norm

of

accepting

in epistemic

matters?” Popper sometimes suggests that our choice of criticizability /testability/falsifiability is a matter of convention since no deeper epistemic basis can be provided for such a choice. This amounts to accepting conventionalism with its own baggage of problems such as relativism, subjectivism etc. As if to avoid such a predicament Popper sometimes speaks of the acceptance of such a norm as a biological requirement of human species. But such an attempt to anchor the norm in our biological nature weakens the normativist orientation, which Popper himself espouses.

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Popper’s rejection of foundationalism comes out very effectively in his construal of theory–observation relation in science. As is well known, the positivists construed that relation in terms of a unilateral dependence of observation on theory. As against this, Popper construed the relation in terms of interdependence. To avoid the problem of circular justification he maintains that the observations that justify a theory do not depend upon the very theory they justify but the earlier theory which in turn depends up on a theory which is earlier than that. Thus observations and theories have inter-dependence arranged in a linear way, so that though no observation is absolutely theory independent, every observation is independent of the theory which is tested in its terms. Conclusion From the above discussion it is observable that the philosophical history

chained

with

these

(Normativity,

Foundationality

and

Representionality.) thematic preliminaries. Epistemologists work with these thematic concepts. So to get rid of these epistemic concepts is a great task for philosophers. We can see that Kant’s uncompromising normativism and total refusal to treat knowledge in a naturalistic way is organically related to the very notion of a critique. Kant used the locution in the sense of “Showing the limits of” and even after Kant it carries the same sense. In the hands of Kant “Critique” concerns showing the limits of reason which has a tendency to trespass the limit and tends to indulge in a spurious enquiry. The task of the critical philosophy was to identify those limits so that the operations of reason remain legitimate. It is this concern with the legitimacy of our

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knowledge that gives Kant’s epistemology a strong normativist dimension. In fact, it does so to such an extent that it can be said that normativist epistemology could never be pre-Kantian.The Positivist project to solve the problem of induction fell like a house of cards. However, the project itself falls squarely within the normativist, foundationalist and deductivist thrust of the epistemological position of the Positivists. Popper construes our most primitive observation to be dependent upon our primitive theories which are nothing but our inborn beliefs and expectations. But neither inborn beliefs nor the observation based on them can be said to constitute the foundations of our knowledge. That is, they do not perform the test of either pure experience of the empiricists nor the a priori tricks of the rationalists. Popper’s Epistemology thus has a distinction of being normativist without being foundationalist. References 1. Carr, Brian (1950) ‘Popper’s Third World’ (Vol. 27, No. 108 Jul., 1977) Oxford University Press on behalf of the Scots Philosophical Association and the University of St. AndrewsThe Philosophical Quarterly Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2218780, pp. 214226 2. Dancy,

Jonathan.

(1985) An introduction to

Contemporary

Epistemology, Basil: Blackwell 3. Fumerton, Richard. (2006) Epistemology, Malden: Blackwell 4. Goldman, Alvin. (1986) Epistemology and Cognition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 5. Hamlyn, D. W. (1987) History of Western Philosophy, UK: Penguin

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6. Humer, Michel. (2002)

Epistemology: contemporary readings,

London, Routledge 7. Kenny, Anthony (2012)A New History of Western Philosophy, Oxford, Clarendon Press 8. Moser, Paul K. and Nat, Arnold Vander (1998) The Theory of Knowledge A ThematicIntroduction, Oxford, New York 9. Perrett. Roy, (2000). Epistemology, New York: Garland 10. Pritchard, Duncan. (2006) What is this thing called Knowledge? London: Routledge 11. Rorty, Richard. (1979) Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, Princeton:Priceton University Press 12. Russell, Bertrand(2004) History of Western Philosophy, London, Routledge Classics 13. Scruton, Roger. (1981) A Short History of Modern Philosophy, London: Routledge 14. Thilly, Frank(1924)A History of Philosophy, New York:H. Holt and Company

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PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SELF-HELP GROUPS-A STUDY WITH REFERENCE TO SELECT GROUPS SPONSORED BY APGVB OF VISAKHAPATNAM REGION Dr.P.V.Mohini Assistant Professor School of Management Studies Gayatri Vidya Parishad College for Degree and P.G.Courses (A) Visakhapatnam

Mr.A.Vinod Kumar Student-MBA Gayatri Vidya Parishad College for Degree and P.G.Courses (A) Visakhapatnam

Abstract Self-Help Group (SHG) is a village-based financial intermediary committee usually composed of 10–20 local women or men. A mixed group is generally not preferred. Most self-help groups are located in India, though SHGs can be found in other countries, especially in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The present study made an attempt to assess the various problems faced by Self-Help Group members in India and some possible solutions to reduce the problems. The study is based on primary data that were collected through a survey of 480 respondents using a structured questionnaire from Self-Help Group members in Visakhapatnam Region of Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank (APGVB) to find out their problems. Introduction Self-Help Groups is a concept emerged in the direction of helping rural poor by forming groups so that they will improve their living conditions through voluntary participation in thrift and availing credit. Micro finance is the provision of all thrift and credit and other financial services and products of very small amount to the poor in rural, semiurban and urban areas for enabling them to raise their income levels and improve their standard of living. SHG is a voluntary homogenous group of 10 to 20 individuals having common interest among other www.ijmer.in

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things, in promoting savings habit, developing self and community assets improving empowerment etc., the group comprises of men/women from weaker sections, small and marginal farmers, landless labourers and rural poor (particularly women) engaged in agricultural, allied agricultural activities/small business. Members make small regular savings contributions over a few months until there is enough capital in the group to begin lending. Funds may then be lent back to the members or to others in the village for any purpose. In India, many SHGs are 'linked' to banks for the delivery of micro-credit. Self-help groups are generally facilitated by NGOs, and increasingly advise and train members in a variety of on- and off-farm incomegenerating activities. Indeed, in a number of recent projects, NGOs were substituted by trained facilitators and animators drawn from selfhelp groups. Through promoting self-help group, IFAD-funded projects have contributed to improving the overall status of women in terms of income, empowerment, welfare, etc. Formation of SHG will be done at village level with minimum of 10 members having the age group of 18 to 60 years. SHGs will be formed with married poor women and with minimum savings of rs.50/- each per month. After formation of SHG & before opening of the account, the formation details of the group must be obtained in the Annexure-1. History of Self-Help Groups: Self Help Group is a concept emerged in the direction of helping rural poor forming groups so that they will improve their living conditions through voluntary participation in thrift and credit. The core objective is Flexibility, Transparency and Autonomy with sensitiveness and responsiveness of the participants.

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THE RAISING CRITERIA OF SHG INDUSTRY AS FOLLOWS:  Prof. MohammedYunus of Bangladesh is the god father of Self-Help Groups.  In the year 1976, Prof. Yunus started implementing of his idea by forming Bangladeshi rural people (who are scared about financial problems) in to a small group.  Prof. Yunus provide financial assistance to that rural people by organizing them in a unit. This unit is called Self Help Group and finance is called Micro finance and Micro credit.  He successfully implemented his idea and this was gone into a big success. The crime rate in Bangladesh came down at a higher rate. Previously there are so many crimes due to financial problems.  Later his idea contributed to Bangladesh Rural Bank. Hence, there is a good scope to work with rural people for both as a service and as a business opportunity. 

For this big achievement Mr. Yunus had been awarded by Noble Peace Prize along with Grameena Bank in the year 2006.

 Prof. Yunus has received several other national and international honours. He received the United States President Medal of Contribution in 2009 and the Congression Gold Medal in 2010 for his Grameen America and Grameen Foundation.  In India, some NGOs (Non-Government Organizations) introduced the scheme during 1987-88.  NABARD took up the scheme on pilot project basis during 1991-92 and later extended it to all states in the country.  State Bank of India and its sponsored banks like Andhra Pradesh Grameen Vikas Bank started providing financial assistance to SHGs since 1996-97. www.ijmer.in

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Methodology for the study: During the process of study about PROBLEMS IN SHGs, we have approached some Self-Help Groups which are associated with Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank to know about their problems. Thus, we have taken Primary Data into consideration through questionnaire from the following branches of APGVB: China Gantyada, Sri Haripuram, Anakapalle, Allipuram, Lankelapalem,Kancharapalem branches of Visakhapatnam region. Later, during the process of assessing Non-Performing Assets (NPAs) of SHGs we have taken last 5 years’ financial data and circulars provided by Head Office for the purpose of solutions taken into consideration. Thus, we have taken both Primary Data of Personal Observation method and Secondary Data of published financial reports. Exclusively, we have taken more information from secondary data. Because, in financial institutions like banks, more data available from published financial reports only. MAINTENANCE OF SELF-HELP GROUPS (SHGs): Major financing of Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank (APGVB) is done with Self-Help Groups (SHGs) financing. Over 32% of financing of APGVB is from SHG financing only. Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank (APGVB) is the No.1 bank in India with respect to SHG maintenance by maintaining over 1,63,388 SHG groups and over 19lakh women financing under this SHG financing. As per the directions of Government of India and NABARD, APGVB have implemented Cash Credit System for SHG loans with effect from January 2012. According to the guidelines of Cash Credit system, APGVB have started conversion of all SHG Term Loans (only Standard Assets) in to Cash Credit system from January 2012 itself and www.ijmer.in

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now almost all the Standard SHG Term loans were converted as Cash Credit Loans. Further, APGVB have implemented sanction of SHG fresh loans (including renewals) under Cash Credit System only. Government of Andhra Pradesh has been implementing “VaddileniRunalu” scheme i.e. reimbursement of interest for prompt payers of Self Help Groups. The Bank would provide particulars of transactions in SHG accounts relating to all the branches to the SERP and basing on that, the SERP, Hyderabad, arrives at the list of SHG accounts eligible for VLR scheme and accordingly release the interest amount which is credited to the respective SHG accounts directly. As per the directions of Government of India, SHG Cash Credit loans are also to be treated as normal Cash Credit Loans for the purpose of classification of asset etc. But, as per the guidelines of VLR scheme of GOAP, the SHGs have to repay a minimum of 3% of drawing power every month to become eligible for reimbursement of interest. APGVB have, therefore, insisted the SHGs for repayment of 3% of drawing power towards EMI, though it is sufficient if they pay only the interest and other charges if any, every month. Further, as per the new SHG Cash Credit scheme, we have arranged for fixing limits for a period of 5 years basing on their present corpus and proposed thrift. This new system is facilitating the Self Help Groups for any number of withdrawals from their Cash Credit Account within the drawing power. The loan documents will be obtained for the limit of terminal year duly preparing the appraisal for 5 years and year-wise limits will be fixed basing on present corpus and proposed thrift (subject to a maximum of Rs.5.00 lakhs). The limit will be fixed as 8 times of corpus (1:8) for the current year and for the subsequent years, the limit will be 1:8 of present corpus PLUS expected thrift.

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APGVB branches and Regional Offices are maintaining good rapport with the SERP and DRDA/IKP at District level in respect of lending to SHGs and also in recovery of SHG loans. As a result, our level of advances under SHG segment grown up to Rs.2513.08 Crores as on 31.03.2014 from Rs.2015.98Crores as on 31.03.2013. The SHG maintenance of APGVB is as follows: S No.

Year

No. of SHGs

Amount o/s (Rs.in Crore) 1 2005-06 60140 216 2 2006-07 82835 332 3 2007-08 106350 606 4 2008-09 139708 905 5 2009-10 161077 1164 6 2010-11 172260 1472 7 2011-12 163308 1665 8 2012-13 160186 2016 9 2013-14 163388 2513 Table 1(a): SHG maintainance& Loan amount o/s of APGVB

The maintenance of SHG can be depicted by using above table as a graph as follows: 200000 150000 100000

139708 60140

82835

161077 172260 163308 160186 163388

106350

50000 0 2005-062006-072007-082008-092009-102010-112011-122012-132013-14 SHG

Graph 1(a): SHG maintenance of APGVB The Bank has disbursed Rs.1898.60 Crore to 146753 Groups during the year as against Rs.1990.58 Crore disbursed to 78201 SHGs during the previous year. The total loans outstanding under SHG segment has www.ijmer.in

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risen to Rs.2513.08 Crore constituting 32% of total advances as against previous FY's level of Rs.2015.98 Crores, constituting 30% of total advances. Lending to SHGs grew by Rs.497.10 Crore (@ 25%) compared to the last year's growth of Rs.350.79 Crore (@ 21%). The outstanding credit to SHGs at Rs.2513.08 Crore has also been highest in the country, among all RRBs. Over 32% of our total credit portfolio of Rs.7895 Crore is towards Self Help Groups and a mammoth 19Lakh rural women have banking relationship with our Bank. The Loan amount outstanding of SHGs is shown is depicted as Graph by using Table 5(b): (Rs.in Crores) 3000 2513 2500 2016 2000 1665 1472

1500 1164 905

1000 606 500

216

332

0

amount of outstanding

Graph 1(b): Outstanding Loan Amount towards SHGs  Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank (APGVB) started its operations in the financial year 2005-06 with Rs.216Crore amount www.ijmer.in

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of loan outstanding amount of Self-Help Groups and next financial year 2006-07 it has been increased to Rs.332 Crore.  The bank has been noted that a constant gradual increase in the amount of outstanding of loan towards SHGs.  The bank noted an average increase of Rs.235 Crores amount of outstand loan.  Finally, the bank has noticed Rs.2513Crore of loan outstanding amount at the end of financial year 2013-14. PROBLEMS IN SHGs: Women as compared to men have always been delicate and therefore they have to face many problems when they come out of the house to work with men. Women in developed economy do not face the problems which are faced by the Indian women. Despite many achievements, women get trifled by many difficulties. Some being common for both male and female and some are the curse only to the women. There are many psycho-social factors which hinder the path of women empowerment and her stepping towards entrepreneurship. Women have always been criticized by the male dominant society for their out of home activities. Indian women are confronted with many such problems. Indians believe in the philosophy that “Women should never be left independent, she should be under the control of her father in childhood, under the control of her husband after marriage and under the control of her son in old age”. Some of the major difficulties in this respect can be illustrated as below. 1. Family discouragement: As women in India have to work amidst social taboos, restrictions etc., they are not supported much to undertake entrepreneurship by their family members.

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2. Social Barriers: Women SHG in India are always seen with suspicious eyes, particularly in rural areas, they face more social barriers. 3. Caste and Religion: Though India is a secular country in practice, caste and religious systems dominate with one another and it hinders women SHGs. 4. Lack of self-confidence and risk bearing capacity: Women lack self-confidence and always feel that they may not be successful and hence hesitate to take risks. 5. Psychological factors: Always women feel that she is ‘women’ and less efficient than men and hesitates to take risks. She has to play a dual role if she is employed or engaged in work. She has to strive hard to balance her family life with care hence feels better to be housewife. 6. Lack of practical knowledge: Though women may be educated and have qualified knowledge, she lacks practical knowledge and hence hesitates to establish her own venture. 7. Problem of finance: Women entrepreneurs lack property in their own name and hence banks and financial institutions may hesitate to finance women based projects. 8. Lack of information: Women SHG lack knowledge of availability of raw materials, finance facilities and government help and subsidy etc.; they lack knowledge of advanced technology also and hence cannot widen their markets. 9. Problems of middlemen: Women SHG have to face the problems of middlemen more, as they generally depend more on them. Their margin of profit will be more and hence cause for higher selling price, which affects consumer’s attraction towards women’s products. www.ijmer.in

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10. Problem of Marketing: As generally women SHG will have small scale business they have to strive hard to sell their products in the modern competitive world. Their marketing knowledge will be less and lack of marketing skills as compared to men. 11. Delay in obtaining credit facilities: Loan facilities, though extended by banks and other financial intermediaries, quite often there is delay in getting the loan sanctions and receiving the disbursement of such facilities. 12. Female child discrimination: Most of the Indian families treat female child as a curse. There is biasness in case of promoting education and business opportunities for a girl. Although a girl is well in studies, she is not given an opportunity for higher studies. However, this perception is lowering down day by day. It is also advisable that we should start the task of promoting a girl child from our own self. The integrated effort by all of us will definitely lead to women entrepreneurship at the top level. 13. Lack of financial and family support: Indian SHG women also suffer from the problem of acquiring venture capital and other financial resources for starting a business. Further, they also lack a moral support from their family members including parents, husband etc. They are enclosed within their personal and family obligations, which are greater barriers to them. They play various role at the same time (i.e., mother, wife, daughter, etc.) so they also face problem of role conflict. 14. Problems inherited in women:

Indian women also fight, with

the perception of the society. They are not so easily accepted as a business organizer by the people in the society. Women lack courage and self confidence in starting a new venture. They even do not have access to entrepreneurial training and lack confidence from

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within. Moreover, they lack role model and experience, thus being a problem for lower confidence of finances and suppliers. 15. Market risk and uncertainties:

Women are not fully aware

about market uncertainties and they also lack the skill of boldly facing the market risks. They are afraid of such risks and uncertainties. They face difficulty in capturing market and enhancing product sales. There is a need for training to women entrepreneurs so that they are able to fight with the uncertainties very well. 16. Hesitate with banker’s acts: The members of SHG are hesitates to continue as members due to the acts of bankers. Most Bankers are not much give respect to the members of SHGs. They are irresponsible about the members of SHGs. 17. Lack of technical knowhow: Most of the Indian women do not have much knowledge about the latest technologies used in business. Due to this problem they fail to grow along with the flow of the economy. There is a need of technical training for them. 18. Lack of self-confidence, will-power, strong mental outlook and optimistic attitude amongst women creates a fear from committing mistakes while during their piece of work. The family members and the society are reluctant to stand beside entrepreneurial growth of SHG members. 19. Women in India lead a protected life. They are even less educated, economically not stable nor self-dependent which reduce their ability to bear risks and uncertainties involved in a business unit. 20. The old and outdated social outlook to stop women from entering in the field of entrepreneurship is one of the reasons for their failure. They are under a social pressure which restrains them www.ijmer.in

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to prosper and entrepreneurship.

achieve

success

in

the

field

of

SHG

21. The greatest deterrent to women entrepreneurs is that they are women. A kind of patriarchal male dominant social order is the building block to them in their way towards business success. Male members think it is a big risk financing the ventures run by women. 22. Male chauvinism is still prevalent in many parts of the country yet. Women are looked upon as “abla” i.e., weak in all respects. In a male dominated society women are not treated equal to men that acts as a barrier to women entry into business. 23. Indian women give more emphasis to family ties and relationships. Married women have a make a fine balance between business and family. The business success also depends on the support of the family members extended to women in the business process and management. 24. Due to illiteracy:

Most of the Indian women in SHG are

illiterates. Though, they were do not have much knowledge in financing and banking related activities. 25. Women’s family obligations also bar them from becoming successful entrepreneurs in both developed and developing nations. The financial institutions discourage women entrepreneurs in SHG on the belief that they can at any time leave their business and become housewives again. 26. Women mobility is limited:

Unlike men, women mobility in

India is highly limited due to many reasons. A single women asking for room is still looked with suspicion. Cumbersome exercise involved in starting with an enterprise coupled with officials humiliating attitude towards women couples them to give up their spirit of surviving in enterprise altogether. www.ijmer.in

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27. Women SHG entrepreneurs have to face a stiff competition with the men entrepreneurs who easily involve in the promotion and development and carryout easy marketing of their products. Such a competition ultimately results in the liquidation of women SHG entrepreneurs. 28. The

SHG

loan

amount

is

not

utilized

for

any

entrepreneurship. The loan amount taken by taken by SHG group members is utilized for their personal uses instead of using them for developing their development. 29. Government Policies: Policies are introduced by Government are not understandable by the members of the group, even bankers are also not give full information abou government policies. ASSESSMENT OF PROBLEMS IN SHGs: For the purpose of assessment in problems in SHGs study the primary data were collected through well-structured interview schedule containing questions relating to major problems faced by members of SHGs like personal problems, marketing problems, financial problems, product oriented problems by discussion with the two members of each SHG. The field survey has been carried out only in Mysore city. It covers 50 SHGs both registered and unregistered in the study area. Simple Random Sampling was used to select the respondents. Out of 50 SHGs two members from each SHGs were selected for the study. The assessment of problems of SHGs I have considered some factors as below:

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Demographic Factors: Age of the Respondents

Educational Qualification of the Respondents

Marital Status of the Respondents

Type of Family

Family Income per Month

Particula r

Fre q

%

Particula r

Fre q

%

Particula r

Fre q

%

Particula r

Fre q

%

Particula r

Fre q

%

Below 20

07

5.83

Illiterate s

63

52.5

Married

72

60

Joint Family

26

21.6 7

Up to Rs 2000

22

18.3 3

21-30

19

15.8 3

Up to4th std

31

25.8 3

Unmarried

38

31.6 7

Nuclear Family

94

78.3 3

20014000

47

39.1 7

31-40

56

46.6 7

5th to 10 thstd

24

20

Widows

07

5.83

___

__

__

40015000

32

26.6 6

41-50

22

18.3 3

P.U.C

02

1.67

Divorcee

00

00

___

__

__

50016000

11

9.17

Above50

16

13.3 3

Degree

00

00

Separate d

03

2.5

___

__

__

Above 6000

08

6.67

Total

120

100

Total

120

100

Total

120

100

Total

120

100

Total

120

100

Table 1(b): Demographic Factor for study of problems

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Village-wise study of respondents: Sample respondents are asked whether they are facing any problems or not in performing their role in the group. It is found that each group has its own problems similar as well as dissimilar to other groups. Sample members reported various problems such as lack of knowledge of financial dealings to the members, domestic and health problems, misuse of group money by the leader, non-payment of loans by the members, social problems, etc., besides some other problems. These some other problems are discussed in the coming tables. Distribution of the respondents by problems faced by the SHGs is given in Table 5(i). It is delineated from the table that most of the respondents reported that lack of knowledge of financial dealings either to all or most of the members (73.8 per cent).

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 6(1), JUNE 2016 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY PROBLEMS FACED BY THE SHGs Problems faced by the SHG members Total

Village

Lack of knowledge of financial dealings to the members

Domestic problems

Health problems

38

(47.5) (10.7) 58 (72.5) (16.4)

38

(47.5) (35.8) 20 (25.0) (18.9)

2

Anakapalle

56

20

(25.0) (18.9)

2

Allipuram

70

(87.5) (19.8) 70 (87.5) (19.8) 62 (77.5) (17.5)

(7.5) (5.7) 8 (10.0) (7.5) 14 (17.5) (13.2)

4

354 (73.8) (100.0

106 (22.1) (100.0)

China Gantyada, Sri Haripuram,

Lankelapalem Kancharapalem

Total

(70.0) (15.8)

6

Misuse of group money by Leader

Members don't repay the loan amount

-

-

(2.5) (16.7) (2.5) (16.7)

(5.0) (33.3) 2 (2.5) (100.0) 4 (5.0) (33.3) 14 (2.9) (100.0)

2

2

Social problems

2

(2.5) (100.0)

(2.5) (100) -

(2.5) (100.0)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2 (.4) (100.0)

2

(.4) (100.0)

80 (100) (16.7) 80 (100) (16.7) 80 (100) (16.7)

2

(.4) (100.0)

80 (100) (16.7) 80 (100) (16.7) 80 (100) (16.7) 480 (100) (100)

Table 1(d):DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS BY PROBLEMS FACED BY THE SHGs

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Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentages. It is found from the study that respondents felt that they are unable to pay full attention to the needs of husband, children and other dependents at home properly after joining SHGs when compared to situation before joining SHGs. The respondents felt guilty of giving less care and attention to their children. Further, it is found from the study that it is their solo problem since the attitude of family members of the most of the respondents is encouraging. While a negligible percentage of the respondents reported problems such as health problem, non-payment of loans by the members, misuse of funds by the group leader and social problems. SOME POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO REDUCE PROBLEMS IN SHG:  The elimination of obstacles for women entrepreneurship requires a major change in traditional attitudes and mindsets of people in society rather than being limited to only creation of opportunities for women. Hence it is imperative to design programmes that will address to attitudinal changes, training, supportive services.  The basic requirement in development of women entrepreneurship is to make aware the women regarding her existence, her unique identify and her contribution towards the economic growth and development of country.  The basic instinct of entrepreneurship should be tried to be reaped into the minds of the women from their childhood. This could be achieved by carefully designing the curriculum that will import the basic knowledge along with its practical implication regarding management (financial, legal etc.) of an enterprise.  Adopting a structured skill training package can pave the way for development of women SHG entrepreneurship. Such programmes www.ijmer.in

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can train, motivate and assist the upcoming women SHG entrepreneurship is achieving their ultimate goals.  Various schemes like the World Bank sponsored programmes can be undertaken for such purposes. The course design, should focus on imparting input on profitability, marketability and practical management lessons. CONCLUSION: Hence, it becomes necessary for the society and government to find remedies for the problems of women SHGs. Already the central and state governments, non-governmental organizations, banks, NABARD and various micro finance institution have taken so many steps to solve the problems of women SHG by the way of providing training to impact various marketing related skills, communication skills, leadership skills and team building skills etc., apart from providing various types of incentives and subsidy. So no doubt that the SHGs movement in India has been working in the right direction, but it is necessary to further empowerment of women in social, economic, cultural and political for the interest of the family in particular and the nation in general. Women as a significant human resource can play their role effectively if they are provided equal opportunities and status as those of the men. They need to be enabled to use improved technology in their daily activities for which relevant education and training are to be imparted to them in the same measures as they are available to men. The success of SHGs depends upon efficiency and effectiveness of groups. The government need to focus on major problems faced by SHGs as to make their resource mobilization meaningful and economic upliftment of members of SHGs.

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The banks must implement their attention towards SHG financing since most of the SHG members are facing problem with the response of bankers. The bankers must create awareness to the peoples by explaining the advantages with SHG financing. Conduct the programmes which are helpful to reduce the intra group problems also. In some branches, there is a problem of delay in the sanctioning of loan amount to the SHG members. The bankers must pay attention towards this because most of the financing of APGVB is happening with SHGs only i.e.,32%. There must reduce the intervention of middle men while proving loan to SHG group members. References 1. Muhammad, Y. (2007). Banker to the Poor. Penguin India.In-text reference: (Muhammad, Y. 2007) 2. Abdul Raheem, A. (2011). Women Empowerment through Self-help Groups (SHGs). New Century Publications.In-text reference: ( Abdul Raheem, A. 2011) 3. Puspita Das. (2016), Self Help Groups: Problems Opportunities and Challenges Ahead. BiotechPublishers.In-text reference: (Puspita Das.2016) 4. Ajay Tankha.(2013). Banking On Self-Help Groups: Twenty Years On. SAGE Publications Pvt. Ltd. 5. Dimpal Vij. (2013). Microfinance And Self Help Groups In India The Way Ahead. Manglam Publishers & Distributors.In-text reference: (Ajay Tankha.2013) 6. Samanta, R.K., & Narayanaswamy, B. (2007). Self Help Groups Key to Empowerment of Rural Women .B R Publishing Corporation In-text reference: ( Samanta,R.K., & Narayanaswamy,B. 2007) 7. Uma narang. (2012). Self Help Group: An Effective Approach to Women Empowerment in India. 8. International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research”, 1(8), 8-16.In-text reference: ( Uma narang. 2012) 9. DR. Reji. (2013). Economic Empowerment of Women through Self Help Groups in Kerala. 10. International Journal Of Marketing, Financial Services & Management Research”, 2(3), 97-113.In-text reference: (DR. Reji. 2013)

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ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN INDIA: AN ANALYTICAL STUDY Girish Chandra Tewari Member of AIAER & Indian Science Congress 16, Jyoti Vihar Colony, Mulayam Nagar Post-Chinhat, District- Lucknow ,U.P INTRODUCTION It is an established fact that basic education improves the level of human well being. Basic education is essential for eradicating poverty, achieving gender equality, reducing child mortality, curbing population growth, and ensuring sustainable development, peace and democracy. Therefore, Education is an effective instrument not only for the development of one’s personality but also for the sustained growth of the nation. Social justice and equity are by themselves strong arguments for providing basic education for all. Elementary education in India, therefore, is the foundation for development of every citizen and the nation as a whole. Earlier education was available only to the elites in society, and a large majority of poor and marginalized people remained illiterate. India has made tremendous progress in the field of education after independence. Since independence, Universal elementary education is one of the important goals in National policy in India. Article-45 of the Indian Constitution obligated that “the state shall endeavor to provide early pressure and are compelled to make policy to fulfill, to insure access to education reasonably a good quality. India has achieved a milestone when Article 21-A (i.e. “The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.”) and Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009 became operative on 1st April, 2010. The central government rules titled “The Right of

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Children to free and Compulsory Education Rules 2010” were notified in Official Gazette on 9th April, 2010. Primary education is fundamental and backbone of the nation & to provide it rapidly to all its citizens is a fundamental challenge. But only being literate is not sufficient. To develop basic leadership and problem-solving skills, to raise productivity, entrepreneurship and material standards quality of primary education is also equally important. It is very important to review the situation of primary education in India both in terms of quality & coverage so as to develop insight & to find out remedial measures needed for future development of primary education in country. COVERAGE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN INDIA Since independence India has made significant progress on access to schooling. At the time of independence, in 1947, only 14% of the population of India was literate and only one child out of three had been enrolled in primary schools. Overall, there has been steady increase in school enrolment (Number of students enrolled in a given grade/class as on reference date, which is 30th September of an academic year, regardless of age) starting from 1990. The enrolment in primary classes (Class is a stage of instruction usually covered in one academic year) rises from 101.16 million in 2002-03 to 131.21 million in 2006-07 and further to 133.41 million in 2009-10, 135.21 million in 2010-11, 137.10 million in 2011-12 and thereafter enrolment in primary classes declines to 134.78 million in 2012-13 to 132.43 million in 2013-14 and to 130.50 million in 2014-15. At upper primary classes the enrolment increased from 64.93 million on 2012-13 to 66.47 million in 2013-14 and 67.17 million in 2014-15. In 2014-15, the ratio of girls to boy’s enrolment is 0.93 in primary classes and 0.95 in upper primary classes and both were same in 2013-14 also. Percentage of girl’s enrolment shows a declining trend. www.ijmer.in

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At primary level, it decreased from 48.36 (in 2012-13) to 48.20 (in 201314) to 48.19 (in 2014-15). At upper primary level, it decreased from 48.77 (2012-13) to 48.66 (in 2013-14) and to 48.63 (in 2014-15). According to the Public Report on Basic Education (PROBE) survey it seems that the guardians are not interested in sending their girls to the school, however in the case of boys, they are much more interested in sending to the school. This is another factor, which suggests that high motivational activities would take place among guardians for sending their wards to school. The SC and ST enrolment with respect to the total enrolment in 2014-15 was 19.93% and 10.83% respectively at primary level and at upper primary level; it was 19.55% and 9.76% respectively. At all levels,

Government

schools

are

the

main

providers

of

educational needs of both SC & ST children. There were 37.38% & 35.69% of SC and ST enrolment respectively to the total enrolment in Government run Primary Schools and Upper Primary Schools in India. The share of OBC enrolment in the primary & upper primary classes in the school across the country was 44.44% & 44.72% respectively. U-DISE (Unified District Information System for Education) is a database of information about schools in India, was developed at the National University for Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi. According to that Data, at primary & upper primary classes, the percentage of Muslim enrolment is reported to be 14.37 (14.34% in 2013-14) and 12.60 (12.52% in 2013-14). The enrolment percentage of Muslim girls is as high as 49.02 and 51.49 at primary and upper primary levels. To achieve universal elementary education, it is required to retain students in the education system. The ratio of class 5th to 1st is 95% in 2014-15, which was 93% in 2013-14. This is also reflected in the ‘Retention rate’ {The enrolment in class 5th (minus repeaters) in a year as a proportion to enrolment in class 1st four years back is termed as www.ijmer.in

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retention rate at the Primary level.} at primary level, which is estimated to be 84%. Retention rate of SC and ST and Muslim were 82.93%, 68.64% & 80.61% respectively. The average annual dropout (Dropout is a student who leaves school before the completion of a school stage or leaving at non-terminal point of a given level of education) rate decreased from 4.17 in 2012-13 to 4.15 in 2014-15 at elementary level. At primary level it decreased from 4.67 to 4.34 and at upper primary level, it increased from 3.13 to 3.77. At elementary level, dropout rate of SC was 4.22; same of ST is 8.12 and Muslim 7.50. The class 5th has the highest dropout rate i.e. 9.71%. Transition rate has improved significantly from 64.48% in 200203 to 89.74% in 2014-15. Both boys & girls have a transitional rate of about 89% and 90% respectively. The same for rural and urban is 87% to 90% respectively. CURRICULUM Curriculum

is

knowledge

arranged

systematically

for

progressive acquisition. It is a sequence of learning, experiences, classroom studies, recreational services and guidance for educating and helping students to develop their interest and qualitative abilities towards effective participation and role in the social and community life. Curriculum also facilitates the teacher to convey his thoughts and ideas to the students. The process of curriculum development in India lies between the two extremes of centralization and decentralization. From time to time, the national government formulates the National Policy on Education (The first National Policy on Education (NPE) was promulgated in 1968 by the government of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, and the second by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1986) which includes broad guidelines regarding content and process of education at different stages. These guidelines are further elaborated by the National Council www.ijmer.in

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of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). Using as its foundation the NPEs of 1968 and 1986 (The 1986 NPE was modified in 1992 by the Government of Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao in 2005), four curriculum initiatives have been launched by NCERT: (1) The Curriculum for the Ten Year School—a framework (1975); (2) The National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education—a framework (1988); (3) National Curriculum Framework {Curriculum Framework indicates the directions in which the educational system of a country has to proceed in order to implement its educational policy. The NPE and POA (1986, 1992) documents proposed a national framework as a means of evolving a national system of education capable of responding to India’s diversity of geographical and cultural surroundings while ensuring a common core of values along with academic components. Both documents speculated NCF as a means of modernizing the system of education} for School Education (2000); and (4) National Curriculum Framework (2005). The curriculum framework prepared at the central level provides a broad overview of the school curriculum, including general objectives, subject-wise objectives, suggested scheme of studies, and guidelines for the transaction of the curriculum and the evaluation of student outcomes. Modern curriculum being child centered should carefully be considered as the specific need, interest and capacity of the student in different stages of development. Child is not a miniature adult but a growing and a developing individual. His development characteristics should, therefore, be the basis of curriculum construction. In this regard our attention may be given to some of the principles to be maintained in the primary school curriculum: 

Ability of reading, writing and arithmetic should be trained and developed in the child. This is considered as the basis of all intellectual development in future.

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

Social subjects should be introduced in the curriculum in order to make him/her familiar with the human being.



Study of the natural environment should be introduced in order to satisfy natural interest of the child.



Handwork or craftwork should include in the curriculum to develop expertness and effective use of the hands.



Artful activities like song and dance, drawing and painting should be introduced with a view to give inventive shape to child’s imagination.



Elementary knowledge of health and hygiene is an essential for staying healthy to children.



Group play and group activities should be encouraged to develop social involvement and social tuning of the child.



Ethical learning should form part of the curriculum in order to develop ethical values.



Emotions and positive attitude in the early personality of the child.

EFFORTS OF GOVERNMENTS Various policies had been adopted by the Government of India for the quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of primary education in India. Before independence, there were several policies enumerated in various documents like Charter Act (1813), Sargent Report (1944), Various State compulsory primary education Acts. This progress continue after independence there were several policies enumerated in various documents like Kothari Commission (1964-66), NPE (1968), NPE (1986) and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2000). The appointment of Kothari Commission (1964-66) was an important event in the history of Indian education. Recommendations of this www.ijmer.in

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Commission provided a long term perspective for policy planning in all sectors of education including primary education. India has made long strides in the field of elementary education. A number of programmes/schemes {viz. DPEP (District Primary Education Programme, was launched in 1994 by Central Government of India, as a major initiative to revitalize the primary education system and to achieve the objective of universalisation of primary education), Lok Jumbish ( An educational project, supported by Lok Jumbish Parishad, aims specially at: improving gender equity through education; making special efforts to link children belonging to disadvantaged communities with elementary education; and soliciting people’s participation for universalisation of primary education), Operational Blackboard, NPEGEL (National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level. NPEGEL is a component of the scheme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan), Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya etc.} were launched during the last six decades for universalization of the Elementary Education. Some of those efforts have been in the field of primary education & a few also covering upper primary sector. However, much needs to be done for the special focus groups & the upper primary sector. Quality enhancement still remains a key concern, especially for the upper primary sector. In the year 2000, Central Government launched Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). SSA is a comprehensive and integrated flagship programme of Central Government of India to attain Universal Elementary Education (UEE) in the country in a mission mode. It was launched in partnership with the State governments and local selfgovernments in 2000-2001. SSA has emphasized the involvement of local people and stake holders in planning in view of the fact that the desired improvement & sustenance of the improved efficiency level cannot be achieved without the active involvement of the community in the schooling system. The programme aims to provide useful, relevant www.ijmer.in

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free & compulsory elementary education for all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years under RTE Act. 2009. Obviously, The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has been the main vehicle for implementing Right to Education (RTE). Progress in achieving the goal of universal access under SSA has been consistent over the years. There were 1,73,757 habitations unserved by primary schools in 2001-02 when SSA was launched. Over the years 2,04,686 primary schools were sanctioned by the Central Government of India, of which 347 were sanctioned in the 2014-15. At the upper primary stage there were 2,30,941 habitations un-served by upper primary schools in 2002. Over the years 1,59,427 upper primary schools have been sanctioned in a radius of 3 km, including 248 sanctioned in 2014-15. SSA provides two sets of uniform to all girls, SC, ST children and Below Poverty Line (BPL) children. The Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) scheme was launched by the Central Government of India in August, 2004 for setting up residential schools at upper primary level for girls belonging predominantly to the SC, ST, OBC and minorities in educational backward blocks where schools are at great distances and are a challenge to the security of girls. This often compels girls to discontinue their education. As of now till 30th September 2014-15, 3,609 KGBVs have been sanctioned in the country enrolling 3,52,389 girls therein. According DISE 2014-15, even after half a decade of its existence, only 8% schools comply with whole facilities norms mention in RTE Act. There is a shortage of 9.4 lacs teachers in government schools, around 8.3% of primary schools are single teacher schools, about 20% untrained and proportion of trained qualified teachers has been almost stagnant (without force or vitality) since last five years.

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ENVOLVEMENT OF PRIVATE SECTORS Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as private sector with control and funding coming from three levelCentral, State and Local level. The ratio of public schools to private schools in India is 7:5. As per the ninth Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2014, at elementary level, India has a large private school system complementing the government run schools, with 29% of students receiving private education in the 6 to 14 years group. This is a 10% increase in seven years from 18.7% in 2006 to 29% in 2013. The preference for private schools is not essentially reflective of the quality of public schooling. In Kerala, where the quality of public schools and teaching was found to be fairly good, 68.6% of all children in the elementary level were in private schools. Manipur has recorded the highest private school enrolment at 70%. Other States and Union Territories with a high percentage of elementary school children in private institutions include Puducherry, formerly known as Pondicherry (54.3%), Haryana (51.4%), Uttar Pradesh (49%), Punjab (46.7%), Jammu & Kashmir (45.5%) and Meghalaya (45.3%). As with private schooling, there is also a growing prevalence of private tuitions among elementary school students. The figure stands at 24.1%. While this reflects a shifting of public faith in government schools, the growing preference for private schools is also indicative of a willingness to invest in a child’s education by parents who very often are themselves illiterate. FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS In this financial year, 2016-17, Rs. 22,500 crore has been allocated for Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). Yet, the overall budget for school education Department this financial year, 2016-17, was just 2.2% higher than 2015-16 (Revised Estimate), but Report of the Auditor General of India for the year of 2014-15 shows that “the major savings www.ijmer.in

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of Rs. 5255.81 crore occurred under ‘Funds for transfer to Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK)’ (against the budgeted provision of Rs.27,575 crore) due to reduction of provision at revised estimates stage owing to less collection of Education cess. The trend of expenditure in the scheme financed by PSK i.e. SSA and Mid Day Meal (MDM) was low.” It means the SSA budget for 2014-15 (RE) had been reduced by Rs.5,226 crore, against the budgeted provision of Rs.27,575 crore, due to reduction of provision at revised estimates stage owing to less collection of Education cess. Moreover, following “the recommendation of NITI (National Institution for Transforming India) Ayog, sub group on rationalizing centrally sponsored schemes, the Central Government has reduced its current share for Core Schemes from 65% to 60% for all general category states, starting 2016-17.” Proper implementation of RTE would depend on the state’s ability to contribute its enhanced share, which remains uncertain and a cause for concern. CONCLUSION Though India has achieved the goal of universal primary enrolment (class 1st to 5th) but enrolment figure do not reveal the true story as data shows around 4.3 crore children of 6-14 years age group are still out of school ( see Census-2011), exactly, it constitute about 18% of the total age group (6-14) age group children. Not only enrolment, the short falls in quality of primary school education, has been major concern for some years now, especially in the context of public financing of education to all children in a time bound manner is enshrined in RTE Act., 2009. A child centered and activity based process of education should be adopted at primary level and there is an urgent need to analyze, the more than 10 years old existing curriculum of primary education for the progress of primary education in India. At least 6% of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) should be spent on education, as recommended by the Kothari Commission in 1966.

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However, presently central government and state government together spend less than 4% of GDP on education. It is mutual responsibility of the central and state government towards education sector to step up for sufficient budgetary allocation on education, especially on primary education to achieve hundred percent objectives of Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009. References 1. Report to the People on Education 2010-11 & 2011-12; Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, New Delhi, India. 2. Mehta, Arun C.; The Analytical Tables: 2014-15 Elementary Education in India: Progress towards UEE 2014-15; NUEPA, New Delhi.

3. Baglari, Neeta; Drawbacks in Primary School Curriculum Design and the need to Change: A study from BTAD; Pratidhwani the Echo, Dept. of Bengali, Karimganj College, Karimganj, Assam, India; Volume-II, Issue-IV; April 2014; P89-99. 4. Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development; Education for All towards Quality with Equity INDIA; NUEPA New Delhi; August 2014. 5. Kundu , Protiva; Provision for Education Sector; Publication Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Soochna Bhawan, New Delhi; YOJANA (monthly); March’2016, Vol. 60 issue; P53-56. 6. Kumar, A. K. Shiva and Rustagi, Preet; Elementary Education in India: Progress, Setbacks and challenges; Oxfam India working papers series; September 2010, OIWPS-III. 7. Yadav, S. K.; National Study On Ten Year School Curriculum Implementation; Department of Teacher Education and Extension, NCERT, New Delhi; 2011. 8. Bhalotra, Sonia and Zamora, Bernarda; Primary Education in India Prospects of Meeting the MDG Target (Research Paper No. 2006/80); UNU-WIDER; 2006. www.ijmer.in

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9. Blum, Nicole and Diwan, Rashmi; Small, Multigrade Schools and Increasing Access to Primary education in India: National Context and NGO Initiatives; CREATE PATHWAYS TO ACCESS, Research Monogram No. 17; Centre for International Education, Sussex School of Education, University Of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, United Kingdom; October, 2007. 10. Mehta, Arun C.; School Education in India 2014-15 (UDISE 20115);Government of India, Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development and NUEPA, New Delhi;; 2015. 11. Annual Report 2014-15, Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education; Ministry of Human Resource Development; Government of India. 12. Statistics of School Education 2011-12 (As on 30th September, 2011); Ministry of Human Resource Development, Bureau of Planning, Monitoring & Statistics, Government of India, New Delhi; 2014. 13. [http://scripts.mit.edu/~varun_ag/readinggroup/images/9/9c/Second ary_Education.pdf 14. “Over a quarter of enrollment in rural India are in private schools”, The Hindu, New Delhi; Retrieved 21 August, 2014. 15. Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India for the year 2014-15; Union Government Accounts of the Union Government No. 50 of 2015 (Financial Audit); Sr. No. 109 of annexure 3.13; P206. 16. NITI Ayog: Report of the sub group of Chief Ministers on rationalization of Centrally Sponsored Schemes; October, 2015; Page-V.

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A HISTORY OF GYMNASTICS: FROM ANCIENT GREECE TO MODERN TIMES

Reeta. K. Physical Education Director G.V.P.P.Govt First Grade college H.B. Halli

Dr. A.Praveen Physical Director Shri Hampi Virupakshswara First Grade College Vidyaranya ,Kamalapur

Dr.Prasannakumar Shivasharanappa Assistant Professor (Contact Basis) University of Agricultural Science Dharwad Karnataka Abstract The sport of gymnastics, which derives its name from the ancient Greek word for disciplinary exercises, combines physical skills such as body control, coordination, dexterity, gracefulness, and strength with tumbling and acrobatic skills, all performed in an artistic manner. Gymnastics is performed by both men and women at many levels, from local clubs and schools to colleges and universities, and in elite national and international competitions. Key Words : Sports, Gymnastics, History Introduction Gymnastics was introduced in early Greek civilization to facilitate bodily development through a series of exercises that included running, jumping, swimming, throwing, wrestling, and weight lifting. Many basic gymnastic events were practiced in some form before the introduction by the Greeks of gymnazein, literally, "to exercise naked." Physical fitness was a highly valued attribute in ancient Greece, and both men and women participated in vigorous gymnastic exercises. The Romans, after conquering Greece, developed the activities into a more formal sport, and they used the gymnasiums to physically prepare their www.ijmer.in

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legions for warfare. With the decline of Rome, however, interest in gymnastics dwindled, with tumbling remaining as a form of entertainment. Modern Gymnastics In 1774, a Prussian, Johann Bernhard Basedow, included physical exercises with other forms of instruction at his school in Dessau, Saxony. With this action began the modernization of gymnastics, and also thrust the Germanic countries into the forefront in the sport. In the late 1700s, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn of Germany developed the side bar, the horizontal bar, the parallel bars, the balance beam, and jumping events. He, more than anyone else, is considered the "father of modern gymnastics." Gymnastics flourished in Germany in the 1800s, while in Sweden a more graceful form of the sport, stressing rhythmic movement, was developed by Guts Muth. The opening (1811) of Jahn's school in Berlin, to promote his version of the sport, was followed by the formation of many clubs in Europe and later in England. The sport was introduced to the United States by Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent, who taught gymnastics in several U.S. universities about the time of the Civil War, and who is credited with inventing more than 30 pieces of apparatus. Most of the growth of gymnastics in the United States centered on the activities of European immigrants, who introduced the sport in their new cities in the 1880s. Clubs were formed as Turnverein and Sokol groups, and gymnasts were often referred to as "turners." Modern gymnastics excluded some traditional events, such as weight lifting and wrestling, and emphasized form rather than personal rivalry. Modern Competition Men's gymnastics was on the schedule of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896, and it has been on the Olympic agenda continually since 1924. Olympic gymnastic competition for women began in 1936 www.ijmer.in

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with an all-around competition, and in 1952 competition for the separate events was added. In the early Olympic competitions the dominant male gymnasts were from Germany, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland, the countries where the sport first developed. But by the 1950s, Japan, the Soviet Union, and the Eastern European countries began to produce the leading male and female gymnasts. Modern gymnastics gained considerable popularity because of the performances of Olga Korbut of the Soviet Union in the 1972 Olympics, and Nadia Comaneci of Romania in the 1976 Olympics. The widespread television coverage of these dramatic performances gave the sport the publicity that it lacked in the past. Many countries other than the traditional mainstays at the time — the USSR, Japan, East and West Germany, and other Eastern European nations — began to promote gymnastics, particularly for women; among these countries were China and the United States. Modern international competition has six events for men and four events for women. The men's events are the rings, parallel bars, horizontal bar, side or pommel-horse, long or vaulting horse, and floor (or free) exercise. These events emphasize upper body strength and flexibility along with acrobatics. The women's events are the vaulting horse, balance beam, uneven bars, and floor exercise, which is performed with musical accompaniment. These events combine graceful, dancelike movements with strength and acrobatic skills. In the United States, tumbling and trampoline exercises are also included in many competitions. Teams for international competitions are made up of six gymnasts. In the team competition each gymnast performs on every piece of equipment, and the team with the highest number of points wins. There is also a separate competition for the all-around title, which goes to the gymnast with the highest point total after performing on each

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piece of equipment, and a competition to determine the highest score for each individual apparatus. Another type of competitive gymnastics for women is called rhythmic gymnastics, an Olympic sport since 1984. Acrobatic skills are not used. The rhythmic gymnast performs graceful, dancelike movements while holding and moving items such as a ball, hoop, rope, ribbon, or Indian clubs, with musical accompaniment. Routines are performed individually or in group performances for six gymnasts. Scoring Gymnastic competitions are judged and scored on both an individual and a team basis. Each competitor must accomplish a required number of specific types of moves on each piece of equipment. Judges award points to each participant in each event on a 0-to-10 scale, 10 being perfect. Judging is strictly subjective; however, guidelines are provided for judges so that they can arrive at relatively unbiased scores. Usually there are four judges, and the highest and lowest scores are dropped to provide a more objective evaluation. Gymnasts try to perform the most difficult routines in the most graceful way, thus impressing the judges with their mastery of the sport. Reference 1. Bott, Jenny, Rhythmic Gymnastics (1995); 2. Cooper,

Phyllis

S.,

and

Trnka,

Milan,

Teaching

Basic

Gymnastics, 3d ed. (1993); 3. Feeney, Rik, Gymnastics: A Guide for Parents and Athletes (1992); 4.

Karolyi, Bela, Feel No Fear (1994);

5. Lihs, Harriet R., Teaching Gymnastics, 2d ed. (1994); YMCA Gymnastics, 3d ed. (1990). www.ijmer.in

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DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: A THREAT TO STUDY SKILLS OF CHILDREN Dr. Nisanth.P.M Research Associate School of Education Pondicherry University Pondicherry

Dr. Amruth G Kumar Associate Professor Department of Education Central University of Kerala Kerala

Abstract: Learning is the central theme of education. It makes relatively permanent changes in behavior occurring as the result of past experience. The environment has a tremendous effect on learning. A proper and adequate environment is very much necessary for a fruitful learning of the child. It is not limited to the classroom but the family environment is more important for the child. Even though family is intimate, stress reducing and the place where people feels more safety, the people are more likely to be hit, beat up, slapped or physically assaulted by other family members. Over the past few decades, issues related to violence in domestic setting have received widespread attention in public as well as professional understanding. The goal of the present study is to determine the influence of domestic violence experience on study skills of children. 813 secondary school students took part in the study. The result revealed that domestic violence is a potential threat to study skills of students. Study also suggests solution for domestic violence related issues systematically and carefully from multi-dimensional point of view. Keywords: Care giving, Children, Domestic violence, Secondary school students, Study skills INTRODUCTION Learning is a lifelong process. It involves constant change, adjustment and development. It implies acquisition of knowledge and skills on the one hand, modification of behavior on the other. Learning www.ijmer.in

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is the central theme of education. It makes relatively permanent changes in behavior occurring as the result of past experience. Every human action or behavior is learned (B. F. Skinner, 1971). The process of learning is that by virtue of which the individual develops necessary skills and abilities so as to benefit himself from the past experiences. Learning process and its effect on one child is different from that of another on the basis of their difference in environment in which their learning experience takes place. So it can be said that a proper and adequate environment is very much necessary for a fruitful learning of the child. Especially the house and the school should provide the stimulus for learning experience. A child learns many things through social interaction with others in his environment. Apart from this a child also learns informally from various other experiences, various institutions such as family, religious place, playground etc. that foster formal learning. So learning occur both formal and informal situations and environment is one of the important factors which influence the education of an individual. The environment has a tremendous effect on learning. It is not limited to the classroom but the family environment is more important for the child. Even though family is intimate, stress reducing and the place where people feels more safety, the people are more likely to be hit, beat up, slapped or physically assaulted by other family members. This is true throughout the history of all countries and societies around the globe. Over the past few decades, issues related to violence in domestic setting have received widespread attention in public as well as professional understanding. It is now realizing that domestic violence is an epidemic in our society and gradually threatening the very existence of children community in particular and humanity in general. A sizeable number of studies report association between exposure to domestic violence and related problems on children and www.ijmer.in

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their academic life (Emery, 1982; Griffiths, 1999; Grych & Fincham, 1992; Horn & Trickett, 1998; Paik & Comstock, 1994). Research reports gives evidence that even when children are not the direct targets of violence at home, they can be harmed by witnessing the occurrence of such violence (US Child Welfare Information Gateway Report, 2013). Children who are victims of domestic violence can suffer severe developmental difficulties similar to children who are witness of domestic violence. The causes of domestic violence are multifaceted and its consequences are damaging. Children are more vulnerable to domestic violence, therefore, it was considered essential to investigate domestic violence and its impacts on children particularly in their academic achievement. Megha Gakhar (2006) proved the association of study skills over academic achievement. Since study skills are a set of self-learned, self-acquired and self-fashioned method of learning, the environment is vital in this process. Any disturbance in the family environment can influence the children’s learning process and study skills in particular. Since domestic violence is a common lived experience of Indian families, (Sudha Chaudhary, 2013, reveals in her study Domestic Violence in India that “Domestic violence is one of the most common crimes against women which is inextricably linked to the perpetuation of patriarchy) there is a high possibility of domestic violence influence the study skills of the children. Therefore, there are ample possibilities to conduct a scientific investigation to understand the link between domestic violence and study skills of the children. The present study intends to address this issue. METHODS Sample and Procedure The present study is conducted in the schools located in the capital city of Puducherry. Secondary school children under goes their study in non-residential schools of various areas of Puducherry were

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selected for the study. The rationale of this selection is by assuming the students belongs to non-residential school system is more exposed to domestic violence because they spend the whole time in domestic sphere except the school hours. Accordingly, nine schools from both rural and urban areas selected as per the categorization of Directorate of School Education, Puducherry. Out of nine schools, three schools are Government undertaking, three are private undertaking and the rest of the three schools are Government Aided private schools. From these nine schools, 813 students undergoing secondary school education were selected through stratified cluster sampling method. Measures Two survey instruments, the Domestic Violence Questionnaire (Reliability- Crombach’s Alpha 0.839, Validity 0.615) and Study Skills Inventory (Reliability- Crombach’s Alpha 0.755, Validity 0.722) were developed and standardized for the study. Domestic violence questionnaire consists of 44 items and Study Skills Inventory consists of 42 items. There were five alternatives (Always, Mostly, Often, Rarely and Never) against each statement. The subjects have to put a tick (√) mark under the suitable category according to their opinion. All statements a score of 5,4,3,2 and 1 is to be given respectively for the responses Always, Mostly, Often, rarely and Never. Respondents took approximately 15 minutes to 25 minutes to fill the tools completely. The first student finished within 15 minutes and the last student took 30 minutes to finish the task. The questionnaires enclosed with an envelope with a coding number ensure the confidentiality and genuine response. The investigator explained and asked the respondent to place the response sheet back to the envelope after completing the task.

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STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED FOR ANALYSIS Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) In the present study ANOVA used to test the mean scores of Study Skills among three groups (low, average and high) of Secondary School Students with different levels of Domestic Violence. Test of Significance of Difference between Means Test of Significance of Difference between Means used in order to determine which of the differences among the groups are significant based on Study Skills with different levels of Domestic Violence of Secondary School Students. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY To test whether there exist any significant relationship between domestic violence and study skills of the secondary school students. HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY There exist significant relationship between domestic violence and study skills of the secondary school students. ANALYSIS As the initial step of analysis, preliminary analysis was done to see whether the variables are normally distributed. Important statistical constants such as Mean, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, Skewness and Kurtosis were computed for the Independent Variable (Domestic Violence) and Dependent variable (Study Skills). Variable

N

Mean

Median

Mode

SD

Skewness

Kurtosis

Domestic Violence

813

97.86

91.00

80.00

34.428

.667

-.339

Study Skills

813

149.05

150.00

139.00

21.069

-.203

-.328

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The values obtained for Mean, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, Skewness and Kurtosis shows that the distribution is almost normal. Differential Analysis Differential Analysis was done in order to classify the Secondary School students into three groups namely High (scored above Mean+1σ), Average (scored between Mean +1σ and Mean-1σ) and Low (scored below Mean-1σ) based on their scores on Domestic Violence. Then the corresponding scores of study skills of these three groups were taken and ANOVA was applied on it. Test of significance of difference in mean of Study Skills among the three groups of secondary school students based on different levels of Domestic Violence Levene Statistic

df1

df2

Sig.

19.907 2 810 .001 The obtained Levene Statistic is 19.907 and it is significant at 0.01 level. The result indicates that the assumption of homogeneity is not satisfied. However analysis of variance was applied, because it has satisfied all assumptions. Also‘t’ test was carried out to overcome the issue of non homogeneity. One Way ANOVA was used to test the difference in mean scores of three groups (High, Average and Low). One Way ANOVA of the total score of Study Skills of secondary school students with different levels of Domestic Violence

Between Groups Within Groups Total www.ijmer.in

Sum of Squares 76811.478

df

Mean Square

2

38405.739

885617.971

810

1093.356

962429.449

812

F

Sig.

35.126

.001

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There was a significant effect of Domestic Violence on Study Skills of Secondary School Students at p < 0.01 level or the three conditions (High, Average and Low) as the F (2,810=35.126, p=.000). In order to determine which of the differences among the groups are significant the test of significance of difference in means has to be applied. The details of the test of significance of difference in means of Study Skills among the three groups of secondary school students with different levels of Domestic Violence. Test of Significance of difference in means of Study Skills among three groups of secondary school students with different levels of Domestic Violence Variable

Group

N

Mean

SD

t Value

Sig.(2tailed)

Low Average

137 536

97.45 103.39

28.475 35.701

-1.804

.072

Low High

137 140

97.45 77.09

28.475 25.932

6.226

.001

536 140

103.39 77.09

35.701 25.932

8.170

.001

Domestic Violence

Average High Interpretation

a) Mean score of Study Skills of secondary school students for the sample of Low and Average group of Domestic Violence. The group with Low Domestic Violence has a Mean Study Skills score of 97.45 with a Standard Deviation of 28.475. Average groups have a Mean score of 103.39 with a Standard Deviation 35.701. The ‘t’ value obtained for the difference of Means in scores of Low and Average groups is -1.804. It is not significant at 0.01 level.

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This reveals that the mean difference in Study Skills of secondary school students for groups with Low and Average group of Domestic Violence is not significant. b) Mean score of Study Skills of secondary school students for the sample of Low and High group of Domestic Violence. The group with Low Domestic Violence has a Mean Study Skills score of 97.45 with a Standard Deviation of 28.475. High groups have a Mean score of 77.09 with a Standard Deviation 25.932. The ‘t’ value obtained for the difference of Means in scores of Low and High groups is 6.226. It is significant at 0.01 level. This reveals that the mean difference in Study Skills of secondary school students for groups with Low and High group of Domestic Violence is significant. The result suggests that study skills of students having high Domestic Violence have poor Study Skills. Mean score of low group is higher than the high group compared to the Study Skills of students suffering for low Domestic Violence experiences. c) Mean score of Study Skills of secondary school students for the sample of Average and High group of Domestic Violence. The group with Average Domestic Violence has a Mean Study Skills score of 103.39 with a Standard Deviation of 35.701. High groups have a Mean score of 77.09 with a Standard Deviation 25.932. The ‘t’ value obtained for the difference of Means in scores of Average and High groups is 8.170. It is significant at 0.01 level. This reveals that the mean difference in Study Skills of secondary school students for groups with Average and High group of Domestic Violence is significant. The result suggests that study skills of students having high Domestic Violence have poor Study Skills. Mean score of average group is higher than the high group compared to the

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Study Skills of students suffering for average Domestic Violence experiences. DISCUSSION Taken together analysis of variance followed by test of significance in difference between mean scores of Study Skills of Low, Average and High groups of secondary school students with different levels of Domestic Violence reveals that Domestic Violence has a crucial role in deciding the Study Skills of Secondary School Students. Attala and Summers (1999) conducted a study on children from families with Domestic Violence exhibit more academic problems than those children from non violent families. Tandon (2003) studied effects of exposure to domestic violence on children and revealed that some of the symptoms these children may display include reduced social competencies and learning problems. Rigby’s (2000) study concluded that there is a strong relationship between exposure to violence and poor academic performance. Study Skills play a vital role in academic performance of students, hence all these studies are consistent with the results of the present study. The test of significance of difference in Means of Study Skills among the different groups of secondary school students with different levels of Domestic Violence shed light into the relationship between these two variables indirectly. LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS The study focused on domestic violence experience on study skills of secondary school students in Puducherry. However, the present study was done only among the 8th and 9th standard students. 10th standard students were exempted from the study. This is because of the institutional practice of schools in Puducherry which does not allow any kind of investigations with 10th standard students. This

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system is to avoid disturbances to the studies of the children because they are preparing for Secondary School Leaving Examination. Therefore, the investigator withdrawn from the venture of collecting data from tenth standard students by realizing that this will be a limitation of the present study. The first delimitation is that the study considers domestic violence as the violence perpetuated by the parents. Violence perpetuated by other family members which happens in joint family system is not included in this study because of the limited time and resources. Second, the study is conducted in the schools located only at the capital city of Puducherry and the other geographical areas of Puducherry such as Mahi, Yanam and Karaikal were not included because of the constrains in time and resources. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS Suggesting solution for domestic violence related issues is a challenge. It is vital to examine the causative roots of Domestic Violence systematically and carefully from multi-dimensional point of view. Create knowledge through awareness program The mass sensitization programmes are essential to increase the sensitivity of the public and the stakeholders like Teachers, school management and PTA against Domestic Violence and its impacts over children in particular. A teacher can intervene in family related issues even though a power structure exists in the families. Public should be made aware of legal support to protect children from Domestic Violence. The knowledge of Domestic Violence Prevention Act (2005) and other legal efforts to save victims should be extended through strong networking between local community (panchayaths), government agencies and non government organizations. Workshops,

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conferences, meetings, role play and various communication channels can be exercised to sensitize public on Domestic Violence. Role of educational institutions and resource organizations The institutional mechanisms devoted to train the teachers can frame the training programmes to the various stakeholders of teaching–learning process with an objective to sensitize the multifaceted issues emerged out of domestic violence and study skills of students. The UGC-Academic Staff Colleges dedicated to train the teachers in the higher education can frame specific Refresher Courses and Workshops to raise academic consciousness against this social issue and equip the teachers to develop curricula to address this kind of issues. National University of Education Planning and Administration (NUEPA) as apex body of educational planning and administration in India can be emphasized sensitizing the study skills related issues emerged out of Domestic Violence. Ministries of Education and Women and Child Development should also focus on this kind of issues along with their regular assignments. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and similar initiatives can implement programs on life skills education for children to negotiate with Domestic Violence. District Institute of Education and Training (DIET) can reinforce the social awareness of Domestic Violence. Continuous training programs for teacher can be implemented giving special weightage to family issues and its affect on children. A special award for teachers can be done on the basis of their contribution specially emphasis on involvement and prove influence in family related issues. These will help teachers sensitize issues of Domestic Violence from their inner heart. Focusing more on teachers there is a chance of acquiring more power on teachers and they may become an abuser. Therefore, a survivalance system needed through a watch door mechanism embedded with moral and ethical consideration.

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The whistle blowers This is the time to break the silence of domestic violence. It can be achieved by the proper intervention and timely addressing of the issue. Accordingly, certain agents can be acted as whistle blowers to this particular issue. Needless to say, the school and the teachers are the prime in the list. In addition to them the members of the panchayath, community based organizations, the personals of Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) and other schemes regularly interact with the community can be acted as a whistle blower against this issue. A well-defined legal frame work is essential to combat against this issue. The present legal mechanisms to protect child rights were failed to protect the children from the educational hazards of this issue, because of its ‘secret nature’. Special provisions should be made for Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (PWDVA) to incorporate the educational hazards of domestic violence faced by the child victims. FURTHER RESEARCH The present research brings out the influence of domestic violence on study skills of secondary school students. The scope of the study cannot claim to be all inclusive in the area of the present research. There is further scope for similar study at higher education level. Domestic violence may be studied in relation to other variables such as moral values, social adjustment and personality traits. Similar studies may be conducted in an intergenerational sample. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Gratitude to the Directorate of school education, Govt. of Puducherry, Principals, Teachers and students of all the sampled schools for cooperation and providing an opportunity to collect sample for the study. Thankful to all the respondents (boys, girls and teachers) who participated in this research study. www.ijmer.in

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References 1. Attala, J. & Summers, S. M. (1999). A comparative study of health, development and behavioural factors in preschool children of battered and non battered women. Child Health Care, 28, 189-200 2. Child Welfare Information Gateway’s (2013, November). Domestic Violence and the Child Welfare System. A Bulletin for Professionals. Retrieved from 3. https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/foster.pdf 4. Emery, R. E., & O’Leary, K. D. (1982). Children’s perceptions of marital discord and behaviour problems of boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 11-24. 5. Gakhar, Megha. (2006). Academic achievement as determined by their preferred learning styles, thinking styles and study skills. Psych-Lingua, 36, 171-177. 6. Griffeths, M. (1999). Violent video games and aggression: A review of literature. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 4, 203-212. 7. Grych, J. H., Seid, M., & Fincham, F. D. (1992). Assessing marital conflict from the child’s perspective: The Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale. Child Development, 63, 558–572. 8. Horn, J. L., & Trickett, P. K. (1998). Community violence and child development: A review of research. In P. K. Trickett & C. J. Schellenbach (Eds.), Violence against children in the family and community. American Psychological Association, 15, 103-138. 9. Paik, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effect of television violence on antisocial behaviour: A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516-546. 10. Rigby, K. (2000). Effects of peer victimization in schools and perceived social support on adolescent well-being. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 57-68. 11. Skinner. B. F. (1971). Beyond Freedom and Dignity. U.S.A: Penguin Books. 12. Sudha, Chaudhary. (2013). Domestic Violence in India. Journal of Indian Research, 1, 146-152. 13. Tandon, S. L. (2003). Domestic violence – why and how? What to do. Social Welfare, 50, 4-13.

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INCLUSIVE BANKING INITIATIVES AND PRACTICES – A STUDY WITH REFERENCE TO PUBLIC SECTOR BANKS IN INDIA Dr. K. Srinivasa Rao Lecturer in Commerce Govt Degree College Razole, E.G.Dt. Abstract Inclusive banking is an important tool to achieve the Financial Inclusion. Of all the financial inclusion products, banking products play key role in the development of economy. Having a bank account and access to the financial products like deposit, loan and other services from the bank is unavoidable for every household. Despite of the tremendous work exercised by the banking industry for past four decades after nationalization of banks in India, there is a large gap between the tasks and results to inclusion of excluded sections of the society. The study is to focus on the inclusive banking initiatives and practices of public sector banks with a specific focus on State Bank of India. Key

Words: Financial Inclusion, Inclusive Banking, Financial

Products, Excluded Sections Introduction Inclusive Growth is one of the important objectives of eleventh five year plan in India. Inclusion of each and every section of the society in the process of economic development and achieving growth with equity is the basic objective of inclusive growth. Inclusive banking is an important tool to achieve the Financial Inclusion and Inclusive Growth. Financial exclusion in India is found to be higher as compared with many developed and some of the major emerging economies(1). The wide extent of financial exclusion in India is visible in the form of high population per bank branch and low proportion of the population have

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access to basic financial services like savings accounts, credit facilities and credit and debit cards . Objectives The main objective of the study is to focus on the inclusive banking initiatives and practices of public sector banks with a specific focus on State Bank of India. The other peripheral objectives of the study are, a) To throw light on the status, scenario of Public Sector Banking in India. b) To explain initiatives of Financial Inclusion by the Indian Banking System. c) To suggest policy prescriptions for efficacious inclusive banking. Database and Methodology The methodology adopted for the study includes a detailed analysis of secondary data related to inclusive banking performances of public sector banks as well as State Bank of India. The secondary data has been taken for twenty years starting from 1994-95 to 2014-15. RBI bulletins, RBI Reports on Trends and Progress of Banking in India, RBI Annual Reports, RBI statistical tables Relating to Banks in India, SBI Annual Reports , Publications of World Bank (IBRD) has been taken for analysis. Status of Financial Inclusion In 2014, over 50 per cent of Indian adults held an account with a financial institution, compared to close to 70 per cent of adults in various BRICS economies, and an even higher percentages of adults in the US and UK. Six per cent of Indian adults had borrowed from a formal financial institution compared with 10 per cent or more in other BRICS economies. Furthermore, as of 2014, there were only 18 ATMs per 100,000 adult population in India against over 65 in South www.ijmer.in

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Africa and over 180 in Russia. Similarly, 10 per cent of individuals aged 15 years and above had made payments through debit cards in India as against approximately 40 per cent in South Africa. In terms of remittances, Kenya holds a leading position. In 2014, over 60 per cent of its adult population had received domestic remittances compared with less than 10 per cent in India. Similarly, only 3 per cent of the rural population in India had directly received wages into their accounts, as against 14 per cent in Brazil and 23 per cent in South Africa(2) . The low use of accounts in India is also evidenced from the fact that in 2014 over 40 per cent of accounts did not witness any movement. INITIATIVES TOWARDS INCLUSION Nationalisation of Banks In 1955, Imperial Bank of India was nationalized and converted into SBI, started offering extensive banking facilities, especially in rural and semi-urban areas. Seven banks owned by the Princely states were nationalized in 1959 and they became subsidiaries of the State Bank of India. The Government of India nationalized the 14 largest commercial banks in July 1969. A second dose of nationalization of banks was taken place in 1980 by nationalization of 6 more commercial banks. I.D.B.I (2004) and Bharatiya Mahila Bank(2013) were also started in public sector. From all this initiatives, Govt had control around 91 percent of the banking business in India. Regional Rural Banks By the recommendations of the Narasimhan Committee, RRBs started on 2nd October 1975 with forming the first RRB Prathama Grameen Bank. There were five commercial banks, viz. Punjab National Bank, State Bank of India, Syndicate Bank, United Bank of India and United Commercial Bank, which sponsored the Regional Rural Banks. As on www.ijmer.in

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today, after mergers and consolidations, there were 56 RRBs serving with 20059 branches spread across rural areas of 644 districts in India. Branch Expansion : As a result of RBI’s concerted efforts since 2005, the number of branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks increased manifold from 68681 in 2006 to 130698 in 2015, spread across length and breadth of the country. In rural areas, the number of branches increased from 30572 to 49181 during 2006 to 2015. As compared with rural areas, number of branches in semi-urban areas increased more rapidly. Fig-1: Branches expansion of Scheduled Commercial Banks in India 140000

Rural

Semi Urban

Urban

Metro

120000

21650 19472

100000 80000 60000

10971 11864

40000 20000

11566

12438

12649

13478

14697

15660 17706

17078 18541

13944

15325

16653 20358

22419

25076

32289

33325

35364

15274

16035

17212

18764

30572

30461

30732

31489

24608

17844 21783 19327

35259 30926 27219

37953

43641

49181

0 Mar-06 Mar-07 Mar-08 Mar-09 Mar-10 Mar-11 Mar-12 Mar-13 Mar-14 Dec-15

Source: RBI Report on Trends and Progress on Indian BankingDifferent Issues

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No-Frills Accounts No-Frills bank account is an innovative instrument to introduce the concept of banking to the under-privileged people. The RBI has mandated all nationalized banks to help rope in the forty crores plus unbanked population into its “Financial Inclusion Programme”. As on March 2015, 3980 lakhs No-Frills accounts have been opened by banks with outstanding balance of Rs.43900 crore as against the figures respectively were 735 lakhs and Rs 5500 crore in March 2010. Fig-2: Number of "NO-FRILLS" Accounts 3980 4000 3500 3000

2430

2500

1820

2000

1385

1500 1000

1048 735

500 0 Mar '10 Mar ' 11 Mar '12 Mar '13 Mar '14 Mar '15

Source: Annual Reports, RBI., Mumbai (Different Issues) Business Correspondents & Business Facilitators Business Correspondent is an agent of bank who is appointed and permitted to carry out transactions on behalf of the bank. In January 2006, the Reserve Bank of India issued a new set of guidelines allowing banks to employ two categories of intermediaries’ i.e., Business Correspondents (BCs) and Business Facilitators (BFs) to expand their outreach. As on March 31st , 2011, domestic commercial banks have reported deploying 58,361 BCs, providing banking services in 76,081 www.ijmer.in

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villages(3).

The Business Facilitators can refer clients, pursue the

clients’ proposal and facilitate the bank to carry out its transactions, but do not transact on behalf of the bank. Self-Help Group (SHG)-Bank Linkage Programme In February 1992, SHG-Bank Linkage Programme (SHGBLP) has been launched by NABARD as pilot project during the period of economic reforms in India which was major initiative in financial inclusion. The SHG-BLP is a saving-led credit product for the unbanked poor. NABARD initiated the process of repositioning the SHG-BLP as SHG-2 in the year 2012-13. This approach is basically aimed at encouraging the poor to save. Another aspect of the SHG-2 is providing credit to SHGs as cash credit/ overdraft for a longer operational tenure instead of the present fixed tenure term loans. PMJDY The Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, a financial inclusion mission launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 28th August 2014, with a record 1.5 crore new bank accounts opened on the first day itself. The scheme is aimed at financial inclusion and achieve robust target within the given time. TABE-1.1: PROGRESS OF ACCOUNTS OPENED UNDER PMJDY AS ON MARCH 2016 (Fig. In Lakhs) Banks

Rural Urban 942.92 741.65 (55.97) (44.03) (71.59) (89.82) 325.71 53.57 (85.87) (14.13) (24.73) (6.49) Private 48.44 30.46 Banks (61.40) (38.60) (3.68) (3,69) 1317.07 825.68 Total (61.47) (38.53) Source: www.pmjdy.gov.in Public Sector Banks RRB’s

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RuPay Debit Cards

Zero Balance Accounts

1431.55

467.35

(80.64) 269.35

(79.62) 87.81

(17.70) 78.88 (100)

(15.17) 74.38

(14.96) 31.82

(3.68) 2142.75 (100)

(4.19) 1775.29

(5.42) 586.99

No Of Accounts Total 1684.58 (100) (78.62) 379.29 (100)

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As on march 2016, the total number of accounts opened under PMJDY stood at 2142.75 lakhs, out of which 61.47 per cent are in the rural and the rest of 38.53 per cent are urban accounts. Of the total accounts opened, 27.39 per cent (586.99 lakhs) are with zero balance (No-Frills) accounts. Further, a bank group wise analysis also reveal that Public Sector Banks constitute No-Frills accounts at 79.62 per cent as against 14.96 per cent in the case of RRBs and only 5.42 per cent in private sector banks. Out of the total number of accounts opened (2142.75 lakhs), the public sector banks account for 78.62 per cent. In the case of the rural accounts as well as urban accounts respectively the public sector banks stood with a share of 71.59 per cent and 89.82 per cent of the total accounts opened(4).

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TABE-1.2 : PUBLIC SECTOR BANK WISE ACCOUNTS UNDER PMJDY ( Fig. in No’s)

Name of Bank

No Of Accounts

%

Rupay Debit Card

%

Balance In Accounts (In Lacs)

%

Account s with Zero Balance

%

State Bank of India

53172369

31.56

42082433

29.40

433229.54

15.40

23613040

50.52

Punjab National Bank

13080163

7.76

9765400

6.82

162145.96

5.76

1585329

3.39

Bank of Baroda

12520193

7.43

11882757

8.30

245142.64

8.71

2133407

4.56

Bank of India

11335068

6.73

10450609

7.30

142816.39

5.08

2507774

5.37

Canara Bank

7415874

4.40

7050320

4.92

131345.49

4.67

1108717

2.37

Central Bank of India

7415248

4.40

5677007

3.97

85753.73

3.05

719952

1.54

United Bank of India

7299440

4.33

4697270

3.28

424437.94

15.08

1105739

2.37

UCO Bank

7220179

4.29

6890760

4.81

166889.40

5.93

1772193

3.79

Union Bank of India

5822613

3.46

5536427

3.87

84310.38

3.00

1532234

3.28

Allahabad Bank

4415811

2.62

4291755

3.00

46112.33

1.64

880278

1.88

Syndicate Bank

4007474

2.38

3651467

2.55

83127.58

2.95

1020096

2.18

Indian Overseas Bank

3862633

2.29

3729205

2.60

47805.53

1.70

1330340

2.85

3671762

2.18

3579232

2.50

299219.03

10.63

412876

0.88

Oriental Bank of www.ijmer.in

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Commerce Dena Bank

3564820

2.12

2798123

1.95

56212.74

2.00

960395

2.05

State Bank of B & J

3528961

2.09

3133622

2.19

91037.41

3.24

970561

2.08

Bank of Maharashtra

3216272

1.91

1723509

1.20

51633.11

1.83

1031417

2.21

Indian Bank

2993125

1.78

2959404

2.07

31635.67

1.12

588388

1.26

State Bank of Hyd

2807199

1.67

2739943

1.91

27995.03

0.99

1093245

2.34

Corporation Bank

2591887

1.54

2542162

1.78

74146.18

2.63

547574

1.17

Andhra Bank

2177532

1.29

1916111

1.34

21080.95

0.75

455501

0.97

Punjab & Sind Bank

1275483

0.76

1266114

0.88

46042.38

1.64

4472

0.01

Vijaya Bank

1272302

0.76

1518970

1.06

15835.29

0.56

39246

0.08

State Bank of Patiala

1209023

0.72

1142805

0.80

17154.13

0.61

398660

0.85

IDBI Bank Ltd.

1062461

0.63

931170

0.65

9015.59

0.32

489568

1.05

State Bank of Mysore

936278

0.56

807547

0.56

8141.82

0.29

259326

0.55

State Bank of Travancore

516130

0.31

327171

0.23

10147.56

0.36

142761

0.31

67437

0.04

64677

0.05

1503.14

0.05

32422

0.07

Bhartiya Mahila Bank Total

16845773 7

14315597 0

2813916.9 0

4673551 1

Source: www.pmjdy.gov.in

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Table 1.2 exhibit the public sector bank wise accounts opened under PMJDY by the end March 2016. The bank wise scenario shows that the SBI stood at the top with 31.56 per cent (531.72 lakhs) of the total accounts and also with 29.40 per cent (420.82 lakhs) of accounts with zero balance. Moreover, both with respective the rural and the urban accounts opened under PMJDY, the SBI accounted for 232.07 lakh in rural accounts (against a total of 942.92) and 299.64 lakh urban accounts (against total of 741.65 lakh). Also with respect to the balance of amount in accounts under PMJDY, among the public sector banks, the State Bank of India topped the list with Rs. 433229.54 lakh followed by United Bank of India (Rs.424437.94 lakh), Oriental Bank of Commerce (Rs. 299219.03 lakh) Bank of Baroda (Rs. 245142.64 lakh) and UCO Bank (Rs. 166889.40 lakh). It needs to be noted that the SBI assumes the top position with respect to all the parameters. State Bank of India and Associates in Inclusive Banking State Bank of India, the oldest and largest commercial bank in India, with its presence covering all time zones in the world. State bank of India is the largest public sector commercial banks in India in terms of credit deposit ratio, profit, branches, manpower and other financial indicator. During the 2014-15, the land mark achievement for the bank was crossing the mile stone of 16333 domestic branches, the first for any Indian bank. The bank has been a lead player in working to facilitate financial inclusion and inclusive growth covering provisions of micro & small credits as well as provisions of financial sources to affordable cost reach the unbanked villages(5). SBI Set Up 600 Financial Inclusion Centers State Bank of India set up 600 financial inclusion centers across the country.

The move to set up Financial Inclusion Centers (FICs) is

aimed at powering the bank's drive to reach basic and affordable banking services to 12,421 out of the 72,315 unbanked villages www.ijmer.in

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(identified according to 2001 census) having a population of over 2,000 by March-end 2012. According to the Government and the Reserve Bank of India's directive, banks, especially from the public sector, between them have to ensure that all identified villages have appropriate banking services by the end of March 2012. ATM Services and Branch Spread SBI provides easy access to money to its customers through more than 45554 ATMs in India. The Bank also facilitates the free transaction of money with 53894 ATMs of State Bank Group, which includes the ATMs of State Bank of India as well as the Associate Banks. SBI has 23772 branches inclusive of branches that belong to its Associate banks. SBI alone has 16333 branches and it is the only bank consisting 20 per cent participation in public sector banks in India. SBI Delivers Inclusive Services across 1,369 Villages in Andhra Pradesh The bank has opened 2.1 lakh accounts with an average balance of Rs 400 to Rs 500 per account Country’s largest public sector bank. State Bank of India has achieved 100 per cent coverage across its share of unbanked villages 1369 in Andhra Pradesh as prescribed under the RBI Financial Inclusion Programme(6). The bank achieved complete coverage by opening 35 brick-and-mortar branches, appointing 1,157 business correspondents by introducing initiatives such as 162 banks on- bikes and 15 banks-on-wheels. SBI’s Point of Sales Terminals State Bank of India, India’s largest bank, expanded its number of POS terminals up to 215142 to by the end of 2014-15. POS terminals are those bank-owned machines installed in different merchant locations wherein we can swipe the debit or credit card to pay our shopping bill.

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SBI Kiosk Banking SBI Kiosk banking is a Retail Outlet of the branch of State Bank of India. Initially, SBI Kiosk banking provides the services like deposit of Cash, withdrawal of Cash and money transfer to another SBI account holder in their locations. The SBI Kiosk is working with the help of Common service centre scheme (CSCs). This CSC is providing services across India and offering government as well as private services at the citizen's doorsteps. SBI Tiny Project SBI initiated a mini banking system called ‘SBI Tiny’ reaching beneficiaries at their door step. The SBI Tiny provides easy banking services for underprivileged communities through its smart card. For this programme the SBI has tie up with NGOs who will play the role of ‘Customer Service Providers’ (CSP) or rather work like a local branch. The aim of this unique scheme is to cover as many of the poor unbanked population in the country as possible. State Bank of India, with its more than16,000 branches in rural and urban India actively involved in inclusive banking. It also offers easy “Money Transfer Service” to anywhere in India(7). Conclusions For inclusive Banking and achieving the objectives of Financial Inclusion, rural poor and unreached sections of the population are the target market. It is observed that proper communication and awareness drive are widely absent in the banking efforts for inclusion. Therefore, awareness of banking concept in rural areas should be redefined for rural population. It can be visualized by using different communication methods. The banks would have to evolve specific strategies to expand the outreach of their services in order to promote financial inclusion. Banks should give wide publicity to the facility of no frills accounts. Technology can be a very valuable tool in providing www.ijmer.in

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access to banking products in remote areas. Banks should look at financial inclusion both as a business opportunity and as a social responsibility. Political will is an important aspect in any developmental effort. Political leadership should accord adequate importance for financial inclusion in order to motivate and mobilise all the weaker sections of the society in favour of financial inclusion for their economic upbringing. Banks need to redesign their business strategies to incorporate specific plans to promote financial inclusion of low income group treating it both a business opportunity as well as a corporate social responsibility. They have to make use of all available resources including technology and expertise available with them as well as the MFIs and NGOs. References 1. Report on Trends and Progress of Banking in India, RBI, Mumbai 2012-13. 2. Report of the Committee on Medium-term Path on Financial Inclusion, headed by Deepak Mohanthy, December 2015. 3. Dr K C Chakrabarty, Deputy Governor of the Reserve Bank of India, at the FICCI – UNDP Seminar on “Financial Inclusion: Partnership between Banks, MFIs and Communities”, New Delhi, 14 October 2011. 4. www.pmjdy.gov.in. 5. State Bank of India Annual Report 2014-15 6. Successful Role Played By State Bank Of India In Promoting Financial Inclusion In India, DR. Sunil Ram Gaikwad - Global Online Electronic International Interdisciplinary Research Journal Volume-I, Issue-II August 2012 7. V.Ramkumar Deputy General Manager, Micro Credit & Financial Inclusion, State Bank Of India, Corporate Centre. Mumbai “Financial Inclusion & Financial Literacy- SBI Initiatives” Cab Calling July-September, 2007.

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INDIAN AGRICULTURE – A STUDY Dr. P. Chinnurappa ICSSR Post-Doctoral Fellow Dept. of Economics S.K.University Anantapuramu ABSRACT Agriculture serves as a major source of income for nearly 49 per cent of the world population. 55 out of the 147 countries identified by the World Bank for World Development Indicators are predominantly agriculture-based economies with 25 of them having three-fourths of their populations eking out a living on farming and these, interestingly, are located mostly in Sub-Sharan Africa and South East Asia (2001). It is disheartening to note that a majority of the people bearing the brunt of abject poverty (living below poverty line) are members of the farming community world-wide which underlines the importance of agricultural development in uplifting the underprivileged from BPL (Below Poverty Line). This paper tries to elucidate the Indian Agricultural situations and impact of economic reforms on Indian Agriculture. Key words: Agriculture, Indian Economy, Economic Reforms Let’s take a close look at the pathetic situation facing the third World Countries on the agriculture front. Out of the 55 predominantly agriculture-based nations (where more than half of the population depends on agriculture for a living), only 18 (Albania, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone etc.) are earning a sizeable chunk of foreign exchange from agriculture. Added to that only 10 countries in the said segment (Burundi, Congo Democratic Republic, Guinea Bissau, Lao PDR, Myanmar etc.) have agriculture contributing to more than 50 per cent of their GDP. It is regrettable to note that in a majority of the agriculture economies, annual growth rate of www.ijmer.in

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agriculture remains much below that of industry, manufacturing and serviced sectors. Johnson (2000) has noted that most of the world’s poor are engaged in farming, so that the key focus of development policy is to raise the incomes of farmers. From a global perspective, increasing the productivity of agriculture, given the fixity of land is necessary for both poverty reduction and the development of the non-agricultural sector. At global level, gains in agricultural productivity, poverty reduction and the growth of the non-farm sector are complements. This argument holds good in the case of our country also. India’s position in relation to the rest of the World is presented in Table 1 Table 1 India’s position in World Agriculture During 2001 Item

Total Area

Arabia Area Irrigated Area Total Agriculture Total Agriculture Total Cereals Wheat Rice (Paddy) Coarse grains

Total pulses

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India

World

India’s position % Rank Next to Share Area (Million Hectares) 329 13425 2.5 Seventh Russian Federation, Canada, USA, China, Brazil, Australia 162F 1364 2.3 Second USA 55F 272 20.2 First -Population (Million) 1025 6134 16.7 Second China 739 3211 23 Second China Economically Active population (Million) 451 2993 15.1 Second China 267 1327 20.1 Second China Crop production (Million Tonnes) 231 2086 11.1 Third China, USA 68 583 11.7 Second China 132 893 22.3 Second China 30 911 3.3 Fourth China, Brazil, Russian Federation 11 52 21.2 First -

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Ground Nut Rapeseed

Vegetables Melons Fruits excluding melons Potatoes

6 4

&

Onion (Dry) Sugarcane Tea Coffee (green)

Oil Seeds (Million Tonnes) 35 17.1 Second 36 11.1 Fourth

Fruits & Vegetables (Million Tonnes 68F 698 9.7 Second 49F

`466

10.5

25F

308

8.1

Second

Third

5F 47 10.6 Second Commercial Crops (Million Tonnes) 286 1255 22.8 Second 0.86* 3.06 28.1 First 0.30* 7.05 4.3 Sixth

Jute & Jute like Fibres Cotton (lint)

1.88F

3.07

61.2

1.75*

21.03

8.3

Tobacco leaves

0.61F

First Fourth

Cattle Buffaloes Camels

6.35 9.6 Second Livestock (Million Heads) 220 1352 16.3 First 94* 166 56.6 First 1.03F 19.33 6.3 Fifth

Sheep Goats Chicken

58* 124F 413F

1056 738 14859

5.5 16.8 2.8

Third Second Sixth

Animal Products 583339 14.4 First

Total Milk (000 MT) Eggs Total (Million)

83970* 1906*

56594

3.4

Fifth

Total Meat (000 MT)

4917

236541

2.1

Seventh

China China, Canada, Germany China China

China, Russian Federation China Brazil -Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico -China, USA, Pakistan China --Somalia, Sudan, Mauritanis, Ethiopia China, Australia China China, USA, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico -China, USA, Japan, Russian Federation China, USA, Brazil, Germany, France, Spain

F : FAO Estimates. www.ijmer.in

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* : Unofficial Figures. ** : Figures relate to 2000. Source: FAO Production Year Book, 2001, www.fao.org. Table1shows that the India’s position in World agriculture during 2001. It is observed that India occupies first rank (place) in irrigated area, total pulses production, tea crop, jute and jute like fibres, cattle and buffaloes and total milk products. India ranks second in population and economically active population, agriculture, arable area, production of wheat, rice, groundnut, vegetables and melons, fruits excluding melons, onion, sugarcane and tobacco leaves crops and goats population. In agriculture, China has occupied first rank in the World and the next is India. It is clear that India is a sound agricultural country and produced many goods than other countries in the World. Table 2 Sector Share of GDP in South Asian Countries (Per cent) Agriculture Industry Services Sl Country No. 1980 2001 1980 2001 1980 2001 1. China 25.6 11.3 51.7 64.6 22.7 24.0 2. Korea 14.2 5.1 37.8 44.0 48.1 50.9 3. Indonesia 24.4 16.2 41.3 36.0 34.3 47.8 4. Malaysia 22.9 8.2 35.8 43.1 41.3 48.7 5. Philippines 23.5 20.1 40.5 34.0 36.0 46.0 6. Singapore 1.1 0.1 38.8 30.7 60.0 69.2 7. Thailand 20.2 8.0 30.1 44.0 49.7 48.0 8. Bangladesh 49.4 25.1 14.8 26.2 35.8 48.7 9. India 38.4 24.3 25.9 26.8 36.0 49.0 10. Pakistan 30.6 24.7 25.6 25.1 43.8 50.3 11. Sri Lanka 26.6 20.4 27.2 27.4 46.2 52.1 Source: Asian Development Bank Outlook, 2002, www.adb.org Table 2 provides that in all South Asian Countries, the share of agriculture sector in GDP had decreased largely from 1980 to 2001 and in India it has decreased from 38.4 per cent share of GDP in 1980 to www.ijmer.in

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24.3 per cent in 2001 (a decrease of 14.1 per cent). The industry sector share of GDP percentage has increased except in Philippines, Singapore and Pakistan. Service sector share of GDP has also increased from 1980 to 2001 in all South Asian countries. Out of three sectors, agriculture sector share of GDP has comedown, industry sector share has slightly increased and service sector share has increased significantly. NATURE OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE Agriculture is the most important sector of the Indian economy from the perspective of poverty alleviation and employment generation. It accounts for about 18.6 per cent of India’s national income at present. The share of agriculture income to national income has been declining from 56.5 per cent in 1950-51 to 52.1 per cent in 1960-61, 45.7 per cent in 1970-71, 39.6 per cent in 1980-81, 33 per cent in 1990-91, 26.3 per cent in2001-02 and 18.6 per cent 2008-09. But the work force engaged in agriculture has exhibited only a marginal decline. The census of India reveals that the total work force engaged in agriculture in 1961 was 75.9 per cent. It declined to 69 per cent in 1980-81, 63.8 per cent in 1993-94, 59.9 per cent in 1999-2000 and 51 per cent in 2008-09. In advanced countries like the United Kingdom, the United States and Japan only 2, 3 to 5 per cent of the working population is engaged in agriculture. In France and Australia, it is 7 per cent, and 6 per cent respectively. In the underdeveloped countries, the working population engaged in agriculture is high. Agriculture revolution serves as a catalytic agent for economic growth in the underdeveloped countries. Historical evidence clearly shows that no country has moved from chronic stagnation into the take-off stage of economic development without first achieving a substantial gain in agricultural productivity. The history of economic development of countries like England, Russia, Australia, Japan, clearly reminds us of the role of agriculture in economic development. In the USA and Australia initial

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economic development was mainly due to agricultural development. They being new countries, the increase in population became an asset to them which has given greater scope to meet the increasing demand for labour on account of expansion. As a result, there was tremendous growth in production which in turn led to industrial development. Agricultural productivity was initially high and later it increased at a steady pace. Thus, agricultural progress was clearly a major contributor to their subsequent economic development. Agriculture is the foundation of our economy and is playing a key role in sustaining the economic growth of our country since Independence. Indian agriculture and allied activities have witnessed a green revolution, a white revolution, a yellow revolution and a blue revolution. Striking as may be the performance of Indian agriculture in the last five decades, as the saying goes, we have miles to go for achieving self sufficiency in food grins at higher levels of per capital consumption. Even after 50 years of Independence, agriculture continues to be the mainstay of the Indian economy. It accounts for about one fourth (25%) of the gross domestic product (GDP0 and is the source of livelihood for nearly two-thirds (60 per cent) of the population. The green revolution has been the cornerstone of India’s agricultural achievement, transforming the country from one of food deficiency to self-sufficiency through enhanced technology adoption, increased public and private investments and certain institutional innovations that have augmented production and productivity gains. The post-green revolution period has witnessed impressive structural changes taking place in Indian agriculture. For example, Indian agriculture has been progressively acquiring the small farm character, with 40 per cent of the land now being operated by small and marginal farmers. The output mix in Indian agriculture has also

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undergone a significant shift from food grains to non-food grains and within food grains from coarse to finer cereals. Use of high-end inputs such as fertilizers, insecticides, improved seeds, mechanical farm implements etc., have raised the proportion of inputs and consequently the total outlay on inputs. Despite impressive growth performance, the agriculture sector in India continues to be inefficient and plagued by constraints resulting in sluggish farm sector growth. Some of the constraints like, stagnancy in production and factor productivity growth, inadequate institutional support, migration of agricultural labour etc. And also some of the major areas of concern facing India agriculture are: land market and use, agriculture labour – rural unemployment and poverty, capital formation and investment, agricultural inputs – supply and availability, agriculture credit, extent of and access to institutional credit and agricultural extension network. This unsatisfactory performance could be attributed, though not completely, to some extent to the declining public investment as shown in Table 3 PLAN ALLOCATION TO AGRICULTRUE An attempt is made to analyze the plan outlay on agriculture and allied sectors which are presented in Table 3. Table 3 Plan Outlay in Agriculture and Allied Sectors in India S.No.

Plan

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

I Plan II Plan III Plan IV Plan V Plan VI Plan VII Plan VIII Plan IX Plan X Plan XI Plan

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Total outlay 2378 4500 8577 15779 39426 97500 180000 434100 859200 398890 3644718

Agriculture & Allied Sectors 354 501 1089 2320 4865 5695 10525 22467 42462 20668 136381

(Rs.Crores) Percentage of Agriculture & Allied sectors to total outlay 14.9 11.3 12.7 14.7 12.3 5.8 5.9 5.2 4.9 5.2 3.74

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Table 3 reveals that Plan outlay on agriculture and allied activities has been gradually declining during the plan period from 14.9 per cent in the First Plan to 3.74 per cent by the Eleventh Plan. This clearly shows the Government withdrawal of investment from agriculture sector to other sectors’ development. IMPACT

OF

ECONOMIC

REFORMS

ON

INDIAN

AGRICULTURE Economic reforms introduced during 1991 were necessitated by an unmanageable fiscal deficit and a balance of payments crisis7. They involved liberalizing industrial and trade policy, relaxing foreign exchange controls and reducing licensing requirements. These reforms affected agriculture only indirectly. There are, however, several ways in which, protectionist industrial and trade policy was hurting the agricultural sector. Firstly, protection of industry raised industrial prices relative to World prices, which caused shift of resources into, rising incomes in the industry sector relative to agriculture. Secondly, export restrictions on agricultural products kept domestic agricultural prices lower than World prices, causing many commodities such as rice, wheat, pulses and cotton to be “disprotected”. These disprotection rates defined as the percentage excess of World prices over domestic prices, have been as high as 34 per cent for rice, 30 per cent for protein feeds and 12 per cent for wheat. Thirdly, industrial inputs in to agriculture have been expensive due to policy tilt in favour of industry. Finally, a fiscal crunch at the Central and State level meant that productive public investment into agriculture was declining. Not with standing these facts, performance of economic reforms has been impressive in various aspects of Indian agriculture. With India’s signing of GATT globalization of agricultural production will play a greater role in determination of cropping pattern, investments level, price structure, equality of production and level of www.ijmer.in

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international trade. The favourable terms of trade to agriculture, in the process of economic reform, seemed to have helped in raising aggregate output and private investment in Indian agriculture. The terms of trade have become favourable to agriculture due to exchange rate devaluation’s and reducing thereby anti-cultural bias. This along with other favourable factors such a good weather seem to have helped in raising food grain production in the country. During the post-reforms period, one can see a rapid change in technological forces. Technological process in general can be defined as those changes in production process which reduce the marginal cost of output. Thus, technological changes are associated with the shifts in production function which describes the technical relation in the absence of any technical progress, the economy is bound to remain traditional with the declining levels of standard of living. Even in the backdrop of the slow pace of reforms in the country, policy changes in agriculture were still slower. There were sufficient reasons to take a more cautious approach to economic reforms in this sector. Reforms are a means to achieve the ultimate goal of economic development of the country and the well-being of it people. The words of the 1998 World Bank Report on India as cited by Srinivasan (1999) “Reform is not needed for its sake but for the sake of India’s poor and in the interest of having them both contribute to the growth process and benefit from it”. The agricultural reforms in the country were very slow and policy changes were at a very slow pace. There should be necessity and sufficient reasons to take a more cautious approach to adopt various economic reforms in this sector. The economic reforms largely focused on fiscal adjustment, foreign trade and investment, industry and financial sectors. Some of the measures, notably reduction of subsidies, reduction of bank lending for priority sector, tariff reductions and trade liberalization do have

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some impact on agricultue. Agricultural subsidies, which had been provided for agricultural input that includes fertilizers, electricity, irrigation and for output in the form of minimum support price (MSP) to give favourable and reasonable price to the farmers, have been either reduced or withdrawn completely. The export thrust of the new economic policies has also accelerated the cropping pattern shifts which results in decline in the area under food grains in favour of exportable or import substitute crops during the post-reform period. The impact of reforms on agriculture compare to other sectors of the economy shows these negative effects. CONCLUSIONS Since the agriculturists like small and marginal are found everywhere to be at the margin of subsistence and have been victims of exploitation in the market, relief from indebtedness has become a social and economic compulsion. Some limited and feeble initiatives have been taken to provide instructional credit by the cooperatives. However, the contribution has been quite insignificant and commercial banks were primarily interested in urban and commercial lending. However, since the dawn of Independence and the advent of planning, several institutional arrangements and organizational changes have been made to enhance the quantitative and qualitative norms of formal credit. Several commissions and committees have gone into the structure and performance of institutional credit. They have from time to time pointed out the several of credit cooperatives, commercial banks and regional rural banks. The disturbing growth in overdues is a consequence of the laxity and departure from the principles of sound banking. But, the most serious damage to the system and one which contributed to the decline the system and one which has contributed to the decline of the portfolio quality has been the evidence of political and administrative interference in credit decision making. The experience with regard to IRDP is instructional in this regard. Government www.ijmer.in

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intervention in credit market by redistributing the regard. Government intervention in credit market by redistributing the available credit may have beneficial effects if it is limited to certain extent. Otherwise, it leads to several perverse effects such a mounting overdues due to willful default thus eroding the financial viability of lending institutions on the one hand and accentuating inequalities in the country’s life on the other hand. Despite the phenomenal growth of formal credit due to its limited access to the poor farmers, they are forced to enter into interlinked contracts and face the effects thereof. The Reserve Bank of India has assumed special responsibility in the schemes of agricultural and rural credit. NABARD, on the other hand, established in 1982 to review the arrangements for institutional credit for agricultural and rural development. References 1. Srinivas Subba Rao P. and Murthy K.G.K., “The Unfolding Future of Agriculture in Third World Nations in an Era of Globalization: Lessons from India”, The Asian Economic Review, Vol.43, No.2, August, 2001, p.160. 2. Johnson, D. Gale, 2000, “Population, Food, And Knowledge”, American Economic Review, Vol. 90 (1) 1-14. 3. Ramand, P. Christensen, “Agricultural Progress in less Developed Countries”, Economic Development of Agriculture, Centre of Agricultural and Economics Development, Iowa State University Press, 1965, p.25. 4. H. William Nicholls, “The Place of Agriculture in Economic Development” in Agriculture in Economic Development (eds) Curi Eicher and Lawrence Witt, Mc Graw Hill Book Co New York, 1964. 5. Kamath R.J., “Financing Agriculture”, Canara Bank, Quarterly Review, Jan-March, 2001, p.6. 6. Ranjana Kumar, “Constraints Facing Indian Agriculture: Need for Policy Interventions”, Chairperson, NABARD, Mumbai, Indian, Journal Agricultural Economics, Vol.60, No.1, Jan-March, 2005, p.49.

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EMPLOYEES PERCEPTION TOWARDS TRAINING OUTCOME IN SOME SELECTED MANUFACTURING ORGANISATIONS OF DEHRADUN Dr. D. S. Chaubey Dr. Hem Chandra Kothari Dean, Research & Studies Assistant Professor Uttaranchal University, Dehradun Uttaranchal University, Dehradun Sumati Kapoor Research Scholar Pacific University, Udaipur, Rajasthan

Abstract In any organisation the training programs are either aimed at introducing new skills and techniques or to improvise on those already possessed by the employees. Present study aims to examine the association between demographic variables and training outcomes on the employees working in some selected manufacturing organisation in Dehradun. In a survey of 126 employees of different cadre, it was found that training significantly improves the work efficiency as it has scored highest mean. Another important finding of the study is that there is significant difference between the Male and Female Employees for Training Outcome. Some of the suggestion are also made in the study which will foster the productivity and competitiveness of the employees and will help the organisation in achieving long term goals and remain competitive. Key words: Employees Training and Development, Organisational productivity, Competitiveness, Demographic characteristics, etc. Introduction Technical advancement has become a core key for the survival and success of the organisation. Technology change is taking place day by day. Production is being affected and cut throat competition is rising. Hence, adoption of such technological changes or technical www.ijmer.in

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advancement has become vary necessary for most of the organisations.It has been witnessed that to meet these ever changing technology, advancements, and customer expectations, organizations need to evolve and upgrade them through required adoption. Failing adaptation would mean obsolescence and gradual demise. The essence of adaptation lies in developing the human resource of the organisation, and bringing them at par or better than competition on knowledge level, work efficiency and performance. Such adaptation is brought about by equipping the employees with necessary acquired skills which will help them to perform better, in line with the expectations of the organisation, which is already competing with the external competitive environment. Since huge amount of time and resource investments are incurred, organisations ensure that the training is effective and the learning is skilfully implemented. A clear indication of the same is seen in increased individual performance levels and achievement of overall organisational targets. Continuous improvement is inevitable for any organisation for increased performance and profitability. Training is regarded as the best tool for such improvement. Training programs are either aimed at introducing new skills and techniques or to improvise on those already possessed by the employees. In both scenarios, the key performance indicators are clearly laid down for the employees and short term targets are assigned to them. Through training need assessment, the improvement areas of the employees are identified and concerted efforts are made towards individual as well as organizational productivity enhancement. Hence, training not only improves the performance for the employees but also enhance their productivity which automatically enhances the overall productivity of the concerned organisation which leads to the higher profitability. This study endeavours to examine the impact of demographic factors, training type, and training duration on training outcomes. To fulfil this purpose, www.ijmer.in

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this study is divided intofive main sections. The first sectionof this study, namely introduction, is being followed by the synoptic discussion on review of literature as section two. Objective and hypotheses are outlined in the section three. Section four gives the results of the study. The paper ends with the some concluding remarks and comments in section five. Review of Literature Business environment has become very dynamic and ever changing now-a-days. For the survival of the organizations, both public and private,it is the need of the hour to increase the due importance of employees’ learning and development of skills through the training programme. To investment in employee training program can improve employee’s skills and performance on the one hand andbring employer’s a favourable returnson the other. Studies suggest that many training and development activities are implemented on blind faith with only the hope that they will yield resist (Arthur, Bennett, Edens& Bell, 2003). Training effectiveness, one of the factors, is a good predictor of employee training (Mayfield, 2011). This association suggests that when employee have been trained in a training program, the training effectiveness is likely to be followed by job behaviour (Pelham, 2009). Previous studies also suggest that demographic variables such as age, degree held, and experience were related to training impact (Devins, Johnson and Sutherland, 2004).These studies focused on the relationships between training effectiveness and employees’ demographic variables.Elizabeth (2002) in the study found, young, highly educated women are more vulnerable than other women training means training to produce a virtuous cycle of career development effect. Trained adult women tend to retire later, suggesting that a more knowledgeable and more wealth to more career

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women in skills, the ability to stay longer in the professional community. Chou (2001) found that gender and learning style and cognitive style will interact and affect the training methods on the role of training effectiveness. Study also found that gender training methods may also directly regulate the relationship between performance and training. Employees with a high degree of education level tend to be more motivated learners and accomplish more (Chiaburu and Marinova, 2005). A direct access has been established between efforts to build the self-confidence of learners and the likelihood of their using skills on the job (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). This is one of the reasons for investing in good training program and preparing trainees for training. On the other side, understanding the objectives of the training, its relevance to individual and organizational needs and expectations for application can greatly improve learner motivation (Montesino, 2002). Work experience is also found a variable affecting the impact level of the trainees. Sutherland (2009) found a significant variation on training impact level based on the length of work experience. Sanjeevkumar V. &Yanan H. (2011)in their study found that there is no significant difference between employees on the basis of gender, age groups, marital status, education level, and experience of employee regarding the training effectiveness. Other than demographic variables, types of training and alternatives to training based on the firm’s needs,is also relevant to the employees’ job performance. The local company pays little emphasis on training needs analysis and provide training mainly for replacement purposes (Chew, 2005).Yong(2003) argues that local firms with less interest in skill enhancement, approach training on a needs basis and limit learning to job specific training.Studies show that there is a relationship between the training impact and the types of training. Training type affects firm’s performance (Devins, Johnson, & Sutherland, 2004; Kitching& Blackburn, 2002; Eraut et al., 1998). www.ijmer.in

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An investment in training will have its returns in the form of problemsolving, decision-making, teamwork, and interpersonal relations result in beneficial firm level outcomes (Russell, Terberg, and Powers, 1985; Bartel, 1994; Cianni and Wnuck, 1997; Ettington 1997; Barak, Maymon, and Harel, 1999). Training programs that are consistent with employee and organizational goals and needs and fit with the business strategy will meet with greater success than those that are not (Wexley& Latham, 1991). Preferably, employees will be trained based on the results of assessments of their work. The Productivity of an organisation isalso directly influenced by the training, its types and duration. The quantifiable performance indicators are mapped to see the shift in overall performance and productivity due to the training programmes. Training not only increases the performance of a particular employee but collectively up scales organisational performance. Efficiency and effectiveness are ingredients of performance apart from competitiveness and productivity and training is a way of increasing individual’s performance (Cooke, 2000). Kenney et al., (1992) stated that employee's performance is measured against the performance standards set by the organization.Most of researches including Colombo and Stanca (2008), Sepulveda (2005) and Konings&Vanormelingen, (2009), showed that training is a fundamental and effectual instrument in successful accomplishment of the firm's goals and objectives, resulting in higher productivity. The productivity directly depends on the performance of the employee that can be improved through the effective training. Hence, it is a most required tool for the employee’s development.

Moreover, several authors have also written about the importance of staff development. Both formal and informal training opportunities are thought to provide a forum for the development of talent. When talent

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is fostered and nurtured, competitive advantages in performance are untainted (Becker & Gerhard, 1996; Bowling, 2007; Davenport, 2006; Peters & Waterman, 1982). Furthermore, the organizational commitment or “the relative strength of an individual’s identification and involvement in a particular organization” (Pool & Pool, 2007) depends on effective training and development programs. Cheng and Ho (2001) indicate that adequate training produces marked improvements in employee communication and proficiency of performances as well as extending retention time. Also, training and education have been shown to have a significant positive effect on job involvement, job satisfaction, (Karia&Asaari, 2006).

and

organizational

commitment

Training is related to the skills an employee must acquire to improve the probability of achieving the organization’s overall business and academic goals and objectives. Positive training offered to employees may assist with reduction of anxiety or frustration, which most employees have experienced on more than one occasion during their employment careers (Cheng &Ho, 2001). According to Tsai, Yen, Huang, and Huang (2007), employees who are committed to learning showed a higher level of job satisfaction that has a positive effect on their performance. The literature suggests that commitment results from adequate training and development for successful job completion and an increase in job performance (Tsai et al., 2007). In conclusion, training, together with other activities positively affects results and is associated with a productivity increase and a staff turnover decrease (Arthur, 1994; Huselid, 1995; Ichniowski et al., 1997). However, despite the significance of both the training needs analysis, which influences the development, application and evaluation of training (McGehee and Thayer,1961; Agnaia, 1996; Gray and Hall,

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1997; Al-Khayyat,1998; Legare, 1999; Dickenson and Blundell, 2000; Holton,2000; Selmer, 2000) and the plan development and implementation stage where the training characteristics are established and put into practice (Buckley and Caple, 1991;Goldstein, 1993; Foot and Hook, 1996; Bee and Bee, 1997; Frazis et al., 1998, 2000). Objectives of the Study:Following are the major objectives of this study: i.

To examine the association between demographic variables and training outcomes.

ii.

To examine the association between training type and training outcomes.

iii.

To examine the association between training and training outcomes.

Hypotheses:To attain the objectives of this study, following hypotheses were formed and tested: H01- “There is no significant association between demographic variables and training outcomes”. H02- “There is no significant association betweentraining type and training outcomes”. H03- “There is no significant association between training and training outcomes”. Methodology: This study is based on the primary data collected through a structured questionnaire. The sample units taken in the study are the employee working in the organization situated in Dehradun. The sample size is 126. Data collected through the questionnaire was codded and processed firstly in MS Excel than analysed using appropriate statistical tools such as; t-test, chi-square test and ANOVA, through the statistical software SPSS (version 22). Results are explained in the following section of this study:

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Data Analysis and Interpretation:Data analysis, hypothesis testing and interpretation of the findings are discussed in this section of the study as follows: Training Outcome : Descriptive Statistics Training is found to have a significant impact on the employees regarding their work efficiency, punctuality, learning and its implementation, commitments, work satisfaction, growth and development. It is also noticed from the available literature that it influence the productivity of the employee. Descriptive statistics of each outcome was calculated with help of SPSS software . result are given in the following table 1. Table 1: Significance of Difference between the Employees with Training and without Training for Training Outcome. Descriptive Statistics

Work Efficiency Punctuality Learning Commitment Work Satisfaction Growthand Development

N 126 126 126 126 126 126

Mean 2.5516 2.3611 2.5476 2.5159 2.5238 2.4683

Std. Deviation .48095 .69466 .96006 .85308 1.23751 .60579

From the above table it is seen that improvement in the work efficiency has scored highest mean (m=2.5516) followed by learning(m-2.5476) and work satisfaction (m=2.5238) . it is interesting t observe that standard deviation for work satisfaction(sd=1.2375) is highest as compared to other outcomes that indicates that employees opinion for this factor is most heterogeneous, it is followed by learning outcome of training that scored SD of 0.96006.

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Relationship between Gender and Training Outcomes: ttest:Gender may have a relationship with the training outcomes. To test such relationship it was hypothesised that, “There is no significant association between gender and Training outcomes”. Student’s tstatistics was applied to test the hypothesis. Results are presented in table 2. Table shows that, significant difference was only observed for two factors; work efficiency (t = 2.932, p = 0.004) and work satisfaction of the employee (t = -5.093, p = 0.000) at 5 percent level of significance. No difference has observed for remaining factors/variables taken as outcome of the training. Results fail to reject our null hypothesis for these variables and shows that there is a significant relationship between training and ……….. Table 2: Significance of Difference between the Male and Female Employees for Training Outcome. S. No. Factors Mean S. D. t p Male Female Male Female 1 Work Efficiency 2.6092 2.2935 .45867 .50369 2.932 .004 2 Punctuality 2.3544 2.3913 .67748 .78272 -.230 .819 3 Learning 2.5728 2.4348 .96611 .94514 .622 .535 4 Commitment 2.4854 2.6522 .80274 1.05996 -.847 .399 5 Work Satisfaction 2.2816 3.6087 1.07025 1.37309 .000 5.093 6 Growthand 2.4417 2.5870 .61910 .53859 .301 Development 1.040 Overall 39.6214 40.8261 6.80126 6.53419 -.773 .441

Relationship between Gender and Training Type Empirical study on the subject indicates the relationship between Gender and Training Type to examine such relationship , chi-square test was carried out to know the degree of association between Gender and Training Type. It is seen that calculated value of 2i.e. 0.938is greater than tabulated value of 2i.e. 7.815. That means null hypothesis is accepted indicating that there is no significant relationship between Gender and Training Type. Results are presented in the table 3 .

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Table 3 Relationship between Gender and Training Type: Gender

Training Type Total soft skill Safety Manufacturing employees development and and motivation program security production training Male 55 51 50 44 200 Female 10 12 12 7 41 Total 65 63 62 51 241 Pearson’s Chi-square Value = 0.938, p = 0.82 Table 4 Relationship between Demographic Factors and Training Outcomes: ANOVA S. No .

Training Outcomes

Edu. Inco Qual me

Traini ng Durati on F

Train ing Type

Satisfa ction

F

F

Trai ning Reta ined F

F

F

1.90

1.87

0.02

1.20

0.17

0.31

1.09

1.38

0.95

2.19

0.85

0.50

1.58

0.27

1.00

0.13

0.99

0.34

.75

1.18

0.18

0.29

0.25

0.41

1

Work Efficiency

2

Punctuality

3

Learning

4

Commitment

5

Work Satisfaction

1.17

0.16

2.37

0.47

0.76

0.23

6

Growth and Development

1.13

0.41

0.47

0.61

0.75

0.19

It was hypothesised that different training outcome does not differs significantly across the education level, income level training duration, www.ijmer.in

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type of training got , employees level of satisfaction and employees retaintivity after training. To test the hypothesis , one Way ANOVA test was carried out and result are presented in the table 4. It is seen that null hypothesis in all the cases are accepted indicated that mean of different outcome of training does not differs significantly across the variable taken in the study at 5% level of significance. Conclusions and Suggestions In the present economic environment, the technical advancement has become a core key for the survival and success of the organisation. Hence, adoption of such technological changes or technical advancement has become vary necessary for most of the organisations. Technological change is taking place very fast now a days and resulting the adverse affect on production if employees are not trained to meet the fact technological changes. Training is regarded as the best tool for such improvement. Training programs are either aimed at introducing new skills and techniques or to improvise on those already possessed by the employees. In both scenarios, the key performance indicators are clearly laid down for the employees in a short survey the study reveals that training significantly improves the work efficiency as it has scored highest mean (m=2.5516) followed by learning(m-2.5476) and work satisfaction (m=2.5238) . another important finding of the study is that there is significant Difference between the Male and Female Employees for Training Outcome. The finding of the study also reveals that mean of different outcome of training does not differs significantly across the demographic as well as duration of training and types of training given to the employees. The study also suggests that proper focus on trainng and development of employees will foster the productivity and competitiveness of the employees which will help the organisation in achieving long term goals and also to face long term competitiveness.

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References 1. Alfred Pelham, (2009) "The impact of industry and training influences on salesforce consulting time and consulting effectiveness", Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, Vol. 24 Iss: 8, pp.575 – 584 2. Arthur, W., Bennett, W., Edens, P.S., Bell, S.T. (2003), "Effectiveness of training in organizations: a meta-analysis of design and evaluation features", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No.2, pp.234-45. 3. Baldwin, T.T., Ford, J.K. (1988), "Transfer of training: a review and directions for future research", Personnel Psychology, Vol. 41 No.1, pp.63-105. 4. Burke, L.A., Hutchins, H.M. (2008), "A study of best practices in training transfer and proposed model of transfer", Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 19 No.2, pp.107-28 5. Chew, Y.T. (2005), "The changing HRM practices of Japanese firms and the impacts on compensation practices of Japanese affiliates in Malaysia", Forum of International Development, Vol. 28 No.1, pp.55-80 6. Chiaburu, D.S., Marinova, S.V. (2005), "What predicts skill transfer? An exploratory study of goal orientation, training selfefficacy, and organizational supports", International Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 9 No.2, pp.110-23. 7. Cromwell, S.E., Kolb, J.A. (2004), "An examination of workenvironment support factors affecting transfer of supervisory skills training to the workplace", Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 15 No.4, pp.449-71. 8. Devins, D., Johnson, S., & Sutherland, J. (2004). Employer characteristics and employee training outcomes in UK SMEs: a multivariate analysis, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 11(4), 449-457. 9. Devins, D., Johnson, S., & Sutherland, J. (2004). Employer characteristics and employee training outcomes in UK SMEs: a multivariate analysis, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 11(4), 449-457. 10. Eraut, M., Alderton, J., Cole, G., Senker, P. (1998), Development of Knowledge and Skills in Employment, University of Sussex Institute of Education, Brighton, Research Report No. 5,

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11. Ford, J.K., Weissbein, D.A. (1997), "Transfer of training: an updated review and analysis", Performance Improvement Quarterly, Vol. 10 No.2, pp.22-41 12. Gist, M.E., Stevens, C.K., Bavetta, A.G. (1991), "Effects of selfefficacy and post-training intervention on the acquisition and maintenance of complete interpersonal skills", Personnel Psychology, Vol. 44 No.4, pp.837-6 13. Kitching, J., Blackburn, R. (2002), The Nature of Training and Motivation to Train in Small Firms., DfES, London, Research Report RR330. 14. Lai Wan Hooi, (2010) "Technical training in the MNCs in Malaysia: a case study analysis of the petrochemical industry", Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 34 Iss: 4, pp.317 – 343 15. Milton Mayfield, (2011) "Creating training and development programs: using the ADDIE method", Development and Learning in Organizations, Vol. 25 Iss: 3, pp.19 – 22 16. Montesino, M.U. (2002), "Strategic alignment of training, transfer-enhancing behaviours, and training usage: a posttraining study", Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 13 No.1, pp.89-108. 17. Salas, E., Rozell, D., Mullen, B., Driskell, J.E. (1999), "The effect of team building on performance: an integration", Small Group Research, Vol. 30 No.3, pp.309-29. 18. Sanjeevkumar V. &Yanan H. (2011) “A Study on Training Factors and Its Impact on Training Effectiveness in Kedah State Development Corporation, Kedah, Malaysia”, International Journal of Human Resource Studies. Vol. 1, No. 2, pp 136-146. 19. Sutherland, J. (2009). Skills and Training in Great Britain: further evidence, Journal of Education and Training, 51 (7), 541-554. 20. Yong, K.B. (2003), "Human resource management", in Malaysian Institute of Management (Eds),Management in Malaysia, Percetakan Printpack Sdn. Bhd, Shah Alam, pp.230-50.

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INDIAN COMPETITION LAW: MAPPING THE TRAJECTORY Shashi Sawhney Chartered Accountant

Vinay Gadi An alumnus of St. Stephen's College & Gold Medalist in Business Laws National Law University, Delhi

Introduction A comparison between two statutes governing a particular subject matter is generally adopted as an analytical approach to evaluate the efficacy of the existing law. More often than not, this is done by juxtaposing the law of the land with foreign laws on the same questions of law. This kind of a legal introspectionis a useful and much invoked practice, which enables the researcher to analyze the problem at hand in a more objective manner. In much the same way, this paper seeks to examinetwo statutes, i.e. The Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 (hereinafter referred to as the MRTP act), and the Competition Act, 2002. It is pertinent to immediately point out two aspects at the outset. One is the more obvious point, that the analysis is not that of national law with the some foreign law, but between two statutes, which are ‘temporally separated’, and therefore, much different in the context and setting in which they were enacted. Therefore, while juxtaposing one statute with the other, it becomes important to caution oneself against drawing any adverse and sweeping inferences, and only focus on any glaring and irreconcilable inconsistencies between the two. The exercise is expected to yield better results if the former statute is seen as a stepping stone to the existing act, and the two put together would offer a fair account of the direction in which Indian competition law has evolved. This directly leads us to the second aspect that needs to be brought to the fore. The word ‘comparison’, while an apt and widely accepted www.ijmer.in

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approach, has some underlying fallacies. Comparing the law of the land with foreign law in general, and comparing two statutes enacted at different points in time (as is being attempted through this paper) inevitably runs the risk of yielding incongruous results, if the spirit and reasons behind the two statutes is not understood and appreciated properly. Therefore, the author seeks to refer to this transition as an evolution, than a mere change, and subsequently, the author would try to bring out how in fact, the former act provided the much needed substratum for the existing act to take roots, even though there are fundamental differences in the framework of the two laws. To drive home the abovementioned point, the author would also seek the aid of the recommendations of the Raghavan Committee report which can be seen as the bridge between the old and the existing law. Context and setting under which MRTP came into existence: A new law, having its goals and objects at an altogether different tangent than the existing laws and regulations, would first have required some sort of a jurisprudential underpinning. And this could be traced to the Directive Principles of State Policy as enshrined in the Constitution of India, particularly Article 39(b) and (c).1 The report of the Hazari Committee in 1951 highlighted the fact that the goals of industrial policy, which India had adopted, were being defeated by concentration of economic muscle in the hands of a few business houses, and this was at the cost of the growth of small scale industrialists/entrepreneurs, who could not survive, in the absence of a level-playing field. The committee report could be seen as a critical evaluation of the then existing industrial policy of India, which 1

(b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good; (c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment www.ijmer.in

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primarily contained the industrial licensing procedure. In 1964, the MIC2 was constituted, which concluded that in around 85 percent of the industries, there was high concentration of economic power, which set the stage for the passing of the MRTP act.3 Some important aspects of the MRTP act, for a basic understanding about the framework of the act. While it must be kept in mind that the act came into being in a paradigm in which the country was reeling under high concentration of economic power and while it is essentially a statute that operates in the competition law area, a careful analysis would reveal that what the act was seeking was essentially to curb monopolistic behavior and frowned upon restrictive trade practices, unlike the present day statute, that in fact contains positive provisions and squarely attempts to create a level-playing field. A perusal of the preamble4 and the statement of objects would reveal that the word ‘competition’ does not feature in either of the two, and the act purports to deal with issues like ‘concentration of economic power’ and curbing ‘monopoly behavior’. For the purpose of achieving its objects, the MRTP act contained three categories of ‘anti-competitive’ practices. These were a) Restrictive Trade Practices, b) Unfair Trade Practices, c) Monopolistic trade practices. Section 33 of the erstwhile act dealt with the issue of R.T.P. It enumerated certain types of agreements which would be deemed to be

2

Monopolies Inquiry Commission See Vijay Kumar Singh, Competition Law and Policy In India: The Journey In A Decade, 4 NUJS L.Rev. 523, 527 (2011).;available at http://www.nujslawreview.org/pdf/articles/2011_4/vijay-kumar-singh.pdf 4 An act to provide that the operation of the economic system does not result in concentration of economic power to the common detriment, for the control of monopolies, for the prohibition of monopolistic restrictive trade practices and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto. 3

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restrictive in nature, which included agreements in the nature of refusal to deal, tie up sales, resale price maintenance, discriminatory pricing etc. All these practices, as the nomenclature suggests, restrict the flow of capital in the production chain, and therefore are amenable to scrutiny. Section 36A of the act dealt with U.T.P. (which was brought into the scope of MRTP through 1984 amendment) which broadly dealt with consumer interest, touching issues like misleading advertisements, bait and switch selling, hoarding and safety standards. M.T.P. was defined in Section 2(i) of the MRTP act, and it is here that we find the mention of the word ‘competition’5. Broadly this part dealt with all practices that had the effect of having adverse effect on cost of production or the prices at which they are sold, or tended to limit technical development. These were all problems that one could expect to stem from a purely monopolistic behavior, whereby the absence of competition itself becomes a license to exploit, if the law does not intervene. One point of distinction which is much emphasized between the existing law and the MRTP act is the enforcement mechanism that the two statutes envisaged. The MRTP act was guided primarily by the behavioral and reformist doctrine6. It contained provisions in the nature of ordering the errant undertaking to cease and desist from such practice, and also could ask for an assurance from the undertaking that necessary step to address the situation have been taken. This can be contradistinguished from the penal provisions that the Competition act contains, and the enormous powers that the CCI7 enjoys. It is submitted that this is NOT really a point of stark difference between

5

(ii) unreasonably preventing or lessening the competition in the production, supply or distribution of certain goods or in the supply of any service. 6 See S. CHAKRAVARTHY, WHY INDIA ADOPTED A NEW COMPETITION ACT 7 (2006);available athttp://www.cuts-international.org/pdf/wiancl.pdf 7 Competition Commission of India www.ijmer.in

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the two acts, but in fact it served as a bridge between the then existing paradigm in which there was no competition law to begin with, and to the time now, when the ambit and scope of the generic term ‘anti-trust practices’ is every increasing. It was necessary in fact, to first allow the industries

to

acclimatize

and

align

themselves

with

the

requirements of an entirely novel set of laws, unheard of before the MRTP was enacted. In the author’s opinion, this enforcement aspect is not really a point of difference at all, but a prudent and wise manner in which India chose to implement its competition law regime with a calibrated and phased approach. Courts leaning in favour of sanctity of contracts, by upholding restrictive agreements in the then MRTP regime. While the MRTP was broadly worded, and theoretically could even subsume most of the practices that the current act frowns upon, lack of judicial enthusiasm in implementing the act in its true spirit, turned this quality (broad coverage) into a shortcoming. While it would be farfetched to label the provisions as vague, it is important, for a critical assessment to note that the failure to precisely lay down contours of anti-competitive practices, especially at a time when the whole idea of competition law was itself novel, and in the presence of a strong contract law, it is submitted that it would have been wrong to expect from the courts at that time, any kind of path-breaking judgments, and to this extent the legislature must have paid more heed to the issue of detailing out the scope and ambit of practices that it purported to curb and curtail. In the case of Tata Engineering and Locomotive Company V. Registrar of Restrictive Trade Agreement8 the dealer was prohibited, by way of a dealership contract from selling the vehicle beyond the prescribed territory, and further prohibited the dealer from 8

AIR 1961 SC 954

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handling or selling the vehicle manufactured by any other company. These clauses are clearly in the nature of territorial restrictions, resale price maintenance and allocation of market (if examined on the touchstone of the existing competition act), and it was indeed on these grounds that it was averred that such practices amounted to a ‘restrictive trade practice’. The court arrived at the conclusion that such practice (agreement) was not restrictive. While it may be argued and even true, to suggest that the agreement may even today survive the existing scrutiny of competition law, what needs to be examined is the approach of the court in arriving at the conclusion, which it is submitted is quite different than the one that courts would apply under the existing regime. Even though the nature of restriction was on one of the listed grounds on which courts court draw a presumption of restrictiveness, the court nonetheless proceeded to apply the rule of reason. The court took great pains in discussing and coming to a conclusion regarding how the agreement, even though apparently restrictive in nature, is in fact conducive to the growth of the sector in question (automotive). The author submits that while the abovementioned decision is a good decision, it served as a bad precedent, as the courts missed to opportunity of planting the ‘rule per se’ into the domain of competition law, something which would have fortified the competition law regime in India, by shifting the onus probandi on the person who indulges in anti-competitive practices, by justifying his behavior as not being prejudicial to public interest. It was only in the case of Voltas Ltd. V. Union of India9, where the court held, that in cases of restrictions set out in the MRTP act itself, rule per se could be applied, and rule of reason was applicable to situations not expressly covered under the act, since the definition of R.T.P. was inclusive and not exhaustive.

9

AIR 1995 SCC 1881

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Extra-territorial application of the MRTP act One of the aspects of MRTP that cannot be defended is its failure to address issue of extra-territorial jurisdiction of the courts in dealing with competition issues, which is otherwise one of the fundamental concept in competition law.

In American Natural Soda Ash

Corporation V. Alkali Manufacturers Association of India10, the ANSAC (an association of 6 soda ash producers from US) formed a cartel to export soda ash to India. The AMAI invoked the jurisdiction of MRTP to restraint the ANSAC from doing so. The MRTP commission was of the view that it had no jurisdiction over the case, as it was a matter purely related to importation and the jurisdiction of MRTP begins after the article has been imported into the country and not before that. Similarly in the case of Haridas Exports v. All India Float Glass Manufacturers Association11, the Supreme Court ruled that the MRTP act has jurisdiction over only those agreements that have been entered upon in India. This issue has been convincingly addressed by the existing act12, and it is submitted that this is one aspect of MRTP, which has no conceivable justification, and it seems to be more a case of legislative oversight, and the subsequent inertial lack of zeal to correct or amend the law. It is quite a settled position of law that a law can have extra-territorial application provided that sufficient nexus is present between the subject and object of such application. Therefore not extending the application of a competition law statute to foreign entities, even when a fair nexus can be established, inherently carries the risk of the object of the law being defeated at the hands of foreign entities. This is to be noted as clearly a glaring aberration in the then existing MRTP act. 10

(1998) 3 CompLJ 152 MRTPC Appeal (civil) 2330 of 2000 12 Section 32 of the Competition Act 2002, empowers the CCI to inquire and pass orders against entities established abroad but causing appreciable adverse affect on competition in India. 11

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MAINSTREAMING OF SCHOOL DROPOUTS IN THE STUDY AREA: AN EMPERICAL ANALYSIS Dr. H.Ramachandra Research Scholar Department of Social Work S.K.University,Anantapuram INTRODUCTION One of the main objectives of National Child Labour Projects (NCLP) was to identify the out-of-school (OOS) children and child labourers in the age group of 6 -14 years and mainstream them into the formal education system either directly admitting them in ageappropriate classes or through conduct residential or non-residential bridge courses at specified centres and later enrolling them into government schools. The OOS children mostly comprise the school dropouts and also a few never enrolled children. The NCLP was in operation since 1995-96 in the study district of Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh. The mainstreaming of school dropouts was taken up in the district under the NCLP in collaboration with Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) launched in 2000-01 aimed at universalizing the elementary education in the country. The sample children were chosen from among the OOS children who were enrolled into bridge courses during 2007-08 and 2008-09 with a view to admitting them into age-appropriate classes in government schools. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to study the process of mainstreaming the sample children into formal education system, focusing on how they were enrolled into bridge courses, what was the nature of bridge courses, what facilities were provided at the bridge courses, into which schools they were admitted, and how they were feeling in the new schools, what is their opinion on the school environment, curriculum, teachers, facilities/ amenities available, etc. The analysis has been done by gender of the sample children, aimed to study the effectiveness with which the process of mainstreaming the school dropouts had taken place. Before studying the process of mainstreaming the sample children, it is important to study the past history of sample children, which will help us in understanding the stage at which they dropped out, reasons for their dropping out, and www.ijmer.in

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what occupations they pursued before they were enrolled into bridge courses, in order to have a correct perspective of the problem. PAST HISTORY OF SAMPLE CHILDREN This analysis focuses on what the sample children were doing before joining the bridge courses. Past Schooling Status The past schooling status of sample children is presented in table 5.1. It may be noted that a vast majority (91%) of the sample children were school dropouts. It means that they have had access to formal education before dropping out of school. The percentage of school dropouts was higher among the males (94%) than that of females (88%). It follows that only about 9% of the sample children were never enrolled into school, meaning that they had no access to formal schooling system earlier. Among the never enrolled children, the females were in greater proportion (12%) when compared to males (6%). This indicates the discrimination shown towards girls in enrolling them into school in the study area. Thus, the parents had shown preference to boys in the matter of enrolling them into school. It also serves as a pointer to the fact that over 90 per cent of the OOS children were school dropouts and the rest never enrolled children and to the persisting gender inequalities in the enrolment of children into school. Table 5.1 Past Schooling Status of Sample Children No. of Children S. No. Schooling Status Male Female Total 1 School dropout 99 119 218 % 94.3 88.1 90.8 2 Never enrolled 6 16 22 % 5.7 11.9 9.2 Total 105 135 240 % 100.0 100.0 100.0 Stage of Dropping out from School The stage or class at which the sample children dropped out from school is presented in table 5.2.

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Table 5.2 Stage of Dropping out from School in the case of Sample Children No. of Children S. Stage/ Class No. Male Female Total 1 Never enrolled 6 16 22 % 5.7 11.9 9.2 rd 2 3 Class 4 13 17 % 3.8 9.6 7.1 th 3 4 Class 32 30 62 % 30.5 22.2 25.8 4 5th Class 33 41 74 % 31.4 30.4 30.8 th 5 6 clas 30 32 62 % 28.6 23.7 25.8 th 6 7 Class 0 3 3 % 0 2.2 1.3 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 It is evident from table 5.2 that a considerable proportion of sample children (31%) discontinued from school in 5th Class. The important reasons for this phenomenon as observed by this researcher are given below: 1. The non-availability of upper primary and high schools in all the study villages after the children complete primary education. 2. The parents felt that their children acquired enough knowledge to read and write in mother tongue. About 26 per cent of the sample children discontinued from school in 4th Class, while about 26 per cent had dropped out in 6th Class. About 7 per cent of the sample children dropped out in 3rd Class. On the whole, about 64 per cent of the sample children dropped out at Primary level, while about 27 per cent dropped out at the Upper Primary level. There were about 9 per cent of the sample children who were never enrolled into school. Further, no substantial differences were observed between males and females in regard to the stage at which the sample children dropped out from school, except in 3rd class www.ijmer.in

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where a greater proportion of females dropped out from school when compared to males. Age of Dropping out from School The interest or disinterest of children on education depends on the age of children. Age is an important factor for psychological deviation according to several psychologists. As such, it may of some use to study the age at which the sample children dropped out from school. Table 5.3 shows the age of dropping out from school in respect of the sample children. Table-5.3 Age of Dropping out from School in respect of Sample Children S. No. No. of Children Age Group (years) Male Female Total 1 6–8 11 13 24 % 10.4 9.6 10.0 2 8 – 10 44 58 102 % 41.9 42.9 42.5 3 10 – 13 50 64 114 % 47.6 47.4 47.5 Total 105 135 240 % 100.0 100.0 100.0 As per table 5.3, about 47.5 per cent of the sample children dropped out from school after they had completed 10 years of age. In rural areas, parents assign different works to their children during the age group of 10 to 13 years. About 42.5 per cent of children dropped from school during the age group of 8 to 10 years. During the field survey it was observed that the children in the age group of 8 to 10 years, especially girls, were left at home to look after their younger siblings or cousins. About 10 per cent of children dropped from school in the age group of 6 to 8 years. On the whole, a majority (58%) of the sample children had dropped out from school even before they completed 10 years of age, while the rest had dropped out from school in the age group of 10 to 13 years.

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Decision to drop out from school The decision to drop out from school will be usually taken by parents or relatives or in some cases by the children themselves. Table 5.11 shows the distribution of sample children by who took the decision to drop out from school. Table: 5.4 Decision to Drop out from School in the case of Sample Children No. of Children S. Decision to Drop out from school No. Male Female Total 1 Own 38 42 80 % 36.2 31.1 33.3 2 Parents 36 59 95 % 34.3 43.7 39.6 3 Relatives 31 34 65 % 29.5 25.2 27.1 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 It is evident from table 5.4 that in case of about 40 per cent of the sample children, the parents took the decision to drop their children from school, the corresponding figure being higher among the girls (44%) when compared to boys (34%). About one-third of the sample children had taken the decision to drop out from school on their own, such a percentage being higher among the boys (36%) that that of girls (31%). It may also be seen that the relatives took the decision to drop the sample children out from school in respect of 27 per cent, such a percentage being higher in the case of boys (30%) as compared to girls (25%). On the whole, it is clear that either the parents or the relatives took the decision and were instrumental in dropping out the sample children from school in respect of two-thirds of sample children, while about one-third of the sample children took such a decision on their own, perhaps influenced by their friends or seniors in the school who had dropped out from school earlier. Reasons for Dropping out from School Considerable research has been underway to define the characteristics of dropouts and to develop tools to identify children “at risk” of dropping out of school. It has been repeatedly observed that www.ijmer.in

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low-achievers and students from low socio-economic backgrounds are at much higher risk of dropping out, which could be due to several reasons such as inadequate parenting, inability to afford the educational expenditure, poor schooling infrastructure, de-motivated teachers, pressure to augment family income, accompanied by a view that schooling has limited economic returns; peers with low aspirations; poor nutrition and health; and too few role models in the community. For policy makers to develop effective interventions, it is essential to ascertain which factors are most important for identifying school leavers, as dropouts are not a homogenous group, but early warning signs can help identify those most at risk and suitable strategies could be evolved for them. One of the key problems is that students do not usually drop out for a single reason. Multiple factors are at play and no single risk factor can accurately predict who will dropout and why. Three sets of factors, viz., household, school and child related, primarily contribute to the phenomenon of dropping out from school. At the same time it is important to borne in mind that these three sets of factors do not influence dropping out from school independently but intertwined with each other producing a net effect of dropout. As an illustration one can argue that academic inability to cope with academic rigor and inability to bear the expenditure on private tuition interact and lead to dropout. The parents reported that the most vital factor responsible for dropping out their children from school is their inability to meet the cost of schooling. During the field survey, the children and their parents talked about difficulties in paying for school fees and other school related expenses, especially when the main bread-earner (father) was without a job or somebody fell sick in the family. Table 5.5 presents the reasons for dropping out from school from the perspective of the parents of the sample children. It could be noted that the main reason for dropping out the sample children was the financial constraints, as stated by 45 per cent of the sample respondents. About 23 per cent of the sample respondents reported household factors as the main reason for dropping out their children from school. While 18 per cent of the sample respondents reported school factors as the main reason for dropping out their children from school, about 14 per cent reported individual or child related factors as the main reason. There were no substantial differences between the households comprising male and female dropouts with regard to main www.ijmer.in

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reasons for dropping out children from school. These reasons are further analysed in detail here. Table 5.5 Main Reasons for dropping out from school in the case of sample children No. of Children Reasons for Dropping out S. No. from school Male Female Total 1

Financial Constraints %

2

Household Factors %

3

School factors

4

Individual or Child Factors

% % Total %

50

59

109

47.6

43.7

45.4

22

33

55

21.0

24.4

22.9

20

23

43

19.0

17.0

17.9

13

20

33

12.4 105 100

14.8 135 100

13.8 240 100

Financial Constraints Educational expenditure is on two counts, namely public and private. The expenditure incurred by the State in providing infrastructural arrangements for education, like creating facilities in the form of building and maintenance of schools, provision of teachers, payment of teacher salary, and other planned and non-planned grants are a part of the public expenditure. Private expenditure on education refers to the expenditure incurred by the parents and households. This is mainly incurred towards the payment of fees, private tuition, stationery, uniform, transport, etc. A number of studies highlight the linkage between poverty and dropping out from the school. A few research studies indicate that the cost of schooling, including fees, is one of the main reasons for dropping out from school. About 45.4 per cent of the sample respondents reported that the most significant factor for dropping out their children from school was their inability to meet the cost of schooling. Household Factors Socio-economic and cultural background of the households is www.ijmer.in

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also one of the most significant contributors to the continuation or discontinuation of the child in school. Poverty of the parents still remains one of the significant causes for the low participation of children in schooling. About 22.9 per cent of the sample respondents reported household factors as mainly responsible for dropping out their children from schools. School factors It is widely acknowledged that infrastructural facilities, school environment, and teachers’ attitude exert powerful influences on student’s interest or disinterest in studies including dropout rates. In this context, the PROBE team (1999) and Balgopalan and Subramanian (2003) describe discrimination against socially disadvantaged groups as terrible and exclusionary. They reported that children from the upper classes are joining private schools and the poor are basically attending government schools with some belonging to the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe groups and teachers belonging to the so-called upper castes. Consequently, the attitude of the teachers, disinterest in teaching these disadvantaged children and poor infrastructural facilities like unavailability of functional toilets, improper seating arrangements, etc., are found to be some of the important reasons for pushing out the children from school. Findings from the field survey also confirm some of these observations, as about 18 per cent of the sample respondents reported school related factors as the main reason for dropping out their children from school. It was observed, however, that the infrastructural facilities in schools in the study areas appear to be fairly good, even though improvement here and there is very much necessary. The schools had pucca or semi-pucca buildings, but amenities such as desks, computers, safe drinking water, and functional toilets were found wanting in most cases. Individual or Child Factors The child related factors are closely associated with the family and school related factors. Financial constraints and inappropriate school environment tend to de-motivate the children, making them lose interest in their studies and thus leading to their eventual dropping out from school. Further, household circumstances and academic failure increased students’ alienation from school, leading to absenteeism, which also influenced their dropping out from school. As the children living in rural and slum areas do not have favourable academic environment at home, and even in school the www.ijmer.in

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teachers lack motivation to teach, due to which the incidence of failure is very high among them. It was found that about 14 per cent of the sample respondents cited failure as the most significant reason for dropping out their children from school, as detention in the same grade caused embarrassment to the children. Further, it was reported that even after repeating the same grade they could not understand the subject matter and as such started loosing interest in studies. Thus, most of the students who failed had difficulty in understanding all the subjects; especially, they found Maths, Science and English very difficult. It has often been observed that poor understanding at the elementary level is the main factor contributing to low comprehension at the secondary level. Researchers also reported connection between measures of academic performance in early elementary school and dropout behaviour before high school graduation. They emphasized the need for examining the causes of dropout before high school, as many students were observed to be dropping out before Grade X. Those who reach secondary level with weak academic understanding find it difficult to sustain. Occupation of Sample Children before joining Bridge Courses It is unethical as well as unlawful to engage children in works, especially when they are aged 14 years or less. Before joining bridge courses, the sample children reported that they had taken up different types of work after dropping out from school. As such, they were asked to give the particulars about the works they had undertaken in the time period after dropping out from school and before joining bridge courses. The types of work undertaken by sample children before joining bridge courses are presented in table 5.6. It may be seen from table 5.6 that the sample children had taken up 5 types of work before their admission into bridge courses. Among 5 types of work, about 31 per cent of sample children were engaged in stone breaking (stone chips) work. Construction related works were undertaken by about 23 per cent of sample children. About 22 per cent of the sample children were engaged as agricultural labour. Sheep rearing was another important work taken up by about 9 per cent of the sample children. There were also about 5 per cent of sample children worked in auto garages. On the whole, about 89 per cent of the sample children had taken up some work or other, after dropping out from school and before joining bridge courses, and there were no substantial variations between the two www.ijmer.in

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categories of households in this regard. The remaining 11 per cent of sample children had not taken up any work, after dropping out from school and before joining bridge courses. Table 5.6 Occupation of the Sample Children before joining Bridge Courses No. of Children S. No. Occupation Male Female Total Construction Work 23 31 54 1 % 22.3 22.6 22.5 Stone breaking 29 45 74 2 % 28.2 32.8 30.8 Agricultural labour 23 29 52 3 % 22.3 21.2 21.7 Auto garage 3 10 13 4 % 2.9 7.3 5.4 Sheep rearing 13 8 21 5 % 12.6 5.8 8.8 No Work 12 14 26 6 % 11.7 10.2 10.8 Total 103 137 240 % 100.0 100.0 100.0 Age at the time of taking up work As per the provisions of the Indian Constitution, children below the age of 14 years shall not be employed in any work or industry. As such, it would be important to study the age at which the sample children started taking up work for the first time.

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Table 5.7 Age at the time of taking up work for the first time in the case of Sample Children

S. No. 1

Age (years) 9 %

2

10 %

3

11 %

4

12 %

5

No Work % Total %

No of Sample Children Total Male Female 13 19 32 12.4 14.1 13.3 64 80 144 61.0 59.3 60 14 19 33 13.3 14.1 13.8 2 3 5 1.9 2.2 2.1 12 14 26 11.4 10.4 10.8 105 135 240 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table 5.7 shows the age of the sample children when they took up work for the first time. It could be seen from table 5.7 that a majority (60%) of sample children took up work for the first time at the age of 10 years. It may also be seen that the sample children who had taken up work for the first time at the age of 9 years age constituted about 13 per cent of the total. Thus, nearly three-fourths of the sample children took up work for the first time at a tender age of 9 or 10 years. There were about 14 per cent of the sample children who took up work at the age of 11 years, while about 2 per cent started working at the age of 12 years. On the whole, 89 per cent of the sample children were engaged in different works when they were aged between 9 and 12 years. There were only 11 per cent of the sample children who did not take up any work after they had dropped out from school and before joining the bridge courses. Illness while Performing Economic Activity When the children were engaged in different kinds of works, it is likely that they might have faced illnesses. Therefore it would be important to study the kinds of illnesses experienced by the sample www.ijmer.in

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children while they undertook economic activities. A question was asked to the sample children whether they suffered any illnesses before joining the bridge courses and, if yes, what kinds of illnesses they suffered. Table 5.8 shows the illness while performing economic activity in the case of sample children. It may be seen that a preponderant majority (90%) of sample children suffered due to illness while performing economic activities before joining bridge courses. These might have also included some children who had not taken up any work at that time. It was found that a slightly higher proportion of female children (92%) suffered due to illness than the male children (88%). This could be due to the fact that female children are more malnourished when compared to male children and have less resistance to diseases. Only 10 per cent of sample children reported that they never suffered from any illnesses while performing economic activities. Table 5.8 Illness while Performing Economic Activity in the case of Sample Children No. of Children S. Illness while Performing No Economic Activity Male Female Total 1 92 124 216 Yes 87.6 91.9 90.0 % 2 13 11 24 No 12.4 8.1 10.0 % 105 135 240 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 % Kinds of illness suffered while Working The sample children, who reported that they experienced illness while working, were further asked with regard to the kinds of illnesses they suffered from. The kinds of illnesses suffered by the sample children while working are presented in table 5.9. It is evident from table 5.9 that nearly 38 per cent of sample children suffered from chickun gunya. It was found that a higher proportion of girls (40%) suffered from chickun gunya than that of boys (35%). About 33 per cent of sample children suffered from Malaria, such a percentage being higher among the girls (35%) than that of boys (31%). The diseases like Dengue, Pneumonia, Diarrhoea, Chicken pox, etc., were the other illnesses suffered by about 19 per cent of the sample children, such a percentage being higher among the boys (22%) than that of girls (17%). www.ijmer.in

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About 10 per cent of sample children were free from any illness. Thus, most of the sample children suffered from chickun gunya, malaria and other diseases while working. Table 5.9 Kinds of Illness suffered by Sample Children while Working No. of Children S. No. Kind of Illness Male Female Total 1 32 47 79 Malaria 30.5 34.8 32.9 % 2 37 54 91 Chickun Gunya 35.2 40.0 37.9 % 3 23 23 46 Other Diseases 21.9 17.1 19.2 % 4 13 11 24 No Illness 12.4 8.1 10.0 % 105 135 240 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 % Consultation of Doctor Consultation of qualified doctor is essential for early curing of diseases. Therefore, it is important to ascertain whether the sample children consulted doctor when they suffered from illnesses while working, and if yes, whether the doctors were qualified. The sample children were asked to give particulars on whether they consulted doctor after falling ill. Table 5.10 shows the particulars on consultation of doctor in the case of sample children when they suffered from illness while working. It is clear from table 5.10 that all those sample children who reported some kind of illness while working consulted the doctor.

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Table: 5.10 Consultation with Doctor in times of Illness while working in the case of Sample Children S. No. 1

Whether Consulted Doctor?

No. of Children Male

Female

Total

%

92 87.6 13 12.4

124 91.9 11 8.1

216 90.0 24 10.0

%

105 100.0

135 100.0

240 100.0

Yes %

2

NA Total

Source of Medical Treatment The speedy recovery of a disease will largely depend upon the source of medical treatment and the type of doctor consulted by the patient. This is especially true in the case of children. As such, during field survey the sample children and their parents were asked to reveal the type of doctor they consulted when they suffered from illness while working. The responses of the sample children on the source of medical treatment in times of illness while working are presented in table 5.11. It may be noted from table 5.11 that about 73 per cent of the sample children were taken to government hospital when they suffered from illness while working. About 17 per cent of sample children consulted Registered Medical Practitioner (RMP). There are no wide variations between male and female respondent children in this regard. Besides, it was also reported by the respondents that they consulted quacks for the treatment of illness. They gave the following reasons for consulting quacks instead of qualified doctors: 1. In good number of sample villages, qualified doctors were not available. 2. To consult a qualified doctor, the children have to go to distant places. 3. The consultation fees were higher for a qualified doctor than that of a quack.

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Table 5.11 Source of Medical Treatment for the Sample Children S. No. of Children Source of No. Medical Treatment Male Female Total 1 RMP 20 22 42 % 19.0 16.4 17.5 2 Govt. Hospital 72 102 174 % 68.6 75.5 72.5 3 13 11 24 No illness 12.4 8.1 10.0 % Total %

105 100.00

135 100.00

240 100.00

Present Health Condition The sample children were asked a question on how they view their present health condition when compared to that at the time of undertaking work before joining the bridge courses. Table 5.12 shows the health condition of the sample children when compared to that while working. It may be seen that a vast majority of the sample children (80%) reported that their health condition was better when compared to that while undertaking economic activities. The percentage of sample children reporting better health condition at present was higher among the girls (85%) when compared to boys (72%). About 10 per cent of the sample children reported that their health condition remained the same when compared to that while undertaking economic activities. The percentage of sample children reporting that their health condition remained the same as compared to that while working was higher in the case of males (15%) when compared to females (7%). Table 5.12 Health condition of Sample Children as compared to that while working No. of Children S. Health Condition No. Male Female Total 1 Better 76 115 191 % 72.4 85.2 79.6 2 Same 16 9 25 www.ijmer.in

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% 3

NA % Total %

15.2 13 12.4 105 100.0

6.7 11 8.1 135 100.0

10.4 24 10.0 240 100.0

Leisure Time Activities while Working The mental and physical development of child depends upon the leisure time activities undertaken by them, while they were working. Free time activity undertaken by sample children before and after completion of their work as reported by them is given in table 5.13. Table 5.13 indicates that a majority of the sample children both among males and females spent free time by playing with their friends. To be precise, about 60 per cent of male and 59 per cent of female children spent their leisure time by playing with their friends, the average for all the sample children being 59 per cent. About 34 per cent of the sample children helped their parents in doing household work during their leisure time, such a percentage being slightly higher among females (35%) when compared to males (33%). About 7 per cent of the sample children both among males and females spent their leisure time by watching TV. Thus, most of the sample children either played with their friends or helped their parents in performing different household chores during their leisure time. Table: 5.13 Leisure time Activity for the Sample Children while working No. of Children S. Free time Activity No. Male Female Total 1 Helping Parents inHousehold Work 35 47 82 % 33.3 34.8 34.2 2 Playing with Friends 63 79 142 % 60.0 58.5 59.2 3 Watching TV 7 9 16 % 6.7 6.7 6.7 Total 105 135 240 % 100.0 100.0 100.0

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Employer’s Treatment while Working The continuity of children in work will largely depend upon the attitude of employer towards them. Table 5.14 shows the nature of treatment of the Employers towards the sample children while they were working. Table 5.14 Employer’s Treatment towards the Sample Children while working No. of Children S. No. Nature of Treatment Male Female Total 1 Good 46 49 95 % 43.8 36.3 39.6 2 Not Good 59 86 145 % 56.2 63.7 60.4 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 Table 5.14 reveals that in case of a majority of the sample children, the employer’s attitude towards children was not good. About 64 per cent of female and 56 per cent of male sample children reported that the employer’s treatment towards them was not good while they were working. On the other hand, about 44 per cent of male children and 36 per cent female children expressed the opinion that their employer’s attitude towards them was good while working. On the whole, a majority (60%) of the sample children opined that their employer’s treatment or attitude towards them was not good while were working. The employers were mostly interested in getting cheap labour from the children and thereby exploitative in nature. Therefore, they looked at the children as work machines and not as human beings. PROCESS OF MAINSTREAMING SAMPLE CHILDREN In this section, an attempt is made to capture the process of mainstreaming the sample children into formal schooling system by eliciting their responses with regard to willingness to go back to school, whether anybody motivated them to go back to school, year of enrolment in bridge courses, nature of bridge course centres, facilities availed at the bridge course centres, satisfaction with the facilities made available, syllabus of the bridge course, type of formal schools in which they were admitted and their present schooling status.

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Willingness to go back to School The sample children were asked a question on whether they felt at any time after dropping out from school to go back to school. It was further probed whether they were interested to go back to school, leaving their present work. Table 5.15 shows the willingness of the sample children to go back to school. It could be seen from table 5.15 that only 40 per cent of the sample children said that they were willing to go back to school, such a percentage being higher among the males (45%) when compared to females (36%). On the other hand, nearly half of sample children did not express willingness nor showed any interest to go back to school. The reasons given by them were as follows: 1) They expressed the fear that “even if ‘we’ re-join the school we cannot compete with the regular students”. 2) The economic position of the family would not allow continuing education. Thus, these children had apprehensions about coping with the existing syllabus and competing with other students in the event of their re-joining the school. They also had apprehensions on whether the economic position of the family would allow them to continue in school. Both these reasons seemed to be genuine. About 11 per cent of the sample children said that they could not come to a decision in this regard. Table 5.15 Sample Children’s Willingness to go back to School No. of Children S. Willingness to go back to school No. Male Female Total 1 Yes 47 49 96 % 44.8 36.3 40.0 2 No 50 67 117 % 47.6 49.6 48.8 3 Can’t say 8 19 27 % 7.6 14.1 11.2 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 Source of Motivation for the Sample Children to go back to School

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The first step in the process of mainstreaming the OOS children including school dropouts after they are identified is motivating the children and their parents to re-join school. The parents as well as children had to be motivated to prepare them to re-join the school. The official/person shall explain to the parents the main advantages of sending children to go to school. Besides, children shall also be brain washed. As such, during field survey it was enquired about the person or persons who persuaded the parents and the sample children to go back to schools. Table 5.16 shows the source of motivation for the sample children to go back to school. Table 5.16 Person Motivating the Sample Children to go back to School No. of Children S. No. Source of Motivation Male Female Total 1 Government Teacher 33 58 91 % 31.4 43.0 38.0 2 NGO Functionary 28 32 60 % 26.7 23.7 25.0 3 Bridge Course Coordinator 44 45 89 % 41.9 33.3 37.0 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 It could be seen from table 5.16 that about 38 per cent of the sample children and their parents were motivated by the personnel of School Education Department of the State, i.e., the government teacher in the respective villages; such a percentage was higher in the case of female children (43%) when compared to male children (31%). The Coordinator of Bridge Course Centre was another important person motivating about 37 per cent of the sample children and their parents to go back to school, such a percentage being higher in respect of male children (42%) as compared to female children (33%). It was the NGO functionary associated with the bridge courses who motivated the remaining 25 per cent of the sample children and their parents to go back to school. Thus, the Government teachers, Bridge course coordinators and the NGO functionaries played an important role in motivating the sample children to go back to school.

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Age Proof for the Sample Children Table 5.17 shows the Age proof in respect of the sample children, which was required at the time of enrolment in bridge course centres. Table 5.17 Distribution of Sample Children by Age Proof No. of Children S. Age Proof No. Male Female Total 1 Birth certificate 25 34 59 % 23.81 25.18 24.58 2 Ration card 39 45 84 % 37.14 33.34 35.00 3 School certificate 41 56 97 % 39.05 41.48 40.42 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 It is clear from table 5.17 that the main source of age proof for 40 per cent of sample children was school certificate. Ration card served as the source for determining the age in the case of 35 per cent of sample children. For the remaining 25 per cent of the sample children, birth certificate served as the age proof. There were no major variations between males and females in this regard. Year of Enrolment The second step in the process of mainstreaming the school dropouts is enrolling them in bridge course centres in order to refresh them in the subject and orient them to join the formal schooling system. As mentioned earlier, all the sample children were drawn from those who were enrolled in bridge course centres during 2007-08 and 2008-09. The particulars with regard to the year of enrolment of the sample children in Bridge Course Centres are presented in table 5.18.

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Table 5.18 Year of Enrolment of Sample Children in Bridge Course Centres No. of Children S. No. Year of enrolment Male Female Total 1 2007-08 40 40 80 % 38.1 29.6 33.3 2 2008-09 65 95 160 % 61.9 70.4 66.7 Total 105 135 240 %

100

100

100

It is clear from table 5.18 that a preponderant majority, i.e., 66.7 per cent of sample children were enrolled in bridge course centres in 2008-09. The remaining 33.3 per cent of the sample children were enrolled in bridge course centres in 2007-08. The male children outnumbered the female children in the enrolment in bridge course centres during 2007-08, while the contrary was true in 2008-09. Residential Facility availed at the Bridge Course Centres It is also important to know the residential facility availed at the nature of bridge course centres in which the sample children were enrolled. There were three Residential Bride Course centres (RBCs) in the study mandals, operated under the NCLP in collaboration with local non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The option for residential facility at the RBCs was determined based on the willingness of the children and parents. Table 5.19 shows the availing of residential facility at the RBCs in which the sample children were admitted.

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Table: 5.19 Residential Facility availed at Bridge Course Centres by the Sample Children No. of Children S. Facility availed at Bridge Femal No. Course Centres Male e Total 1 Residential (hostel) facility 62 65 127 % 2

Non-residential (as dayscholars) % Total %

59.0

48.1

52.9

43

70

113

41.0

51.9

47.1

105

135

240

100

100

100

It is evident from table 5.19 that more than half of the sample children availed residential facility at the RBCs. To be precise, about 53 per cent of the sample children availed hostel facility, such a percentage being higher among he males (59%) when compared to females (48%). On the other hand, the remaining 47 per cent of the sample children were enrolled in RBCs as day-scholars, such a percentage being higher among the females (52%) when compared to males (41%). Thus, a greater proportion of boys availed hostel facility at the RBCs when compared to girls. One reason for not joining the girls in hostels was the apprehension of the parents with regard to safety of their girls in hostels, especially at upper primary level when they usually attain puberty. As a result, a higher proportion of girls than boys preferred to remain as day scholars in RBCs. But, even those who did not avail the hostel facility were covered under Mid-day Meal Scheme run at the RBCs. Opinion on Mid-day Meal Scheme at the RBCs The Scheme ‘National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education’ commonly known as Mid-day Meal Scheme was launched on the 15th August, 1995 on nation-wide scale by the Department of Elementary Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. In the initial stages, only the students of class I to V were benefited under this scheme, but in Oct 2007 the Government of India enhanced the coverage of the www.ijmer.in

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programme up to Class VIII in Educationally Backward Blocks. The Mid-Day Meal Scheme was also made operational at the RBCs for the day-scholars. Those sample children who preferred to remain as dayscholars availed the Mid-day Meal scheme at the RBCs were asked to give their opinion on the scheme. The opinion of the sample children on mid-day meal scheme is presented in table 5.20. Only those sample children who availed the scheme were taken into account for the purpose of this analysis. It is evident from table 5.20 that more than half (53%) of the sample children opined that the midday meal scheme was not good in terms of their satisfaction. On the other hand, 47 per cent of sample children considered the scheme as good. The percentage of females reporting that the Mid-day Meal Scheme as good was higher in respect of female children (49%) when compared to that of male children (44%). Table 5.20 Opinion of the Sample Children on Mid-day Meal Scheme at the RBCs S. No. 1

No. of Children

Opinion on Mid-day Meal Scheme Good %

2

Not Good % Total

Male

Female

Total

19

34

53

44.2

48.6

46.9

24

36

60

55.8

51.4

53.1

43

70

113

% 100.00 100.00 100.00 Cooking Arrangements for Midday Meals at the RBCs The quality of food served to children under Mid-day Meal scheme is influenced, by and large, by the cooking arrangements at the RBCs. Table 5.21 gives the details on cooking arrangements for Midday Meal scheme at the RBCs as stated by the sample children.

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Table 5.21 Cooking Arrangements for Mid-day Meal scheme at the RBCs S. No. Opinion 1 Open School Premises % 2

Separate Kitchen %

3

No Idea % Total %

No. of Children Male Female Total 30 48 78 69.8 68.6 69.1 10 20 30 23.2 28.6 26.5 3 2 5 7.0 2.8 4.4 43 70 113 100.00 100.00 100.00

Table 5.21 shows that about 69 per cent of the sample children stated that there were no separate arrangements for cooking with regard to Mid-day Meal scheme at the RBCs. The open school premises were used to cook food for Mid-day Meal scheme, and hence felt that the cooking arrangements were poor. Only about 27 per cent of the sample children stated that there was a separate kitchen for cooking with regard to Mid-day Meal scheme at the RBCs, and hence the arrangements could be considered good. About 4 per cent of sample children stated that they had no idea with regard to cooking arrangements for the Mid-day Meal scheme at the RBCs. Source of Drinking Water at the RBCs The source of drinking water for the sample children at the RBCs is presented given in table 5.22. It may be noted that 42 per cent of the sample children were taking drinking water from Tap. Hand pump is the source of drinking water as per the reports of 23.8 per cent of the sample respondent children. About 35 per cent of the sample children obtained drinking water from pots arranged in the RBCs.

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Table 5.22 Source of drinking water for the Sample Children at the RBCs No. of Children S. Source of Drinking Water No. Male Female Total 1 Tap connection 51 49 100 % 48.6 36.3 41.7 2 Hand pump 24 33 57 % 22.9 24.4 23.8 3 Pots 30 53 83 % 28.6 39.3 34.6 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 Toilet Facility at the RBCs The absence of toilet facility poses a great problem especially for girls to answer the nature call in the early hours of the day. The particulars of availability of toilet facilities at the RBCs are given in table 5.23. Table 5.23 Toilet Facility for the Sample Children at the RBCs No. of Children S. Toilet Facility No. Male Female Total 1 Yes 54 65 119 % 51.4 48.1 49.6 2 No 51 70 121 % 48.6 51.9 50.4 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 It may be seen from table 5.23 that about half of the sample children reported that there was toilet facility at the RBCs, while the remaining half of the sample children reported that there was no toilet facility at the RBCs. Television Facility at the RBCs Watching some programmes on television will enlighten the children. Moreover, the education related programmes in Doordarshan www.ijmer.in

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channel were most useful to children. Therefore, the availability of television facility at the RBCs is crucial in imparting learning in a more effective way. The availability of Television facility at the RBCs is presented in table 5.sample schools as per the reports of sample children is given in table 5.24. Table 5.24 Television Facilities in the School for the Sample Children No. of Children Sl. Television Facility No Male Female Total 1 Yes 40 40 80 38.1 29.6 33.3 % 2 No 65 95 160 % 61.9 70.4 66.7 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 It is evident from table 5.24 that only 33 per cent of the sample children reported that television facility was available at the RBCs. On the other hand, the remaining 67 per cent of the sample children reported that there was no television facility at the RBCs. Opinion on Syllabus at the RBCs The academic performance of a student depends upon the syllabi framed for a particular class. The syllabus shall be simple and shall relate to the day-to-day activities of children. The syllabus at the RBCs is essentially framed based on the syllabus of the respective classes at the government schools. During field survey, the opinion of the sample children on syllabus was elicited. Table 5.25 shows the opinion of the sample children on syllabus prescribed at the RBCs. It could be seen from table 5.25 that, about 51 per cent of the sample children opined that the syllabus of respective classes at the RBCs is heavy. About 39 per cent of sample children felt that the syllabus is sufficient. On the other hand, about 10 per cent of the sample children opined that the syllabus is not sufficient. There were no major variations between male and female children in this regard. Thus, the syllabus prescribed at the RBCs is heavy in the opinion of about half of the sample children, which indicates discontinuation of studies by the sample children could be the main reason for this opinion. www.ijmer.in

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Table 5.25 Opinions of the Sample Children on Syllabus at the RBCs No. of Children Sl. Opinion No. Male Female Total 1 Heavy 54 68 122 % 51.4 50.4 50.8 2 Sufficient 41 52 93 % 36.0 38.5 38.8 3 Not Sufficient 10 15 25 % 9.5 11.1 10.4 Total 105 135 240 % 100.00 100.00 100.00 Type of Schools in which the Sample children were admitted The third and final step in the process of mainstreaming the school dropouts is admitting those children in government schools in the age-appropriate class. The information on type of schools in which sample children were admitted after completion of bridge courses is presented in table 5.26. It may be noted from table 5.26 that slightly more than half (51%) of the sample children were admitted in residential schools like Social Welfare Residential (SWR) schools (28%) and Kasturbha Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBVs) (23%). While the boys were admitted in SWR schools, the girls were admitted into KGBVs. Also, about 29 per cent of the sample children were admitted in government schools, while about 20 per cent of the sample children were admitted in government aided schools. Thus, it becomes clear that most of the sample children were admitted in government schools, whether residential or nonresidential, while about 20 per cent of the sample children were admitted in government aided schools.

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Table 5.26 Type of Schools in which the Sample Children were admitted No. of Children S. Type of school No. Male Female Total 1 SWR School 41 25 66 % 2

3

4

39.04

18.5

27.5

0

56

56

%

0.00 47

41.4 22

23.3 69

%

44.8

16.3

28.8

17

32

49

16.2

23.7

20.4

105

135

240

KGBV school Govt. School

Govt. Aided School % Total

% 100.00 100.00 100.00 Present Educational Status of Sample Children The present educational status of the sample children, as on the date of survey, is given in table 5.27. It is evident from table 5.27 that about 69 per cent of the sample children were at the primary level, while the remaining 31 per cent were at the upper primary level. There were a greater proportion of boys (72%) than that of girls (66%) at the primary level, whereas the proportion of girls (34%) was higher than that of the boys (28%) at the upper primary level. It was found that 11 sample children dropped out from the local government schools due to various reasons such as poverty, domestic problems, lack of interest of the child, etc.

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Table 5.27 Educational Level of Sample Children (6-14) No. of Children Sl. No Schooling Status Male Female Total 1 Primary (1-5) 76 89 165 % 72.3 66.0 68.8 2 Upper Primary (6–7) 29 46 75 % 27.7 34.0 31.2 Total 105 135 240 % 100.0 100.0 100.0

CASE STUDIES With a view to understanding better the living conditions and the circumstances in which the school-going children drop out from studies and engage themselves as child labours and to examine the effectiveness of the process followed for mainstreaming the school dropouts, a few case studies were conducted during field survey. These case studies are presented here. Box 5.1 depicts how a school-going aged child was forced to work as a child labourer in a bakery because of a large family and how he and his parents were motivated to re-join the school through a RBC. The child has been continuing his studies as he has been admitted in a Social Welfare Residential School. Box 5.1: Case of a child labourer in a bakery turned into a student Mahesh is an 11-year old boy, belonging to a Scheduled Caste. He has the parents, 3 younger sisters and 2 younger brothers. They lived in a weaker section colony near Kurnool city. His father is a cobbler and mother works as domestic servant. Mahesh has studied up to 3rd standard and left his studies, as his father could not afford to bear his school expenses. Mahesh worked for two years in a bakery shop. He secured this work with the help of relatives besides the motivation by a friend working in the same unit. Mahesh worked for 10 to 12 hours a day from 8 am to 7 pm. The work could be considered hazardous for him because all the time he has to be near the fire, engaged in baking and frying. He has to work in the suffocating heat near the www.ijmer.in

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continuously burning ovens. At the time of his entry into this work, the manager agreed to give a salary of Rs.700 per month. The employer directly gave the salary to his parents. The employer gave him food three times a day. Mahesh stayed in the work place along with his co-workers. But Mahesh was interested in continuing his studies. Due to efforts under the NCLP, he was later enrolled in a Residential Bridge Course centre. After that he was admitted in a Social Welfare Residential School with the consent of his parents. He continued his studies. The case of a girl child who was enrolled in a RBC and later admitted in a local government school due to the efforts of the RBC coordinator, but later she was forced to drop out from school once again by her father, mainly due to poverty and lack of understanding about the importance of education among her parents, is presented in Box 5.2. It could be noted that the process of mainstreaming the school dropouts has failed in this case, apparently because of lack of proper system to monitor the progress of children after they were admitted into a government school. Box 5.2: Case of a girl child dropping out from school once again Sumalatha, aged about 11 years, is the only girl child in the household of 5 members in Peddakaduburu Mandal in Kurnool district. She belongs to a Backward Caste. Her father works as an Agricultural Labourer, while her mother works as a domestic servant. She has two elder brothers, and both of them are labourers and do not attend school regularly. She worries about what would happen to her brothers and family in future. Because of family problems she continued to worry resulting in lack of concentration in studies. She dropped out from school in 4th class, and she had to work as child labourer. Sumalatha was motivated to work hard in order to achieve her aim of becoming a teacher one day. The RBC Coordinator had motivated her parents. Her parents were encouraged to work hard to save money for their children’s education. As a result, Sumalatha was enrolled in a RBC, and later she was re-admitted in a local government school. But, after a few months, she dropped out from school once again, as her father had told her that he could not afford to bear the expenses of her studies. Sumalatha has become a school dropout and the efforts made under NCLP have not been successful to mainstream her into formal schooling system. www.ijmer.in

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Box 5.3 shows the case of how a girl child worker in agricultural sector was enrolled in a RBC and later admitted into a government school at the same providing hostel facility to her in a BC welfare hostel. The girl child has been continuing her studies, mainly because of provision of hostel facility along with admission into a government school. Box 5.3: Case of an Agricultural Labourer re-joining the School Narasamma is a 12 year-old girl. She belongs to a Backward Caste. She has both the parents and one elder sister and one younger brother. They lived in Gavigattu village in Peddakaduburu mandal. Her family is entirely dependent on casual wage labour. Narasamma’s parents forcefully stopped her from going to school and put her into work. Narasamma worked as an agricultural labourer for two years, working in cotton fields. Their parents were not interested to sending to school by their daughter. The RBC Coordinator has motivated her parents to enrol her in the summer training camp at RBC. After that, Narasamma was admitted in a government school by placing her in a BC Welfare Hostel in Adoni. She has been continuing her studies. She feels very happy to join back in school. The case of a child who dropped from school and took up work in a tea stall because of in alcoholism of his father in order to support his mother to sustain their life and how he and his mother were motivated to join the RBC and later admitted in a Social Welfare Residential School, where he has been continuing his studies is presented in Box 5.4. The process of mainstreaming the school dropouts and child labourers into formal schooling system has been successful in this case, mainly because the child was admitted in a school with hostel facility. Box 5.5 shows the case of how alcoholism of a parent could force a child to drop out from school and engage himself as a child labourer in order to support his mother to lead their life. Here the child has been contributing his mite for the survival of his family. The RBC coordinator tried in vain to motivate the child and his mother to enrol the child in RBC.

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Box 5.4: Case of a Worker in a Tea Stall re-joining the School Mallanna is a 13 year-old boy hailing from a village nearby Kurnool city. His father was working in a rice mill. His father was a dipsomaniac with an uncontrollable craving for alcohol. Mallanna is the eldest son of his family and has one brother. His father deserted his family when he was studying in the 4th standard. His mother is selling vegetables and edible oil in the market nearer to his house. Due to the financial difficulties and poverty of the family Mallanna dropped out from school and started life as a child labourer in a small hotel near the bus stand. The work he had to do is mopping and cleaning the tables and the floor, washing utensils and fetching water from the public tap. He had to work there always under wet conditions. As a consequence, he managed to find out a job in a tea stall, which functioned during night. Mallanna worked there for one year. Mallanna stayed along with his employer, while working. The RBC Coordinator has motivated his mother to send him back to school. As a result, he was enrolled in a Residential Bridge Course centre. After that, he was admitted in a Social Welfare Residential School and he continued his studies there. Box 5.5: Case of a School-aged boy turned into a Child Labourer Kiran is a 12 year-old boy hailing from Ahobilam in Kurnool district. He belonged to a Scheduled Caste community. His father was an alcoholic. His father could never keep his job. The family moved from place to place five times and it was always the responsibility of his mother and children to earn money to live. His father had disappeared from home after some time. Kiran had one brother and two sisters. He could not attend school regularly. Because of lack of regular studies, Kiran was very poor in studies. Kiran dropped out from school when he was aged about 10 years, and joined as a server in a hotel. He has been working in a hotel for the last over one year. He has to get up at 5.30 a.m. and start working. Child workers are engaged in keeping the premises neat and clean, sweeping and wiping the floor, washing plates, crockeries and dishes, cutting vegetables, fetching water, etc., working in the hotel. He took the decision to work in order to help his mother. He was giving a major share of his income to his mother to run the family. The RBC coordinator motivated him to join the RBC but he was not interested in studies and therefore did not continue his schooling.

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Box 5.6 shows the case of twins (two girl children) from a family belonging to Muslim minorities joining the RBC and later into a government aided school simultaneously availing the hostel facility in BC welfare hostel, but one of them later dropped out again to help her mother in her business. Box 5.6: Case of Twins re-joining School but one of them dropped out again Ameena and Shameena are twins aged about 11 years. They belonged to Muslim minorities and reside in weaker section colony nearby Kurnool city. They had parents and two brothers. Their father was an Auto driver, while their mother sells flowers. Both Ameena and Shameena studied up to 5th class and dropped out from school due to financial problems in the house as their father did not give money to meet domestic expenses on a regular basis and entire burden fell upon their mother. While Ameena helped her mother in selling flowers, Shameena served as a maidservant in other houses. The RBC Coordinator motivated both the girls and their parents and was successful in enrolling them in RBC and later into a government aided school simultaneously providing them hostel facility in a BC welfare hostel. But, after a few days, Ameena had dropped out again from school, with a view to extending help to her mother in her business, as she felt that her mother was facing problems in running the household. However, Shameena has continued her studies. The case studies presented here clearly indicate the circumstances under which the school-going children drop out from studies and turn into child labourers; the important contributing factors that could be discerned from the above case studies include poverty, alcoholism, desertion of family, absence of adequate support from male heads of household, lack of proper understanding about the importance of education among the parents. The case studies also indicate that admission in a residential school or providing hostel facility in a welfare hostel while admitting the child in a government school would enable the children to continue their studies to ensure the effectiveness of mainstreaming the school dropouts and child labourers into the formal schooling system. The case of a girl child admitted in a local government school without hostel facility dropping out from school once again clearly brings out the importance of hostel facility for the success of efforts made under NCLP and SSA for mainstreaming www.ijmer.in

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the school dropouts. This case also points out the absence of a proper monitoring system to follow-up the progress of school dropouts after they were admitted in regular government schools. SUMMING UP To sum up, it may be said that the OOS children mostly comprised the school dropouts (90%) and the never enrolled children constituted 10 per cent. Most of the children dropped out from school during 4th to 6th class when they were aged 9 to 11 years and above. The main contributing factors responsible for the children to drop out from school include financial constraints, household factors, school related factors and child related factors. A vast majority of the school dropouts (89%) turned into child labourers, which clearly indicates the nexus between the problems of school dropout and child labour. Most of the school dropouts turned into child labourers at the tender age of 10 to 11 years. They were mostly engaged in stone breaking, construction, agricultural labour, auto garages, hotels / restaurants. The working conditions could be hazardous at times, though these work sectors are not strictly categorised as hazardous. Most of them suffered from different kinds of illnesses while working, and they usually consulted RMPs or were taken to Government hospitals for treatment. They often consulted quacks also for medical treatment. They helped their parents or played with their friends during leisure time. With regard to the process of mainstreaming the school dropouts into formal schooling system, it comprised three main steps after they are identified, viz., motivating the children and their parents, enrolling them in RBCs and admitting them in regular government schools. The government teachers, the NGO functionaries and the RBC coordinators were the key players in motivating the children and their parents to send their wards back to school. Only about 53 per cent of the sample children availed the residential facility at the RBCs, the remaining children opted to be the day scholars. The facilities or amenities at the RBCs were far from satisfactory, especially with regard to kitchen for mid-day meal scheme, drinking water facility, toilet facility and television facility. About half of the sample children felt that the syllabus at the RBCs was heavy. About half of the sample children were admitted in schools with residential facility such as social welfare residential schools or KGBVs, while the remaining were admitted in local government or aided schools. There were also a few cases of children who dropped out from school after they were admitted www.ijmer.in

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into regular schools. The case studies indicate that the schools with residential facility would ensure the mainstreaming of school dropouts and child labourers more effectively than local schools without hostel. The studies also point to the absence of proper monitoring system under NCLP and SSA after the children were admitted into regular schools. References: 1. Balagopalan and Subramainan (2003), “Dalit and Adivasi Children in Schools: Some preliminary research themes and Findings” IDS Bulletin, Vol.34, no.1, pp.6-15. 2. PROBE Team (1999), Survey suggests that if a child is unwilling to go to School. London School of Economics, (last accessed on 2011 July).

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BENEFITS OF TEACHING IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION Vijaykumar S.D. Guest Lecture Govt Firsted Grade Degree College Humanabad

Mallikarjun Guest Lecture Renuka B.P.Ed College H.B.Halli Bellary

Dr.Prasannakumar Shivasharanappa Assistant Professor (Contact Basis) University of Agricultural Science Dharwad Karnataka Abstract This paper explores the scientific evidence that has been gathered on the contributions and benefits of physical education and sport (PES) in schools for both children and for educational systems. Research evidence is presented in terms of children’s development in a number of domains: physical, lifestyle, affective, social, and cognitive. The review suggests that PES have the potential to make significant and distinctive contributions to development in each of these domains. It is suggested that PES have the potential to make distinctive contributions to the development of children’s fundamental movement skills and physical competences, which are necessary precursors of participation in later lifestyle and sporting physical activities. They also, when appropriately presented, can support the development of social skills and social behaviors, self-esteem and proschool attitudes, and, in certain circumstances, academic and cognitive development. The review also stresses that many of these benefits will not necessarily result from participation, per se; the effects are likely to be mediated by the nature of the interactions between students and their teachers, parents, and coaches who work with them. Contexts that emphasize positive experiences, characterized by enjoyment, diversity, and the engagement of all, and that are managed by committed and trained

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teachers and coaches, and supportive and informed parents, significantly influence the character of these physical activities and increase the participation.

likelihood

of

realizing the potential

benefits

of

Advocates of physical education and sport (PES) have listed numerous benefits associated with participation in these activities. For example, Talbot claims that physical education helps children to develop respect for the body—their own and others’, contributes toward the integrated development of mind and body, develops an under-standing of the role of aerobic and anaerobic physical activity in health, positively enhances self-confidence and self-esteem, and enhances social and cognitive development and academic achievement.1 Writing specifically about sport, a Council of Europe report suggests that it pro-vides opportunities to meet and communicate with other people, to take different social roles, to learn particular social skills (such as tolerance and respect for others), and to adjust to team/collective objectives (such as cooperation and cohesion), and that it provides experience of emotions that are not available in the rest of life. This report goes on to stress the important contribution of sport to processes of personality development and psychological well-being, stating that there is, ‘‘strong evidence. on the positive effects of physical activities on self-concept, self-esteem, anxiety, depression, tension and stress, self-confidence, energy, mood, efficiency and well-being. Such claims have often been criticized for lacking empirical foundations and for confusing policy rhetoric with scientific evidence. This paper seeks to explore some of the scientific evidence that has been gathered on the contributions and benefits of PES for both children and for educational systems. In doing so, it will be using a frame-work and some of the data derived from a recent international research project, which drew evidence from over 50 countries, including a meta-analysis of statements of aims and standards, and national www.ijmer.in

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curricula.Findings suggest that the outcomes of PES can be understood in terms of children’s development in 5 domains:  Physical  Lifestyle  Affective  Social  Cognitive As its title suggests, this article is concerned with ‘‘physical education and sport.’’ Since the relationship between the concepts ‘‘physical education’’ and ‘‘sport’’ continues to be a cause of debate, it is worthwhile clarifying the use of the terms in this review. In many, predominantly Anglophone, countries, the term ‘‘physical education’’ is used to refer to that area of the school curriculum concerned with developing students’ physical competence and confidence, and their ability to use these to perform in a range of activities. ‘‘Sport’’ is a collective noun and usually refers to a range of activities, processes, social relationships, and presumed physical, psychological, and sociological outcomes. In this presentation, there appears to be a relatively clear conceptual distinction between these 2 terms. However, cross-cultural studies have revealed significant differences in the use of terminology in this area, and many educational systems use the terms synonymously, or simply use ‘‘sport’’ as a generic descriptor. For this reason, and in line with international agencies like the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the inclusive term ‘‘physical education and sport’’ will be used to refer to those structured, supervised physical activities that take place at school and during the school day

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PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT PES in school is the main societal institution for the development of physical skills and the provision of physical activity in children and young people. For many children, school is the main environment for being physically active, through either PES programs or after-school activities. There is evidence that for a growing number of children, school provides the main opportunity for regular, structured physical activity as a combination of economic pressures and parental concerns for safety means that fewer children are able to play games in nonschool settings. Moreover, school-based PES offers a regulated opportunity for usually qualified, accountable teachers to introduce physical activities and lifestyle skills and knowledge in a structured way to all children, within a safe and supportive environment. The physical health benefits of regular physical activity are well established. Regular participation in such activities is associated with a longer and better quality of life, reduced risk of a variety of diseases, and many psychological and emotional benefits. There is also a large body of literature showing that inactivity is one of the most significant causes of death, disability, and reduced quality of life across the developed world. Evidence is starting to appear suggesting a favorable relationship between physical activity and a host of factors affecting children’s physical health, including diabetes, blood pressure, bone health, and obesity. Basic movement skills, like those developed in PES, form the foundation of almost all later sporting and physical activities. There is evidence that those who have developed a strong foundation in fundamental movement skills are more likely to be active, both during childhood and later in life.

There is also a frequently cited, but under

researched, hypothesis that the development of a broad range of these basic movement skills through PES programs is a necessary condition

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for excellence in sport. Conversely, children who have not been able to acquire an adequate base of movement competences are more likely to be excluded from participation in organized sports and play experiences with their friends because of a lack of basic physical skills. So, as one of the most highly valued aspects of many children’s and young people’s lives, such omission from the activities that make up PES is likely to have far-reaching and harmful consequences to the development and education of many children. LIFESTYLE DEVELOPMENT Physical inactivity has been identified as a major risk factor for coronary heart disease, as well as being associated with premature mortality and obesity. It is not surprising, then, that PES programs some of the few opportunities to promote physical activities amongst all children have been proposed as a cost-effective way to influence the next generation of adults to lead physically active lives. The mechanisms by which active young people become active adults are unclear. However, research suggests that a number of factors contribute to the establishment of physical activity as part of a healthy lifestyle. There is some evidence that health-related behaviors learned in childhood are often maintained into adulthood. The extent to which physical activity patterns are maintained over time is less clear. The Amsterdam Growth Study did not find evidence of tracking of physical activity from 13 and 27 years. Other studies, however, have found that youth activity carries on into later life. A review of retrospective and longitudinal studies reported that physical activity and sports participation in childhood and youth represents a significant predictor of later activity. Interestingly, studies also show how strongly inactivity in youth tracks to adulthood, so exclusion from PES can be associated with a legacy of inactivity and associated ill-health in the years to come.

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There have been frequent claims that school PES creates important contexts in which physical activity levels are influenced. Studies have found that school-based programs can contribute to physical activity levels, both during youth and later in life. The potency of PES’ influence on physical activity seems to be greatest when programs combine classroom study with activity, when they allow students’ experiences of self-determination and feelings of competence in their own abilities, and when they emphasized enjoyment and positive experiences AFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT There is now fairly consistent evidence that regular activity can have a positive effect upon the psychological well-being of children and young people, although the underlying mechanisms for explaining these effects are still unclear. The evidence is particularly strong with regards to children’s self-esteem. Other associations with regular activity that have been reported include reduced stress, anxiety, and depression. All of these lend support to the claim that well-planned and presented PES can con-tribute to the improvement of psychological health in young people. One especially relevant set of findings, in this regard, relates to the development of perceived physical competence. It has been suggested that self-esteem is influenced by an individual’s perceptions of competence or adequacy to achieve, and that It is also worth considering the growing interest in the relationship between PES and students’ general attitudes toward school, The evidence supporting such claims is limited and is mostly based on small-scale studies or anecdotal evidence. However, some studies report generally positive outcomes in terms of pupil attendance following the introduction of PES schemes, and there is evidence from studies of pupils at risk of

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exclusion from school that an increase in the availability of PES programs would make the school experience more attractive. On the theme of the relationship between PES and attitudes to school, it ought to be acknowledged that not all pupils enjoy such activities, at least when presented in certain ways. For example, many girls acquire a progressive disillusionment with certain aspects of PES and totally disengage from participation as they move through secondary schooling. So it would be misleading to suggest that PES will necessarily contribute toward positive attitudes to school in all pupils as inappropriate provision might actually increase disaffection and truancy. More positively, though, there is a great deal of research showing that when PES activities are presented in attractive and relevant ways to girls, they can enjoy participation as much as boys. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT The idea that PES positively affects young people’s social development and pro social behavior goes back many years. PES settings are considered an appealing context because both naturally occurring and contrived social interactions frequently emerge and because the public nature of participation usually makes both socially appropriate and inappropriate behaviors evident. The research literature on the relationship between PES and social development is equivocal. It does not seem to be the case that prosocial behavior necessarily im-proves as a result of engagement, and there is evidence that in some circumstances behavior actually worsens.58 However, numerous studies have demonstrated that appropriately structured and presented activities can make a contribution to the development of prosocial behavior and can even combat antisocial and criminal behaviors in youth. The most encouraging findings come from school-based studies, especially those focusing on PES curriculum programs. While a wide www.ijmer.in

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range of physical activities seem able to offer valuable environments for social development, school-based programs have a number of advantages, such as access to nearly all children, fewer external pressures to emphasize outcome and competition, and the ability to integrate social education with the similar teaching across the school curriculum Intervention studies have produced generally positive results, including improvements in moral reasoning, fair play and sport spersonship, and personal responsibility, It also seems that the most promising contexts for developing social skills and values are those mediated by suitably trained teachers and coaches who focus on situations that arise naturally through activities, by asking questions of students and by modeling appropriate responses though their own behavior of related concern is the issue of social inclusion and exclusion. Combating social exclusion, or the factors resulting in people being excluded from the normal ex-changes, practices and rights of modern society, has become a focus of attention for governments and nongovernment organizations in recent years.68 Some writers have argued that PES not only reflects but can also contribute to some groups’ social exclusion, However, positive experiences do seem to have the potential to, at least, contribute to the process of inclusion by bringing individuals from a variety of social and economic background together in a shared interest, offering a sense of belonging to a team or a club, providing opportunities for the development of valued capabilities and competencies, and developing social networks, community cohesion, and civic pride References 1. Talbot M. The case for physical education. In: Doll-Tepper G, Scoretz D, eds. World Summit on Physical Education. Berlin, Germany: ICSSPE; 2001:39-50. 2. Svoboda B. Sport and Physical Activity as a Socialisation Environ-ment: Scientific Review Part 1. Strasbourg, France: www.ijmer.in

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Council of Europe; 1994. 3. Bailey R. Evaluating the relationship between physical education, sport and social inclusion. Educ Rev. 2004;56(3):7190. 4. Bailey R, Dismore H. Sport in Education (SpinEd)—the role of physical education and sport in education. Project Report to the 4th Inter-national Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (MINSEPS IV), December 2004; Athens, Greece. 5. NASPE. Physical Activity for Children: A Statement of Guidelines for Children Ages 5-12. 2nd ed. Reston, Va: NASPE; 2004. 6. Bergmann Drewe S. Why Sport? An Introduction to the Philosophy of Sport. Toronto, Ontario: Thompson; 2003. 7. Department for Education and Employment. Physical Education: The National Curriculum for England and Wales. London, UK: Depart-ment for Education and Employment; 2000. 8. Council of Europe. Recommendation No. R. (92) 13 REV of the Committee of Ministers of Members States on the Revised European Sports Charter. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe; 2001. 9. Bailey R, Dismore H. Sport in Education (SpinEd)—The Role of Physical Education and Sport in Education. Final Report. Berlin, Germany: International Council for Physical Education and Sport Science; 2004. 10. UNESCO. Declaration of Athens: Fourth International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport, MINEPS IV, December 6-8, 2004; Athens, Greece. Paris, France: UNESCO; 2004. 11. Sallis J, McKenzie T, Alcaraz J, Kolody B, Faucette N, Hovell M. The effects of a 2-year physical education (SPARK) program on physical activity and fitness of elementary school children. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:1328-1334. 12. Telama R, Yang X, Laakso L, Viikari J. Physical activity in www.ijmer.in

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