Human–gelada baboon conflict in and around the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia Mesele Yihune1, Afework Bekele1* and Zelealem Tefera2 1

Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, PO Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and 2Afro-alpine Ecosystem Conservation Project, FZS, PO Box IOl428, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract

Re´sume´

The degree of conflict between gelada baboons and local communities in and around the Simien Mountains National Park was investigated and possible solutions for the existing problems are suggested. The study was carried out from September, 2005 to March, 2006 by means of questionnaire survey, direct observations on crop damage by gelada baboon and using faecal dropping analysis. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, and responses were compared using chi-squared test and one-way ANOVA. Logistic regression model was used to determine factors that caused crop damage. The average annual crop loss by gelada baboon per household was 117 ± 10 kg. There was a positive correlation (r = 0.43, P < 0.001) between the type of crop grown and the type of crop damaged. Among the respondents, 47.3% reported serious loss of barley by gelada baboons. Analysis from the faecal droppings showed that 18% of the samples constituted barley although the extent of damage varied from village to village. Among the respondents, 60.3% cultivated only barley because of the cold weather and the type of soil in the study area. Distance from the Park and the frequency of crop damage were negatively correlated ()0.57, P < 0.001). Although farmers utilized various methods to protect their farms against gelada baboons, the most prominent method was direct watching (48.3%). To minimize the existing problems, local residents and the Park authorities should work together to identify alternative crops and land-use patterns that might not attract gelada baboons.

Nous avons e´tudie´ l’importance des conflits entre les babouins geladas et les communaute´s locales dans et autour du Parc National des Simien Mountains, et nous sugge´rons d’e´ventuelles solutions pour les re´gler. L’e´tude a eu lieu de septembre 2005 a` mars 2006, sous la forme d’une enqueˆte par questionnaire, d’observations directes des dommages cause´s aux cultures par les geladas et d’analyses des excre´ments. Les donne´es furent analyse´es au moyen de statistiques descriptives, et les re´ponses furent compare´es par un test en v2 et une ANOVA a` une voie. Un mode`le de re´gression logistique fut utilise´ pour de´terminer les facteurs qui causent les dommages aux re´coltes. La perte annuelle moyenne attribue´e aux babouins e´tait de 117 ± par me´nage. Il y avait une corre´lation positive (r = 0.43, P < 0.001) entre le type de culture pratique´ et celui qui e´tait endommage´. 47.3% des participants a` l’enqueˆte ont rapporte´ de graves pertes d’orge a` cause des babouins geladas. L’analyse des excre´ments a re´ve´le´ que 18% des e´chantillons e´taient compose´s d’orge mais la gravite´ des dommages variait d’un village a` l’autre. 60.3% des participants ne cultivaient que de l’orge en raison du climat froid et du type de sol dans la zone e´tudie´e. La distance par rapport au parc et la fre´quence des dommages e´taient ne´gativement lie´es ()0.57, P < 0.001). Bien que les fermiers utilisent plusieurs me´thodes pour prote´ger leurs fermes contre les geladas, la plus importante e´tait de les surveiller directement (48.3%). Afin de minimiser les proble`mes actuels, les re´sidants et les autorite´s du parc devraient travailler ensemble pour identifier des cultures alternatives et des sche´mas d’utilisation des sols qui puissent ne plus attirer les babouins.

Key words: gelada baboon, human–wildlife conflict, Simien Mountains

*Correspondence: E-mail: [email protected]

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Introduction Increasing interaction between people and wildlife and the resulting conflicts are the main challenges facing wildlife

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conservation in developing countries. Encroachment of wild habitats by subsistence farmers in Africa leads to conflict. Crop raiding by baboons, elephants and other herbivores seriously affect poor farmers. Across the globe, primates are the most frequently identified crop-raiding animals. This is because of the renowned crop raiding behaviour of the species (Sillero-Zubiri & Switzer, 2001). The extent of damage caused by large mammals is insignificant when it is considered at the global level compared to the damage caused by invertebrates and rodents. However, in areas where more animals occur, a major part of the crop may be lost in a single night (Naughton-Treves, 1997). According to Kimega (2003) in Kenya, food items such as maize, cassava, beans, potatoes, and fruits are the target for animals like elephant, baboons, zebra and buffalo. Wildlife damage to crops varies considerably from site to site and farmers have unequal capacity for preventing such losses. The change in the vegetation structure of lands closer to the protected areas may attract wild herbivores. Cultivated plants have characteristics of increased yield, rapid growth and resistance to disease, making them vulnerable to the herbivory of locally abundant wildlife populations (Messmer, 2000). Crop raiding has most likely been occurring since humans first settled down and started practicing agriculture. Different types of food items are targeted by wild animals, from cereals to fruits and from vegetables to trees (Sillero-Zubiri & Switzer, 2001). The present investigation was aimed at studying the extent of

conflict between gelada baboon and the local people living in and around the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia by focusing on the average crop loss per house hold, availability and crop preference by the gelada baboon, the trend of crop loss in the last 5 years, how farmers curtail crop raiding, and suggest possible solution to mitigate the existing problems.

Materials and methods Study area The Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP) is located between 3800¢–3812¢E and 1312¢–1319¢N, North Gondar Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia (Fig. 1). SMNP occupies chains of plateaux and grassy plains. It includes the highest peak in Ethiopia, Ras Dejen (4543 m asl). The presence of large number of endemic species, unique bio-physical features, and its international significance made SMNP to become a World Heritage Site in 1978. However, in 1996, it was inscribed on the list of World Heritage in Danger. This is because of the recent deterioration in the population of the Walia ibex (Capra ibex walie), agricultural encroachment, loss of biodiversity and impact of road construction (Falch & Keiner, 2000). The climate of SMNP varies from area to area. The climatic difference between the escarpment and the gorge is reflected by the variation in the vegetation type and altitude.

13°20′

Deguale Woizero Mesk Zinababre

13°18′

13°16′

Gich Jinbahir Jinbahir Ras

13°14′

35 Km Jona-Daba

Kiflo Abergina Mecheka-Tikurwuha

13°12′

13°10′

Fig 1 Map of the Simien Mountains National Park and the study area

37°58′

38°00′

38°2′

38°4′

38°6′

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Legend Sample areas for interview Sample areas for direct observation Faecal dropping sites Road Park boundary

38°8′

38°10′

38°12′

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The vegetation of SMNP mainly consists of a mixture of Afro-alpine woods, heath forest, high mountain vegetation, montane savannah and montane moorland (Hurni & Ludi, 2000). In SMNP, 57 tree species and herbaceous plants have been recorded. Over twenty endemic plant species have been identified within and in the buffer zone (the buffer zone extends 5 km away from the Park boundary). Of these, Fastuca gilbertiana, Rosularia simiensis and Dianthus longiglumi are exclusively endemic to the Simien Mountains (Falch & Keiner, 2000). The fauna consists of 22 species of large mammals, thirteen small mammals and 180 bird species (Hurni, 1986). Species like Walia ibex (Capra ibex walie), the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simiensis), gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada), the grass rat (Arvicanthis abyssinicus) and wattled ibis (Isostrychia carunculata) are endemic. SMNP has been extensively exploited by the local community since long. It is reported that about 86% of the Park is used by the local community at different levels of intensity.

Questionnaire survey A pilot survey was conducted in July, 2005 prior to the actual data collection periods. During the pilot survey, 46 individuals among the local communities were randomly selected and interviewed. Based on the result from the pilot survey, the questionnaire was revised and developed. A total of 300 people were interviewed. Of these, 72 respondents were females and 228 were males. The questionnaire included both open-ended and fixed response questions. Open ended questions were included to elicit information on knowledge about wildlife in the area and whether gelada baboons damage crops or not. Furthermore, the questionnaire also elicited information on the type and quantity of the damaged crops. A series of supplementary questions were also used in the questionnaire to gather personal and socio-economic information at the level of individual respondents. Interview was conducted in eight randomly selected villages. These villages were selected based on the information gathered during the pilot survey. These villages were: Abergina, Gich, MechekaTikurwuha (Tikurwuha), Kiflo, Jona-Daba, Deguale, Zinababre, and Woizero MesIc Gich was a village inside the Park whereas Deguale, Zinababre, and Woizero Mesk were located far away (about 35 km) from the Park boundary (Fig. 1). The remaining villages were located within the buffer zone of the Park. The interviewees were selected on the basis of chance encounter (Newmark et al., 1993).

Faecal analysis From the study area, 100 faecal samples of gelada baboons were collected. Date and time of collection, age of faeces, location and altitude of the collection sites were recorded. The age of faecal samples was categorized into fresh (1 day old), recent (2–5 days old) and old (more than 5 days) following Breuer (2005). Faecal samples of gelada baboons were analyzed macroscopically to determine the presence or absence of locally abundant seeds in the study area (Remis et al., 2001). The presence of seeds (for cereal crops) was designated by ‘1’ and the absence by ‘0’.

Direct observation on the crop damage by gelada baboon To observe the extent of crop damage by gelada baboons and to compare the result with the response given by the local people, five sites were randomly selected. These sites were Kiflo, Abergina, Jinbahir, Jinbahir Ras and Tikurwuha (Fig. 1). Five grids were constructed in the five sites (one grid on each site). Each grid covered 31,250 m2. Each grid was further divided into five cells, each consisting of an area of 6250 m2. For each cell, the type of crop grown, condition of the crop before damage, area of damaged portion, part of the plants eaten and the types of crop species eaten were recorded (Naughton-Treves, 1997). The grids consisted of areas with sown crops like barley, wheat, pea, bean, pat and linseed and the damaged portions were estimated directly in m2 (Sukumar, 1989). The distance of the crop field to the Park was recorded (Naughton-Treves, 1998; Naughton-Treves et al., 1998). Each grid was visited five times at an interval of 3 days. During each visit, only those crops consumed by gelada baboon in the 3 days interval were recorded. Different sample sites were selected for the above three different methods as it was difficult to apply the three methods in each of these sites. Respondents living in different villages had farmlands in different areas. The farmlands were not only concentrated around their residence areas, but also extended away. In addition, gelada baboons were not reported to visit residence areas. All grids were constructed in the area where gelada baboons were concentrated.

Data analysis Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square test and one-way ANOVA. For the data gathered using

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questionnaire survey, logistic regression was used to determine which factors might be important in determining the presence or absence of crop damage by gelada baboons.

Table 1 Trend in crop damage by gelada baboons as recealed by the respondents

Results

Village

Unknown Increased Decreased No. (%) (%) respondents (%)

The annual average crop loss by gelada baboons per household per year was 117 ± 10 kg. There was a significant difference in crop loss among villages (F7,292 = 13.49, P < 0.001) by the gelada baboons. The largest proportion of crop loss was reported in Kiflo while no crop loss was reported in Deguale, Woizero Mesk and Zinababre (Fig. 2). Using Tukey test, a significant difference was observed when Abergina, Mecheka- Tikurwuha, Kiflo and Jona Daba were compared with Deguale (P < 0.001), Woizero Mesk (P < 0.001) and Zinababre, (P < 0.001). Distance from the Park and the frequency of crop damage by gelada baboons were negatively correlated (r = )0.57, P < 0.001). There was a correlation (r = 0.43, P < 0.001) between the type of crop grown and the type of crop damaged. Among the respondents, 60.3% cultivated only barley, while 39.7% had barley together with other crops like bean, pea, wheat, oat, linseed and lentil. Among the respondents, 47.3% reported loss of only barley to gelada baboons while only 2.3% of the respondents reported the loss of barley and bean, 0.7% the loss of barley, linseed and wheat arid 0.7% barley and lentil. Villages significantly differed (v2 = 193.7, df = 14, P < 0.001) in their response on the trend of crop damage by gelada baboons. Most respondents from Abergina (64.3%), Mecheka-Tikurwuha (88.6%), Gich (55.3%), Kiflo (70.5%), and Jona-Daba (81%) reported increase

Abergina Mecheka-Tikurwuha Gich Kiflo Jona-Daba Deguale Woizero Mesk Zinababre Total

42 35 37 44 42 34 33 33 300

Fig 2 Size of actual crop loss in m2 among the five different areas

Changes in the levels of damage

35.7 11.4 34.2 13.6 9.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 47.0

64.3 88.6 55.3 70.5 81.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 48.0

0.0 0.0 10.5 15.9 9.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0

in the tendency of crop damage by gelada baboons (Table 1). Farmers in the study area utilized various methods to keep their farms against gelada baboons. Direct watching, chasing using dogs, and making scarecrow around the farmland were some of the methods used. Nearly half (48.3%) the respondents reported that direct watching was the most effective method (Table 2). Respondents significantly differed (v2 = 276.8, df = 56, P < 0.001) in their expectation from the government to reduce crop loss caused by gelada baboons. Among the respondents, 15% expected the government to kill all the gelada baboons in the area, while 13.3% wanted only to minimize the problem. The General Linear Model for the factors (village, distance from the Park, people who report problems) that determine the crop loss caused by gelada baboons explained 54.1% of the variation (P < 0.001). Village, distance from the Park and people who report problems were important factors to determine crop loss by gelada baboons. Those who reported problems are more likely to loss crops by gelada baboons and those who live near the Park faced frequent crop loss by gelada baboons. The occurrence of damaged crops significantly differed 2 (v = 48.4, df = 24, P < 0.05) among the different areas. Among the analysed faecal samples, 83.3% from Jinbahir had only barley whereas 80% from Tikurwuha involved barley, other grass spp. (Poaceae), linseed and pea. The faecal samples also contained a combination of bean, pea, linseed and insects (Table 3). In addition, 18% of the faecal samples contained only barley while 29% contained

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Table 2 Ways of minimizing crop raiding caused by gelada baboons among different villages Methods adapted by farmers

Village

No. Respondents

None (%)

Direct watching (%)

Direct watching and using dogs (%)

Direct watching and scarecrow (%)

All (%)

Abergina Mecheka-Tikurwuha Gich Kiflo Jona-Daba Deguale WoizeroMesk Zinababre Total

42 35 37 44 42 34 33 33 300

14.2 8.9 36.8 13.6 9.6 100.0 100.0 100.0 44.0

78.6 80.0 57.9 81.8 61.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 48.3

4.8 2.7 2.7 2.3 11.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.3

2.4 2.9 2.6 2.3 9.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.7

0.0 5.5 0.0 0.0 7.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7

Table 3 Percentage of raided crops as revealed from the gelds baboon faecal droppings in five different collection sites Sites Types of crop raided

Jinbahir(%)

Tikurwuha (%)

Abergina (%)

Kiflo (%)

Gich (%)

Barley Other Poaceae spp. Barley, other Poaceae spp. Barley, other Poaceae spp. and insect Barley, other Poaceae spp. and linseed Barley, other poaceae spp., linseed and pea Mean

83.3 20.7 27.0 33.4 14.3 0.0 33.0

0.0 27.6 35.1 0.0 57.1 80.0 30.0

11.1 10.3 13.5 33.3 28.6 20.0 14.0

5.6 31.0 10.8 33.3 0.0 0.0 15.0

0.0 10.3 13.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.0

other Poaceae species and 39% both barley and other Poaceae species. The remaining proportion contained combination of bean, pea, linseed, insect, barley and other Poacea species. Direct observation showed a large proportion of barley field damage (99.7l ± 81.3 m2). Crop loss among villages was significantly different (v2 = 1.45, df = 4, P < 0.05). A total of 1338 m2 area containing 1600

Area of crop loss (m2)

1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Abergina

Kiflo

Jinbahir Ras

Jinbahir

Tikurwuha

Sites

Fig 3 Area of crop loss (m2) among the five different sites

varieties of crops was trampled and raided in Tikurwuha. The least crop raiding was in Abergina (217 m2) (Fig. 3).

Discussion Several species of baboons and vervet monkeys are the most important crop raiders in different regions of Africa. Baboons, in particular, are important crop raiders across much of their ranges in Africa and Arabia. In Tanzania, they are the most troublesome crop raiders (Sillero-Zubiri & Switzer, 2001). Gelada baboons prominently feed on grass (Poaceae). They also feed upon cultivated crops leading to conflict with the local human communities living nearby. The average crop loss by gelada baboons per household in the study area was 117 ± 10 kg. But larger crop loss per household per year was reported in Kiflo, Abergina, Mecheka-Tikurwha and Jona-Daba villages (Fig. 2). This is because the farmlands in these villages were located close to the habitat of gelada baboons compared to villages like Deguale, Woizero Mesk and Zinab-

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abre. In Mecheka-Tikurwuha, the village and farmlands are very distant to each other. Thus, farmers could not reach their farmland early to prevent the damage caused by gelada baboons. Similarly, those farms located at the forest edges are exposed to frequent losses to primates (Naughton-Treves, 1997). Hill (1997) also found that most of the farmers who experienced crop raiding in western Uganda were within 100 m of the forest area. The logistic regression model also showed that those who reported wildlife problems are those who lived near the Park experiencing crop loss by gelada baboons. Faecal analysis from gelada baboons showed that 33% of the crop seeds occurred in Jinbahir. In this area, most farmlands belonged to the residents of MechekaTikurwuha village. So, there is similarity between the results obtained by questionnaire survey and the analysis. In addition, 30% of the faecal samples from Tikurwuha contained crop seeds reconciling with the results obtained from questionnaire survey. Furthermore, only 8% of the faecal samples from Gich village contained crop seeds. This is in line with the questionnaire survey that showed smaller proportion of crop loss in this village than others. Tikurwuha village lost large proportion of the crops per 2 m (1338 m2) as per the result obtained from direct observations. This was possibly because of the distance between the farmlands and the habitat of gelada baboons. The farmlands in this village were very close to the habitat of gelada baboons. On the contrary, in Abergina area, only 217 m2 area of crop loss was observed because these farmlands were far from the habitat of gelada baboons as compared to the farmlands in Tikurwuha, Jinbahir, Jinbahir Ras and Kiflo (Fig. 3). Naughton-Treves (1998) identified the proximity of farmlands to the forest habitat as an important factor for crop damage around Kibale. Distance from the Park and the frequency of crop damage by gelada baboons were negatively correlated (r = )0.57, P < 0.001). Those who lived close to the Park faced more frequent problems of crop damage by gelada baboons than others. Gelada baboons frequently caused damage to barley (47.3% of the respondents). This is not surprising because barley was the most commonly cultivated crop (60.3%) in the study area because of the type of soil and climatic factors. Similarly, Hill (1997) suggested that some crops may receive more damage simply because they are more widely grown than others. In addition, a study in Entebbe (Uganda) on crop raiding also showed that crops most commonly damaged by the vervet monkey tended to be the crops that were most commonly grown (Saj, Sicotte &

Paterson, 2001). In general, the type and size of crop grown and the type of crop damaged were positively correlated (r = 0.43, P < 0.001). Thus, commonly and frequently cultivated crops had greater chance to be damaged by the crop raiders than others. Barley was a frequently cultivated and highly damaged crop in the study area. The results from faecal analysis showed that 18% of the faecal samples contained chunks of barley. In addition to this, direct observation also showed that a larger proportion of barley was damaged (99.71 ± 81.3). Most respondents (48%) reported increase in the trend of crop damage caused by gelada baboons. This was probably associated with the increase of gelada baboons, human population, and the number of farmland closer to the Park Among the respondents, 48.3% reported using direct watching (guarding) to minimize crop damage. Similarly, the majority of the respondents reported using guards to minimize crop damage around the Kibale National Park (Naughton-Treves, 1997). The problem is not only caused by the gelada baboons, but also by the community themselves because the farmers changed the original vegetation structure of the area. Thus, gelada baboons became attracted to the crops grown on the nearby farmlands. However, further investigation must be conducted to identify alternative crops that might not attract gelada baboons and other crop raiders in the area. At the same time, farming should be practised in cultivation zones away from the habitat of gelada baboons and the responsible Park Managers should provide compensation to farmers who lost crops by wildlife outside the Park boundary.

Acknowledgements We sincerely thank the Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) for funding this investigation. Special thanks to the Amhara Regional State Park Authority for allowing us to conduct the study in the Simien Mountains National Park. We are also grateful for the suggestion put forward by anonymous reviewers.

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