Get the most from this book Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it is essential to review your work, learn it and test your understanding. These Revision Notes will help you to do that in a planned way, topic by topic. Use this book as the cornerstone of your revision and don’t hesitate to write in it — personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking off each section as you revise.

You can also keep track of your revision by ticking off each topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful to add your own notes as you work through each topic. My revision planner Unit 3 Contested planet 1 Energy security 7 9 12

Tick to track your progress Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to plan your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you have: l revised and understood a topic l tested yourself l practised the exam questions and gone online to check your answers and complete the quick quizzes

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Energy supply, demand and security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The impacts of energy insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy security and the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Water conflicts 16 19 21

The geography of water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The risks of water insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water conflicts and the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Biodiversity under threat

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Managing biodiversity

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Defining biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biodiversity threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managing biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Superpower geographies Sustainable yield

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Sustainable level at . . . . .yield . . . . . . . .is . . .the . which the .goods and services of an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ecosystem can be safely harvested Bridging the development ● Maximum sustainable yield (MSY)gap — the highest level of exploitation without harming it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The of the development . . . . . . .will . . . . .leave . . . . . . . .the . . . . . ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that causes can be sustained indefinitely andgap which intact. Any ‘harvesting’ above this The consequences of(exploitation) the development gaplevel . . . . . . is . . .likely . . . . . . . .to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . activity threaten both and theirgap habitats. Strong commercial pressures . . . . . .Revision Reducing thespecies development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Write brief notes about the often lead to this level of exploitation. 6 The technological fix? concepts of sustainable yield and ● Optimum sustainable yield (OSY) — a lower level of exploitation that carrying capacity. 59 The geography of technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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14 What is the link between sustainable yield and carrying capacity?

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Introducing Unit 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Intense . . . . . . . . .competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .for . . . .food . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carrying capacity high, K population Population begins to be threatened Geographical research . . . . . . . . . .by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reproduction low over-harvesting (D) Describing, defining and discussing the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Growth of population to No cover carrying capacity the possible declines (R) Researching issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . against . . . . . . . . .predators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for natural reasons (A) Analysing the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .but . . . . more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rapidly MSY in practice if over-harvesting (C) Concluding and evaluating the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .occurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K/2 (Q) Quality of written communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximum sustainable yield . .(MSY) (theoretical) is halfway Preparing for the exam . . . . . . .between . . . . . . . . . . zero . . . . . .and . . . . .carrying . . . . . . . . . .capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Another closely allied concept is that of carrying capacity. This is the maximum human population that can exist in equilibrium with the available resources of a given area. The problem with this is that carrying Unit 4 Geographical research capacity varies seasonally and is expected to be reduced by climate change. Figure 3.4 shows the link between sustainable yield and carrying Revised capacity. MSY is halfway between zero and carrying capacity. 7 Writing the report-style essay

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Optimum sustainable yield (OSY) is lower than MSY. It enabled the ecosystem to have a high aesthetic value Carefully controlled harvesting allows Zone of over-harvest population growth

Expert tips are given throughout the book to help you polish your exam technique in order to maximise your chances. The summaries provide a quick-check bullet list for each topic. 4

Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.therevisionbutton.co.uk/myrevisionnotes 0 Time

Figure 3.4 Sustainable yield

Key players

Typical mistakes

The authors identify the typical mistakes candidates make and explain how you can avoid them.

Revision activities

These activities will help you to understand each topic in an interactive way. 32

Now test yourself

These short, knowledge-based questions provide the first step in testing your learning.

Definitions and key words

Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are provided on the page where they appear. Key words you need to know are highlighted in bold throughout the book.

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The key players that have some impact on whether and how biodiversity and ecosystems are managed are shown in Figure 3.5. It is clear that these players can be divided into two groups: those that have an impact at a global scale (e.g. TNCs, international NGOs and other organisations) and those that have an impact at a more local level (e.g. local communities, local government and individuals). The same players may also be divided into two groups on the basis of the nature of their impact on biodiversity management, i.e. whether it is negative (e.g. those concerned with exploitation) or whether it is positive (e.g. those pressing for conservation).

Answers and quick quizzes at www.therevisionbutton.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

Exam practice

Practice exam questions are provided for each topic. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skills. Online

Go online to check your answers to the Now test yourself and Exam practice questions and try out the extra quick quizzes at: www.therevisionbutton.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

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7 Energy supply, demand and security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 The impacts of energy insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Energy security and the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Water conflicts 16 The geography of water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 The risks of water insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Water conflicts and the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Biodiversity under threat 26 Defining biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Biodiversity threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Managing biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Superpower geographies 36 Superpower geographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 The role of superpowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Superpower futures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 Bridging the development gap 47 The causes of the development gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 The consequences of the development gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Reducing the development gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 The technological fix? 59 The geography of technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Technology and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Technology, environment and the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Introducing Unit 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geographical research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (D) Describing, defining and discussing the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (R) Researching the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A) Analysing the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (C) Concluding and evaluating the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Q) Quality of written communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparing for the exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Answers and quick quizzes at www.therevisionbutton.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

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9 Cold environments — landscape and change 88 90 91 94

Defining and locating cold environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Climatic processes and their causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distinctive landforms and landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Challenges and opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Life on the margins — the food supply problem 96 Global and local feast or famine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 The complex causes of food supply inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Desertification and life at the margin of survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 The role of management in food supply and security . . . . . . . . .

11 The world of cultural diversity 05 Defining culture and identifying its value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 106 The geography of culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 The impact of globalisation on cultural diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Cultural attitudes to the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12 Pollution and human health at risk 12 Defining the risks to human health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 114 The complex causes of health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Pollution and health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Managing the health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13 Consuming the rural landscape — leisure and tourism 20 The growth of leisure and tourism landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 122 The significance and fragility of rural landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Impact on rural landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Rural landscape management issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Now test yourself answers, Exam practice answers and quick quizzes online at www.therevisionbutton.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

My revision planner

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Countdown to my exams 6–8 weeks to go

One week to go

Start by looking at the specification — make sure you know exactly what material you need to revise and the style of the exam. Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to familiarise yourself with the topics. l Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on the specification. The revision planner will help you to group your notes into topics. l Work out a realistic revision plan that will allow you time for relaxation. Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your timetable. l Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision down into focused sessions of around 40 minutes, divided by breaks. These Revision Notes organise the basic facts into short, memorable sections to make revising easier.

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Revised

4–6 weeks to go l

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Read through the relevant sections of this book and refer to the examiner’s tips, examiner’s summaries, typical mistakes and key terms. Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them. Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at them again in detail. Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now test yourself’ questions in the book. Look up the answers at www. therevisionbutton.co.uk/myrevisionnotes. Make a note of any problem areas as you revise, and ask your teacher to go over these in class. Look at past papers. They are one of the best ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write or prepare planned answers to the exam practice questions provided in this book. Check your answers online and try out the extra quick quizzes at www.therevisionbutton.co.uk/ myrevisionnotes Try different revision methods. For example, you can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards. Track your progress using the revision planner and give yourself a reward when you have achieved your target.

Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of an entire past paper and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely with the mark scheme. l Check the revision planner to make sure you haven’t missed out any topics. Brush up on any areas of difficulty by talking them over with a friend or getting help from your teacher. l Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher. Remember, he or she is an expert at preparing people for examinations. Revised

The day before the examination Flick through these Revision Notes for useful reminders, for example the examiner’s tips, examiner’s summaries, typical mistakes and key terms. l Check the time and place of your examination. l Make sure you have everything you need — extra pens and pencils, tissues, a watch, bottled water, sweets. l Allow some time to relax and have an early night to ensure you are fresh and alert for the examination. l

Revised

My exams AS Geography Unit 3 Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AS Geography Unit 4 Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Revised

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8 Tectonic activity and hazards Tectonic hazards and causes Tectonic activity

Revised

Examiner’s tip A tectonic event is the result of a movement or deformation of the Earth’s crust. Tectonic events are usually earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Tectonic activity and hazards is one

A tectonic hazard is when a tectonic event has the potential to have an impact on people resulting in loss of life and/or physical damage to property. Not all tectonic events are hazardous as many earthquakes occur deep below the Earth’s surface, are low in magnitude or occur far from where people are living.

of the most popular options studied as part of Unit 4. You need to make sure your report is factually correct and well structured in order to stand out.

Examiner’s tip

Make sure you learn the facts and A tectonic disaster is when a tectonic event occurs and causes extensive figures for a range of up-to-date loss of life, damage and destruction. The Haiti earthquake in 2010 was a (within the last 10 years) examples magnitude 7.0 earthquake with its epicentre 25 km west of the capital city of tectonic hazards and disasters. Port-au-Prince. It caused 316 000 deaths, making it one of the deadliest Examiner’s tip earthquakes of all time. Now test yourself

Tested

1 Explain the difference between a tectonic hazard and a tectonic disaster.

Answer online

You can use older case studies, but there needs to be a good justification for this such as the lack of a more recent event of that type or an unusual event. Revision activity

Explain what tectonic hazards are and what causes them.

Event profile of hazards

Revised

Tectonic hazards can vary greatly in their profile. This means that they can differ in how often they occur, how powerful they are, how long they last and how much area (land) they affect. A hazard event profile is a diagram that represents the key characteristics of different types of tectonic hazards (Figure 8.1). Magnitude Speed of onset Duration Areal extent

enormous

just above normal

rapid

slow

long

short

widespread

limited

Spatial predictability random

regular/predictable

Frequency

very rare

frequent

Earthquake Volcano

Figure 8.1 A typical hazard event profile for an earthquake (destructive boundary) and a volcano 80

Now test yourself

2 Describe the event profile of an earthquake and a volcano.

Answer online Tested

Answers and quick quizzes at www.therevisionbutton.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

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8 Tectonic activity and hazards

The causes of tectonic hazards

Revised

The Earth’s surface is made up of a number of large plates that are in constant motion, moving very slowly. Ocean floors are continually moving, spreading from the centre and sinking at the edges. These tectonic plates slide on the mantle (made up of hot partially molten rock), which is deep beneath the Earth’s crust (Figure 8.2). Crust (6–80 km thick) Mantle, approx 3000°C (2800 km thick) Outer core of nickel and iron, molten liquid (3500 km thick) Inner core, solid (1200 km thick)

Figure 8.2 The structure of the Earth

Convection currents in the mantle move the plates. Convection currents are circular movements of the mantle material that rise from the core and cool as they meet the crust before falling again to return to the core to be heated once more. It is at the edges of the tectonic plates — the plate boundaries — where earthquakes and volcanoes occur most often because of weaknesses or faults where the plates meet (Figure 8.3).

Eurasian plate

African plate

Indo-Australian plate

North American plate MidSan Andreas Atlantic fault ridge Philippine plate Pacific plate Caribbean plate Cocos South plate American Nazca plate plate Fiji plate

Examiner’s tip Antarctic plate

Antarctic plate

Volcanoes

Subduction zone

Spreading ridge offset by transform faults

Earthquake zones

Motion of plate

Collision zone

You need to know the structure of the Earth and the location of the major tectonic plates and plate boundaries.

Figure 8.3 Global distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes

Different types of plate margins

Revised

Four types of plate boundary can be found where the plates meet: ● destructive plate margin, where one plate sinks beneath another (subduction) as they collide. The upper plate crumples, creating new mountains and volcanoes ● constructive plate margin, where two plates are moving apart from each other. Molten rock from the mantle rises to the surface, cools and hardens, forming a ridge of new rock. Volcanic eruptions are common

Unit 4 Geographical research

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8 Tectonic activity and hazards

●

conservative plate margin, where two plates are sliding past each other. Pressure builds up until they move with a jerk, causing earthquakes ● collision plate margin, where two continental plates collide and are crushed against each other. They are pushed upwards to form new mountains

Examiner’s tip

Make sure you know what happens at each of the four types of plate boundary and whether volcanoes, earthquakes or both occur.

Earthquakes occur when rocks within the Earth suddenly break or shift under stress, sending shock waves rippling: ● earthquake waves are measured on sensitive instruments called seismographs ● the Richter scale (and the more modern Moment Magnitude scale) assigns earthquakes a number based on the energy of its seismic waves ● thousands of earthquakes occur every day around the globe, although most of them are too weak to be felt ● every year about 10 000 people on average die as a result of earthquakes Volcanoes are vents in the Earth’s surface from which molten rock, debris Now test yourself and steam erupt: 3 Create a table contrasting the ● an eruption begins when magma, the molten rock from deep in the features and hazards at the four Earth’s crust, rises toward the surface types of plate boundary. ● although some volcanoes are considered extinct, many are capable of 4 Summarise the features of an rumbling to life again earthquake. ● volcanoes provide valuable mineral deposits, fertile soils and 5 Summarise the features of a geothermal energy volcano. ● about 1900 volcanoes are active today or are known to have been Answers online active in historical times Tested

Tectonic hazard physical impacts Extrusive igneous activity

Revised

Once magma flows out (extrudes) on to the surface of the Earth it is referred to as lava, which then cools to form igneous rock. This process Now test yourself creates a number of significant landforms: 6 Describe the three main ● volcanic cones — cone-shaped volcanoes that are formed from the landforms of extrusive igneous build-up of lava on the surface of the Earth activity. ● fissures — vents on a volcano through which lava can erupt Answer online ● lava plateaux — flat, extensive lava fields produced by volcanic activity Tested

Different types of volcano

Revised

Volcanoes can generally be grouped into four main types: ● Cinder cones are volcanoes built from ejected lava from a single vent. As the lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify around the vent to form a cone. Most cinder cones tend to have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit and do not rise above 300 m in height, e.g. Mt Gordon in Alaska. 82

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Composite volcanoes (stratovolcanoes) are typically steep-sided, symmetrical cones built from layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders and bombs. Most composite volcanoes have a crater at the summit, which can contain a central vent or a group of vents. These can rise up to as high as 2.4 km, e.g. Mt Pinatubo in the Philippines. ● Shield volcanoes are typically dome-shaped with gentle sides and a wide base. They are built up slowly over time from numerous basaltic lava flows. These volcanoes can stretch for up to 6.5 km and can reach Now test yourself 300 m in height, e.g. Mauna Loa on Hawaii. 7 Describe each of the four main ● Lava domes are more typically dome-shaped with steep sides and types of volcano and give an example of each. a narrow base. They are formed as viscous lava flows slowly and therefore cools on the sides of the dome, expanding it further, e.g. Answer online Soufrière Hills on Montserrat. Tested

Intrusive igneous activity

8 Tectonic activity and hazards

●

Revised

Intrusive igneous activity is when magma cools and solidifies within the Earth’s crust. This can lead to the formation of the following landforms after weathering and erosion has exposed them at the surface: ● batholith — a large emplacement of rock that forms from cooled magma deep in the Earth’s crust, e.g. the Half Dome in Yosemite National Park, USA Now test yourself ● laccolith — magma is forced between two layers of sedimentary rock, 8 Describe the landforms that creating a dome-shaped feature, e.g. Devil’s Tower in Wyoming, USA can arise from intrusive igneous ● sill — magma has intruded between layers of sedimentary rock, e.g. activity. the Whin Sill in Northumberland Answer online ● dike — magma has cut discordantly across massive rock formations, Tested e.g. Mackenzie dike swarm in the Northwest Territories, Canada

Effects of earthquakes on landscapes

Revised

Earthquakes have less dramatic impacts on the landscape of the Earth: ● rift valleys can form where two oceanic plates are diverging, such as the mid-Atlantic ridge, or where continental crust is being stretched by divergence, such as in the East African Rift valley Revision activity ● fault scarps are cliff-like features that can range from a few metres to Describe the impacts that tectonic hundreds of metres in height and can be several hundred kilometres activity can have on landscapes. long. They also form where two plates are diverging Now test yourself

Tested

9 What effects can earthquakes have on landscapes?

Answer online

Unit 4 Geographical research

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8 Tectonic activity and hazards

Tectonic hazard human impacts Why do people live in tectonically active areas?

Revised

Despite the evident risks, many people choose to live in tectonically active areas. This is because of a number of reasons: ● lack of knowledge — the long gap between some tectonic events means communities slowly forget that the area is at risk ● lack of choice — some people remain living in tectonically active Now test yourself areas because they lack the choice or there are few alternatives. This may be especially true for very poor people who may rely on the 10 Explain three reasons why quality of land for subsistence farming people may choose to live in tectonically active areas. ● inertia — there may be traditional, historical or cultural reasons for living close to volcanoes and this may prevent people from moving Answer online away Tested

Economic and social impacts

Revised

Tectonic hazards can have a range of economic and social impacts, as shown in Table 8.1. Table 8.1 Economic and social impacts of tectonic hazards Economic

Social

● Cost

of repairing damage

● Cost

● Cost

of rebuilding

● Indirect

to people in terms of casualties and loss of life

costs of loss of earnings, loss of tourism income etc.

● Cost

of emergency operations

● Misery,

suffering and poor health

Now test yourself

11 Explain some of the economic and social impacts of tectonic hazards.

Answer online Tested

● Loss

of infrastructure — damage to roads, services, electricity, water etc.

Specific impacts

Revised

You need to know the impacts that tectonic hazards can have on a range of specific locations around the world in countries at different stages of development. A selection of good examples to research further is included Examiner’s tip You may well have studied a in Table 8.2. Table 8.2 Examples of tectonic hazards for further research Earthquakes

Volcanic eruptions

2011 Tõhoku, Japan

Ongoing Soufrière Hills, Montserrat

2010 Haiti

2010 Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland

2008 Sichuan, China

2007 Etna, Sicily, Italy

Now test yourself

Tested

12 Produce two detailed case studies highlighting the impacts of an earthquake in a less developed country and the impacts in a more developed country.

Answer online

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number of different case studies and examples as part of your research preparation for this exam. It is best that you stick with the ones that you know well and have already researched in detail.

Revision activity

Outline the impacts that tectonic activities can have on people.

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8 Tectonic activity and hazards

Trends in frequency and impact over time

Revised

Hazard impacts reduce quality of life

Tectonic hazards can have varying patterns of impact over time, as shown by Park’s response model (Figure 8.4). Different hazard events can have different impacts. This is shown by the speed of the drop in quality of life, the duration of the decline and the speed and nature of recovery. The differences in the three lines could be related to the type of hazard, the degree of preparedness or the speed of the relief effort and the nature of recovery and rebuilding. Start of hazard Recovery to better quality of life Recovery to normal

Normal quality of life Rapid onset

Recovery below previous quality of life

Slow onset Time

Now test yourself

13 Explain how Park’s model shows that tectonic hazards can have different impacts over time.

Answer online Tested

Figure 8.4 Park’s response model

Response to tectonic hazards Varying approaches

Revised

A range of approaches exist in attempting to cope with tectonic hazards: ● do nothing — people accept that tectonic activity is part of a daily routine in life and live with the outcomes whatever they may be ● adjust — people alter their lives or routines to factor in the risk that tectonic activity could impact on them. For example, individuals in San Francisco may ensure that furniture in their apartments is secured to walls to prevent it falling in the case of an earthquake or the government in Japan organises events to prepare the population for an earthquake event ● leave — people who may have already suffered the disastrous impacts of a tectonic event decide that their only option is to move away from Now test yourself the area to avoid suffering the long-term consequences or for fear of a 14 Explain the range of different repeat event The response that people adopt may well be dependent on their personal experience of a tectonic hazard, but this may be influenced by their economic situation or the economic situation of their country.

Strategies involved in adjustment

approaches that exist to coping with tectonic hazards.

Answer online Tested

Revised

The ways in which people attempt to cope vary before, during and after the tectonic event, as shown in Figure 8.5.

Unit 4 Geographical research

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8 Tectonic activity and hazards

Stage 1

Improvement Normality

Improvement Strategies to modify or return to vulnerability to prevent normality? further disasters

Stage 2 Hazardous event

Stage 4 Relief and rehabilitation period — may include outside help Stage 5 (national or international) Nature of recovery related to: Use of ● the need to reduce vulnerability vulnerability strategies ● the need to restore normality as soon Stage 3 Modify the loss as possible Search, rescue (e.g. aid and and care temporary housing Permanent rebuilding and services) of physical and social infrastructure

Deterioration Modifying the cause and event Quality of life, level of economic activity, social stability, communications and services

Pre-disaster

Relief Rehabilitation (hours to days) (days to weeks)

Reconstruction (weeks to years)

Figure 8.5 A disaster–response curve Now test yourself

Tested

15 Summarise the ways in which people attempt to cope before, during and after a tectonic hazard.

Answer online

Revision activity

Explain some of the ways in which people cope with tectonic hazards.

The effectiveness of different approaches

Revised

Strategies for coping with tectonic hazards may also change and develop over time, as shown in Figure 8.6. Modify the loss ● Aid vital for poor people ● Insurance more useful for people in richer communities and countries

Modify vulnerability Prediction and warning ● Community preparedness ● Education to change behaviour and prevent hazards realising into disasters ●

Modify the event Further environmental control ● Hazard avoidance by land-use zoning ● Hazard-resistant design (e.g. building design to resist earthquakes) ● Engineering defences useful for coastal and river floods ● Retro fitting of homes is possible for protection ●

Modify the cause ● Environmental control ● Hazard prevention ● Only really possible for small-scale hazards, landslides/ avalanches and floods

Increasingly technological

Figure 8.6 Response analysis framework Now test yourself

Tested

16 Explain how strategies for coping with tectonic hazards may change over time.

Answer online

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8 Tectonic activity and hazards

Exam practice Report-style essay ‘The frequency of tectonic hazards and disasters has changed over time’. Discuss.[70]

Pre-released research focus ● Explore the trends and frequencies of tectonic hazards and disasters. ● Research a range of tectonic events and whether their risk has altered over time.

Answers and quick quizzes online Online

Examiner’s summary ✔ There are tectonic events, hazards and disasters. ✔ Tectonic hazards can vary greatly in how often they occur, how powerful they are, how long they last and how much area they affect. ✔ The Earth’s surface is made up of a number of large plates that are in constant motion. ✔ There are four types of plate boundaries that can be found where the plates meet. ✔ Magma that extrudes on to the surface of the Earth cools to form igneous rock which creates a number of significant landforms. ✔ Volcanoes can generally be grouped into four main types: cinder cones, composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes and lava domes. ✔ Intrusive igneous activity is when magma cools and solidifies within the Earth’s crust. ✔ Earthquakes have less dramatic impacts on the landscape of the Earth.

✔ Many people choose to live in tectonically active areas due to a number of reasons. ✔ Tectonic hazards can have a range of economic and social impacts. ✔ Tectonic hazards have different impacts in different locations around the world. ✔ Tectonic hazards can have varying patterns of impact over time. ✔ There is a range of approaches that exist in attempting to cope with tectonic hazards. ✔ The ways in which people attempt to cope with tectonic hazards vary before, during and after the tectonic event. ✔ Strategies for coping with tectonic hazards change and develop over time.

Unit 4 Geographical research

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