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2011

The Embeddedness of Hognose Snakes (Heterodon Spp.) in the Wildlife Pet Trade and the Relevance of Assemblage Geographies for Reptile Conservation Lauren Grace Kelley

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

THE EMBEDDEDNESS OF HOGNOSE SNAKES (HETERODON SPP.) IN THE WILDLIFE PET TRADE AND THE RELEVANCE OF ASSEMBLAGE GEOGRAPHIES FOR REPTILE CONSERVATION

By LAUREN GRACE KELLEY

A Thesis submitted to the Department of Geography in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2011

Lauren Grace Kelley defended this thesis on July 20, 2011.

The members of the supervisory committee were:

J. Anthony Stallins Professor Directing Thesis

Philip E. Steinberg Committee Member

Lisa Jordan Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the thesis has been approved in accordance with university requirements. ii

I would like to dedicate this research to my parents, Charlene and Ernie Kelley. Thanks for all your loving support and encouragement…and for making me laugh when I was stressed. If I was a Rhesus, And wrote a thesis, It would be all about monkey business. -Dad

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to sincerely thank all those who supported me throughout my time in grad school and who contributed to the completion of this project. First, many thanks to my committee and to geograd friends and faculty who befriended and encouraged me along the way. To my advisor, Dr. Tony Stallins, thank you for your patience and for steering me in the right direction when I didn‘t know what course to follow. This project would not be possible without you. Dr. Phil Steinberg, thank you for introducing me to geographic thought—the hardest class I ever took and I wish I had had the chance to take more. Big thanks to Caitie Finlayson for showing me the ropes that first daunting semester and to Dr. Victor Mesev for giving me my first graduate work opportunity. You all had so much faith in me and I can never thank you enough. Lastly, thank you to all the respondents who took the time to talk, and share their knowledge and love of hognose snakes.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ix 1.

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................1

2.

BACKGROUND .....................................................................................................................5 2.1 2.2

2.1

New materialism and assemblage geographies..............................................................5 Natural history of the genus Heterodon .........................................................................8 2.2.1 Western hognose ..............................................................................................11 2.2.2 Southern hognose .............................................................................................11 2.2.3 Eastern hognose ...............................................................................................12 Legal context for the reptile pet trade in North America .............................................12

3.

METHODS ............................................................................................................................15

4.

RESULTS ..............................................................................................................................18 4.1 4.2

4.3 5.

DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................31 5.1 4.2

6.

Natural history, evolution, and Heterodon in the pet trade..........................................18 Sites in the event space of the hognose ........................................................................20 4.2.1 Collection sites .................................................................................................21 4.2.2 Phylogeographic networks ...............................................................................22 4.2.3 Reptile shows ...................................................................................................24 4.2.4 Herpetological web sites ..................................................................................25 4.2.5 Breeder social networks ...................................................................................26 4.2.6 Legal jurisdiction .............................................................................................27 Quantitative results: non-metric multidimensional scaling .........................................29

Material geographies ....................................................................................................31 The production of conservation via assemblages ........................................................34

CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................................40

Appendices .....................................................................................................................................42 A B C D

Tables ...........................................................................................................................42 Figures..........................................................................................................................46 Table of Values Used for Hierarchical Cluster Analysis and Non-Metric Multidimentional Scaling .............................................................................................61 Institutional Review Board Approval and Informed Consent Form ............................63

References ......................................................................................................................................67 Biographical Sketch .......................................................................................................................76

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Taxonomic status of the North American Hognose snake ..............................................42 Table 2. Number of hognose breeders interviewed by location and date ......................................43 Table 3. Sample of data used in Hierarchical cluster analysis & non-metric multidimensional scaling ....................................................................................................................................44 Table 4. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients .........................................................................45

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Top to bottom: southern hognose snake (H. simus); eastern hognose snake (H. platyrhinos) - both images J. D. Willson, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory at http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/snakes/; western hognose snake (H. nasicus) -©Brent Bumgardner at www.superconda.com; Mexican hognose snake (H. n. kennerlyi) – ©A. T. Holycross at http://www.reptilesofaz.org/Snakes-Subpages/h-h-kennerlyi.html .................46 Figure 2. Top left: eastern hognose cobra-like defensive bluff; Top right: Mexican hognose defensive show; Bottom: Mexican hognose feigns death. Sources: Top left: http://www.lakesidenaturecenter.org; Top right and Bottom: ©Jason Penneyhttp://www.kingsnake.com/hudspeth/ hognose.htm .............................................................47 Figure 3. Naturally varying color patterns of the eastern hognose snake. Sources: Clockwise from top left: J.D. Willson-Savannah River Ecology Laboratory at http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/snakes/; ©2008 Gary W. Sargent at http://calphotos.berkeley.edu; ©John White - Virginia Herpetological Society vaherpsociety.com; David Scott-Savannah River Ecology Laboratory at http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/snakes/; J.D. Willson-Savannah River Ecology Laboratory at http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/snakes/;http://ivycreekfoundation.org/ivycreek/florafauna/hog nosesnake.html; © John White - Virginia Herpetological Society - vaherpsociety.com ......48 Figure 4. Visualizations of wildlife trade sites (Whatmore and Thorne 1998, 439 (top); 446 (bottom)) ................................................................................................................................49 Figure 5. Visualizations of movements and processes important to Caiman latirostris (Whatmore and Thorne 1998, 448-449) ...................................................................................................50 Figure 6. Example of a phylogenetic tree (Pinou et al. 2004) .......................................................51 Figure 7. Left column top to bottom: Albino, Pink Pastel Albino, Anaconda, & Spider; Right column top to bottom: Extreme Red Albino, Anerythristic, Superconda, & Pink Panther Morphs of western hognose snake (H. nasicus). Sources: Left column top to bottom: Albino-Don and Sally Shores, www.shoresenuffsnakes.com; Pink Pastel Albino and Anaconda-both © Brent Bumgardner, superconda.com; Spider-Kevin Rhodes, www.spiderhognose.com; Right column, top to bottom: Extreme Red Albino-Justin Mitcham, extremehogs.com; Anerythristic-© Greg Bennett, www.bennettreptiles.com; Pink Panther- © Brent Bumgardner, superconda.com ..................................................................52 Figure 8. Photos taken by author at Daytona Reptile Breeder‘s Expo and Repticon Shows ........53 Figure 9. Reptile shows taking place across the United States in 2011 .........................................54 Figure 10. Example websites. Top: www.superconda.com; Bottom: www.kingsnake.com, hognose forum .......................................................................................................................55 vii

Figure 11. Small scale view of hognose breeders worldwide based on web listings. Top: North America; Bottom: Europe......................................................................................................56 Figure 12. Choropleth map of captive pet laws pertaining to western hognose snakes ................57 Figure 13. nMDS Axis Correlations ..............................................................................................58 Figure 14. Relativised cluster analysis dendrogram ......................................................................59 Figure 15. Correlations from hierarchical cluster analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling ...................................................................................................................................60

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ABSTRACT The wildlife pet trade is global in scope and generates large economic revenues. Reptiles are moved across international borders to supply an extensive network of breeders, collectors, and pet owners. This study invokes new materialist geographies and the concept of assemblages to characterize the trade in hognose snakes (Heterodon spp.), a genus native to North America and comprised of three species. A mixed methods approach was used to establish 1) what characteristics of hognose snakes have led to their incorporation into the pet trade; and 2) what sites are involved in the hognose pet trade and how does the mutual embeddedness of their spatialities shape an overall topology. Interviews with reptile breeders, participatory observations at reptile shows, and content analysis indicated that the western hognose (H. nasicus) has visual, behavioral, and physiological characteristics that contributed to its incorporation into the trade. Its smaller size, less dramatic displays of bluff aggression, phenotypic variability, and flexible dietary preferences make it more suitable than the eastern or southern hognose. The evolutionarily contingent distribution of western hognose collection sites is embedded within transitory social networks of reptile breeders that operate under highly variable state wildlife regulations. These state to state asymmetries, although greatly contextual, are nonetheless generative in bootstrapping a very fluid and functional trade in hognose. Ordination (non-metric multidimensional scaling) was used to fuse the absolute and relative distances that define these asymmetries into a single visualization of the phase space of the hognose reptile trade. Clusters of states in this mapping corresponded to the categories breeders assigned to states in terms of their openness to the hognose pet trade and in terms of their status as collection states or gateway states for the international market. It is proposed that the hognose snake trade is a robust, self-organizing, horizontal assemblage that could be incorporated into more vertical global and federal wildlife protection initiatives as a form of citizen science. The contingent and ad hoc nature of this assemblage provides an efficient mechanism for promoting not only the emergence of new color patterns (or morphs) that drive the trade, but it also coheres into a self-policing entity with a wealth of resources and knowledge.

Key words: Hognose, Heterodon, Wildlife, Pet trade, Assemblage, Geography, Biogeography

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The demand for wildlife is a global phenomena tracking alongside economic development. Along with habitat loss and fragmentation, the procurement of wildlife, whether for food, for materials, or for the pet trade, can threaten viable, free-ranging populations (Gibbons et al. 2000; Schlaepfer et al. 2005; Gong et al. 2009; Nijman 2010). As people invest more time and money to experience and acquire rare species, the recognition of scarcity can fuel the drive to collect even the very last individuals, a process known as the anthropogenic Allee effect (Courchamp et al. 2006; Angulo et al. 2009). Revenues from the legal and illegal international trade in wildlife, and their products, are estimated to range from 5-20 billion US dollars up to more than 300 billion US dollars (Wyler and Sheikh 2008; Hobson 2007; Engler 2008 ) though by the very nature of the trade it eludes exact figure. Fueled in part by the nature of communications over the internet, the trade in exotic pets has become one of the fastest growing black markets in the world (Hobson 2007; Barber-Meyer 2010). Reptiles are particularly popular as pets not only because of their exotic qualities, but also because their hardiness and small size make them easy to keep and transport long distances. Schlaepfer et al. (2005) estimated that of the 49.5 million individual animals exported from the US between 1998 and 2002, 53% were reptiles. Although facets of the reptile pet trade are overtly illegal and hidden from view, much of the trade operates in the open through reptile shows and retail pet stores. For example, many of the common reptiles found at a local pet megastore or at a public reptile show are often promoted and sold under the assumption that they are captive bred. Large numbers of these individuals move among breeders and sellers in North America, Europe, and Asia. Insofar as the reptile trade is at times rightly vilified for its removal of rare species and for narratives about its mistreatment of smuggled stock that sometimes appear in the popular press, it also promotes a productive, highly visible industry built around the benefits of captive breeding, pet stewardship, and the promotion of an informal ethics of conservation and education about wildlife. In this thesis, I characterize the biogeographical context of the incorporation of North American hognose snakes (Heterodon spp.; Figure 1) into the reptile pet trade. Hognose snakes 1

are among the more commonly encountered native North American snakes available for purchase after boas (Lichanura spp. and Charina spp.), corn snakes (Elaphe spp.), and kingsnakes (Lampropeltis spp.). The spatial and temporal dimensions of hognose snakes and their trade are mapped and discussed through traditional biogeographic perspectives and methods. However, I also map the biogeography of the hognose trade in terms of relativistic conceptions of place and distance. Individual reptile taxa in the pet trade have their own natural history in space and time. They are bounded by biogeographic dimensions that define habitats, and breeding populations, as well as legal jurisdictions regarding wildlife commerce. But reptiles in the pet trade are also embedded within social networks that tie breeders together across long distances through websites and discussion boards as well as friendships made at reptile trade shows. Near and far can be conceptualized in many different ways, even in terms of genotype or phenotype – the variables associated with the coloration or markings of individual snakes that breeders and collectors value. Thus, this study of the hognose acknowledges a greater pluralism in what constitutes biogeography (Johnston 2008; Whatmore and Thorne 1998; Wolch and Emel 1998). This study aligns itself with new materialist geographies (Robbins and Marks 2009; Shaw et al. 2010) and their recognition of a greater contextual richness arising out of the interaction of relativistic, fluid, notions of place and distance with a more fixed embeddedness defined by absolute distances and borders. New materialism also recognizes that organisms are more than tropes for representations originating from biogeographical, social, economic, or political theories. As I document for the hognose, the unique life history traits of an organism contribute to its incorporation into human networks. For reptiles in general, their relative hardiness, arising from evolutionary circumstances, allows them to endure transport and shipping over long distances. Many reptiles have evolved to eat infrequently and can go long periods without water. Their small size permits the collection and shipping of large numbers of individuals, and their physiologies and behaviors can be manipulated for breeding. The distribution and natural history of a reptile genera or species is entangled with – as opposed to being passively incorporated into – the workings of the pet trade. By looking at the hognose through a materialist lens, I seek to map the topology of this snake species as it enters and shapes human networks and economies.

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I also argue in this paper that a pluralistic, material approach to the biogeography of native reptiles provides a means to develop more effective conservation measures. Formal international agencies, wildlife treaties, and global biodiversity frameworks like the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the Convention on Biological Diversity, and TRAFFIC monitor and enact topdown, hierarchical conservation policies and practices that have central visibility in the global conservation community. By necessity of their global goals, they emphasize broad general statements on the condition of a population (D‘Elia and McCarthy 2010). Often the focus is on the movement of animals from developing nations in tropical regions to more developed nations, although vertebrate biodiversity can be high in areas outside of the tropics and native fauna is certainly collected in North America and shipped abroad (Fitzgerald et al. 2004). Global initiatives, as invaluable as they may be, could benefit from local details about motivations and mechanisms for the adoption of a particular animal into the pet trade. A global command and control framework may underutilize the local contingencies, feedbacks, and permutations of natural history that shape the trade of a particular reptile. As an example of this local contextuality, the book The Lizard King, The True Crimes and Passions of the World’s Greatest Reptile Smugglers (Christy 2008) documents the details of the daily life of the reptile smuggler Mike VanNostrand and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife agents who brought him to jail. Intertwined with VanNostrand‘s rise and fall is a recounting of the history of reptile collecting in the US and of the network of individuals and places that contributed to the rise in popularity of reptiles as pets. Collectors in North America found they could meet demand and avoid what little law enforcement existed by simply collecting reptiles in states where legal protections were not in place. For instance, although eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon corais couperi) are federally listed as a threatened species today (Stevenson et al. 2003), they were once legal to collect in some states. In the early days of the reptile trade – the 1950‘s through the 1970‘s – a collector caught with indigo snakes in Florida, where collecting was illegal, had only to state that the snakes came from Alabama or South Carolina to escape fines for illegal possession (Christy 2008). As argued in this thesis, the hognose entered the pet trade through a unique coincidence of its evolution, its life history traits, the location of breeders and shippers, and the legal geographies regulating wildlife. Three species of hognose occur in North America, although 3

there are several subspecies and active debate as to their history and taxonomic status. Hognose range across much of the United States and into parts of Canada and Mexico. States differ not only in which hognose species are present, but also in the regulations and permitting intended to address the possession and sale of their native animals. Each of the three species of hognose also differs in behavior, size, and morphologic variation, factors often considered by reptile breeders and collectors. In addition, the hognose snake has entered the pet trade in large numbers only relatively recently. It is thus a timely opportunity to study the motivations and mechanisms for the hognose‘s adoption from within its biogeographic context. Other North American snake species in the trade appear in such numbers and in contexts greatly divorced from their original habitats that it may be too challenging to reconstruct their historical emergence. Formally, two questions are posed: 1) How does the natural history of the hognose and its biogeographic embeddedness influence its incorporation into the pet trade? 2) What types of sites characterize the commodification of the hognose, and how does the biogeographic embeddedness of the hognose shape these sites into an overall topology? To answer these questions a mixed methods approach was adopted. Participant observations and interviews were conducted with hognose breeders at reptile shows and through telephone conversations. Content analysis of web sites, discussion boards, and forums devoted to hognose snakes provided additional information about the history, practices, and trajectory of hognose breeding and collection. These qualitative data were combined and visualized using non-metric multidimensional scaling (nMDS). Using this quantitative procedure allowed for the folding in of different connotations of distance in the hognose pet trade in order to visualize its topology. As I argue, characterization of how natural history is embedded in the contingencies of the reptile pet trade illuminates ways to move beyond the conserve versus use dichotomy that can paralyze debates about the trade in wildlife. By describing the topology of the hognose trade, more of its horizontal dimension is illustrated. It also shows how the folding of relative and absolute distances onto one another in the wildlife pet trade creates a far more complex but also more responsive, if not adaptive mechanism for participatory conservation.

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CHAPTER TWO BACKGROUND New materialism and assemblage geographies The trade and relocation of biota for their novelty and potential to generate economic returns has a long history (Crosby 2004). Thomas Jefferson, among others of his time, promoted the transplantation of animals and plants that might offer greater economic returns. Today, biota continue to be shuffled about the globe for commercial purposes. Social scholars of invasive species have identified the motivations for why specific species are taken from their native environments and distributed and promoted where they are not native (Alderman and Alderman 2001; Robbins 2001). Scholars of the biological sciences have documented the characteristics of the species that enhance their likelihood for domestication and expansion into novel habitats (Fujisaki et al. 2009). The social and biological are integrated in this thesis, but instead of an invasive animal or plant, I concentrate on a snake genera in the pet trade and document its embeddedness in an evolutionary context, as well as its embeddedness in human networks that have organized around its trade. Embeddedness has several different meanings. In social network literature, for instance, embeddedness characterizes a position within a network, irrespective of an actual physical location (Granovetter 1985). Actor-network theory (Latour 1999; Johnston 2008) recognizes positionality within an interactive, relative geometry of largely horizontal objects and entities. Embeddedness can also imply a tie arising from a contingent or unique location in history or place. In this usage, embeddedness refers to the legacies of interactions that come to define a site or entity and how they influence subsequent interactions (Hess 2004). ―The ways in which different agents establish and perform their connections to others is based upon the heritage and origin of these agents.‖ (Henderson et al. 2002: 451). At its most general, embeddedness is a strategy to understand the ways different spatialities interact and inform each other, whether they are defined by absolute or by relative distances (Hess 2004; Leitner, Sheppard, and Sziarto 2008; Ettlinger 2003). For example, Radil et al. (2010) considered how the physical location of gang territories in Los Angeles and the social ties among gang members are embedded in one another, and what this entails for law enforcement. Whatmore and Thorne (1998) similarly defined a 5

biogeography of the elephant through multiple, interacting spatialities. The proximity and distribution of elephants emerges from their embeddedness as digital entities, as bodies in zoos, and as organisms defined by their senses and ecological relationships. In these two examples, embeddedness and its description becomes a way of magnifying or distilling the intensity and context of relationships among space and place. The position taken in this thesis is that embeddedness for organisms is analogous to natural history; they are embedded in their evolutionary trajectory. The past influences the outcome of ecological or biological interactions whether they involve only the non-human or include the human as well (Dempsey, 2010). In the 1990‘s, geography and other sister disciplines sought to socialize nature, or ‗denaturalize‘ it (Fitzsimmons 1989; Cronon 1995). What appeared to be natural was, upon closer inspection, social. However, this social constructivist turn in geography is now more accommodating of material perspectives (Whatmore 2006; Robbins and Marks 2009). This new materialism circumvents some of the universalizing aspects of the social constructivist turn by allowing organisms and the environment more agency. New materialist geographies span the study of non-human organisms such as mosquitoes, bears, elk, alligators, and plants, as well as the institutions and individuals in which they are entangled. Representational studies also tend to discount non-human worlds. Material geographies concentrate on the productive and generative aspects of the non-human (Swyngedouw 1999; Smith 1984; 1996; Castree 1995; 1997; 2003; Drummond and Marsden 1995; Jonas and Bridge 2003; Bakker and Bridge 2006; Dempsey 2010). Organisms are mobilized into networks as active subjects within the geographies they help fashion (Whatmore and Thorne 1998; Hobson 2007). By moderating the importance of representational modes of explanation, new materialism brings forward the material agency of organisms instead of reducing them to causal tropes or philosophical motifs. Organisms are given more grounded instantiations in a form of ―critical animism‖. There is less representational role-playing for the benefit of advancing abstracted social knowledge. New materialist geographies make a place for us to understand the predisposition of life to shape locally distinctive assemblages of entities and phenomena whether through their direct agency or through the socially constructed meanings they set in motion. Rather than dissolve all boundaries to conform to a socially constructed world, new material geographies allow borders to emerge and evolve. New materialism offers a more conciliatory solution to a biological version of the modifiable areal unit problem: how do we find the middle 6

ground between scaling the world according to our ideas and according to the scales and processes of non-human life? Shifting, even contradictory boundaries are required of life, whether arising through the geometry of absolute distances, or by relative scalings that determine perceptions of certainty. Thus from the perspective of new materialism, the production of scale and scalar politics are not activities reserved just for humans (Page 2003). The embeddedness of an organism, the evolutionary materiality derived from its historical and spatial context, contributes heterogeneity that can modify or constrain the social and economic practices that humans bring to them. In new materialist geographies, evolution and biology are not dismissed as an illusionary explanatory framework – science as a social construct – yet nor are they reflexively positioned as the only worthwhile frame of reference. The properties of life are given more of a foundational grounding for understanding the world and for informing philosophical topics. The dialectic of material geographies ‗bootstraps‘ the conditions upon which other relationships will be defined. It recognizes that there is a ―…real, empirical world characterized by emergence and complexity; a world that arises from material bodies and forces that conform to internal rather than external rules and that precede rather than follow our constructed systems of representation.‖ (Shaw et al. 2010: 378). Yet new materialist geographies examine aspects of the world ―…not to see how it might fit an already known solution, but to see how it is situated as a singular changing field whose activities mark the dynamics as well as the limits of its describability‖ (Woodward et al. 2010). New materialism recognizes structure and a framework for generalization as well as a contingent open-endedness. In this manner, it is analogous to biological evolution. Many of the universal aspects of Darwin‘s theories – adaptation, natural selection, and evolution – cannot by themselves capture or summarize the entangled bank of possible interactions and unique outcomes in full and actual detail. But these universal ideas provide a framework for putting form and structure, or topology, on the diversity of life. Like evolution, new materialism stitches together the conditional aspects of location and situation to outcomes that may have convergent or divergent trajectories (Castree 2009). New material geographies describe configurations of entities that arise contingently, reinforce particular interactions, and then may resolve into other structures or disappear. These ―assemblages‖ are the ―…dynamic structure[s] applied to semi-stable socio-nature configurations and geographies that emerge over time and space‖ (Robbins and Marks 2009: 7

181; DeLanda 2006; Dewsbury 2011). In their characterization of the spatial formation of wildlife exchange, Whatmore and Thorne (1998) invoke assemblages through descriptions of the human and non-human networks encompassing elephants in the wild and in their domesticated lives among humans. Similarly, Jones et al. (2007) and Woodward et al. (2010) have formalized ―site ontologies‖ as an ―… immanent (self-organising) event space that is differentiated and differentiating, but whose emergent properties also include congealments and blockages.‖ (ibid: 272). There are no transcendent organizing principles other than the propensity for interaction and to settle into lumpy domains of transitory meaning and interaction. Methodologically, the assemblages and site ontologies of new materialism can be enacted by evaluating the relative position of entities and their geographic configuration. Inquiry seeks to trace out these configurations in order to explore what makes the actors the way they are, and what produces the contingent character of the objects and agents involved. In so doing, one can see more of the implication of these particular configurations in terms of the range of outcomes (Robbins and Marks 2009). Subsequent thinking about counterfactual scenarios can stimulate comparison and generalization. Because the material is worked into the more intangible distances and geometries that characterized the social turn, a potential for visualization is retained. Assemblages and site ontologies hint of a topology that summarizes the contextual narratives they demarcate. However, the coexisting diversity of scales and scaling embedded in an assemblages or site ontology suggests that mapping its topology would require hybrid approaches (Allen 2011) and new cartographic approaches.

Natural history of the genus Heterodon Hognose snakes are a native North American snake of the genus Heterodon (Table 1; Edgren 1952; Platt 1969; Tuberville et al. 2000; ITIS 2011). This genus consists of three species (Figure 1), H. nasicus (western hognose), H. platyrhinos (eastern hognose), and H. simus (southern hognose). There are three widely accepted subspecies of the western hognose known as H. nasicus kennerlyi (Mexican hognose), H. nasicus nasicus (plains hognose), and H. nasicus gloydi (dusty hognose). The details of the historical biogeography and taxonomy of Heterodon have only recently been described. For many years (Cope, 1894; Dunn 1928; 1931; Underwood 1967), herpetologists have disagreed on the phylogenetic and systematic arrangement of Heterodon. 8

Heterodon are now considered part of the American Caenophidia or ‗‗advanced‘‘ snakes which consist of five families, Viperidae, Elapidae, and the Colubroidean families Natricidae, Colubridae, and Dipsadidae (Vidal et al. 2010). Heterodon, along with five other North American native species, Contia tenuis (sharp-tailed snake), Diadophis punctatus (ringneck snake), Farancia abacura (mud snake), and Farancia erytrogramma (rainbow snake), are considered ‗relict‘ to emphasize their lack of closely related living relatives in North America (Pinou 1993; Pinou et al. 2004). Recent phylogeographic analyses support an Asian origin for Heterodon (Holman 2000; Vidal et al. 2000; 2010; Pinou et al. 2004; Mulcahy et al. 2007). Heterodon is postulated to have entered North America via a Beringian land bridge at least 10-16 million years ago and subsequently dispersed throughout North and Central America. Heterodon forms a North American clade in the family Dipsadidae known as the Heterodontinae (Vidal et al. 2010). If Heterodon began dispersing into North America from Asia approximately 14 million years ago, there would have been little competition from Caenophidia arriving later, thereby allowing them to expand their ranges and diversify (Pinou et al. 2004). The two other clades in the family Dipsadidae have either a South American-West Indian origin or a Central American one. There is weak evidence that the Heterodontinae may be basal, or ancestral to the other clades (Dowling et al. 1996; Pinou et al. 2004). Like many other North American reptiles, North American glaciations may have played a key role in Heterodon speciation. Glaciation may have pushed Heterodon south into Mexico, leading to the evolution of western hognose in these disjunct populations. Dispersal across western North America when the glaciers retreated may have also facilitated the emergence of western hognose subspecies (H. nasicus nasicus, H. nasicus kennerlyi, and H. nasicus gloydi). Molecular-based verifications of this are not available (Lualhati 2010) and subspecies designations are based at present solely on contested morphological criteria. Southern hognose (H. simus) may have evolved in populations confined to peninsular Florida and the southeastern coastal areas. These populations subsequently radiated outward with the retreat of glacial conditions (Edgren 1961). Genetic evidence is available to support this glacial-interglacial hypothesis: southern and western hognose are more genetically related to each other than they are to eastern hognose (Holman 2000). Easterns are more widely distributed than either southern or western hognose. Nonetheless, among all of the relict snakes, the presence of more than one 9

species in a genus , the high intraspecific (within species) variation, their broad geographic distribution, and correspondence of this taxonomic heterogeneity to landscape features like the Mississippi River is supportive of a complex, deeper history of speciation (Pinou et al. 2004; Mulcahy 2007). All of the species in Heterodon are rear-fanged snakes, a trait they share with the rest of the Dipsadidea. Rear-fanged snakes have elongated, solid or grooved teeth at the back of the upper jaw. The anterior (front) gland-fang structure that evolved from rear-fanged snakes is a much faster and more effective means of subduing prey (Vonk et al. 2008). The rear fangs in Heterodon are used to hold and subdue prey by venom secretion. They may also provide some marginal benefit for Heterodon by deflating toads as they are eaten. Envenoming from a rearfanged snake typically requires a prolonged bite (Weinstein and Keyler 2009). Sensitivity to Heterodon venom may vary case by case and a person‘s history of exposure through past envenomation can lead to hypersensitivity. Edema, blistering, and subcutaneous bruising, among other symptoms, have developed in some bitten individuals. However, North American hognose snakes are not viewed as dangerous because they have a mild disposition and bite cases are rare. Captive specimens are safe if handled with care especially when feeding. Bites should be promptly assessed by a qualified health professional. Heterodon put on a bluff and death-feigning display when threatened (Edgren 1955). They first flatten and spread their neck into a hood, much like a cobra does, while hissing and pretending to strike at the aggressor. If the offending party continues to disturb them, they play dead by writhing, curling up and rolling over onto their backs with their tongue lolled out. During this display they are also known to defecate, vomit, and emit an unpleasant musk odor (Figure 2). There are hognose snakes with different evolutionary histories that have also been incorporated into the reptile pet trade. I mention them here but did not include them in my analyses. The genus Lystrophis represents several species of South American hognose snakes and Leioheterodon comprises a genus of Madagascan hognose snakes derived from an endemic African lineage. These species have the same distinctive snout and also put on similar displays of feigned aggression and death. However, morphological and behavioral similarities are considered convergent and not a consequence of proximity of ancestry to Heterodon in North America. 10

Western hognose Western hognose are a relatively small, stout-bodied snake that grows to be about 38-64 cm (15-25 in) in length, though larger specimens have been recorded. They have a characteristic upturned snout and keeled scales (having a ridge running down the center of each scale). When in their normal coloring they are tan or grey with distinct dark blotches down their back and sides and have a black underbelly interspersed with white or yellow patches (Conant and Collins 1991; Behler and King 1979). Western hognose are found from southern parts of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada across the Great Plains region of the United States, and south into Arizona and central Mexico. In Illinois and Missouri populations occur only in a few isolated pockets and are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. There are ongoing debates about the taxonomic status of western hognose. H. nasicus gloydi (dusty hognose) is possibly part of H. nasicus nasicus (plains hognose) (Eckerman 1996; Smith et al. 2003; Hammerson 2007a). There are also taxonomic arguments supporting the designation of H. nasicus kennerlyi (Mexican hognose) as a separate species, H. kennerlyi. These designations often reflect differences in the presence and geometry of scales on the head, and until formal molecular methods steer the argument in another direction, it is perhaps best to consider that races in H. nasicus represent arbitrarily delimited sections of continuous variation and can be considered a complex of many species (Boundy et al. 2000; Smith et al. 2003). The western hognose is listed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as a species of least concern with a widespread and stable population. (Degenhardt et al. 1996; Werler and Dixon 2000; Hammerson 2007a). Their current status is thought to be relatively secure overall, with local declines resulting from habitat loss or degradation. Western hognose are not federally listed in the US nor are they found on the CITES listed species database. None of the three species of North American hognose are listed under CITES and only the southern hognose is listed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Southern hognose The southern hognose snake (Heterodon simus) is a small terrestrial snake believed to be declining over much of its former range (Tuberville et al. 2000; Gibbons et al. 2000; Enge and Wood 2002). Its general morphological characteristics are similar to the western hognose and can include grey and red coloring on their backs. It is the smallest of the three species reaching a 11

maximum size of 61 cm (24 in) (Conant and Collins 1991). Historical sightings place the southern hognose in six southeastern states but in recent years recorded sightings have declined. As of 2000, they had not been reported in Mississippi or Alabama for at least 15 years (Tuberville et al. 2000). The last observation documented from Mississippi was in 1981 and from Alabama in 1970. Because of the highly subterranean nature of the southern hognose they are difficult to find and study so comparatively, little is known about them. The major factors responsible for its declines or disappearances are also unknown (Tuberville et al. 2000), but are often attributed to the extensive loss of xeric upland habitat (Hipes et al. 2001; Jackson and Printiss 2000; Meegan 2002). Other causes include declines in toads which serve as a major food source as well as the predation on eggs and young by the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) (Meegan 2002; Tuberville et al. 2000) though there is no conclusive evidence at this time. H. simus is listed by the Florida Natural Areas Inventory (FNAI) as a global and state imperiled species (Hipes et al. 2001) and is considered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to be a ―species of concern‖ (USFWS 1996; 2011). The IUCN classifies this species as ―vulnerable‖ with a decreasing population trend (Hammerson 2007b). Eastern hognose The eastern hognose snake (Heterodon platyrhinos) is the largest of the three species and usually grows to around 51-84 cm (20-33 in) long. Its upturned snout is slightly less pronounced than that of H. nasicus and H. simus. Eastern hognose have highly variable colorations ranging from solid black to yellow, brown, grey, and orange with a blotched pattern (Figure 3). There are no subspecies at present. Eastern hognoses put on a more elaborate bluff than western hognoses, though like westerns they do not perform them as readily once in captivity. They are not listed by CITES, USFWS, or the IUCN. However, they have experienced declines particularly in the Northeast where habitats have become urbanized (Lagory et al. 2009; Michener and Lazell 1989).

Legal context for the reptile pet trade in North America The hognose pet trade falls under the jurisdiction of a range of international, national, and state laws and guidelines. CITES began in 1975 and is the largest multinational agreement aimed at protecting species from becoming endangered or extinct as a result of international trade. 12

More than 30,000 species of plants and animals are listed and regulated through a system of reciprocal permits and certificates (Abensperg-Traun 2009). TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, was established in 1976 and is a global, research-based organization dedicated to making sure trade in wild plants and animals does not negatively impact the conservation of nature. TRAFFIC partners with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and works closely with CITES. The IUCN is the largest and oldest global environmental network in the world, established in 1948. They have compiled the ―IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,‖ a list of species determined through scientific investigation to be at risk of extinction. There are two federal statutes that provide the basis for federal regulation of wildlife in the United States. They are the Lacey Act of 1900, and the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973. The Lacey Act and its amendments regulate trade in wildlife, fish, and plants that have been illegally taken, possessed, transported or sold based on domestic, tribal, or international laws. The legislation outlines penalties for those found illegally harvesting, capturing, or transporting protected or prohibited species. Transportation of live wildlife must be under humane and healthy conditions. Permitted wildlife must also be clearly labeled as to the quantity and scientific and common names of the contents. However, given limited enforcement capabilities, reptiles in the pet trade are routinely transported across state lines for sales and for shows without verification of their status or origin. The Lacey Act simply provides an avenue for putting federal enforcement in more of a position of power in cases where it decides to intercede. Through the Lacey Act, the Interior Secretary also has the power to designate wildlife species considered injurious to humans and prohibit their importation into the country (Fitzgerald et al. 2004; Hoover and Tarr 1997). The Endangered Species Act seeks to protect threatened and endangered plants and animals and their native habitats. Under the ESA it is illegal for any person who is subject to US jurisdiction to import, export, deliver, receive, carry, transport, ship, or sell species of plants or animals that are listed as threatened or endangered by the Act. It is also unlawful to collect any listed species from within the US or its jurisdictional waters. Exemptions may be made through permitting (Fitzgerald et al. 2004). The principal federal agencies for implementing the ESA are the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries Service. CITES is implemented in the United States by the 13

ESA (Fitzgerald et al. 2004). Individual states in North America differ in their laws governing the collection, sale, breeding, and transport of wildlife and animals in the pet trade. Part of the work of this thesis was to examine these state laws in more detail and to assess them according to their degree of friendliness to the collection and sale of hognose snakes, an analysis presented in the next chapter.

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CHAPTER THREE METHODS The first objective was to describe how the natural history of the hognose, genus Heterodon, influenced its incorporation in the pet trade. These two questions were posed: 1) What characteristics of the snake originating out of its evolutionary history may have had some influence on its collection, breeding, and marketing? 2) Where are the sites in which these biological characteristics intersect with humans and become enacted? To address this objective, I used a range of qualitative methods to develop a narrative about how the natural history of Heterodon has shaped its trade. For the first question, I attended several reptile shows in Florida. This allowed for observation of the hognose trade firsthand. Florida has several major reptile shows each year, including one of the world‘s two largest shows. This participatory approach allowed me to engage buyers, sellers, and breeders in order to discern their motivations for investing in hognose snakes and to characterize the sites and legal contexts for their conversion to pets. Detailed phone interviews were conducted with reptile show respondents, the majority of which answered my inquiries. Because commercial activity also unfolds over the internet, I used textual methods to review and collect information from web sites and discussion boards that offered additional insights into the motivations for bringing hognose into the pet trade. In cases where individuals behind the web sites responded very positively to inquiries for information, in-depth telephone interviews were conducted. I also sought to use these qualitative approaches to distill a timeline of when hognose snakes may have first entered the trade, and what unique colors and patterns may have been bred in the intervening years. The second objective was to map the topology of the hognose pet trade. I used the information collected in the first objective to develop this quantitative visualization. The intent was to visualize a topology or geometry based on the contextuality of Heterodon’s biogeographic embeddedness as well as the absolute and relative distances that demarcate the sites of its incorporation. This objective is a response to the Whatmore and Thorne‘s (1998) concept of the topology of wildlife (Figures 4 and 5), except in this study quantitative visualization methods were used to integrate data collected through qualitative means. Trade 15

may be an important factor driving over-exploitation of endangered species and wildlife for which there is a strong demand. Often, however, there are fundamental gaps in our knowledge of such trade. Although knowledge about the details of market chains and how they operate would seem paramount, at least from a law enforcement perspective (Strandby and Olsen 2008), I wanted to detail a topology of the pet trade that is more relevant to the agency of the organism and the people who work with it closely. Conservation as a top-down law enforcement practice can be roundly critiqued (Butchart et al. 2007; Possingham et al. 2002; Abensperg-Traun 2009). Likewise, bottom up approaches have their criticisms (Abensperg-Traun 2009; Campbell and Vainio-Mattila 2003; Lindenmayer et al. 2002). My intent was to hybridize this top downbottom up dynamic with more lateral or horizontal mappings of how the non-human and the human interact. The first step in this visualization was to develop a database codifying the biogeographical, regulatory, and commercial facets of the trade in Heterodon for each of the lower 48 states. Once assembled, this dataset was visualized using a non-parametric ordination technique, non-metric multidimensional scaling (nMDS). Non-metric multidimensional scaling maps sites or observations in a multidimensional space where graphical distances are a representation of similarity. These distances can initially be absolute or relative, but in the ordination they are all converted to an equivalent distance metric. States, the unit of observation used in this study, can be similar or close in a relative sense in terms of their strictness of wildlife laws, the local availability of wild individuals to invigorate breeding lines, and the number of reptile shows. However these states may be far apart geographically in terms of absolute, Euclidean distances. Conversely, two states may be very close to each other in actual location but differ dramatically in the presence or absence of particular hognose species or subspecies or in wildlife laws. Non-metric multidimensional scaling converts these distances to a consistent distance metric, or similarity distance, so that these relative and absolute spatialities can be folded into one another and mapped. Non-metric multidimensional scaling was first developed in psychology as a way to map or visualize relationships among individuals based on standardized test performances. It is now used in many fields to render complex data sets in two or more dimensions. In the algorithm, distances among observational units are first defined using a mathematically-defined similarity distance derived from their multivariate descriptors. These distances are then ranked, and 16

iteratively shuffled in a Cartesian coordinate system until their graphical distances correspond to their rank order of similarity. The final output is a graphical visualization of the observational units, where distance defines similarity. Bray-Curtis distance was used as the distance metric. A final best solution is a function of dimensionality and stress. Stress is a measure of the disagreement between similarity distances and graphical distances. High dimensional solutions may minimize stress, but at a loss of visual interpretability given a higher number of axes. Low dimensional solutions may be better to interpret, but stress reduction may not necessarily be at a minimum. In addition, because the initial positioning of observations is based on a random starting configuration, the final map of observations can sometimes be a local, versus a global, optimum in stress reduction. The software used for this technique, PC-Ord, performs multiple runs of nMDS to select a best starting configuration. Scree plots and Monte Carlo randomization tests were also used to gauge whether stress reduction along each axis dimension was significantly different from values obtained from randomization of the analysis data. The final nMDS solution was rotated using a varimax rotation. This maximized the variance in the dataset along the first and succeeding orthogonal axes, and allowed us to interpret the meaning of the axes based on correlations of the site axis scores with the original site descriptors. In addition, a hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis was performed on the same data set to help triangulate nMDS results. Hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis initially assigns each observation or site into its own group. Then it progressively groups clusters based on their similarity as derived from a distance metric.

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CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS Natural history, evolution, and Heterodon in the pet trade Three major reptile shows were attended, and many of the same breeders were present at each. These shows ranged from small largely retail-oriented shows to a large international show that is attended by breeders and professional reptile collectors. A total of 26 interviews were conducted with hognose breeders, which likely represents a large proportion of breeders (Table 2). The international trade in reptiles began to grow in the 1980‘s (Christy 2008). Initially I had thought that hognoses may have entered the market only within the last few years – much more recently than other native North American snakes popular in the trade. But several of the respondents indicated that hognoses were being bred at a point farther back in time than anticipated, gaining notice in the late 1980‘s and into the 1990‘s. However, although some breeders have been working with hognoses for over 30 years, several respondents indicated that it is only within the last decade that the number of hognoses in the pet trade has expanded. The respondents identified a suite of characteristics that reptile breeders, collectors, and pet owners find attractive in hognose snakes. First of all, the snake is non-aggressive, and will only bite when a hand or finger is mistaken for food during feeding. Many other snakes in the pet trade share this trait, although some do not, such as rat snakes. The likelihood of a bite decreases as a snake gets used to captivity and being held. Contrary to many assumptions about snakes, different species have different temperaments. High strung snakes make poor pets. For hognoses, because of their docile nature, ―…their personality is a novelty; people think they‘re cute, sometimes funny.‖ The upturned snout, particularly on western hognoses, was often identified as an attractive physical feature that charms hognose owners and adds character to the snake. Size was also a factor. Westerns are small, almost toy-like, and given their profile, it was suggested that they may be a ―…snake for women‖. Endearing nicknames such as hogs and hoggies underscore this appeal. Heterodon as a genus are also diurnal. They‘re commonly encountered in the field, easily collected, and active when people are awake and interested in observing them. Heterodon‘s rear-fanged anatomy was an additional allure: ―People like 18

hognose snakes because they‘re overall safe but they are rear fanged and carry mild venom making them a little bit mysterious.‖ Displays of bluff aggression and playing dead were mentioned as appealing characteristics as well. However, in captivity, hognoses may habituate to their surroundings and cease to expend large amounts of energy in these displays. Bluff displays can differ in intensity among the hognose species. The western hognose is known for putting on a less elaborate display when threatened than does its eastern relative. This may be more conducive for making it a pet, as bluff displays can range to the very dramatic. The easterns‘ propensity to flatten their head like a cobra, open their mouth, and hiss loudly is perhaps one reason why they may be killed when encountered by people in their wild habitat. Because of their larger size, easterns also require more space and food, adding expense, particularly for breeders who might house a larger number of snakes. Some breeders keep upwards of 1,000 individual snakes, making food and upkeep costs considerable. Shipping costs rise proportionately with the weight of the animals being shipped. The propensity to feed in captivity is a strong determinant of a snake‘s potential for the reptile trade. Eastern and southern hognose snakes eat predominantly toads and frogs in the wild. As these amphibians are not going to be readily available year round in many locations, they may have to be purchased, thus increasing the cost of owning a hognose. However, some hognoses can be trained to eat mice instead of toads. This feeding flexibility is best developed in westerns, although some easterns have been trained to take mice as well. Westerns will feed on toads and salamanders opportunistically but their main prey items are lizards and small mammals with amphibians only occasionally utilized. Evolutionarily, the drier climates of the western hognose may predispose it to feed on mice, as amphibians may be less consistently abundant where long intervals of time may elapse between rainfalls. Respondents noted that feeding a steady diet of mice to captive eastern hognose snakes may cause them to develop fatty liver disease because their bodies are not evolved to handle this type of diet. One breeder described how he ―leaned‖ mice before feeding them to eastern hognoses in order to lessen the fat content. The southern hognose has a reputation for being a difficult eater in captivity even with the availability of its native toad diet, and more problematic than the others when it comes to mating. Nonetheless, southern hognose occasionally appeared for sale at reptile shows and are also bred by a few.

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The number of species and subspecies in the genus Heterodon, as well as their propensity to breed in captivity, makes them appealing for breeders seeking to introduce and capitalize on new morphs. Breeders seek to produce morphs or ‗hets‘ that can express a novel pattern or color. Rarity of physical appearance is highly prized in the pet trade and some of the rarer animals can sell for thousands of dollars. Morphs are the name given to these novel colors or patterns that have the potential to bring high prices. For example, hognose became a staple on the market when albinos were first bred and offered for prices up $1,500 US. Prices drop as morphs become more common and new morphs appear. Breeders work to tease out unusual patterns and colors and create captive bloodlines. The offspring are either sold for profit or traded for other snakes to further the bloodline. Breeders also have a degree of dependence upon the reproductive capacities of their stock. More frequent reproduction and larger clutches of eggs are a desired quality for producing a morph. The color and pattern variability among the subspecies of western hognose is particularly attractive to breeders, as this enhances the potential of discovering new morphs in the wild or through controlled breeding. Western hognose can be bred twice a year producing relatively large clutches of 20-25 eggs. Although lacking formal subspecies designations, eastern hognose have perhaps an even larger amount of phenotypic diversity than westerns. Eastern hognose naturally occur in a variety of colors from solid black to red, orange, grey, brown, and yellow with blotch patterns. However, the larger size and feeding requirements of the eastern make the western more workable as a breeder, and the western hognose is far more abundant in the trade than any of the other North American hognoses.

Sites in the event space of the hognose Respondents outlined the sites where hognose snakes were collected, bred, and incorporated into the reptile pet trade. In terms of new materialist geographies, these sites can be considered part of a self-organizing event-space emerging around and in response to hognose snakes. These sites represent a differentiating singularity unfolding out of the contingencies set in motion by the natural history and evolutionary capacities of the hognose. Although a study of another reptile species might also identify similar structural feedbacks among the sites described below, there would also be contingencies worthy of description beyond any simplistic ideographic ambition. As the following site descriptions convey, there are irreproducible 20

contingencies surrounding the incorporation of hognose snakes in the pet trade. Knowledge of them is useful in a comparative framework where one can begin to see how different starting conditions might lead to a convergence or divergence in outcomes. Six sites were identified as key sites in the event space of the hognose: collection locations, phylogeographic networks, reptile shows, web sites, social networks among breeders, and legal territories.

Collection Sites The hognose pet trade is dependent upon the fine-grain distribution of species and subspecies. As noted above, westerns comprise most of the trade, with eastern and southern hognoses playing a much smaller commercial role. But for the trade to initiate, wild caught individuals are necessary. Yet even within the very broad distribution of western hognoses, some areas have become more important to the hognose pet trade than others. For the reptile trade in general, collection is highly localized to a particular location and a few collectors are often responsible for most of the take. For example, a census of wildlife records in Texas indicated that three top collectors accounted for 67% of the total 14,000 (reptile and amphibians) specimens collected in the Chihuahuan Desert ecoregion in Texas in 1999. The top five collectors accounted for 90% and operated in only five counties. One county accounted for almost half of all individuals (Fitzgerald et al. 2004). For the hognose, my interviews identified 3 to 4 big collection centers where western hognose were common and available in the wild. From those centers 1,000-2,000 snakes were collected and sold per year for about 10 years. This collection seeded the trade in hognose and allowed the market to take hold and sustain itself. Many subsequent generations of morphs can originate from a single wild-caught organism with a distinctive look. By crossing established lines with unusual morphs collected in the wild, breeders may also produce a new color or pattern. Respondents identified several locations in Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado as the source of new morphs. Individuals from specific locations may have characteristics desired by breeders. For example, one particular county in Minnesota is known for producing western hognoses recognized for their robust size and hardiness. Some Minnesota hognose also produce larger clutch sizes than hognoses from other locales. This local aspect of the global reptile trade is sometimes overlooked, but among breeders and collectors place specificity can attain cult status based on the look or vigor of individual reptiles. For example, the Okeetee corn snake is 21

found in a very small location in South Carolina, and its distinctive pattern and color was highly desired by breeders hoping to create, market, and sell its look as a designer snake. (Love and Love 2005).

Phylogeographic networks Interviews indicated that few, if any, breeders conduct quantitative molecular characterizations of individuals collected in the wild or in captivity. Instead they track the lineage of their breeding (sometimes with software) based on physical appearance, or phenotype. This allows them to deduce whether a particular phenotype is produced by a dominant or a recessive gene. Other morphs may be codominant, where dominant and recessive phenotypes may appear together. A distinctive phenotype may also arise through incomplete dominance. Once this genetic information is inferred, more strategic breeding can be undertaken to increase the numbers of a particular morph. Thus another site of relevance for the hognose pet trade is its phylogeographic network, the lineage of what morphs appeared, where, and under what circumstances. Wild caught specimens and their traits enter the trade through targeted collection in the wild, or through happenstance encounters with people who find unusual looking snakes and directly or indirectly contact breeders. New morphs can also emerge in populations many generations out from their wild progenitors due to breeding and the contingencies of genetics. In traditional biogeography, a phylogeographic tree links organisms based on genetic relatedness and location (Figure 6). But because much of the hognose breeding is managed by individual breeders often operating simultaneously and in relative privacy so as to keep the development of a new morph a trade secret, the phylogenetics of captive bred hognose could only be mapped as a timeline. Although phylogenetic studies of non-captive organisms may have a relatively large or well-demarcated pool of individuals from which to reconstruct a dichotomous tree of their genetic relatedness, the mobility of snakes in the reptile pet trade and the coexistence of multiple breeding programs made it unrealistic to distill a single tree. It was also difficult to meet basic assumptions of phlyogeographic continuity because breeding strategies adopted by breeders are contingent upon the outcomes of other breeders and the demands of the market. Interest in different species of reptiles fluctuates from year to year. Morphs may be in demand one year, only to be overly abundant the next. Breeding for a morph may be dropped when new and different genetic morphs emerge and redirect the market. 22

Given that it takes two years to grow westerns from hatchling to breeding size, at least 15 generations of hognose have cycled through the trade if one assumes the trade began in the 1980‘s. All of the predominant commercial morphs to date have been developed in the western hognose (Figure 7). One of the earliest morphs was the pink pastel, first found near Tokio, Texas. An orange albino morph found in New Mexico followed around 1995, and these two morphs established the trade. Many of the morphs to follow often originated in wild-caught specimens, with subsequent breeding increasing their numbers. The anaconda morph became available in 2004. It is a captive bred morph that resembles an anaconda in the pattern of its dorsal scales. Several respondents indicated that this is when participation in the hognose market began to grow more rapidly. One respondent described how morphs had hit a plateau until the anaconda morph, which was eventually followed by the superconda morph in 2007-2008. Up until the anaconda morph, they were all recessive. One had to breed ‗hets‘ together to get ‗visuals‘ and the desired physical traits would skip a generation. For example, a gravid female might lay eggs that hatched out young with a het for a morph, but those offspring had to be bred with each other or back to the mother or father who carried a het for the same morph in order to produce the visuals. Two anaconda morphs, on the other hand, can be bred to produce a superconda, which at present are selling for around $2,500 US but respondents noted they have sold for as high as $7,500 US. The superconda morph is a near patternless designer morph currently popular. King (2004) provides an overview of snake genetics in the pet trade. Morphs originated through very different routes. Several entered the market through wild-caught individuals, many of these coming from Texas. Axanthic morphs were hatched by a young kid who sold them to a collector, who then sold them to a breeder. Snow morphs were derived from breeding axanthic and albino morphs together. New morphs have emerged well outside of the hognose native range. For instance, the toffeebelly morph came about through the captive breeding of a hognose sent to Germany from the US. Ten years of breeding multiple generations produced the smoke hypo morph. However, the initial smoke hypo hets were sold under the mistaken assumption they were albinos for which a morph already existed. Subsequent crossings of smoke hypos with other albino hets led to a yellow version of albino.

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Reptile shows Reptile shows are also sites that shape the reptile pet trade (Figure 8). They are where some breeders and sellers can make considerable profits. During interviews at reptile shows, there were times breeders were so busy that we were unable to have an in-depth conversation but instead agreed to continue our talk at a later time. Participation in multiple shows made it possible to see the tiers of reptile shows. Small and frequent shows target end of the line buyers—pet owners that will not breed their purchases. Breeders may be indirectly dependent upon these shows as it is here that a large volume of snakes can be sold, typically those morphs or normals that are no longer fetching a high price and would only require upkeep when resources could be directed toward breeding a new morph. Then there are large shows that do not focus on the novice reptile owner. The public attends these shows, but the type of displays and the quality of the reptiles suggests that commerce revolves around professional breeders and international collectors in a trade show environment. There is a distinct geography of reptile shows (Figure 9). In 2011 there were nearly 200 reptile shows planned throughout the United States. The majority occur in the southeast with only a few taking place in the Midwest and western states. Respondents speculated that this may be because breeders and suppliers concentrate in locations with a more favorable year-round climate for reptile keeping, or that buyers and sellers tend to live near easy access to reptile habitat collection sites and international shipping centers such as in Florida, California, and New York. The arrival outcome of a shipment of live reptiles can be highly dependent upon weather conditions. Based on online advertisements and event calendars, several states stood out for the number of shows they have each year. In most cases large numbers of shows per state added up because shows are repeated in the same town multiple times from twice a year to one every month. For instance, there are 23 shows in Kentucky and eleven of them take place in Lexington, hosted by the Lexington Reptile Expo. Other high volume states include Alabama, Florida, Maryland, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Virginia, with each having between 9 and 23 shows per year. Although there are many reptile shows, a number of them are run under a common name. Repticon (Reptile and Exotic Animal Conventions, www.repticon.com) runs small scale shows across eleven states.

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Reptile shows are not unique to the US; they are also held internationally. The biggest reptile show in the world, Terraristika, takes place in Hamm, Germany. Its rival in size is the National Reptile Breeder‘s Expo held annually in Daytona Beach, Florida. Collectors from all over the EU as well as abroad – several respondents noted that Japan is often well represented – attend the Hamm show. Respondents indicated that Germany is popular for reptile shows because they research and care for their animals better than anywhere else in the world. One respondent noted that collections in Germany and Japan are probably greater than any in the US, and that they are the two largest importers of hognose snakes and reptiles in general. Interviews confirmed that breeders conduct international commerce at reptile shows. Buyers come to shows in Florida in particular, and spend thousands of dollars on animals to send overseas because the Miami Airport is one of the best places to ship from. Using a broker for overseas shipping is helpful for navigating complex paperwork and legal frameworks. However, because of broker fees, health certificates and other requirements, shipping costs are high so overseas shipments are usually in bulk, as it‘s not considered worth it to send just a few snakes, especially with lower priced snakes like the hognose.

Herpetological web sites Many respondents recognized that the reptile pet trade is greatly facilitated by the internet. The advantages the internet has over reptile shows are its ability to reach a wider audience without the costs of transportation and state to state permitting requirements. It is also a form of 24 hour, international advertising and a forum for network building where breeders share information, offer advice, pose questions, show off new photos, encourage newcomers, and debate legal, social, and biological issues that affect their trade (Figures 10 and 11). According to respondents, before the internet, people got interested and learned about reptiles and captive breeding through herpetological society meetings. Now, the internet plays a role in sharing this kind of knowledge. The internet, according to one breeder ―…has done wonders for reptiles that were little known, it educates the public that the animal exists.‖ However, breeders take different approaches to using the internet. Among respondents, one noted that 95% of his hognoses are sold over the internet while others reported a more equitable split between online sales and reptile shows. Still other respondents reported that they use websites solely for networking and do direct sales to interested parties using personal email lists. Although the 25

geographic location of breeders is in some cases unavailable from their website, many do provide their location and they require out of state buyers to know their own state or country‘s rules and regulations before sales and shipping arrangements are made.

Breeder social networks Despite the prominence of the internet for the hognose pet trade, breeders rely heavily upon their own social networks. For example, one respondent identified close contacts with other breeders in WI, VA, NY, FL, OK, CA, and AZ. There were several reasons given for the dependence upon social networks. One is that breeders have to trust those they acquire breeding stock from. Breeders need to be certain of the genetic potential of the acquired individuals, and also their legal status. The majority of respondents purchased their original breeding stock from other breeders rather than from collectors of wild-caught individuals. As respondents noted: ―it‘s important to have really good friends that you trust in the trade so that you know the genetics of the animals you get from them.‖ ―It‘s like a family but you‘re not related…‖ ―Reputation is everything.‖ Bartering is common among breeders. Another respondent describe how, ―… if they have a snake with a specific genetic trait but they don‘t need that trait or don‘t want to inbreed their bloodline, then they might trade it with a friend for a snake with a different trait or different bloodline.‖ Although many of the larger breeders alluded to their own carefully kept records, there is concern in the breeding community that if careful records aren‘t kept, strategic breeding may not be possible. Breeders often expressed their fastidiousness about knowing the ancestry of their snakes. Producing a morph can only be successfully conducted among individuals who have developed trust among each other. The social networks around breeder may also be exclusionary or close-mouthed, as the release of a new morph can be lucrative and carefully timed publicity and marketing may increase profits. These social networks evolve and change over time, and may even include law enforcement and zoos. An example of this can be seen in the narrative of how leucistic hognoses entered the hognose trade. Leucistics were bred from wild caught stock in Colorado in the early 2000‘s. The animals were discovered by law enforcement, confiscated, and distributed to several zoos around the country. The zoos were then allowed to breed the animals and donate them legally to outsiders. As a result, leucistics have now reentered the pet trade. 26

Social networks also have another function. A tightly-knit word of mouth network among breeders is able to self police. They have a low tolerance for illegal activity or fraudulent sales over the internet because that reflects poorly on everyone. One respondent discussed how the ability to earn and keep this trust is essential: ―If someone is known to be doing bad business, it can get hard for them to work with people within the network, they can be ostracized…‖ There are online forums for rating reptile vendors such that ―…the reptile community polices itself to prevent bad business and illegal activity that makes them all look bad. Word gets out when you‘re bad business.‖ Legal jurisdictions Respondents were clear in the recognition that there are many gray areas regarding which states allow possession, sale, and transport in or out of certain reptile species. Although state laws can be found online through state government web pages, and there are several web sites that compile this information specifically for the pet trade, how to work across different states and remain legal can be ambiguous and challenging to decipher. At the same time, some people have learned how to navigate them. They know where the laws are enforced and not enforced, and what paperwork needs to be done to stay legal. These individuals are able to exploit the legal asymmetry among states to leverage an advantage in the conduct of business. Nonetheless, it was widely acknowledged that there is a lack of clarity as to the laws that exist on paper and as to the regularity of their enforcement. Each state maintains its own particular laws applying to the collection, breeding, and sale of certain reptiles (Figure 12). Some states have no hognose-pertinent regulations, while in others the collection, possession and sale of hognoses are highly restricted. Middle ground states require permits to engage in collection, possession or transportation of hognose and other reptiles. Permitting may be established relatively easy, or with more stringent requirements. In some states, permitted collectors and sellers are required to have an educational component, leading to the promotion of educational displays and demonstrations at reptile shows. States also differ in whether or not certain reptiles are listed as threatened or a species of concern at the state level. Blanket bans, banning all of a certain category or species because they are native or deemed dangerous (venomous or large constrictors), are also in place in some states.

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Colorado, for instance, is a state that regulates the number of western hognose that can be collected from the wild and possessed. The law states that ―up to four individuals of each of the following species and/or subspecies of reptiles and amphibians [of which western hognose is one] may be taken annually and held in captivity, provided that no more than twelve in the aggregate may be possessed at any time.‖ (CCR 406-8, Chapter 10, Nongame Wildlife, Article I, #1000). Sale and transportation across state lines is also prohibited. In other states, though, it is easier to do business. South Carolina only regulates collection of threatened or endangered species native to the state, including the southern hognose (Heterodon simus) but allows the possession and sale of most other reptiles. Tennessee was pointed out by one respondent as an anomaly. Even though it is a southeastern state and is located among other states where shows are held, none take place in Tennessee. This is likely because of the state‘s application and paperwork required of all exhibitors. Texas was identified as a unique state when it comes to captive reptile laws. In order to collect from the wild or to sell, exchange, or barter legal reptiles, proper nongame permits must be obtained and certain reporting and recordkeeping practices are required. Non-indigenous venomous snakes and certain constrictors are prohibited from commercial use without a controlled exotic snake permit. As long as permits and a hunting license from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department are maintained and collections and reproduction numbers are documented each year, breeders can conduct business in and from this state. For this and other reasons, a number of hognose breeders are located in Texas and a number of reptile shows take place there each year. As one respondent stated: ―Texas understands free enterprise and wants to regulate only to the point to where it‘s sustainable in the wild.‖ To examine this variability, I categorized state laws pertaining to hognose snakes using online databases found through individual state department of natural resources and state fish and wildlife websites. The laws were categorized based on whether or not the state has any regulation that affects hognose collection, possession, or commercial activities; (1) being none pertinent, (2) allowed with permit, (3) protected but allowed with permit; and (4) collection and possession is regulated (Appendix A). This information was visualized as described in the quantitative results below.

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Quantitative results: non-metric multidimensional scaling To visualize the information distilled largely from interviews and textual methods, I constructed a database containing descriptors related to the hognose for each US state (Table 3; Appendix A). These descriptors distilled information pertinent to each of the sites described above. First, each state was coded according to whether or not it had native populations of western hognose, eastern hognose, or southern hognose. Each state was also coded as to whether or not it had known collection sites. Then the number of shows held in each state was tallied based on 2011 online reptile show calendars. To represent the legal context, each state was categorized according to whether or not western hognose were listed on any state endangered or threatened lists, and whether or not the state supported some kind of blanket ban affecting the reptile pet trade. The number of breeders in each state was summed based on information acquired through seller and breeder web pages. Two nMDS dimensions were selected as optimal to represent rank similarity distances among states (Figure 13). Based on 249 Monte Carlo permutations of the data, the p value (the proportion of randomized runs with stress less than or equal to the observed stress at this dimensionality) was 0.04. Both the first and second axis coordinates for the states had significant correlations with the original data (Table 4). The first axis, the horizontal x-axis, was significantly correlated with whether or not H. nasicus was native in each state. The number of hognose breeders, and the degree of legal protection of H. nasicus were also significantly correlated. In the nMDS scatterplot, states farther to the right along the x-axis do not have western hognose as a native species. Those to the left are host to native populations of western hognoses. Conversely, laws become more lenient to the right of the first axis, and more stringent to the left. The number of breeders goes up as one moves toward the right of the first axis, likely due to the laxer laws in these states regarding their activity. The second axis in the vertical y dimension expressed significant correlations with the number of breeders and the number of shows. States toward the top of the scatterplot have fewer breeders and shows. States toward the bottom have more breeders and shows. Results from a hierarchical cluster analysis aided in the mapping of domains within the nMDS scatterplot having distinctive qualities related to the hognose trade (Figure 14). Six clusters were identified. States where H. nasicus is native but where there is some legal protection in place, though it does not entirely limit breeders and shows, were clustered as 29

potential collection sites in the left center of the scatterplot. The second cluster includes states that fall along the center of the x-axis having a range of legal protections but with overall little commercial activity of H. nasicus. For the most part, western hognose are not native to these states. States having more reptile shows clustered together in the scatterplot. They were divided into two groups. Kentucky and Ohio hosted 23 shows in 2011 and the group comprising North Carolina, Georgia, Michigan, and Maryland hosted between four and thirteen shows. One respondent stated that high numbers of shows in certain states are a result of high membership in active herpetological societies fostering a healthy reptile breeding community. Because of their high number of breeders and large, trade-oriented reptile shows, a high commercial activity cluster was demarcated in the lower middle right of the scatterplot. It consists of Florida, California, New York, Virginia, Alabama, and Pennsylvania. These states are also gateway states to international trade. Texas can be considered a part of this cluster, but given its far greater number of hognose breeders and the presence of native hognose populations, it is more of an outlier. Lastly, two states stand out for their strict regulation of western hognose and appear close together in the scatterplot. They are Colorado, of which the majority of respondents identified in interviews as a state with native western hognose but stringent laws, and Montana. Cluster membership was coded into a choropleth map to show these multivariate groupings in their geographic context (Figure 15).

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CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION Material geographies My results illustrated how the natural history of Heterodon, specifically its subsequent dispersal and speciation into its constituent species and subspecies, shapes its incorporation into the reptile pet trade. Breeders, sellers, and owners, as well as online content, confirmed that the behavior and life history of an animal in the pet trade are as relevant as its abundance (Schlaepfer et al. 2005). Several features were consistently identified as making the western hognose more desirable for breeding and for ownership. People are drawn to western hognose snakes because they are small and cute. Their upturned snout and propensity to put on a comical yet fearsome show of playing dead are endearing traits, even for people who do not necessarily like snakes. Though they are an overall safe pet, famous for their lack of aggression, they have rear-fangs and carry mild venom, a feature of relict snakes that also attracts hobbyists. Toads and frogs are largely the diet of hognoses. However, westerns can be conditioned to eat mice in part because their more arid native habitats may have limited availability of amphibian prey. Frozen mice can be readily purchased in bulk, giving westerns an edge over eastern and southern hognoses in captivity. Because of their large latitudinal distribution in the wild, hognoses can tolerate cold weather better than other animals when it comes to shipping. Additionally, westerns have proven to have a diversity of color and pattern phenotypes making them good candidates for breeding color morphs. The configuration of the hognose trade is a complex topology of network breeders, legal landscapes, reptile shows and corporate entities, and the inherent unpredictability of the hognose genome. The emergence and dynamism of the trade originated through a mash-up of spatialities demarcating actual biogeographic distributions, distances separating taxonomic relatedness and proximity in social networks, as well as distances that are socially constructed through the qualities perceived in the hognose. As Lorimer (2010: 496) has similarly described for humans and elephants, the hognose has a far larger biogeography than what might be mapped from a traditional biogeographical point of view. It is integrated outward from evolutionary adaptations to the technologies, territories, and practices of the human. In describing the use of Prunus 31

africana, a tree whose bark can be used to treat prostate cancer, Page (2003) argues that looking only at the trees‘ harvesting and marketing miss key factors when its ecology is not considered. For instance, the tree can be barked without dying, thus enabling it to be more easily drawn into international circuits of capital. Consideration of the characteristics of natural history facilitates another perspective on an organism‘s economic or political relations. Many different concepts of embeddedness are invoked in the material geography of the hognose. There is the embeddedness of natural history, how a hognose represents a nestedness, or folding in, of evolutionary time and the specific adaptations of taxonomic groups that mesh with human goals, desires, networks and practices. There is also the embeddedness of breeders in a social network, which is central to breeders‘ success. “In reptile breeding, the network is everything,” observed one respondent. The necessity of this social embeddedness is perhaps threatened by the fluidity introduced in the reptile trade by the internet. A respondent noted that in the early days of the trade the reptile network used to just have a few people who ran everything but now, because of the internet, the trade has ‗spread out‘. With more and more people interested, and the ease of obtaining animals, it is becoming an amateur hobby in which a person can participate without gaining the proper knowledge to represent the industry. Consequently, the biogeographic embeddedness of a particular hognose may become obscured as more and more breeding takes place. For example, with the Okeetee corn snake, its name transformed from a description of a location, specifically the Okeetee Hunt Club where these individuals were abundant, to a descriptor of its physical appearance. An Okeetee became less a place and more a color pattern when its morph became popular. The nMDS plot provided a means to visualize relationships defined by a common distance metric. In general, the scatterplot of states triangulated or confirmed many of the narratives communicated by respondents. The uniqueness of Texas and Colorado in the hognose trade was delineated in the nMDS. States that are trade gateways coalesced around one another as well. The final scatterplot and its positioning of states based on their similarity in hognose descriptor space is a tool to conceptualize how the reptile trade operates. Non-metric multidimensional scaling combined multivariate data about hognose collection sites, native distributions, legal context, and the number of breeders and reptile shows in a manner that univariate or bivariate cartographic methods are unable to do. In moving from left to right in the scatterplot one moves across collection sites, to breeding locations, and finally to the wholesalers 32

and retailers who move hognose snakes into domestic and international markets. Nonetheless, the cluster groupings in this scatterplot are not precise, but reflect propensities more than actual conditions. Illinois, for example, fell into the potential collection state cluster because of the presence of hognose populations. However, this state protects the western hognose with strict laws and permitting requirements and collection likely does not take place there. If hognose from there are integrated into the reptile trade it is through routes that could be construed as illegal. Shaw et al. (2010) and Robbins et al. (2008) document two mosquito abatement practices in Phoenix and in Tucson that correspond to two ontologies that have evolved out of the mosquito and its material engagement with the world around it. One of these interacting ontologies navigated space rhizomatically to reveal the mosquitoes‘ hiding places, its contextual trajectories – the very contingent locations holding water where eggs could be laid. Although there is contingency in these convolutions, they are contained within the propensities of an evolutionary trajectory, genetic potentials, and the life history strategies of the mosquito. The other ontology sought to suffocate the insect by blanketing all surfaces with deadly chemicals, both in homes and from the sky, as a command and control attempt to eliminate the mosquito. Similarly in this study, there are two interacting and competing spatial ontologies to the reptile pet trade. One is driven by representations fixed to market economics, international trafficking, command and control approaches to conservation, and less characterization of embeddedness and the productivity of assemblages. The other is less driven by representation into binaries of good and bad, and is more inclusive of context, self-organization, and the intersection of evolutionary history with varying conceptions of distance and network connectivity in human phenomenon. Like the mosquito, these two spatial ontologies arose in different contexts regarding our understanding of conservation, the will to recognize and enforce wildlife laws, different ideological and technological conditions, and the growing recognition that no single structural arrangement would be without some weaknesses. In this study, the topology of these interpenetrating ontologies are mapped. The axes were significantly correlated with top-down state legal codes as well as the contingent, more horizontally influenced distributions of hognose species and breeders. Although the nMDS solution was optimized with a two dimensional solution, more complex data sets would likely require more dimensions and more advanced visualization techniques. 33

As the theoretical literature on material geographies argues, there is a contingent, transitory character to the trade in hognose. I have documented how morphs can pop up at random, emerge from a long and coordinated breeding effort, or simply appear on the doorstep of a breeder in the form of a wild caught individual. Which morphs are valued over others; how as well as whether or not international, federal and state laws will be enforced; and the changing, self-policing nature of social networks among breeders also introduce unpredictability. The contingent nature of hognose materiality originates from its own operation. The informal rules of good business among participants in the reptile pet trade were not taken from a prefabricated guidebook on snake breeding, although participants certainly relied upon their own prior experiences, emotions, and observations. Instead they arose from unique contingencies, and will continue to evolve as laws change, morphs emerge, and biotechnology and internet communications modify the context of their work. These contingencies can also make the reptile pet trade difficult to map. It may perhaps be easier to map the deep phylogeographic (thousands and millions of years) history of wild snakes than those under ―cultivation‖ in past decades. Social networks may be very difficult to trace out without earning the trust of breeders.

The production of conservation via assemblages One of the criticisms of assemblage geographies is that the emphasis on the contingency of their character will amount to endless description, and an unfortunate reawakening of the ideographic impulse to catalog (Allen 2011; Robbins and Marks 2009). However, I posit that these contingencies, and the burdensome detail their description requires, reflect an adaptive, but inherently non-teleological facet of assemblages. Novel arrangements of collectors and breeders may be conducive for developing new morphs. The topology of the reptile trade acts as a diversity ‗roulette‘ by multiplying the range of possible scenarios for breeding new morphs. It is because of – rather than in spite of – the heterogeneity of laws among states, their enforcement, and the permutations of communication and exchange that can develop through the internet that the reptile pet trade acquires the self-organizing, ‗immanent‘ properties that define assemblages. This propensity for inventiveness may in fact be at a level that is much more distributed and effectual than any of the legal structures constructed to enforce it. Existing legal frameworks like the IUCN, CITES, and TRAFFIC may lack the internal, self-organized structure to monitor,

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as well as benefit from the contingently interacting entities, practices, and knowledge they intend to regulate (Ruhl 1997). If so, then conservation efforts and policies might benefit from integrating the assemblage geography described here for the reptile trade. Laws for the wildlife pet trade should coevolve with, rather than be the passive top-down recipients of enforcement alone. Indeed, this argument is often articulated by breeders. From the point of view of the hognose breeders interviewed, they are often the first to develop and disseminate highly refined modes of husbandry and practices for upkeep. Rare animals ranging from red-kneed tarantulas to blackfooted ferrets have been rescued from extinction by techniques that were first discovered by people keeping exotic pets. Respondents also noted that for many common species, the details of their care and breeding are not well studied. Another argument made by breeders as to why they should be more integrated into conservation rather than typecast as outlaws revolves around their view of the work of zoos. Because rarity is required to make an animal successful for zoo display, they argue, the breeding of rare or endangered species in zoos is undertaken largely to keep zoo populations stable instead of growing by leaps and bounds. Rarity is also what drives the reptile pet trade, but in the reptile trade large numbers of ‗normals‘ are bred to fill a demand that is larger than that experienced by zoos. Zoos alone do not have the space, the rapid responsiveness, or the resources to study and to breed the diversity of species that are faced with extinction in the wild and to strengthen these numbers to ensure an effective assurance colony for the future. For example, the ―…massive wave of amphibian extinctions that has recently swept across all continents and what has been labeled the ―Asian Turtle Crisis‖ have forced professional conservationists to rely upon serious hobbyists for assistance in providing homes to creatures in need of protection‖ (Jonas 2009; IUCN 2009). Space in zoos with breeding programs may be limited when one considers that several generations of offspring will require housing, and it may take many years, and multiple generations, to get a breeding program going (Quinn 1993). Ex situ breeding of threatened reptiles in zoos lags behind that of other vertebrates (Conde et al. 2011). Experienced pet keepers have also been called upon to house and breed invertebrates, birds, and fishes in cooperation with zoo, government, and museum sponsored conservation initiatives. These hybrid entities – essentially, an assemblage – are perhaps an undervalued or at least less visible approach to conservation.

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Indeed, some of the criticisms of the IUCN and other international and national listing programs are that they obscure site-specific historical and present-day details with their categorical approach to listing. In fairness, this may be a consequence of the lack of resources more than an oversight of the local and contextual nature of the wildlife trade. Nonetheless, extinction risks vary over time and a categorical listing can overlook changing local conditions in the wild or in captive populations. More important, categorization on these lists may be informed only by a species‘ wild status. Whether or not a species should be considered endangered or threatened should also take into account whether or not the species can thrive and breed in captivity, and how many have attempted it. Some species may not ever breed in captivity, or may not do well if relocated or monitored through radio tagging or frequent human contact (Stearns and Stearns 1999; 2010). In this sense, breeders and participants in the reptile pet trade enact a form of citizen science (Dickinson et al. 2010), whereby conservation work becomes distributed and horizontal versus vertical and top down. It is a highly localized emergent and experimental process that may not be possible to emulate through a top down model. In this sense, an entirely binary, representational outlook on the wildlife pet trade – although in some cases necessary – can obscure the material structures and practices that can be used to counter the very problems to be addressed (Hobson 2007). But this is not to say there are no drawbacks to a more horizontal participatory and improvisational form of conservation that borrows from assemblage geographies. Ideally, owners of these animals need to adhere to certain standards because removal of wild caught organisms can deplete a species. Horizontal participatory elements of conservation would require a much more systematic record keeping system and findings and outcomes would need to be publically communicated or published. However, this systemization may, by its nature, instill a more vertical structure to the trade and eliminate the contingent horizontality that motivates network formation and the enthusiasm to collect and breed. Yet within this risk is also a means for conserving threatened wildlife. Except for a few generalist species, reptiles are undergoing global declines (Gibbons et al. 2000; Obrien et al. 2003; Schlaepfer et al. 2005), and dependence upon global and vertical law enforcements should become part of a pluralistic and redundant system for conservation. Breeders as much as conservationists want to avoid a tragedy of the commons in which the procurement of animal bodies and their genetic material leads not only to a loss of connection to their biogeography, but also to their decline in the wild from over 36

collecting (Jenkins et al. 1999; Belzer and Steisslinger 1999; Webb et al. 2002; Schlaepfer et al. 2005). The informal rules that emerge among breeders may be a hedge to prevent this from occurring. For example, professional breeders fear what has been described as ―corn soup,‖ a term coined in reference to the prolific and uninformed amateur breeding of corn snakes which may ultimately lead to a melting pot of genotypes from which any phenotypic predictability and geographic affinity is diluted (Love and Love 2005). Crossing western and eastern hognoses, for instance, is debated in online forums and was described in one post as a way of ―…polluting the gene pool.‖ Nonetheless, when the trade is conducted illegally, there is little reason for collectors to turn to the larger, more organized, visible forums and resources. From the perspective of animal welfare, an assemblage-based conservation approach reduces some of the less benign impacts of large box retail stores specializing in pets. The success of a few reptiles sold in large quantities in pet stores makes it appear as though such creatures are easily maintained in captivity, when in actuality their upkeep may be highly complex. For example, green iguanas grew in popularity because large pet stores gave the impression that their upkeep was simple and that they would grow to large, impressive sizes quickly. Consequently, animals which require skill to maintain were purchased by people who were not qualified to care for them. These species, however, may remain in the trade after this bubble through knowledgeable, dedicated breeders and owners who have less of a financial stake in the sale of a species. As one respondent put it, big pet stores didn‘t have the regard to teach proper nutrition to buyers who learned the hard way. ―Pet shops started the trade but they could also be the ones to end it because of not educating the public.‖ The assemblages that emerge in the reptile pet trade may be better able to promote the welfare of wildlife in captivity. One might argue that with the internet, supportive assemblage geographies are readily accessible for reptile owners who take the time to learn about their animals. To illustrate how a similar assemblage approach can be put into practice, the dog and cat trade provides an example. The large retailers PetCo and Petsmart now feature local foster dogs and cats through ties to local community shelters (Smith 2009). In an effort toward more horizontal marketing, they no longer sell dogs and cats for a profit. Through a transitory, but persistent assemblage of retailers, shelters and foster parents, veterinarian-certified neutered dogs and cats are given to owners who undergo an informal screening process. Whether a dog or cat is given a home may ultimately boil down to a hunch by a volunteer at an adoption event that a 37

particular owner may not have the knowledge, time, or proper home environment for a pet. This practice may be a plus for the bottom line of the retailers, and it benefits the welfare of the animals. What remains unclear for the reptile pet trade is the degree of dependence upon wild versus captive animals for morphs that generate revenue for the market directly or through their infusion of genetic vigor into existing captive breeding lines. As with breeding in other domestic animals, there are concerns about the robustness of an individual line whose breeder has narrowed down to reliably produce a given morph. Because hatchlings have to be bred with each other or back to the parent who carried a het for the same morph in order to produce visuals, inbreeding becomes a concern. The pink pastel western hognose, for instance, is a morph that does not have a high level of fitness. Breeders recognize that it is important to increase the strength of a gene by outcrossing it. Collection of wild specimens can provide for this outcrossing. So can another captive snake of a known bloodline. However, wild specimens have their drawbacks, notably the possible introduction of parasites. Though advertisements strongly emphasize the captive bred status of snakes, and unique morphs are often a product of captive breeding, it can be difficult to distinguish between captive bred and wild caught normals when doing censuses to gauge overall numbers and impacts from collecting. According to one respondent, although wild caught animals are a good way to further bloodlines, 95% of vendors are selling captive bred hognose snakes because of protective laws. One vendor at a reptile show noted that captive breeding colonies are already established overseas to the point where they don‘t need inflow of US bred hognose. Another respondent estimated it to be about 10 years since he last saw a wild caught western hognose for sale. A large proportion of hognose in captivity probably came from one company, and they were originally derived from wild populations in Minnesota, where they are known to produce the highest number of eggs per female. ―With so many hognose in captivity there isn‘t a great influx of wild caught snakes in the trade. They‘re so well established in herp culture that they‘re not necessary.‖ However, as the timeline for the introduction of new morphs suggests, there may be some incentive to collect wild snakes for their potential to bring about new colors or patterns. The flip side is that with the absence of accurate trade and biological information for most species, it is difficult to establish whether current take levels are sustainable. As shown with the Eastern box turtle, it is possible to over collect (Belzer and Steisslinger 1999). The void 38

of information implies that population declines due to over collecting could be going undetected. Schlaepfer et al. (2005) advocate for improved estimates of how many reptiles and amphibians can be harvested sustainably from the wild and greater accuracy as to how many are currently being removed from the wild. The assemblage that defines the reptile pet trade may be in a position to contribute toward these goals. Policy changes to acquire baseline biological information in wild population and from breeders are needed to ensure a sustainable trade. Second only to habitat loss, the procurement of wildlife for food or for the pet trade is a threat to maintaining large, viable free-ranging breeding populations. Yet as I have argued, this is a generic categorization, insensitive to species, their evolutionary context, and their proclivities for successful cultivation in captivity. Procuring wild caught hognose snakes for morphs, although not necessarily essential for the maintenance of the species in captivity, also incentivizes the participatory and distributed involvement of the informal knowledge networks that may have some relevance for the conservation of the species.

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CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION Following the call of Whatmore and Thorne (1998) to map the spatial formations of wildlife, I employed mixed methods and a topological approach to open up ―…the spaces of wildlife from the cordon of exteriority to the multiple spaces and fluid ecologies of performative networks‖ (ibid: 451). The topology of sites in the hognose pet trade folded in different conceptions of space, place, and distance to develop a broader biogeography of this native North American snake. It illuminated more of the situational details of the pet trade into a cohering assemblage. I posited that this assemblage of knowledge and practices emerging from the interaction among collection sites, phylogeographic networks, reptile shows, herpetological web sites, breeder social networks, and legal jurisdictions is an undervalued conservation entity for the wildlife pet trade, where the more typical rigid, reductionist inventorying of population numbers, cataloging of areas of available or degraded habitat, and ecological modeling would have the effect of dissolving the hognose and its enthusiasts into isolated economic actors, representational motifs, and scaleless regulations, insofar as one can, or would want to avoid these entirely. Conceptualizing the topology of the assemblage defining the hognose pet trade is a step toward cultivating its potential benefits, which at its best could take the form of dependable assurance colonies and effective species survival plans that could seed reintroductions of native reptiles. Perhaps the biggest boon of reptile breeding and the structures that have arisen around it is that availability thwarts collection. As one interviewee stated ―It‘s not lucrative to go out and waste gas when you can buy [westerns] for $40 [US] a baby‖. Last year one respondent bred 200 western hognose. The parent snakes had an average clutch size ranging from 16-29 eggs and all offspring were sold before they hatched. Breeding practices may even thwart the collection of non-native fauna. A respondent noted that ―the availability and popularity of native species like the hognose has shifted attention from pythons‖. If the market for a snake slows, one could look at the possibility of releasing the snakes back into the wild as long as release sites were chosen carefully and monitored. Breeding for reintroduction, however, needs more research; it is not always successful (Wimberger et al. 2009). In one study, translocated eastern

40

hognose snakes did not survive as long as resident snakes within the annual activity season in which they were tracked (Plummer and Mills 2000). Low survivorship was also the case in a study of introduced and translocated northern water snakes Nerodia sipedon sipedon (Roe et al. 2010). However hybrids, such as those that might originate from captive breeding may have characteristics to improve their survival though they would need to be tracked for succeeding generations. Several projects are underway in the US to repopulate endangered or extirpated snake species, including the eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon corais couperi) (Birchfield 2011). Eastern hognose have been reintroduced in the Gateway National Recreation Area outside of New York City, but the success of this project is heavily contingent on the availability of toads. Toad populations may decline during droughts and unless there is inmigration of toads, the hognose are left without a food source (A. Sacerdote, personal communication). Thus reintroductions can bring up concerns about animal welfare. Wildlife regulation is a command and control approach that relies upon constant fluidity, targeted intervention, and manageability. In a more adaptive practice, it is informed by material geographies that could make the reptile pet trade a more widely appreciated force for conservation and a source for information about upkeep and husbandry that is unlikely to accrue in formally funded academic research streams. Nonetheless, there remains the question, ―[t]o what degree do these rematerializations eschew earlier lessons about the epistemological facets of power…‖ (Robbins and Marks 2009)? Other geographers are presently debating the issues of power that arise in the dynamics that define assemblages (Allen 2011; Anderson and McFarlane 2011; Robbins and Marks 2009).

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APPENDIX A TABLES Table 1: Taxonomic status of the North American Hognose snake Kingdom

Animalia—animal, animals, animaux

Phylum

Chordata—chordates, cordado, cordés

Subphylum

Vertebrata—vertebrado, vertebrates, vertébrés

Class

Reptilia Laurenti, 1768—répteis, reptiles, Reptiles

Order

Squamata Oppel, 1811—Amphisbaenians, amphisbènes, lézards, Lizards, serpents, Snakes

Suborders

Serpentes Linnaeus 1758—cobra, serpent, serpents, Snakes

Infraorder

Alethinophidia Nopcsa, 1923

Family

Colubridae Oppel, 1811—Colubrids, Typical Snakes

Subfamily

Xenodontinae Cope, 1895

Genus

Heterodon Latreille in Sonnini and Latreille, 1801—Hog-nosed Snakes, North American Hognosed Snakes

Species

Heterodon platirhinos Latreille in Sonnini and Latreille, 1801—Eastern Hog-nosed Snake Heterodon simus (Linnaeus, 1766)—Southern Hog-nosed Snake Heterodon nasicus Baird & Girard, 1852—Western Hog-nosed Snake

Subspecies of

Heterodon nasicus gloydi Edgren, 1952—Dusty Hognose Snake

H. nasicus

Heterodon nasicus kennerlyi Kennicott, 1860—Mexican Hog-nose Snake Heterodon nasicus nasicus Baird & Girard, 1852—Plains Hognose Snake

Source: ITIS, the Integrated Taxonomic Information System, http://www.itis.gov/

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Table 2: Number of hognose breeders interviewed by location and date Number of Location

Individual Breeders

Date of

Breeder Background

Interview

Shows: Reptile Breeder’s Expo,

8/21/2010

Daytona Beach, FL 6

Breeding Westerns for 10-20 yrs.

1

Breeding Westerns for 4 yrs.

3

Breeding Westerns

1

Breeding Mexican Hognose

1

Breeding and Collecting Eastern Hognose

1

Breeding Southern Hognose for 30-35 yrs.

2

Hognose Vendors 9/25/2010

Repticon, Tampa, FL 3

Breeding Westerns for 5-7 yrs. Breeding Western & Eastern Hognose for 32

1

yrs.

1

Breeding Westerns for 20 yrs.

In-depth: Face to Face

10/3/2010

Conversation 1 Telephone

Breeding Eastern Hognose 1/2011-2/2011

Conversations 4

Breeding Westerns for 10-12 yrs.

1

Has worked with all three species of Hognose

43

Table 3: Sample of data used in Hierarchical cluster analysis & Non-metric multidimensional scaling nasicus native

plat native

State Status

Breeders Local

Collection

Blanket Ban

AL

1

2

2

15

AR

1

2

1

0

1

1

4

1

1

2

1

1

1

AZ

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

CA

1

1

2

1

8

1

1

6

1

1

CO

2

CT

1

1

1

4

4

2

0

2

1

2

1

0

2

1

1

1

DE

1

1

2

1

0

2

1

1

1

1

FL

1

2

2

16

1

1

7

1

1

GA

1

2

2

4

1

1

2

1

2

IA

2

2

1

0

1

2

0

1

2

ID

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

1

1

IL

2

2

1

3

3

2

1

1

2

IN

1

2

1

0

1

1

1

1

3

KS

2

2

1

0

1

2

0

1

2

KY

1

2

1

23

1

1

1

1

2

LA

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

MA

1

2

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

MD

1

2

1

13

1

1

1

1

2

ME

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

1

1

MI

1

2

1

12

1

1

1

1

1

MN

2

2

1

0

1

2

1

2

1

MO

2

2

1

3

2

2

3

1

1

MS

1

2

2

2

1

1

0

1

3

State

simus native

Shows 2011

Laws nasicus

Category definitions: nasicus native: whether or not H. nasicus is native to state, 1-no, 2-yes; plat native and simus native: whether or not H. platyrhinos or H. simus are native to state, 1-no, 2-yes; Shows 2011: number of shows scheduled to be held in state in 2011 according to www.reptilechannel.com; Laws nasicus: whether or not the state has any regulation that affects H. nasicus collection, possession, or commercial activities, 1-none pertinent, 2-allowed with permit, 3-protected but allowed with permit; 4-collection and possession is regulated; State Status: whether or not H. nasicus has any state conservation listing such as threatened or species of concern, 1-no, 2-yes; Breeders Local: number of actively participating or advertising H. nasicus breeders located in that state (based on kingsnake.com and hognosebreeders.ning.com); Collection: are there known collection locations within the state 1-no, 2-yes; Blanket Ban: whether or not the state has a blanket ban for possessing groups of reptile species, 1-no, 2- ban on reptiles deemed dangerous (such as large constrictors or venomous), 3- native reptiles to that state prohibited.

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Table 4: Spearman's rank correlation coefficients

X Y nasicus_native plat_native

X

Y

1 -.033* -0.72** 0.35*

-0.33* 1 -0.09 -0.05

0.39** -0.17 simus_native Shows2011 0.76** -0.62** -0.35* -0.29* Laws_nasicus -0.14 StateStatus -0.61** BreedersLocal 0.53** -0.80** -0.26 -0.29* Collection 0.04 0.19 BlanketBan *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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APPENDIX B FIGURES

Figure 1: Top to bottom: southern hognose snake (H. simus); eastern hognose snake (H. platyrhinos) - both images J. D. Willson, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory at http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/snakes/; western hognose snake (H. nasicus) -©Brent Bumgardner at www.superconda.com; Mexican hognose snake (H. n. kennerlyi) – ©A. T. Holycross at http://www.reptilesofaz.org/Snakes-Subpages/h-h-kennerlyi.html 46

Figure 2: Top left: eastern hognose cobra-like defensive bluff; Top right: Mexican hognose defensive show; Bottom: Mexican hognose feigns death. Sources: Top left: http://www.lakesidenaturecenter.org; Top right and Bottom: ©Jason Penney-http://www.kingsnake.com/hudspeth/ hognose.htm

47

Figure 3: Naturally varying color patterns of the eastern hognose snake. Sources: Clockwise from top left: J.D. Willson-Savannah River Ecology Laboratory at http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/snakes/; ©2008 Gary W. Sargent at http://calphotos.berkeley.edu; ©John White - Virginia Herpetological Society - vaherpsociety.com; David Scott-Savannah River Ecology Laboratory at http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/ snakes/; J.D. Willson-Savannah River Ecology Laboratory at http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/snakes/;http:// ivycreekfoundation.org/ivycreek/florafauna/hognosesnake.html; © John White - Virginia Herpetological Society - vaherpsociety.com

48

Figure 4: Visualizations of wildlife trade sites (Whatmore and Thorne 1998, 439 (top); 446 (bottom)) 49

Figure 5: Visualizations of movements and processes important to Caiman latirostris (Whatmore and Thorne 1998, 448-449) 50

Figure 6: Example of a phylogenetic tree (Pinou et al. 2004)

51

Figure 7: Left column top to bottom: Albino, Pink Pastel Albino, Anaconda, & Spider; Right column top to bottom: Extreme Red Albino, Anerythristic, Superconda, & Pink Panther Morphs of western hognose snake (H. nasicus). Sources: Left column top to bottom: Albino-Don and Sally Shores, www.shoresenuffsnakes.com; Pink Pastel Albino and Anaconda-both © Brent Bumgardner, superconda.com; Spider-Kevin Rhodes, www.spiderhognose.com; Right column, top to bottom: Extreme Red Albino-Justin Mitcham, extremehogs.com; Anerythristic-© Greg Bennett, www.bennettreptiles.com; Pink Panther- © Brent Bumgardner, superconda.com 52

Figure 8: Photos taken by author at Daytona Reptile Breeder’s Expo and Repticon Shows

53

Figure 9: Reptile shows taking place across the United States in 2011

54

Figure 10: Example websites. Top: www.superconda.com; Bottom: www.kingsnake.com, hognose forum 55

Figure 11: Small scale view of hognose breeders worldwide based on web listings. Top: North America; Bottom: Europe

56

Figure 12: Choropleth map of captive pet laws pertaining to western hognose snakes

57

Figure 13: nMDS Axis Correlations

58

Figure 14: Relativised cluster analysis dendrogram

59

Figure 15: Correlations from hierarchical cluster analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling

60

APPENDIX C TABLE OF VALUES USED FOR HIERARCHICAL CLUSTER ANALYSIS AND NON-METRIC MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING State AL AR AZ CA CO CT DE FL GA IA ID IL IN KS KY LA MA MD ME MI MN MO MS MT NC ND NE NH NJ NM NV NY OH OK

nasicus plat simus Shows Laws State Breeders Blanket Collection native native native 2011 nasicus Status Local Ban 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2

2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

15 0 1 8 4 0 0 16 4 0 0 3 0 0 23 2 0 13 0 12 0 3 2 0 5 0 0 2 1 0 2 9 23 0

1 2 1 1 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 61

1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

4 1 0 6 0 1 1 7 2 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 2 7 0 2

1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1

OR PA RI SC SD TN TX UT VA VT WA WI WV WY

1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 22 0 3 0 0 10 0 10 0 2 0 0 0

2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1

62

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 4 0 1 0 1 8 1 7 0 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1

APPENDIX D INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL AND INFORMED CONSENT FORM Office of the Vice President For Research Human Subjects Committee Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742 (850) 644-8673, FAX (850) 644-4392 APPROVAL MEMORANDUM Date: 1/27/2011 To: Lauren Kelley Address: Dept.: GEOGRAPHY From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair Re: Use of Human Subjects in Research EMERGENCE OF NETWORKS IN THE REPTILE PET TRADE FOR THE HOGNOSE SNAKE (HETERODON SPP.) The application that you submitted to this office in regard to the use of human subjects in the proposal referenced above have been reviewed by the Secretary, the Chair, and two members of the Human Subjects Committee. Your project is determined to be Expedited per 45 CFR § 46.110(7) and has been approved by an expedited review process. The Human Subjects Committee has not evaluated your proposal for scientific merit, except to weigh the risk to the human participants and the aspects of the proposal related to potential risk and benefit. This approval does not replace any departmental or other approvals, which may be required. If you submitted a proposed consent form with your application, the approved stamped consent form is attached to this approval notice. Only the stamped version of the consent form may be used in recruiting research subjects. If the project has not been completed by 1/24/2012 you must request a renewal of approval for continuation of the project. As a courtesy, a renewal notice will be sent to you prior to your expiration date; however, it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator to timely request renewal of your approval from the Committee.

63

You are advised that any change in protocol for this project must be reviewed and approved by the Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the protocol. A protocol change/amendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the Committee. In addition, federal regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report, in writing any unanticipated problems or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others. By copy of this memorandum, the Chair of your department and/or your major professor is reminded that he/she is responsible for being informed concerning research projects involving human subjects in the department, and should review protocols as often as needed to insure that the project is being conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations. This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection. The Assurance Number is IRB00000446. Cc: Tony Stallins, Advisor [[email protected]] HSC No. 2010.4597

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Florida State University Department of Geography VERBAL CONSENT SCRIPT

Emergence of Networks in the Reptile Pet Trade for the Hognose Snake (Heterodon spp.) Hello, my name is Lauren Kelley and I am involved in a research study called Emergence of Networks in the Reptile Pet Trade for the Hognose Snake (Heterodon spp.) at Florida State University. The purpose of this study is: to understand more about hognose snakes in the pet trade and to map out a network of breeders and sellers that exists for them. You will be asked a few open ended questions that we will discuss during the interview. The interview should last between 15-30 minutes. Questions center around your participation in the breeding and selling of hognose snakes including your ideas as to how, why, and when hognose snakes became popular in the pet market. If it is alright with you, I will be taking notes during the interview. Your participation is voluntary, and you can stop the interview at any time without any penalty to you. There is no direct benefit to you for participating in this research study. There will be no payment or compensation for participating in this interview. This study has a risk in that some aspects of your personal views, practices, or network affiliations may become public. We have taken a number of steps to reduce this risk. We understand that your privacy is important to you. We will retain notes from the interview in a secure location for three years after the end of our study, according to University mandated procedures, and then all documents will be destroyed by shredding or electronic deletion. The only people with authorized access to any documents are members of the research team, Lauren Kelley‘s master‘s thesis committee, and the University‘s Institutional Review Board. Interview notes will be converted into electronic format for analysis. Electronic versions will be encrypted to protect your privacy and they too will be destroyed at the end of the mandated retention period. The records of this study will be kept private and confidential to the extent permitted by law. In any sort of report we might publish, we will not include any information that will make it possible to identify a subject. Florida State University believes that it is important for people involved in research projects sponsored by the university to be informed about the nature of the research, voluntarily consent to participate in it, and enjoy protection of their privacy. For that reason, the Institutional Review Board at Florida State University has reviewed and 65

approved this consent message, the interview questions, the research procedures, the retention procedures, and the reporting procedures we are using. Do you have 15-30 minutes to participate in this research study? Would you like to participate now or at a later time? If so, let‘s schedule it for _______________. Answering the interview questions that I will ask means that you consent to participate in this research project. Before we start this interview, what questions or concerns do you have regarding participation in this study?                

How long have you been collecting snakes/other reptiles? How long have you been breeding/selling them? When did you first become interested in hognose? What sparked your interest? When do you think hognose snakes first came onto the pet scene? What do you like most about the hognose? Why do you feel it has become popular in the pet trade? How do you market your snakes? What is your primary form of distribution, for example, internet sales, trade shows, word of mouth? In general, where do you ship your snakes to? Are they sold locally, nationally, internationally? If international, to which country do you most frequently ship and why is it higher there than to other places? Do you keep track of the lineage or bloodline of your snakes? Do you keep records? About how many hognose (and of which species and subspecies) do you breed and sell annually? Do you practice selective breeding for color variations and other unique qualities? Are your buyers wholesale or retail? Do your buyers also breed?

If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact me, Lauren Kelley at u, or my faculty advisor, Dr. J. A. Stallins at [email protected]. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject, contact the FSU IRB at 850-644-8633 or [email protected].

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Lauren Grace Kelley was born June 1, 1984 in Apopka, FL. She earned a Bachelor of Arts, Cum Laude, in music from Florida State University in 2006. In 2009, after taking time to travel, sail, and work abroad she returned to Tallahassee, FL to pursue a Master of Science in Geography. Her relevant work experience includes interning for the US Forest Service, National Forests in Florida from 2010 to 2011 and mentoring for online GIS and Remote Sensing courses in the FSU department of Geography.

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