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Examining the Values Associated with Spectator Sports and the Relationships Between the Values and Sport Spectator Behavior Li-Shiue Gau

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

EXAMINING THE VALUES ASSOCIATED WITH SPECTATOR SPORTS AND THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE VALUES AND SPORT SPECTATOR BEHAVIOR

By LI-SHIUE GAU

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2007

Copyright © 2007 Li-Shiue Gau All Rights Reserved

The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Li-Shiue Gau defended on August 31, 2007.

Jeffrey James Professor Directing Dissertation

Bruce T. Grindal Outside Committee Member

Felipe Korzenny Committee Member

Leisa R. Flynn Committee Member

Aubrey Kent Committee Member

Approved:

Cheryl Beeler, Chair, Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I appreciate it very much for my advisor Dr. Jeffrey James. He greatly helps me go over the process of completing the dissertation. I also thank my committee members: Dr. Flynn, Dr. Korzenny, Dr. Kent, and Dr. Grindal. They provide precious suggestions and comments. In Taiwan, I thank that Gwen Lee, Ruin Gau, Kei-Pei Chen and many other friends help collect data. In the US, I thank that Dr. Proffit, Dr. Flynn, Dr. Raynold, Dr. Johnson help data collection and Dr. Kamata provides suggestions in statistics. I also thank colleagues Masa, Yuko, Sam, Jin-Long, Pei-Yang, Christine, Will, Matt Gailliot, Matt Walker, Vincent, JC, Miao-Hsuan, Jun Yi, Huajun, Friends of Internationals, English clubs in International Center and Taiwanese Bible Study group, and many other friends and students help collect data and provide comments. Finally, I appreciate it for my parents’ and brother’s great support. I dedicate my dissertation to my parents and brother.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xiii ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................. xiv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1 Reasons Why the Researcher is Interested in the Topic ............................................................. 1 Research Purposes ...................................................................................................................... 2 Delimitation of Research ............................................................................................................ 3 Implications, Contributions, and Limitations ............................................................................. 3 Structure of the Dissertation ....................................................................................................... 5 Research Design...................................................................................................................... 5 Pilot Study............................................................................................................................... 5 Foci of the Literature Review ................................................................................................. 6 Methodology and Research Methods...................................................................................... 7 Definitions of Terms ................................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 2 PILOT STUDY ...................................................................................................... 9 Research Design.......................................................................................................................... 9 Sampling ................................................................................................................................... 10 Data Construction ..................................................................................................................... 12 Phase One Data Construction ............................................................................................... 12 Notes versus Transcriptions.................................................................................................. 12 Interview Questions .............................................................................................................. 14 Phase Two Data Construction............................................................................................... 16 Phase Three Data Construction............................................................................................. 17 Phase Four Data Construction .............................................................................................. 19 Data Analyses ........................................................................................................................... 20 Coding Procedures ................................................................................................................ 20 Transferability and Triangulation ......................................................................................... 22 Confirmability....................................................................................................................... 22

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Constant Comparative Method ............................................................................................. 24 Results....................................................................................................................................... 24 Phase One.............................................................................................................................. 24 Phase Two............................................................................................................................. 27 Transferability....................................................................................................................... 30 Phase Three........................................................................................................................... 31 Transferability....................................................................................................................... 34 Triangulation......................................................................................................................... 35 Phase Four............................................................................................................................. 38 Confirmability....................................................................................................................... 40 Implications............................................................................................................................... 41

CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................... 43 Definitions of Values ................................................................................................................ 44 Biology.................................................................................................................................. 44 Psychology............................................................................................................................ 44 Sociology and Anthropology ................................................................................................ 47 Philosophy............................................................................................................................. 48 Economics............................................................................................................................. 49 Marketing.............................................................................................................................. 50 Definitions of Values Employed in this Dissertation ............................................................... 55 Relationships among Needs, Values, and Motivations............................................................. 57 Types of Needs and Values....................................................................................................... 59 Motivations for Sport Spectating .............................................................................................. 62 Definition of Motivations ..................................................................................................... 62 Sources of Motivations ......................................................................................................... 63 Level of Abstraction ............................................................................................................. 64 Theoretical Framework............................................................................................................. 67 Values, Attitudes, and Behavior ........................................................................................... 67 Ten Value Types ................................................................................................................... 68

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CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................. 90 Research Design........................................................................................................................ 90 Development of Questionnaire ................................................................................................. 90 Values ................................................................................................................................... 91 Sport Spectator Behaviors..................................................................................................... 94 Demographics ....................................................................................................................... 95 Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 95 Data Analyses ........................................................................................................................... 97

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS............................................................................................................. 99 Translation of Questionnaire..................................................................................................... 99 Pilot Questionnaire.................................................................................................................. 101 Data Collection ................................................................................................................... 101 Descriptive Analyses of Data.............................................................................................. 101 Revision of the Questionnaire............................................................................................. 103 Main Data Collection.............................................................................................................. 108 Difference tests between the Online and Paper Responses .................................................... 111 Demographics of the Sample .................................................................................................. 112 Descriptive Analyses .............................................................................................................. 112 Values ................................................................................................................................. 112 Spectator Sport Consumption ............................................................................................. 116 Sport Spectator Experiences ............................................................................................... 118 Comparisons by Gender.......................................................................................................... 119 Values ................................................................................................................................. 119 Spectator Sport Consumption ............................................................................................. 120 Sport Spectator Experiences ............................................................................................... 121 Comparisons by Nationality ................................................................................................... 121 Values ................................................................................................................................. 121 Spectator Sport Consumption ............................................................................................. 123 Sport Spectator Experiences ............................................................................................... 123 Comparisons between Consumption and Non-consumption Groups ..................................... 124

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Examination of Ten-value-type Framework........................................................................... 133 Correlation and Regression Analyses ..................................................................................... 135 Correlations Analyses ......................................................................................................... 135 Procedure of Regression Analyses...................................................................................... 138 Tests of the First Group Hypotheses....................................................................................... 139 Hypothesis 1a: Watch Sports in Person .............................................................................. 141 Hypothesis 1b: Watch Sport on TV .................................................................................... 144 Hypothesis 1c: Watch Sports on the Internet...................................................................... 146 Hypothesis 1d: Read about Sports ...................................................................................... 146 Hypothesis 1e: Talk about Sports ....................................................................................... 148 Hypothesis 1f: Listen to Sports........................................................................................... 150 General Consumption of Spectator Sports.......................................................................... 150 Summary............................................................................................................................. 152 Tests of the Second Group Hypotheses .................................................................................. 158 Hypothesis 2a: Experience Pleasure ................................................................................... 159 Hypothesis 2b: Experience Companionship ....................................................................... 159 Hypothesis 2c: Enhance Self-confidence............................................................................ 160 Hypothesis 2d: Enhance Social Recognition ...................................................................... 161 Hypothesis 2e: Appreciate the Morals ................................................................................ 162 Hypothesis 2f: Experience Spiritual Enlightenment........................................................... 163 Hypothesis 2g: Acquire Knowledge ................................................................................... 165 Hypothesis 2h: Appreciate the Beauty................................................................................ 167 Hypothesis 2i: Consume Spectator Sports Regularly ......................................................... 167 Hypothesis 2j: Do not Consume ......................................................................................... 168 Summary: Personal Values and Spectator Sports ................................................................... 171 Enjoyment ........................................................................................................................... 171 Sociability ........................................................................................................................... 172 Identity ................................................................................................................................ 173 Status................................................................................................................................... 174 Moral................................................................................................................................... 175 Spirituality........................................................................................................................... 176

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Epistemic Value .................................................................................................................. 177 Aesthetics............................................................................................................................ 178 Ritual................................................................................................................................... 179 No or Negative Value ......................................................................................................... 179

CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION..................................................................................................... 183 Values Associated with Spectator Sports ............................................................................... 184 Individual Values ................................................................................................................ 184 Ten Value Types ................................................................................................................. 185 Values and Spectator Sport Consumption .............................................................................. 185 General Model .................................................................................................................... 186 Values, Consumption and Experiences................................................................................... 202 Consume and Experience.................................................................................................... 202 Not Consume and Not Experience...................................................................................... 203 Wrong Assignment ............................................................................................................. 203 Only Experiences ................................................................................................................ 205 Mixed Results ..................................................................................................................... 206 Future Research ...................................................................................................................... 209 Differences by Nationality.................................................................................................. 209 Revision of the Ten-value-type Framework ....................................................................... 209 Mediator and Moderator ..................................................................................................... 210 Antecedent and Consequences............................................................................................ 211 Some Specific Topics ......................................................................................................... 211 Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 212 Questionnaire ...................................................................................................................... 212 Sampling Procedure ............................................................................................................ 214 Contribution and Application ................................................................................................. 214 Status................................................................................................................................... 215 Knowledge and Aesthetics.................................................................................................. 215 Cultural Implications .......................................................................................................... 216 Situational versus Constant Consumption .......................................................................... 216

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Active and Passive Values .................................................................................................. 217 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 217

APPENDIX A Discussion Guide for the Focus group in Phase Four of the Pilot Study ... 219 APPENDIX B PILOT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................. 219 APPENDIX C MAIN STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE .............................................................. 219 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................... 225 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ................................................................................................... 235

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LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Summary of the Research Design of the Pilot Study.................................................... 10 Table 2.2 Demographic Profile of Participants............................................................................. 11 Table 2.3 Details of 15 Interviews in the First Phase ................................................................... 13 Table 2.4 Summary of Interview Questions in the First Phase for the Fifteen Interviews........... 14 Table 2.5 Details of Two Focus Groups in Phase Two ................................................................ 18 Table 2.6 Discussion Outline and Major Questions Asked in Phase Two ................................... 18 Table 2.7 The List of Interview Questions in Phase Three........................................................... 19 Table 2.8 Questions Asked in Phase Four .................................................................................... 20 Table 2.9 Coding Results of Phase One........................................................................................ 27 Table 2.10 Coding Results of Phase Two..................................................................................... 29 Table 2.11 Combination of Coding Results in the Previous Two Phases .................................... 32 Table 2.12 Coding Results of Phase Three................................................................................... 33 Table 2.13 Combination of Coding Results in the Previous Three Phases .................................. 36 Table 2.14 Comparison of Coding Results by the Researcher and Four Coders.......................... 37 Table 2.15 Coding Results of Phase Four..................................................................................... 39 Table 3.1 Rokeach’s Values ......................................................................................................... 45 Table 3.2 Schwartz’ Value Types ................................................................................................. 46 Table 3.3 Different Definitions of Value...................................................................................... 46 Table 3.4 Comparisons among Maslow, Schwartz, Kahle, Rokeach, and Spectator Sport Values ....................................................................................................................................................... 61 Table 3.5 Brief Comparisons between Spectator Sport Value Types and Three Motivation Scales ....................................................................................................................................................... 66 Table 4.1 Values and their Measuring Items ................................................................................ 94 Table 5.1 Summary of Sources of the First Data Collection ...................................................... 101 Table 5.2 Summary of the Results of Descriptive and Comparisons of the Pilot Data.............. 104 Table 5.3 Summary of the Retained 28 Values .......................................................................... 107 Table 5.4 Different Ways and Places to Collect Data ................................................................ 109 Table 5.5 Summary of the Number of Unused Questionnaires .................................................. 111 Table 5.6 Summary of Demographics of the Sample ................................................................. 113 Table 5.7 Summary of Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Value........................................ 114 Table 5.8 Twenty-eight Values................................................................................................... 115 Table 5.9 Significant Correlations among the Twenty-eight Values.......................................... 116 Table 5.10 Means and Standard Deviations of Six Ways of Spectator Sport Consumption ...... 116 Table 5.11 Representation of each Category .............................................................................. 117 Table 5.12 Percentage of Respondents in each Category........................................................... 117 Table 5.13 Correlations among Six Ways of Spectator Sport Consumption.............................. 118 Table 5.14 Means and Standard Deviation of Ten Sport Spectator Experiences ....................... 118 Table 5.15 Correlations among the Ten Sport Spectator Experiences ....................................... 119 Table 5.16 Mean Differences in Values between Genders......................................................... 120 Table 5.17 Comparison between Genders in the Six Types of Spectator Sport Consumption .. 120 Table 5.18 Summary of the Mean Differences in the Ten Items of Sport Spectator Experiences ..................................................................................................................................................... 121 Table 5.19 Summary of Mean Differences of Values between the Americans and the Taiwanese ..................................................................................................................................................... 122

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Table 5.20 Summary of the Mean Differences in the Spectator Sport Consumption between the American Respondents and the Taiwanese Respondents ........................................................... 123 Table 5.21 Summary of the Mean Differences in Sport Spectator Experiences between the American Respondents and the Taiwanese Respondents ........................................................... 124 Table 5.22 Summary of Mean Differences in Spectator Sport Consumption and Sport Spectator Experiences between the Consumers and the non-Consumers................................................... 126 Table 5.23 Summary of the Number of Respondents Assigned as Consumers or Non-consumers in the Two Solutions ................................................................................................................... 126 Table 5.24 Summary of the Mean Differences in 28 Values between the Consumption and Nonconsumption Groups for One-item and Six-item Solutions........................................................ 127 Table 5.25 Summary of the Mean Differences in 28 Values between the Consumption and Nonconsumption Groups by Using Six-item Solutions Controlling Nationality or Gender ............. 129 Table 5.26 Summary of the Mean Differences in 28 Values between the Consumption and Nonconsumption Groups in Females and Males by Using Six-item Solutions................................. 131 Table 5.27 Summary of the Mean Differences in 28 Values between the Consumption and Nonconsumption Groups in the American and Taiwanese Respondents by Using Six-item Solutions ..................................................................................................................................................... 132 Table 5.28 The Seven Analyses Used to Compare the Value Means between the Consumption and Non-consumption Groups .................................................................................................... 133 Table 5.29 Summary of Results of the Seven Analyses Comparing Value Means between the Consumption and Non-consumption Groups.............................................................................. 134 Table 5.30 Summary of the Significant Correlations between Personal Values and Spectator Sport Consumption and between Personal Values and Sport Spectator Experiences ................ 136 Table 5.31 Summary of the Correlations between Five Values and Spectator Sport Consumption and between Two Values and Sport Spectator Experiences in Gender and Nationality Groups 137 Table 5.32 Summary of Six Models ........................................................................................... 138 Table 5.33 Summary of 10 Value Types, 28 Individual Personal Values, and their Hypothesized Prediction of each of 10 Sport Spectator Experiences................................................................ 140 Table 5.34 Summary of Testing for H1a .................................................................................... 142 Table 5.35 Summary of Testing for H1b .................................................................................... 144 Table 5.36 Summary of Testing for H1d .................................................................................... 147 Table 5.37 Summary of Testing for H1e .................................................................................... 148 Table 5.38 Summary of Testing for the item “I do not consume spectator sports.”................... 151 Table 5.39 Summary of Relationships between each of the 28 Values and Spectator Sport Consumption ............................................................................................................................... 153 Table 5.40 Summary of Testing for H2a .................................................................................... 159 Table 5.41 Summary of Testing for H2b .................................................................................... 160 Table 5.42 Summary of Testing for H2c .................................................................................... 161 Table 5.43 Summary of Testing for H2d .................................................................................... 162 Table 5.44 Summary of Testing for H2e .................................................................................... 163 Table 5.45 Summary of Testing for H2f..................................................................................... 164 Table 5.46 Summary of Testing for H2g .................................................................................... 166 Table 5.47 Summary of Testing for H2h .................................................................................... 167 Table 5.48 Summary of Testing for H2i..................................................................................... 168 Table 5.49 Summary of Testing for H2j..................................................................................... 169

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Table 5.50 Summary of the Relationships between Personal Values and Sport Spectator Experiences ................................................................................................................................. 170 Table 5.51 Summary of the Possible Four Relationships between Personal Values and Spectator Sports .......................................................................................................................................... 172 Table 5.52 Summary of the Relationships between each of the 28 Personal Values and Spectator Sports .......................................................................................................................................... 180

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Three Levels of Value in Customer Value Hierarchy Model (Woodruff, 1997, p. 142) ....................................................................................................................................................... 51 Figure 3.2 An Example of Means-end Chain Model.................................................................... 53 Figure 3.3 A Means-End Chain Model for the Values in Watching Sports ................................. 54 Figure 3.4 Relationships among Needs, Values, and Motivations ............................................... 59 Figure 3.5 Means-end Model for Enjoyment Value ..................................................................... 69 Figure 3.6 Means-end Model for Sociability Value ..................................................................... 71 Figure 3.7 Means-end Model for Identity Value .......................................................................... 73 Figure 3.8 Means-end Model for Status Value............................................................................. 75 Figure 3.9 Means-end Model for Moral Values ........................................................................... 77 Figure 3.10 Means-end Model for Spirituality Value................................................................... 82 Figure 3.11 Means-end Model for Epistemic Value..................................................................... 84 Figure 3.12 Means-end Model for Aesthetic Value...................................................................... 85 Figure 3.13 Means-end Model for Ritual Value........................................................................... 87

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ABSTRACT

The dissertation had two major research purposes. The first purpose was to explore what values may be associated with spectator sports. This purpose was completed by using qualitative inquiry and conducting a review of literature. The second purpose was to examine the relationships between personal values and sport spectator behavior. Sport spectator behavior included spectator sport consumption and sport spectator experiences. This purpose was completed by administering a questionnaire and conducting statistical analyses (for example, descriptive analyses, MANOVA, cluster analyses, stepwise multiple regression, and confirmatory regression analyses). In general, this dissertation adopted a mixed research method design including qualitative and quantitative methods. A qualitative study was conducted to examine values individuals associate with spectator sports. Prior studies of values in sport settings have been primarily conceptual discussions (e.g., Duncan, 1983; Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001) and have focused on participation rather than spectatorship (e.g., Lee, Whitehead, & Balchin, 2000; Simmons & Dickinson, 1986; Wankel & Berger, 1990). Research with spectator sports has investigated fan motivations for attending sports rather than general values associated with spectator sports (e.g., Milne, & McDonald, 1999; Trail, & James, 2001). The current study is an initial step examining the values individuals associate with spectator sports. The study utilized interviews and focus groups and had four progressive phases for triangulation, transferability and constant comparative assessment. The finding suggested ten value types associated with spectator sports: Enjoyment, Sociability, Identity, Status, Moral, Spirituality, Epistemic, Aesthetics, Ritual, No or negative values. Using existing value measures (Kahle, 1983; Maslow, 1970; Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1992, 1996), a pilot survey was conducted to specify 28 individual values which were considered more relevant to spectator sports. A main study was then conducted by using a questionnaire with 28 value measures, 6 modes of spectator sport consumption and 10 experience items. The first group of hypotheses examined whether personal values predicted spectator sport consumption. The results showed significant results, but the direction of associations varied. Sixteen personal values had positive associations with spectator sport consumption; 7 had negative associations with spectator sport consumption; 5 had mixed results. The second group

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of hypotheses examined whether personal values predicted expected sport spectator experiences. Twenty personal values supported the hypotheses; five values had the results opposite to the hypotheses; two values had mixed results; the value, DEVOUT did not have significant result. The results suggested directions for revision of the ten-value type framework derived from the qualitative inquiry. The results also indicated that the corresponding relationships between some of the individual values and value types associated with spectator sports require further clarification. Different from the results of prior research in fan motivations, the results of this dissertation show that it is likely that people might experience something relevant to some values through spectator sport consumption but did not actively associate the values with spectator sports. In other words, people might be motivated to consume spectator sports in some occasions, but this did not mean that the motivation is a constant value associated with spectator sports. Future research is required to provide more evidence to support this conjecture. The results provide implications for theory in sport consumer behavior to explain spectator sport behavior more thoroughly. The results also provide useful information for sport marketers, sponsors, and policy makers to design their promotion activities, proposals, and policies by using the values as themes. Future research should examine how different sports and cultures influence the associations between personal values and spectator sports. Value-based attitudes might be developed for each value type to help clarify the relationships among values, motives, and attitudes toward spectator sports. The development of attitudes can also enhance the prediction effects of values on spectator sport consumption. By conducting spectator sport value research, it is hoped that attributes of spectator sports can be identified or created to help sport marketers design sporting events to meet the desires of broad potential consumers.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The value concept has been considered crucial by various scholars. For example, Rokeach (1973) in his influential book, The Nature of Human Values, mentioned that “the value concept, more than any other, should occupy a central position across all the social sciences” (p. 3) because it is the core concept “being able to unify the apparently diverse interests of all the sciences concerned with human behavior” (p. 3). Theorists have viewed values as the criteria people use to select actions and evaluate events (Schwartz, 1992). The concept of values can be considered an independent variable affecting behavior (Rokeach, 1973). As such, it is likely that sport spectator behavior would be affected by personal values. Following is an overview of the proposed research project. The first section presents reasons why the researcher is interested in the relationships between personal values and sport spectator behavior. In the second section research purposes are presented. The third section delineates the delimitation of the dissertation. In the fourth section possible implications, contributions, and limitations are discussed. In the fifth section, the structure of the dissertation is presented, including research design, pilot study, literature review, and methodology and research methods. Reasons Why the Researcher is Interested in the Topic There are three reasons influencing the researcher’s interest in the topic. The initial stimulus driving the researcher’s interest in the influence of values on watching sporting events was his first experience attending a football game at Florida State University. The collective excitement associated with a football game was very impressive. An international student that has never been to America would have no understanding of “tailgating” until s/he actually experienced what happens around a stadium before a game. Tailgating at football games is an unusual phenomenon for people outside of the United States. However, tailgating in the U.S. is a popular activity with an atmosphere akin to a large religious event or ritual in other countries. The experience of attending a tailgating party and college football game stimulated the researcher’s interest in exploring the values associated with sport spectator behavior. Second, sport sociologists have suggested that sport is a microcosm of society (Eitzen, 2005; Snyder & Spreizter, 1974). Through a sport socialization process people learn values associated with sport such as honor, glory, nobility, skill, courage, strength, wit, and wisdom

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(Sage, 1970), acceptance of authority, obedience to rules, and self-discipline (Snyder & Spreizter, 1989). The values associated with sport seem to reflect general social values and focus more on participation in sports rather than watching sports. Also, these values seem to represent one type of values, moral values, but neglect other possible types such as psychological, sociological, and religious values (Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001). The current study attempts to provide a more comprehensive examination of values associated with watching sports. Third, previous research has examined the motives driving consumers’ attendance at sporting events (e.g., James & Ross, 2004; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995). Motives that have been examined include, but are not limited to, enjoying the drama of sport, appreciating the physical skills of athletes and a team’s effort, the aesthetic value of sports, escape, social interaction, interaction with family, team affiliation, and vicarious achievement. Such studies provide insight regarding the motives people have for attending games, but they do not necessarily provide insight on the types of values people associate with watching spectator sports. Values are “centrally held cognitive elements that stimulate motivation for behavioral response” (Vinson, Scott, & Lamont, 1977, p. 49). Values extend over time whereas motives may be temporal or situation-specific. Thus, understanding values associated with watching sports will provide meaningful implications for sport managers and likely a better understanding of motives for attending (or not) sporting events. Research Purposes Values have been shown to be central criteria for people to select and evaluate behavior (Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1994). They are a powerful force in governing the behavior of individuals (Gutman, 1982; Rokeach, 1968). Although values have been widely addressed in psychology and other disciplines, they have received limited attention in the study of sport consumer behavior. Thus, as an initial step, the research project will explore values that consumers associate with watching spectator sports and propose hypotheses of the relationships between values and sport spectator behavior. An initial understanding of what values may be associated with watching sports was formed through completion of a pilot study using qualitative inquiry. Informal interviews and focus groups were used to explore themes and/or patterns to identify specific values. A literature review was completed to develop a conceptual framework of values that emerged from the pilot study. Next, based on the framework, hypotheses are proposed regarding the relationships between values and sport spectator behavior.

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Delimitation of Research First, the focus of this dissertation is on spectatorship and does not include participation in sports. The values people hold regarding participating in sports will be reviewed; such a review may help identify values associated with spectator sports. Second, Wann, Melnick, Russell, and Pease (2001) defined sport spectators as “those individuals who actively witness a sporting event in person or through some form of media (radio, television, etc.)” (p. 2). Through the dissertation consumption of spectator sport will be operationalized as witnessing a sporting event, listening to a sporting event, reading about a sporting event, and/or talking about sporting event. For this dissertation a sport spectator may be those attend games in person, consume spectator sports through various mediums including TV, Internet, radio, newspapers, and magazines, and those who utilize sports as a topic of conversation. Third, the popularity of sports is different across countries. American football is popular in the U.S. but is not popular in other countries such as Taiwan and Mainland China. Soccer is much more popular in other countries than in the U.S. This dissertation will seek to identify values people associate with watching spectator sports in general, not necessarily values for one specific sport. Implications, Contributions, and Limitations Regarding the implications of values research for marketing management, Vinson, Scott and Lamont (1977) suggested that knowledge of values in marketing can impact “market analysis and segmentation, product planning, promotional strategy, and public policy and society” (p. 48). The importance of values associated with spectator sports is expected to vary across demographics. Thus, market segments based on value profiles might be described in terms of demographics and accessed by different marketing programs. “Values could be employed as a standard consideration in market analysis and as a tool to achieve greater precision and effectiveness in market segmentation” (Vinson et al., 1977, p. 48). For product planning, careful assessment of values associated with spectator sports may allow the repositioning of the product of spectator sports by designing spectating experiences with attributes connected to the values. Marketing managers may position sporting events by associating some aspects of the product with advertising that seeks to tie the consumption of products to the desired values (Gutman, 1982). For example, for a value segment containing consumers who pursue epistemic value, sport managers might find that commentators are important for the segment. In addition, spectator sport values can reflect the position of watching games in a consumer’s mind. That is,

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the values will reflect in which product category spectator sports are positioned. For example, spectator sports could be thought of as an entertainment, necessity, luxury (status), souvenir, or religious product. Different categories will suggest different potential competitors. This will influence decisions on how to compete in the defined industry. Moreover, for promotional strategies, the messages in the promotions for spectating events could be developed to not only refer to desired event attributes but also appeal to centrally held values associated with the attributes (Vinson et al., 1977). The knowledge of values associated with spectator sports can also help sport advertisers select media that has readership and viewing habits connected to the same spectator sport values. Similarly, sponsors can use the knowledge to select sponsor targets to design their sponsorship programs. Finally, values research has important implications for public policy (Vinson et al., 1977). Big events such as the Olympic Games might be interested in knowledge of values associated with spectator sports when planning the events’ goals and promoting their image. With respect to the contributions of values research, understanding what values are associated with watching spectator sports will help develop to a more complete consumption model of sport spectatorship. Since values are believed to play an important role in guiding sport spectating behavior (e.g., Gutman, 1982; Rokeach, 1968, 1973; Schwartz, 1994), values should be considered an important variable in the model. For example, it is likely that values influence a person’s attitudes toward spectator sports, and the attitudes influence his or her consumption behavior. In addition, in sport marketing practices, an understanding of values associated with spectator sports would help sport managers improve marketing planning and strategy and better communicate with target consumers. Further, after knowing people’s values associated with watching spectator sports, sport advertisers can design better advertising messages to impact the target spectators. Moreover, the knowledge of values related to watching sports can help sport sponsors examine whether values that their products provide meet values associated with spectating sports. This examination would provide useful information for sponsors to choose an appropriate target to sponsor and increase the benefits of sponsorship. A limitation of the dissertation will be an assessment of behaviors based on a direct relationship between values and sport spectator behavior. This research serves an initial step to identify values associated with spectator sports and to understand the influence of values on spectator sport behavior. However, other important mediators such as attitudes will not be

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assessed in the empirical investigation. Attitude is an important variable predicting behavior (Fishbein, 1967) and is predicted by values (Rokeach, 1979). Future research will be proposed to examine this important mediator between values and behavior. The focus of the current research will be only on identifying values associated with spectator sports. Structure of the Dissertation This section first introduces the research design of the dissertation. Then, the pilot study facilitating the dissertation is presented. Next, the foci of the literature review are introduced, and finally, methodology and research methods are discussed. Research Design A pilot study was conducted that utilized qualitative methods. The results of the pilot study were used to guide the direction of the literature review included in this proposal, which led to the development of a conceptual framework. The framework is used to develop hypotheses of relationships between values and sport spectator behavior. The dissertation project will focus on an empirical examination of the hypotheses through the use of a questionnaire. The statistical tools will include regression and correlation analyses. Pilot Study A pilot study was conducted to facilitate the dissertation. Twenty-six interviews and three focus groups were completed through four phases of inquiry. The first phase consisted of fifteen informal interviews conducted by the researcher. The major purposes of the initial round in the pilot study were to acquire general ideas about values associated with watching sports and to develop a guideline of questions. The guideline was used in the second phase as part of two focus groups. The researcher was the moderator for the two focus groups. The second phase was completed for the purposes of triangulation and examination of transferability. A formal set of questions was created for the third phase, which included eleven interviews conducted by student recruits. A transferability test between the results from the third phase and the results from the previous two phases was conducted in order to examine whether the interpretation of findings achieved saturation and redundancy. After the third round, triangulation across six coders (the researcher and five graduate students) was conducted. The results of transferability and triangulation supported the saturation and redundancy of data interpretation regarding value types associated with spectator sports. Thus, based on the findings of these three phases, a

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Kotler, 2003, p. 135) using pictures representing different value types was designed and implemented as part of a focus group in the fourth phase of the pilot study. The test was conducted to confirm the value types derived from the previous three phases. During the pilot study, as the data was coded and the findings were interpreted, the researcher proceeded with a review of literature to determine if the ideas that emerged would seem to be values associated with spectator sports. There was a dialectic process between field and library in the pilot study. On the one hand, the findings from the field prompted the direction of literature review; on the other hand, the researcher completed the literature review as part of the analysis of the interview and focus group data. Foci of the Literature Review The foci of the literature review were guided by the qualitative inquiry. Thus, the process of the inquiry, its results, and implications were introduced, preceding the literature review. In general, the qualitative inquiry indicated that it is crucial to clarify the definition of values and its differences from other similar concepts. Therefore, the first step in the review was to explain the definition of values. Because values “have no consensual definitions” (Hechter, 1993, p. 3) the clarification of definitions suitable for this dissertation is crucially important. Biologists, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, economists, and philosophers present various concepts of values. The initial exercise in step one was to identify definitions of values and clarify the differences between values and other similar or relevant concepts such as motivations, attitudes, needs, and norms. The second exercise in step one combined the existing value definitions and provided a definition suitable for the dissertation. In the current research, values associated with spectator sports are defined as the conceived desirable goals in accord with the requirements of an individual’s personality and societal demands. The second step in the literature review focused on understanding relationships among needs, values, and motivations, and proposed a conceptual model explaining their relationships. The conceptual model specifies that spectator sport values are related but different from needs and motivations. The efforts of these two steps in the literature review, plus findings from the pilot study, led to identification of ten spectator sport values. The ten value types are: moral value, no value or negative value, enjoyment value, sociability value, identity value, status value, spirituality value, epistemic value, aesthetic value, and ritual value. The third step in the literature review focused on developing

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hypotheses about relationships between the value and behavior. An empirical test of the hypotheses will be the focus of the dissertation. Methodology and Research Methods The dissertation will focus on the relationships between values and consuming spectator sports. Hypotheses about the relationships are proposed. An empirical investigation will be conducted to test the hypotheses. Existing measures of values (Kahle, 1996; Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1992) will be used. Measures of spectator sport consumption will be derived from the pilot study and literature review. The first data collection will be administered to narrow down the list of values and modify the questionnaire. A second data collection will be executed to formally test the hypotheses. Definitions of Terms Needs: “Needs are the basic human requirement” (Kotler, 2003, p. 11). Needs serve as an original source of human values and motivations. Motivations: A motive is an aroused need to a sufficient level of intensity (Kotler, 2003). Human values: “[Human] values are the cognitive representation not only of individual needs but also of societal and institutional demands” (Rokeach, 1973, p. 20). Values for Individuals watching sports: The conceived desirable goals in accord with the requirements of an individual’s personality and societal demands. Moral values: Learning what is good and right from watching sports. No values or negative values: The denial that any goal may be achieved from spectating sports or thinks of negative effects from watching sports. Enjoyment values: Achieving a goal of pleasure and satisfaction from spectator sports. Sociability values: Pursuing a goal of satisfaction of social needs in spectating sports. Identity values: Enhancing self-esteem by belonging to or associating with a particular team or players. Status values: Pursuing a goal of enhancement of social recognition through spectating sports. Spirituality values: Pursuing a goal of experiencing vicarious achievement, peak experiences (Maslow, 1970), transcendence, and ultimate existentialism through spectating sports.

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Epistemic values: Pursuing knowledge as end-experience and satisfaction in spectator sports . Aesthetic values: Pursuing beauty as end-experience and satisfaction in spectator sports. Ritual values: Sports spectating becomes a series of formal and serious acts followed regularly and invariably as end-experience and satisfaction.

In conclusion, this chapter has introduced the initial stimuli for conducting the research, the research purposes, the research delimitation, the importance of the topic, and the structure of the proposal, and provided definitions of important terms used in the dissertation. Chapter 2 includes a description of the pilot study, its results and implications. Chapter 3 presents a review of the relevant literature and proposes ten value dimensions. Chapter 4 presents the methodology for the proposed research project.

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CHAPTER 2 PILOT STUDY The current project explores values individuals associate with spectator sports. Since no prior studies have examined spectator sport values, a pilot study using qualitative inquiry was executed to guide the direction of the literature review. The pilot study served as preliminary research to provide a starting point for the project. The preliminary research first gave a feel for how people thought and talked about values associated with spectator sports, and then prompted a relevant literature review. The literature review further helped shape data interpretation. That is, for the pilot study, a dialectic process between field work and literature review was employed. The researcher completed the literature review as part of his data analyses. The researcher coded the data, attempted to interpret the findings, and completed the review of literature (Chapter 3) to determine if the ideas that emerged would seem to be realistic values associated with spectator sports. Following is an explanation of the research design, sampling, data construction, data analyses, results, and implications from the pilot study. Research Design The pilot study was comprised of four phases that included interviews and focus groups. The first phase had fifteen interviews with no pre-constructed interview guideline. They were conducted by the researcher in an effort to begin understanding what values were associated with watching spectator sports. The purpose of the first round was to generally understand the values. Ideas that emerged from the interview data provided a basis for questions asked in two focus groups in the second phase. The purpose of the second phase was to acquire data using a different technique to achieve a level of data triangulation, “the use of a variety of data sources in a study” (Denzin, 1978, cited by Patton, 2002, p. 247). The ideas from the first two rounds helped generate interview guides that were utilized in the third phase. The third phase included eleven interviews conducted with the structured guides by the researcher’s undergraduate students. The purpose of the third round was to test transferability. The degree of transferability is the extent to which propositions from one context can be applied to another context (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). A high degree of transferability would suggest that saturation and redundancy were achieved, making further data collection unnecessary (Belk, Wallendorf, & Sherry, 1989). The fourth phase had one focus group. It was designed to confirm the findings from the first three rounds using a Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Kotler, 2003, p. 135). A series of

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pictures were chosen to represent different value types which emerged from the first three rounds. The pictures were presented and participants were asked to comment as to what they thought was happening in the pictures (Kolter, 2003). Table 2.1 summarizes the research design of the pilot study. Table 2.1 Summary of the Research Design of the Pilot Study Phases The first phase

Methods 15 interviews

Question format Unstructured

The second phase The third phase The fourth phase

2 focus groups 11 interviews 1 focus group

Semi-structured Structured Constructed

Purposes General understanding Triangulation Transferability Confirmability

Sampling The pilot study adopted both convenience and purposive sampling. Convenience sampling selects units who are available at the time of data collection (Dempsey & Dempsey, 2000). Seventeen participants were the researcher’s students (n=6), friends (n=4), or classmates (n=7). Since sports are prevalent in society, it is expected that most adults have some experiences watching sports. Even if a person is not a frequent viewer of sports, the person can still report his or her observations about values associated with spectating sports. In this sense, convenience sampling was deemed appropriate. Purposive sampling was also used in the pilot study. The technique strategically selects information-rich, illuminative units, and specific types of cases in order to derive insights about the phenomenon. For the pilot study, three types of purposive sampling were considered appropriate: Intensity sampling, Extreme or deviant case (outlier) sampling, and Heterogeneity sampling. For intensity sampling, people who were knowledgeable and had deep thoughts and observations about spectator sports were asked to participate. These participants could discuss the topic deeply and provided useful information. The participants were expected not only to provide their own values but also to discuss their thoughts about other people’s values. In the pilot study, the majority of participants were undergraduate students. Forty one percent of the participants were graduate students (see Table 2.2).

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Table 2.2 Demographic Profile of Participants

%

Category Types 15 interviews by the researcher The 1st focus group The 2nd focus group 11 interviews by the researcher’s students The 3rd focus group Total Education

n = 54 Frequency

28

15

15 13 20

8 7 11

24 100

13 54

Less than undergraduate Undergraduate Graduate Total Home country

2 57 41 100

1 31 22 54

USA Japan Korea Taiwan France Poland Haiti India Ukraine Turkey

72.2 9.3 3.7 3.7 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 100

39 5 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 54

39 46 15 100

21 25 8 54

Total Gender Female Male NA Total

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For deviant case sampling, participants were recruited that manifested totally different interests. Within the focus groups deviant cases were expected to create positive conflicts in cross conversations and to potentially provoke unexpected themes. The deviant cases were those who were indifferent toward or even disliked sports spectating. It was expected they would provide opinions that would potentially counter a “pro” spectating perspective, and to stimulate different thoughts. To generalize beyond an American perspective, heterogeneity sampling was also utilized to capture values associated with spectating sports across different countries. Participants for the pilot study were recruited from 10 different countries (see Table 2.2). Seven American participants reported cultural experiences in Turkey (n=1), Germany (n=2), Jamaica (n=1), Italy (n=1), Spain (n=1), or Europe (n=1). Thirteen American participants in a focus group had Hispanic roots. Data Construction Phase One Data Construction The pilot study had four progressive phases. The first phase was conducted to acquire a general understanding about values people associated with watching spectator sports. Fifteen interviews were conducted by the researcher between September 20th 2006 and October 18th 2006. Two of the interviews were conducted with two interviewees simultaneously. The time period of the interviews ranged from 10 minutes to 70 minutes. One interview was audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. For the other fourteen interviews, the interviewer made notes during the interviews. The one interview transcript and the interview notes were sent to the respective participants to confirm the content; ten interviewees revised the notes and sent them back to the researcher; seven interviewees did not respond. Table 2.3 includes details pertaining to the fifteen interviews. Notes versus Transcriptions The issue of whether to transcribe interviews verbatim is debatable. Scholars’ opinions vary greatly. Dr. Stacey A. Rutledge and Dr. King Beach in their courses of qualitative methodology (Fall, 2006) and advanced qualitative methodology (Spring, 2007) suggested that interviews should be transcribed verbatim. In his email to the researcher, Dr. Russell Belk mentioned that “Although it is not always feasible to audiotape or videotape interviews, where

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Table 2.3 Details of 15 Interviews in the First Phase

Interview 1 2 3

Gender female female female

4 5 6

male female female

Date Home Status (2006) US Undergraduate 9-20 US Undergraduate 9-21 US Undergraduate 9-27 English US teacher 9-29 US Undergraduate 10-02 US Undergraduate 10-04

7 8 9

male female female

US US US

10 11

female male

India US

12

male

US

13

female

US

male

US

male

Japan

female

Japan

14

15*

How long 10 mins 20 mins 10 mins

Confirmed Yes Yes No

30 mins 10 mins 10 mins

Yes Yes Yes

10-06 10-09 10-10

60 mins 10 mins 20 mins

Yes No Yes

Place Tully R017 Tully R017 Tully R017 Friends of Internationals Tully R017 Tully R017 International Center Tully R017 Tully R017

10-10 10-12

15 mins 20 mins

No Yes

Classroom Tully R017

10-13

50 mins

No

Master student 10-13 Doctoral student 10-13 Doctoral student 10-13

20 mins

No

20 mins

No

70 mins

Yes

Writing Center Communication meeting room Communication meeting room New Hall Lounge New Hall Lounge

Master student Undergraduate Undergraduate Doctoral student Undergraduate Doctoral student

Master student 10-13 70 mins No Doctoral female US student 10-18 25 mins Yes Note: * This interview was audio-taped and transcribed verbatim.

Classroom

you have this ability it should be used and … they should be transcribed prior to full analysis. … Never say ‘he said’ or ‘she said.’ Instead try to use verbatim words—Robert: ‘My car is important to me.’ or Mary: ‘The children ate candy for the first time when they were seven’” (personal communication, January 16, 2007). Dr. Linda B. Schrader in her course on qualitative evaluation methods (Fall, 2005) suggested that transcriptions of interviews by notes were acceptable when time was limited and when there were data from other resources such as field observations and documents for triangulation. In his email to the researcher, Dr. Felipe Korzenny said that “I have about 4500 focus groups I have conducted and have experimented with different

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approaches and found that in MOST cases my notes were actually more useful than the transcripts. I have also heard many colleagues at QRCA (qrca.org) [Qualitative Research Consultants Association] support this idea” (personal communication, January 15, 2007). In the current qualitative study, the researcher believed that important opinions about spectator sport values could be identified through the interview notes. The researcher used follow-up questions to clarify responses and sent a copy of the respective notes to interviewees for confirmation. With the15th interview, a deviant case, the interview was audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. Interview Questions Employing an emerging design, the pilot study used the first phase to acquire a general understanding about spectator sport values. There were no pre-constructed interview guidelines in the first phase. Overall, the interview questions could be grouped within eight categories (see Table 2.4).

Table 2.4 Summary of Interview Questions in the First Phase for the Fifteen Interviews Interview Categories of Interview Questions 1 2 1. Consumption behavior in terms of time, money, opportunity cost, modes (on TV or stadium) 1 2. Comparison between spectator sport and religion 1 1 3. Comparison between values associated with sport participation and values with sport spectatorship 1 4. Values associated with spectator sports and the values that are more important than spectator sport values 3 5. Activities in spare time and the substitutes for watching sports 1 6. Metaphors describing watching sports 7. Differences of spectator sport values in different countries 8. Factors influencing values associated with spectator sports

3

1 1 1

4

5

6

7

8

2

1

3

1

1

1

1

2

1

3

1

2

1

3

3

3

4

2

1 1

1 1

1 4

2

9

12

13

14

5

2

4

2

1

1

2

1

1

3

4

5

2 1

1 1

2 1

1

1

3

2

1

2

4

10

11

1

1

6

12

1 4 1

2

2

1

5

Note: The numbers in the interview columns represent the number of times that the questions in the respective categories were asked in each interview.

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The first category was about consumption behavior. Since values cannot be directly observed (Fraenkel, 1976), they might be inferred from behaviors. Thus, the first question type asked interviewees about their consumption of spectator sports in terms of time, money, and modes (on TV or stadium). The second question category asked interviewees to compare the similarities and differences between religion and spectator sports. There were two reasons to ask specifically about this comparison. First, some believe that religious people and nonreligious people differ in the importance they attribute to different values (Roccas, 2005). By asking about the comparison, the interview expected to force respondents to reflect on values about religion in comparison with spectator sport values. Second, there have been discussions about the relationships between sport and religion. Charles S. Prebish (Vance, 1984) argued that sport was religion because sport could provide followers something comparatively as religions could. Prebish (1993) wrote that “sport in general has become the newest religion in America” (p. xix). Some evidence may support his contention. Some sport consumers may sacrilize their consumption (Belk, Wallendorf, & Sherry, Jr., 1989; Ohl, 2005); sport events are held in stadiums and have rituals; sport teams have mascots; games evoke intense emotions and give meaning to lives; there is a quest for perfection and flow or peak experience in sports (Coakley, 2006). Some people may argue that sport is only religion-like or can serve as a surrogate religion; other people may simply deny that sport is religion. Thus, it seemed reasonable to include this comparison question to stir thoughts about spectator sport values. The third question category asked interviewees to compare values of participation in sports and values of sport spectatorship. The reason for asking about this comparison is that values associated with participation in sports are commonly discussed and might be easily recalled. This might help participants think whether they associate similar values with watching sports. The fourth question category asked about the values associated with spectator sports and the values that might be more important than spectator sport values. Participants were asked to describe their values associated with watching sports, to compare such values with the values of academic performance, and to recall whether there were value conflicts because of time constraints, for example, the conflicts between spectator sport values and family values. After the early interviews had identified some value types, the later interviews asked more specific questions about the specific value types. For example, the researcher asked about whether participants were looking forward to the sport seasons (ritual values), whether they watched

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sports to support their teams (identity values), and whether sports were too physical, muscular, and masculine to convey positive values. The fifth question category asked participants to recall what activities they and other people participated in through their spare time. The interviewees were further asked what activities might be substituted for watching spectator sports, and to give reasons for selecting any such substitutes. People might not be aware of their values associated with spectator sports. Therefore, when participants were asked to think of substitutes for watching sports, their values for spectating sports could be reflected from the values of the substitutes. Similarly, the sixth question category asked interviewees to choose a metaphor (like a value-indicator) describing their feelings about watching sports. Because people might not be cognitively aware of their values, metaphors might be used to imply values associated with spectator sports. The seventh question category included items asking participants to describe their observations about other people’s values for spectating sports. Particularly, if they had experiences in different countries, they were asked to compare the differences of spectator sport values for people in the different countries. Because values are subjective and may be private, observation reports could avoid socially desirable responses. The eighth category asked questions related to variables or factors influencing values people associated with spectator sports. The factors could be different sports, different games and events, parents (socializing agents), gender, Social Economic Status (SES), political affiliation, and available resources for sports. Table 2.4 summarizes the interview questions and the number of times that the questions in each category were asked in each interview. Phase Two Data Construction The second phase in the pilot study included two focus groups. The purpose of the two focus groups was to acquire more information about values associated with spectator sports from a different source using a different technique to provide a type of data triangulation. Another purpose was to see whether the information began to be redundant. After the researcher had done fifteen interviews, major question types which could be used to explore spectator sport values emerged as shown in Table 2.4. Based on these question types, the researcher was able to develop a discussion outline for the two focus groups. The strengths of focus groups include providing a forum for cross conversations in which participants can stimulate more opinions and the opinions can be cross validated among participants. In order to effectively manage the focus

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groups and use their strengths to acquire information, the discussion outline was useful. This was the reason why the focus groups were arranged after the researcher had done the fifteen interviews and constructed the discussion outline (see Table 2.6). The discussion outline did not include the eighth question category about factors influencing the formation of spectator sport values, because this research project focused on the values but not on their antecedents. The two focus groups were conducted in the International Center at FSU on October 25 and 31, 2006 for around one hour each time. The researcher was the moderator. Participants were American English instructors and international graduate students in an Advanced English Conversation Club and Intermediate English Conversation Club. Participants from different countries were recruited to achieve to heterogeneity sampling. The researcher briefly introduced the research project, explained the presence of the audio recorder, and began the focus groups. Participants took turns answering questions so that all participants had a chance to respond to each question. Cross-conversations were encouraged, and the researcher had follow-up questions as necessary. Questions in the outline were addressed in different order or wording. Some of the questions in the outline were covered in the follow-up questions; answers to some questions might be mentioned when the participants were answering other questions. Also because of time constraints, not all questions in the outline were exactly addressed in the two focus groups. This was not considered inappropriate because the primary purpose of the focus groups was to use various questions to stimulate participants’ thoughts about their values associated with spectator sports. The question types could be numerous. As long as participants were stimulated to address the value concepts, it seemed that it was not necessary to confine the interview questions in a specific manner or sequence. Major questions asked in the focus groups are shown in Table 2.6. The conversations from both focus groups were transcribed verbatim. The transcription of the first focus group was sent back to participants and revised based on feedback from three participants. Table 2.5 describes the details of the two focus groups. Phase Three Data Construction The third phase in the pilot study included eleven interviews conducted by the researcher’s students in November 2006. The students received extra credit for completing the interviews, writing down the responses, and sending them back to the researcher by e-mail. The student interviewers were provided a list of interview questions as shown in Table 2.7. The list of

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Table 2.5 Details of Two Focus Groups in Phase Two Date Focus Group Participants 1 1. Male, Japan October 25, 2006 2. Female, Haiti 3. Male, Ukraine 4. Female, Korea 5. Female, Taiwan 6. Male, Taiwan 7. Female, USA 8. Male, USA 2 1. Female, Korea October 31, 2006 2. Female, Poland 3. Male, Japan 4. Female, France 5. Female, Korea 6. Female, Japan 7. Female, American 8. Female, American

How long 60 minutes

Place International Center

60 minutes

International Center

Table 2.6 Discussion Outline and Major Questions Asked in Phase Two Discussion Outline 1. What kind of role “does sports” or in particular watching games play in your daily lives or in your home country? 2. In your value system, which ones influence your attitude toward sports? Are there any conflicts? 3. If you meet a person who talks a lot about sports, what are your impressions (stereotypes) about this person? 4. For me, watching sports is like… 5. Rather than watching sports, I would prefer … ; if I do not watch sports, I would do … ; if I do not watch sports, my life loses color. So, I would …. 6. How do you compare watching sports and religion? 7. Are there any differences of sports in common people’s daily lives between here and your home countries?

Major questions asked in the focus groups The 1st focus group: 1. What kind of role does sports or in particular watching games play in your daily lives or in your home country? 2. How can you compare sport and religion? 3. I would like you to use your imagination to think of one metaphor which can describe watching sport games. 4. I would like you to compare the differences between your home country and now in the US for watching sport games. What do you observe the differences are between your home country and here? The 2nd focus group: 1. What does the role of watching games play in your daily lives? 2. I would like you to explain what the values are for you to watch or attend a game or why you don’t like to watch games. 3. I would like you to use a metaphor to describe what watching games looks like to you. 4. Since you have experiences in at least two cultures or different areas, how would you compare people watching games in your home country and people here?

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interview questions was developed based on the researcher’s experiences with the previous interviews and focus groups. The purpose of this stage was to examine whether the value types that emerged in the previous two phases achieved saturation.

Table 2.7 The List of Interview Questions in Phase Three 1. What role do watching games play in your daily life? 2. How much time do you spend watching games? 3. How much are you willing to pay to watch a game? 4. How do you compare watching games and religion? 5. What kind of metaphor will you use to describe watching games? 6. What are the substitutes for watching games? 7. What are the differences for you to watch games and participate in sports? 8. What kind of more basic values influence your attitude toward watching games? 9. In a social occasion, you meet a person who talks a lot about sports. What is your general impression (or stereotype) about this kind of person? 10. After you understand your friend’s value for watching games, further investigate how the value influences his/her attitudes toward sports and his/her sport consumption and/or his/her any other aspects of lives or beliefs. 11. If your interviewee came from other countries or had experiences living in other countries for more than one year, please ask him/her to compare the values of watching sport games for people in one culture (e.g. USA) and the values for people in another culture. Are there any reasons which can explain the differences?

Phase Four Data Construction The fourth phase in the pilot study included one focus group conducted on December 1, 2006, at University Center C for approximately two hours, followed by a forty-minute debriefing session. This focus group was part of an assignment in a Hispanic Marketing course completed in Fall 2006. The thirteen participants included 12 undergraduate students and one high school senior. The respondents, two females and eleven males, had Hispanic roots in such countries as Chile, Columbia, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico or Venezuela. Based on the information acquired in the previous three phases, the discussion guide (see Appendix A) was developed by the researcher and six graduate students taking the course. Major questions asked in the focus group are shown in Table 2.8. One of the major purposes of the focus group was to confirm the values identified through the previous three phases in the pilot study. Each value type was represented by pictures on PowerPoint slides. Participants were asked to discuss the implications of the pictures. The

19

focus group was audio and video recorded, and notes were taken by the researcher and six graduate students. Based on the notes and the recordings, the researcher produced more detailed notes for further analysis.

Table 2.8 Questions Asked in Phase Four 1. Why do you like to watch sports? What sports do you like? 2. Let’s talk about schedule with sports. How does watching sports fit into your schedule? How many games do you watch? How do you change your schedule for it? Has it ever caused a conflict? With what or with who? 3. Where do you usually watch the game? 4. How kind of spending would you associate with watching the games? 5. Do you act differently when watching the games with different people? Why do you act differently? 6. We are going to do some exercises. We will show some pictures on the blackboard. You guys are going to tell me what you see and what these pictures mean to you. 7. The very last thing we are going to do is that after I put what you said on the blackboard, I just want you to rank them from the most important to the least important. 8. Because this group is Hispanic group, what is the difference between Hispanic group and other groups for the values in watching games in your opinion or in your observations? 9. Before you leave, can you tell us why these top five or three are important for you? Is this related to your personal values? Why are these values important for you to watch sports?

In summary, for data construction in the pilot study, there were four phases. The first phase included fifteen interviews conducted by the researcher, pursuing a general understanding of values people associated with spectator sports. The second phase included two focus groups moderated by the researcher, acquiring more information for data triangulation. The third phase included eleven interviews carried out by the researcher’s students with a set of questions in order to examine whether the interpretation of value types achieved saturation and redundancy. The fourth phase included one focus group. One of its primary purposes in the fourth phase was to confirm the value types presented by the pictures.

Data Analyses Coding Procedures The coding method is “a procedure for organizing the text of the transcripts, and discovering patterns” (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003, p. 31) within the transcripts. Because the

20

major purpose of the pilot study was to explore value patterns associated with spectator sports, grounded theory was used to guide the coding procedure. Grounded theory emphasizes systematic analyses to handle masses of raw data for the task of theory construction and verification by inductive strategies for the theory development (Patton, 2002). A theory is a description of a pattern found in the data (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). According to Auerbach and Silverstein’s (2003) Qualitative Data: An introduction to Coding and Analysis, the procedure in grounded theory coding has six steps. The first step is to get the raw text, i.e. the notes and transcriptions. The second step is to attain relevant text. With his research concerns about value patterns in mind, the researcher discarded the portion of transcriptions considered irrelevant. For example, transcriptions related to factors influencing spectator sport values were discarded. The judgment of irrelevance was inevitably subjective. The third step is to find repeating ideas. In this step, content from each interview transcript was separated into meaningful units (in general, one or two sentences as a unit), and each unit was given a code. The code represented the meaning of the unit and was related to the research concerns about value patterns. For example, for the unit, “Unless some of players are my friends,…, I do not watch games frequently,” the researcher gave a code, Support Players. In order to capture the descriptions, the code would represent a specific idea and could not carry too broad a meaning. However, the code could not be too narrow. Otherwise, there would be too many codes. Auerbach and Silverstein suggested that 60 repeating ideas or codes was “a workable number” (p. 60). After each separate transcription was coded, the codes were combined into a master list of repeating ideas. The fourth step is to organize the repeating ideas into groups that express different themes (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). The fifth step was to organize the themes into more abstract ideas. The abstract grouping of themes is referred as theoretical constructs, i.e. value types in this current pilot study. In this stage, relevant literatures were reviewed to help interpret and label each construct. The final step is to create a theoretical narrative for each construct. The narrative provides the bridge between research concerns and participants’ subjective experience (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). In the pilot study, the researcher traced back to select relevant, representative portions of notes and transcripts to support each value type. In short, the coding process has six sequential steps. However, the process was not linear movement from Step 1 to Step 6 (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). The researcher went back and forth between steps.

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Transferability and Triangulation Corresponding to data construction through the four phases, data analyses were conducted for the different phases. Data from 26 pages of interview notes and transcriptions from the fifteen interviews in the first phase, 21 pages of two focus group transcriptions in the second phase, 13 pages of notes from eleven interviews in the third phase, and 14 pages of detailed notes from the single focus group in the fourth phase were coded separately. This approach was used in an attempt to provide cross-context testing for transferability. Lincoln and Guba (1985) mentioned that “the degree of transferability is a direct function of the similarity between the two contexts, what we shall call ‘fittingness’” (p. 124). That is, tests for transferability refer to whether conclusions from one context are transferable to other contexts. The current study compared the coding results in the four different phases. The comparisons were primarily sequential “with each succeeding context acting as a check on the interpretation supported by preceding ones” (Belk, et. al., 1989, p. 5) in order to check the credibility of an interpretation. Redundant evidences in the comparisons for the tests of transferability enhanced the generalizability of the findings. In addition to the transferability, triangulation was employed in the current study. For triangulation, five graduate students (two doctoral students in Sport Management, one master student in Sport Management, and two master students in Communication) were recruited to do the coding. The five people were given the transcription of the first focus group from the second phase and notes of three or four interviews from the first and third phases. The coding results from the researcher and the five coders were compared in an effort to provide triangulation across the six coders. Confirmability One of Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) four criteria for establishing trustworthiness in qualitative research was confirmability. They proposed that confirmability could be in place of objectivity, a term used in conventional quantitative research. Objectivity exists when there is an isomorphism between data and reality, when an appropriate methodology is employed, and when inquiry is value-free (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, pp. 299, 300). In order to establish confirmability, three techniques were suggested: the confirmability audit, triangulation, and the keeping of a reflexive journal (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, pp. 318, 319). The confirmability audit was a process to audit data recording, data reduction, data reconstruction, and note processing, leading to more reliable objectivity of data analyses and interpretation. Triangulation across coders can also

22

increase the objectivity of data interpretation. A reflexive journal was a kind of diary in which the researcher records a variety of information about self and method (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 327). By self-reflection during the research, objectivity was enhanced. In addition to these three techniques, transferability can be another criterion to evaluate confirmability (Dempsey & Dempsey, 2000). Transferability means that results from one context can be applicable to another context. Other than triangulation and transferability adopted in the pilot study, a new technique involving a Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed to further evaluate confirmability. The essence of the technique is similar to that of the confirmatory analyses in quantitative research, which tests a hypothesized measurement model (Tate, 1998). In the pilot study, the hypothesized framework of spectator sport values was proposed based on the results from the first three phases. The framework was then confirmed by data from the next (fourth) phase. The following explains the process of the confirmation. In the framework, eight major values were manifested or represented by eight groups of pictures chosen by the researcher and four graduate students. (When the fourth phase was designed, the literature review was under way; aesthetic values at that time were being considered part of enjoyment value and spirituality values were being considered part of identity and ritual values. That was the reason why aesthetic and spirituality values were not represented by separate pictures.) Some of the pictures were taken by one of the four graduate students, and other pictures were found through Google on the Internet. Whether a picture could well illustrate one type of value was judged, discussed, and agreed by the researcher and the four graduate students. These pictorial devices were descendants of a Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2005), which assumed that these pictorial devices might provoke more responses consciously and unconsciously than written specific definitions in a handout might do. In a focus group in the fourth phase, the pictures without any literal explanations were shown to participants on the screen using PowerPoint slides. When the participants viewed the pictures, they were asked to tell their feelings and any thoughts. Follow-up questions were asked to clarify whether the responses referred to some value types. After all pictures were discussed, the moderator proceeded to write down the value types coming out from the discussion on the blackboard for further clarification. The discussion was recorded and coded. The coding results were compared to findings, i.e. the hypothesized framework, from the previous three phases for evaluating the confirmability.

23

Constant Comparative Method In terms of transferability, a constant comparative method was utilized. Constant comparative method means that the analyst validates his or her interpretations through constantly comparing one piece of data to another (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 137). This method may avoid potential bias of human element in data interpretations. Based on the constant comparative method, the current study tested transferability by sequentially analyzing contexts. That is, interpretations were revised “in successive comparisons with new data until saturation and redundancy were achieved” (Belk, et. al., 1989, p. 5). In addition, a constant comparative method also refers to an analytic process between literatures and data interpretation. That is, the process of the successive comparisons prompted library research. The reading of existing literature went back to help shape and reflect the data interpretation (Belk, et. al., 1989, p. 3). Results Phase One In the first phase, fifteen interviews produced 26 pages of notes and transcriptions. Four hundred and twenty meaningful units within the notes were coded. Within the 420 units, 169 were considered relevant to the domain of values concepts and chosen for the subsequent analyses. These 169 units produced 58 repeating ideas. The 58 repeating ideas were further organized into 23 themes. Finally, the 23 themes were organized into 10 theoretical constructs, i.e. value types. The use of the terms, “value types,” refers to the use of Motivational Types of Values by Schwartz (1992, 1994). Schwartz identified Motivational Types of Values indicating broader categories and then associating single values with the respective types. The current analyses adopt in part a similar approach by using value types. However, the terms, “single values,” were not used because they were too specific to interpret the results of data analyses. The qualitative terminology, “themes,” was considered more appropriate to interpret the results of data analyses. Themes are the implicit topics (or evidence) that organize a group of repeating ideas and are organized to become and support more abstract theoretical constructs (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). Themes serve as topics to help come up with theoretical constructs, i.e. value types in this research. Themes associated with the respective value types can help identify existing value instrument of single personal values, but themes are not single values. The themes are also indicative of experiences an individual may have as consequence of consuming spectator

24

sports. Themes later will be further discussed in the discussion chapter and have a potential to be referred as value-based attitudes. For the results of data analyses in the first phase, Table 2.9 summarizes the 10 value types and the 23 themes. The first value type was product attributes. Three themes were associated with different attributes of the product of sports or games. The game itself produced core benefit values from its competitive nature, drama and intensity. The basic product of players’ attractiveness, half-time show, and atmosphere also contribute to the value of watching sports. The theme of important games suggested that the importance of games might influence perceived values of the games. Some participants mentioned that important games such as Olympic, World cup, and play-offs had higher values. The second value type was enjoyment. The value type was associated with psychological pleasure. This value type had two themes. In the first theme, participants described their satisfaction, good feeling, pleasure, and fun from watching sports. The ideas of escaping and relaxing were assigned to this theme because when people mentioned escaping and relaxing, they were supposedly diverting from routine lives and pursuing fun and feeling good. Another theme associated with enjoyment was stimulation. It was similar to the idea of pleasure, but had stronger emotion stirred from watching theatrical drama in a game. The third value type was sociability. The value type was related to satisfaction of social needs and had two themes. In the first theme, participants enjoyed being with friends and family members when watching sports. In the second theme, watching sports may provide a chance for people to be part of a group doing some collective activities such as tailgating. The fourth value type was identity. The value type was related to enhancement of self-esteem or self-identify from identification with winners, a team or players. Some participants observed that some people might tend to admire or identify with sport stars and winners to enhance their self-identity. Some participants mentioned that they went to games to support their team or the players they knew to vicariously pursue the glory of victory. Some participants watched sports to pursue national pride because they were interested in the team from their home country. The fifth value type was moral. This value type was related to appreciation of morals in games. Some participants observed that some spectators appreciated the team work and sportsmanship when watching sports. One participant mentioned that a game was like life, a version of life, and said, “there are some values I can apply to my life”. The sixth value type was

25

epistemic. This value type was related to appreciation of the knowledge within the sports and had two themes. The first theme was the technical aspects of sports. Many participants mentioned that skills, strategies, tactics, statistics, and technical aspects within sports could be appreciated in watching sports. The second theme was intellectual effort. By looking at the technical aspects of sports, watching sports could become serious and would involve concentration with intellectual effort. The seventh value type was no or negative values. No individual values were associated with spectator sports, or there was a negative value associated with watching sports. Various ideas were identified to explain why there was no value or negative associations with spectator sports. One participant explained that the sport culture was ugly with the objectification of female cheerleaders, violence, drug use, noise, and trivia. Some respondents disliked watching sports, felt bored, uncomfortable, it was a waste of time, and thought that there was misplaced value in sports. Some participants expressed their indifference to sports, did not care about sports, and thought that sports did not appeal to them. The eighth type was ritual values. This value type was associated with rituals themselves and had two themes. The first was ritualized obsession. Some participants observed that people set aside their time for sports. They were looking forward to watching sports. Watching sports might become important routine in their lives. Some participants mentioned that some people might have obsession with watching sports. The second theme was ritualized sport schedule. Some participants mentioned that mass media presented sport news daily or hourly. These regular sport reports highlighted important sport activities and updated sport seasons to remind people about the sporting events. Some people would mark the sporting events in their calendar. For these people, the sports seasons were scheduled like rituals in a yearly round. The ninth value type was spirituality. This value type was related to a sense of accomplishment and something transcendental and existential. One participant mentioned that sport was active, alive and to accomplish something. Some participants observed that some people treated sports as religion with spiritual meaning. They might build up a shrine for collections related to sports; for them, sports were more than entertainment and had no substitute. The tenth value type was status. This value type was related to demonstration of conspicuous consumption or fashion of sport talk. Participants observed that some people might demonstrate their status by showing their concern with some conspicuous sports such as golf or showing that they are fans of major league rather

26

than minor league. One participant mentioned that in some cultures, people talked soccer a lot. Thus if a person did not know soccer, he might be considered outdated.

Table 2.9 Coding Results of Phase One Value types 1. Product attributes

% 12

2. Enjoyment

19

3. Sociability

8

4. Identity

12

5. Moral

4

6. Epistemic

11

7. No or negative values

15

8. Ritual

10

9. Spirituality

4

10. Status

5

Total: 10

100

Themes 1. Core benefits of sports 2. Basic product of sports 3. Important games 1. Feel Good 2. Stimulation 1. Togetherness with acquaintances. 2. Part of a group 1. Always winner 2. Glory 3. National pride 1. Sportsmanship 2. Microcosm of real lives 1. Technical aspects 2. Intellectual efforts 1. Ugly 2. Negative 3. No 1. Ritualized obsession 2. Ritualized sport schedule 1. Accomplishment 2. Sport religion 1. Social economic status 2. Sport talks 23

In summary, the first phase of the pilot study produced ten value types. In terms of percentage of frequencies of coded units, the value of enjoyment (19%) was the most commonly mentioned value type. The least mentioned value types were spirituality (4%), moral (4%), and status (5%). Phase Two In the second phase, two focus groups produced twenty one pages of transcripts. Two hundred and fifty nine meaningful units within the transcripts were selected and coded. Within

27

the 259 units, 170 were considered relevant to the domain of value concepts and chosen for the subsequent analyses. These 170 units produced 61 repeating ideas. The 61 repeating ideas were further organized into 25 themes. Finally, the 25 themes were organized into 10 value types. Table 2.10 summarizes the 10 value types and the 25 themes. The first value type was product attributes with three themes: Core benefits of sports, Basic product of sports, and Important games. The core benefit values were from the game itself, its competitive nature, and intensity. The basic product of sports includes those concrete elements within a sporting event such as large bands, diverse activities during the break time. Regarding the theme, Important games, one participant mentioned that she paid less attention to pre-season games. The first value type basically is the same as the first value type in the first phase. The second value type was enjoyment with four themes: Entertainment, Excitement, Regulated war, and Feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression. Entertainment and excitement are the same themes as those which emerged in the second value type in the first phase. Regulated war and pleasure from aggression were two new themes in the second phase. Regarding regulated war, some participants described a game as good and evil, right and wrong, white and black like a war without anyone actually hurt. Further, this type of regulated war in sports provided people a forum to release their aggression no matter that they were participants or spectators. People would enjoy the feelings of pleasure from watching the offending and defending in sports. One participant mentioned that there was guilty pleasure in watching sports. The pleasure was from watching people attacking, or suffering in competitive sports for losing a competition. Some people who did not control their emotions well would be even stimulated to produce violence and hooligan activity. The third value type was sociability with two themes: Togetherness with acquaintances, and Part of a group. This value type is the same as the third value type in the first phase. Some participants mentioned that friends and family met together watching sports and that spectators might feel part of an entity celebrating and rooting for a team together. The fourth value type was identity with three themes: Players, Support the team, and National pride, which were slightly different from the three themes under the fourth value type in the first phase. It seemed that in the second phase, more participants mentioned that they went to games because of players they know or players coming from their home countries or famous players. Some participants rooted for the teams which represented their cities or countries.

28

Table 2.10 Coding Results of Phase Two Value types 1. Product attributes

% 7

2. Enjoyment

19

3. Sociability

10

4. Identity

21

5. Aesthetic 6. Epistemic

2 6

7. No or negative values 8. Ritual

8

9. Spirituality

6

10. Status

11

Total: 10

100

8

Themes 1. Core benefits of sports 2. Basic product of sports 3. Important games 1. Entertainment 2. Excited 3. Feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression 4. Regulated war 1. Togetherness with acquaintances. 2. Part of a group 1. Players 2. Support the team 3. National pride 1. Beautiful 1. Technical aspects 2. Commentators 1. No 2. Negative 1. Ritualized obsession 2. Schedule 3. Ritual activities 1. Accomplishment 2. Sport religion 1. Conspicuous consumption 2. Fashion of sport talks 3. Peer pressure 25

The fifth value type was aesthetics with one theme. The moral value in the previous phase was not found in the second phase. Instead, a new value type, aesthetics, emerged. Some participants mentioned that they liked to watch figure skating and gymnastics for their beauty. The sixth value type was epistemic with two themes: Technical aspects and Commentators, which were similar to those in the first phase. Some participants appreciated skills, tactics, and techniques within sports and might rely on commentators to provide information. The seventh value type was no or negative values with two themes: No value, and Negative value. Some participants were not interested in watching sports, did not care about them, and found no utility in watching sports. Some respondents disliked watching sports and felt bored and considered

29

watching sports a waste of time. The previous theme, ugly, in the first phase was partly covered by the theme feeling of pleasure from aggression in the second value type in this phase. From an observer’s perspective, ugly aspects such as violence decreased people’s interests in sports. However, part of ugly aspects might be explained as release of aggression and labeled as enjoyment. The eighth value type was ritual values with three themes: Ritualized obsession, Schedule, and Ritual activities. The first theme, ritualized obsession, was a repeat theme, the same as the theme in the first phase. Some participants observed that some people watched sports regularly with obsession. The second theme, schedule, was also similar to the theme in the first phase. Some people might set aside their time for sports. Sporting events were important part of schedule in their daily lives. The theme, ritual activities, was added in this phase. Examples of ritual activities in the festival sporting events were beating drums, painting faces, and participating in tailgating activities. The ninth value type was spirituality with two themes: Accomplishment, and Sport religion, which were similar to those in the previous phase. One participant mentioned that she liked to “watch someone accomplish something”; one participant felt inspired by watching sports. Some participants observed that some people were so immersed and religiously devoted to sports; for them, it seemed that sports meant more than Jesus. The tenth value type was status with three themes: Conspicuous consumption, Fashion of sport talks, and Peer pressure. Some participants observed that sitting in nice boxes and premium seats might demonstrate status. Many participants mentioned the importance to get to know what happened at important sporting events in order not to lose face in sport talks. The third theme emerged in this phase called, peer pressure. Some participants mentioned that they might feel despised by peers if they did not watch sports at all. Different from fashion of sport talks, which suggests that people want to be considered positive, peer pressure suggests that people do not want to be considered negative. Transferability Results of the second phase of the pilot study produced ten value types. Compared to the ten value types in the first phase, the ten value types in the second phase did not include the moral value but included a new construct, aesthetic value. The transferability is 90% in terms of repetition of value types. For the same nine value types, the themes were similar to those in the first phase with four exceptions. First, the enjoyment value had two more themes: Feelings of

30

pleasure from vicarious aggression and Regulated war. These two themes suggested that watching sports might meet human beings’ aggression need. If the aggression need was not managed well, it would lead to violence and hooligan activity, an ugly theme under no or negative value type in the first phase. Hence, the second exception was that no or negative value type did not include ugly theme in this second phase. Third, the ritual value type contained one more theme, ritual activities. Fourth, the status value type contained one more theme, peer pressure. In terms of repetition of themes, the transferability is approximately 83%. Further, in terms of percentage of frequencies of coded units, the values of identity (21%) and enjoyment (19%) were the most commonly mentioned value types. Because in the second phase, the majority of participants were international students, their emphases on national pride were expected and resulted in the frequency increase of the identity construct. The least mentioned value types were aesthetics (2%), epistemic (6%), and spirituality (6%). With the combination of coding results from the first two phases, there were eleven value types and 28 themes (see Table 2.11). Phase Three In the third phase, eleven interviews by the researcher’s students produced thirteen pages of interview notes. One hundred and forty seven meaningful units within the transcripts were selected and coded. Within the 147 units, 110 were considered relevant to the domain of value concepts and chosen for the subsequent analyses. These 110 units produced 46 repeating ideas. The 46 repeating ideas were further organized into 25 themes. Finally, the 25 themes were organized into 11 value types. Table 2.12 summarizes the 11 value types and the 25 themes. The first value type was product attributes with two themes: Important games, and Different Sports. Core benefits of sports and Basic product of sports were not mentioned in the third phase. Some participants mentioned that important games such as the World Cup and different sports might provide different values. The first value type basically is the same as the first value type in the previous two phases but does not repeat all themes. The second value type was enjoyment with four themes: Entertainment, Excitement, Regulated war, and Feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression. Redundancy of this value type was achieved. The third value type was sociability with three themes: Togetherness with acquaintances, Part of a group, and Sport talks. Sport talk was a new theme. Some participants

31

mentioned that there might be a great conversation if they share the same views in sport talks. Unlike sport talks in the previous phases where sport talks were for fashion status, sport talk in the third phase was more related to sociability. The fourth value type was identity with two themes: Support the team, and National pride. The theme, support player, was not mentioned in the third phase.

Table 2.11 Combination of Coding Results in the Previous Two Phases Value types 1. Product attributes

2. Enjoyment

3. Sociability 4. Identity

5. Aesthetic 6. Epistemic 7. No or negative values

8. Ritual

9. Spirituality 10. Status

11. Moral Total: 11

Themes 1. Core benefits of sports 2. Basic product of sports 3. Important games 1. Entertainment 2. Excited 3. Feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression 4. Regulated war 1. Togetherness with acquaintances. 2. Part of a group 1. Players 2. Support the team 3. National pride 1. Beautiful 1. Technical aspects 2. Intellect 1. No 2. Negative 3. Ugly 1. Ritualized obsession 2. Schedule 3. Ritual activities 1. Accomplishment 2. Sport religion 1. Conspicuous consumption 2. Fashion of sport talks 3. Peer pressure 1. Sportsmanship 2. Microcosm of real lives 28

32

Table 2.12 Coding Results of Phase Three Value types 1. Product attributes

% 8

2. Enjoyment

15

3. Sociability

12

4. Identity

11

5. Aesthetic 6. Epistemic 7. No or negative values

1 1 28

8. Ritual

16

9. Spirituality

5

10. Status 11. Moral Total: 10

2 1 100

Themes 1. Important games 2. Different sports 1. Entertainment 2. Excited 3. Feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression 4. Regulated war 1. Togetherness with acquaintances. 2. Part of a group 3. Sport talks 1. Support the team 2. National pride 1. Form of art 1. Analyze 1. No 2. Negative 3. Passive nature 4. Ugly 1. Ritualized obsession 2. Ritualized schedule 3. Ritual activities 1. Accomplishment 2. Sport religion 3. Existentialism 1. Impressive sport talk 1. Fair play 25

The fifth value type was aesthetics with one theme. One participant mentioned that bullfighting in Spain was treated as a form of art, and that “the matadors to me seemed to be very pompous and loved by all the people”. The sixth value type was epistemic with one theme. One participant mentioned that “when I am watching a game I analyze every play”. This was similar to a previous theme, Intellectual effort. The seventh value type was no or negative values with four themes: No value, Negative value, Passive nature, and Ugliness. Regarding the theme, passive nature, one participant mentioned that “watching sports is just frustrating because you can’t do anything about the outcome of the game”. In particular, when compared to participation

33

in sports, sport spectatorship was considered passive. For the theme, ugliness, some participants mentioned that sports might express impressions of violence, masculinity with no intelligence. The eighth value type was ritual values with three themes: Ritualized obsession, Ritualized schedule, and Ritual activities. The first theme, ritualized obsession, was the same as the theme in the previous phases. One participant mentioned that, “every week I look forward to watching the ‘game.’” One participant said that “I would feel lost if I didn’t stay on top of the scores.” It seemed that some people could have obsession with watching sports. The second theme, ritualized schedule, was also a repeat theme the same as the theme in previous phases. Some participants mentioned that “watching games is a tradition” and “an extremely important part of my life.” One participant indicated that people are accustomed to looking forward the scheduled football games in each season. The third theme, ritual activities, included dressing, face painting, eating, and using noise makers. The ninth value type was spirituality with three themes: Accomplishment, Sport religion, and Existentialism. Existentialism was a new theme. One participant mentioned that “I played football in high school, so watching football games is like being out on the field again.” This nostalgia feeling might consist of a person’s existential pursuit. The tenth value type was status with one theme: Impressive sport talks. Conspicuous consumption and peer pressure were not mentioned in the third phase. One participant mentioned that a person talking sports a lot might tend to create a positive impression. One participant mentioned that he needed to know who won what and in what game so that he could talk about these kinds of things with others. This talking might make him feel well recognized with a value of status enhancement. The eleventh value type was the moral value. One participant mentioned that “I like the team to play fairly and the players to be law abiding citizens.” Transferability The results of the third phase of the pilot study produced eleven value types. These eleven value types repeated those constructs which emerged in the first two phases. The transferability is 100%. This indicated some level of saturation and redundancy had been achieved. However, the 25 themes under the eleven value types did not repeat all of the 28 themes from the previous two phases. 7 old themes were not mentioned by participants in the third phase: Core benefits of sports, Basic product of sports, Support players, Intellectual effort, Conspicuous consumption, Peer pressure, and Microcosm of real lives; 4 themes were new:

34

Different Sports, Sport talk for sociability, Passivity of spectating sports, and Existentialism. Thus, In terms of repetition of themes, the transferability is 79%. Further, in terms of percentage of frequencies of coded units, the no or negative values (28%), ritual (16%), and enjoyment (15%) were the most commonly mentioned. The least mentioned value types were status (2%), moral (1%), aesthetics (1%), and epistemic (1%). With the combination of coding results from the three phases, there were eleven value types and 32 themes (see Table 2.13). The combination provided a basis for a hypothesized framework for selecting pictures used in the next phase to evaluate confirmability. Triangulation Five graduate students were recruited to do the coding. The five people were given the transcripts of the first focus group from the second phase and three or four interview notes or transcriptions from the first and third phases. The first coder had 12 themes. These 12 themes were similar to 8 themes in the researcher’s version (see Table 2.14). The triangulation rate was 45%. The second coder had 22 themes but only 14 themes were related to the domain of spectator sport values. These 14 themes could be combined into 11 themes in the researcher’s version. The triangulation rate was 54%. The third coder had 15 themes but only 10 themes were related to the domain of spectator sport values. These 10 themes could be assigned into 8 themes in the researcher’s version. The triangulation was 43%. The fourth coder had 16 themes but one theme was not related to the domain of spectator sport values. The relevant 15 themes could be assigned into 14 themes in the researcher’s version. Thus, the triangulation was 62%. The fifth coder had 7 themes, but only 2 were relevant. Their labels were too broad and were considered ineffective and discarded. In terms of value types, the first coder had 5 constructs (45%); the second coder had 8 constructs (73%); the third coder had 6 constructs (55%); the fourth coder had 10 constructs (91%). When all of the coding results were combined together, 11 value types and 32 themes were maintained.

35

Table 2.13 Combination of Coding Results in the Previous Three Phases Value types 1. Product attributes

2. Enjoyment

3. Sociability

4. Identity

5. Aesthetic 6. Epistemic 7. No or negative values

8. Ritual

9. Spirituality

10. Status

11. Moral Total: 11

Themes 1. Core benefits of sports 2. Basic product of sports 3. Important games 4. Different sports 1. Entertainment 2. Excited 3. Feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression 4. Regulated war 1. Togetherness with acquaintances. 2. Part of a group 3. Sport talks for sociability 1. Players 2. Support the team 3. National pride 1. Beautiful 1. Technical aspects 2. Intellect 1. No 2. Negative 3. Passive 4. Ugly 1. Ritualized obsession 2. Schedule 3. Ritual activities 1. Accomplishment 2. Sport religion 3. Existentialism 1. Conspicuous consumption 2. Fashion of sport talks 3. Peer pressure 1. Sportsmanship 2. Microcosm of real lives 32

36

Table 2.14 Comparison of Coding Results by the Researcher and Four Coders Researcher 1. Product attributes

2. Enjoyment

Coder 1 1. Core benefits of sports 2. Basic product of sports

Coder 2

Coder 3

Competition

3. Important games 4. Different sports 1. Entertainment Entertaining/Relaxing/ Enjoyment/Passing time

Entertainment/ Escape from routine

2. Excited

Competition

Working class entertainment/ Entertainment/ Escape Emotional consumption

3. Aggression pleasure 4. Regulated war 3. Sociability

4. Identity

1. Togetherness with acquaintances. 2. Part of a group 3. Sport talks for sociability

Friendship

Family

Unity

Interpersonal relationship Sense of affiliation/

1. No

Belongingness

Relate to & know Participants

Supporting team/ Team loyalty

Team preference/ Political affiliation

Nationalism

Nationalism

Community acceptance

3. National pride

7. No or negative values

Family

Social communication

2. Support the team

1. Beautiful

Entertainment/ Escape

Catharsis

1. Players

5. Aesthetic 6. Epistemic

Coder 4

Team Identification Civic & Nationalism Aesthetics

1. Technical aspects 2. Intellect

Learning skills

Skill

Skill & Tactics

Analyzing games No value

No Value

Ritual

Ritual

2. Negative 3. Passive 4. Ugly

8. Ritual

1. Ritualized obsession 2. Schedule 3. Ritual activities

Seasonal activity

37

Table 2.14 (continued) 9. Spirituality

1. Accomplishment 2. Sport religion

Sense of accomplishment Idolatry & Devotion/ Unity & Spirit

Idolatry

3. Existentialism 10. Status

1. Conspicuous consumption

Social status

2. Fashion of sport talks 3. Peer pressure 11. Moral

Total

1. Sportsmanship 2. Microcosm of real lives 32

Peer pressure

Peer Pressure

Team work

12

14

10

15

Phase Four In the fourth phase, one focus group was transcribed into fourteen pages of notes. One hundred and fifty one meaningful units within the transcripts were selected and coded. Within the 151 units, 140 were considered relevant to the domain of value concepts and chosen for the subsequent analyses. These 140 units produced 45 repeating ideas. The 45 repeating ideas were further organized into 24 themes. Finally, the 24 themes were organized into 10 value types. Table 2.15 summarizes the 10 value types and the 24 themes. The first value type was product attributes with four themes: Core benefits of sports, Basic product of sports, Important games, Different sports. These four themes were repeat themes from the previous phases and thus confirmed in the fourth phase. For the theme of basic product of sports, one participant said, “The commentator in Spanish makes the soccer is like a real soccer.” The second value type was enjoyment with four themes: Entertainment, Excitement, Feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression, and Regulated war. These four themes were the same as the themes which emerged in the previous phases and were confirmed in the fourth phase. Regarding the theme, excitement, passion was particularly emphasized in watching sports. One participant said, “If I watch soccer, I am passion about it.” It was likely that passion is an important element in the Hispanic culture and was emphasize in this Hispanic focus group. The

38

third value type was sociability with two themes: Togetherness with acquaintances and Part of a group. These two themes were confirmed, but the theme, Sport talk, was not mentioned.

Table 2.15 Coding Results of Phase Four Value types 1. Product attributes

% 11

2. Enjoyment

31

3. Sociability

14

4. Identity

6

5. Aesthetics 6. Epistemic

9

7. No or negative values

8

8. Ritual

9

9. Spirituality 10. Status

1 9

11. Moral Total: 10

2 100

Themes 1. Core benefits of sports 2. Basic product of sports 3. Important games 4. Different sports 1. Entertainment 2. Excited 3. Feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression 4. Regulated war 1. Togetherness with acquaintances. 2. Part of a group 1. Support the team 2. National pride 1. Technical aspects 2. Intellect 1. No 2. Negative 3. Ugly 1. Ritualized obsession 2. Schedule 3. Ritual activities 1. Existentialism 1. Conspicuous consumption 2. Fashion 1. Sportsmanship 24

The fourth value type was identity with two themes: Support the team, and National pride. These two themes were confirmed repeated themes from the previous three phases. The theme, support players, was not mentioned. The fifth value type, aesthetics, was not confirmed. No participants mentioned beauty associated with spectator sports. The sixth value type was epistemic with two themes: Technical aspect and Intellectual. These two themes were confirmed.

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The seventh value type was no or negative values with three themes: No value, Negative value, and Ugliness. These three themes were confirmed, but the theme, passive, was not mentioned. The eighth value type was ritual values with three themes: Ritualized obsession, Schedule, and Ritual activities. These three themes were confirmed. One participant said that “My father, oh my gosh, talks about soccer twenty four hours seven days. No stop.” It seemed that the father had obsession with soccer and definitely his life was scheduled around soccer games. One participant mentioned that “Garnet and Gold Kids” celebrated by themselves. It seemed that the kids were practicing some ritual activity. The ninth value type was spirituality with one theme: Existentialism. One participant mentioned that “No matter that the team wins or loses, he [Garnet and Gold Kid] never shuts up every time.” It seems that Garnet and Gold kids were pursuing an existential value through the team spirit. This was beyond identity and ritual value. The kids seemingly transformed their spectating sports into a sacred activity, giving meanings to their lives. This practice of ritual activities might further contribute to a blissful feeling of ultimate existentialism with reassurance being symbolic of the personal importance in the social structure. The two themes, Accomplishment and Sport religion, were not mentioned in the focus group. The tenth value type was status with two themes: Conspicuous consumption and Fashion. These two themes were confirmed, but the theme, peer pressure was not mentioned. The eleventh value type was the moral value with one theme: Sportsmanship. One participant mentioned that “Integrity is the most important personality in every single manner in sports.” This theme was confirmed, but the theme, Microcosm of real lives, was not mentioned. Confirmability The major purpose of the fourth phase of the pilot study was to confirm the value types from the previous three phases. Participants in the focus group were shown pictures which implied value types. The results showed that except for aesthetic value, the other ten value types were confirmed, indicating 91% confirmation in terms of value types. Out of 32 themes from previous phases, 24 themes were confirmed with 75% confirmation. Further, in terms of percentage of frequencies of coded units, the enjoyment (31%) was the most commonly mentioned. The least mentioned value types were spirituality (1%), and moral (2%).

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Implications The pilot study served as an initial step to facilitate the research project. Its major purpose was to guide the direction of the literature review and further helped develop the framework of spectator sport values. The dissertation project will test the framework. In the pilot study, qualitative inquiry was used with two major research methods: interviews and focus groups. In the interviews and focus groups, participants were encouraged to not only self-report their thoughts about themselves but also report their observations. Observation reports may avoid the limitations of self-report. In self-report, respondents might consciously or unconsciously edit responses to provide socially desirable answers. In the focus groups, participants were encouraged to have cross-conversation to validate their observations. In the pilot study, a constant comparative method was used in two ways. First, the pilot study was designed with four phases, and the data construction in a subsequent round was based on the previous round. Transferability was used to examine whether redundancy was achieved. Second, there was an analytic process between the pilot study and literature review. On the one hand, notes from the pilot study prompted a literature review (the next chapter) and guided the direction of the review. On the other hand, the literature review helped data analyses and interpretation. The process of the pilot study and its findings provided three major implications for the literature review in the current research proposal. The first implication for the direction of the literature review was suggested during the process of the pilot study. During the process, the researcher found that the questions asked in the qualitative inquiry were too broad because they included the value type and its antecedents and consequences. The reason why the questions tended to become broad was probably because the specific definition of values was not clear. In the questions, it seemed that the values were sometimes referred to as benefits or attributes, sometimes as the meaning, the function, the feeling, the purpose for watching spectator sports, or referred to as motivations for watching sports. This inconsistency was confusing. The findings from the pilot study indicated that the focus of this proposal should be on the definition of values associated with spectator sports. Without knowing the definition, further discussions about factors influencing values and the impacts of values are in vain. The second implication from the pilot study was about another important area of the literature review. Values mentioned by participants in the qualitative inquiry were frequently

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similar to motives; this indicated that the literature review had to clarify this issue. If values could be referred to as motives, the project would only repeat prior studies of fan motivations. Thus, it became crucial to clarify the relationships between values and motivations. Meanwhile, because needs were closely related to values and motives, the literature review clarified the relationship among needs, values, and motives and developed a conceptual model describing the relationship. The third important implication from the findings of the pilot study was about the value types associated with spectator sports. Each value type prompted library research on each construct to support the framework. One of major value types from the findings of the pilot study, Product attributes, was not included in the framework because it did not fit the definitions of spectator sport value adopted by the current proposal. In short, throughout the pilot study, three major areas of literature review were identified: The definition of values, the relationship among needs, values and motivations, and ten values associated with spectator sports. The review of literature was important to capture the phenomenon of values associated with spectator sports and provided theoretical support for the framework of spectator sport values. The next chapter presents the literature review.

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CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW The current paper explores values individuals associate with spectator sports. Prior studies of values in sport settings have been primarily conceptual discussions using a macro sociological perspective (e.g., Duncan, 1983; Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001) and have focused on participation rather than spectatorship (e.g., Lee, Whitehead, & Balchin, 2000; Simmons & Dickinson, 1986; Wankel & Berger, 1990). Research with spectator sports has investigated fan motivations for attending sports (c.f., Milne, & McDonald, 1999; Trail, & James, 2001; Wann, 1995) rather than general values associated with spectator sports. The current study is an initial step in exploring the values individuals associate with spectator sports. The pilot study led the researcher to focus the literature review in three major areas. The first area was to clarify the definition of values. The second area was to explore the relationships among needs, values, and motivations. The third area was to develop a framework of spectator sport values. Based on the framework, a sequential relationship among values, attitudes, and behavior is discussed and hypotheses about the relationships between values and behavior are proposed. The first section of this chapter presents a discussion of the definitions of values from different disciplines, and a comparison of values and other similar or relevant concepts such as needs, motivation, attitude, and norms. The second section in this chapter combines existing definitions of value and suggests a definition of value suitable for this dissertation. The third section presents a conceptual model describing the relationships among needs, values, and motivations. After the clarification of definitions and relationships among relevant concepts, the specific types of needs, values, and motives are discussed and compared in the fourth and fifth sections. Based on the discussions, value definition, and the model describing the relationship among needs, values, and motivations, a framework delineating values associated with spectator sport is proposed in the sixth section. The theoretical framework of the spectator sport value types is proposed in a style that combines findings from the pilot study and literature review. Based on the framework, hypotheses about the relationships between values and behavior are proposed and will be empirically examined.

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Definitions of Values A variety of definitions of the term values may be found in different disciplines. The current literature review looked at seven areas including biology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, philosophy, and marketing and attempted to extract an appropriate definition suitable for values people associate with spectator sports. Biology In biology, “values can be construed as the products of instincts and drives that help channel the organism’s motility” (Hechter, Nadel, & Michod, 1993, p. ix). That is, objects or the desired things have values when the objects or things can satisfy human beings’ needs, in particular basic human needs such as Alderfer’s (1972) Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (ERG) needs. Thus, values are the objects or things of need (Nakayama, 2006). Given this definition, watching sports has value if it can meet human needs. Drawing from Maslow’s (1987) hierarchy of needs, watching sports might meet social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Obviously, physiological and safety needs in Maslow’s model or the existence needs in Alderfer’s (1972) ERG model cannot be met by watching sports. Psychology In psychology, one of the most important scholars in the study of human values is Rokeach (1973) with his influential book, The Nature of Human Values. He emphasized that “the concept of values … is the core concept across all the social society” (p. ix). His frequently cited definition of values is that “A value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or endstate of existence is … preferable to an opposite …” (Rokeach, 1973, p.5). Before Rokeach provided his definition, he mentioned that the value concept can be employed as the values that a person has or values that an object has. His definition of values was based on the value concept of a person’s values rather than the concept of values that an object has. Given the definition, Rokeach explained that a value is a prescriptive belief upon which some mode of conduct or endstate of existence is judged to be desirable and preferred. The modes of conduct were referred to as eighteen instrumental values whereas the end-states of existence were referred to as eighteen terminal values. Table 3.1 shows the two lists of values. In addition to Rokeach’s work on values, another important scholar in the study of human values from a psychological perspective is Schwartz (Schwartz, 1992, 1994; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987, 1990). Based on a literature review (e.g. Rokeach, 1973), Schwartz and his colleague 44

Table 3.1 Rokeach’s Values Instrumental values Ambitions Broadminded Capable Cheerful Clean Courageous Forgiving Helpful Honest Imaginative Independent Intellectual Logical Loving Obedient Polite Responsible Self-controlled

Terminal values A comfortable life An exciting life A sense of accomplishment A world at peace A world of beauty Equality Family security Freedom Happiness Inner harmony Mature love National security Pleasure Salvation Self-respect Social recognition True friendship Wisdom

(Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987) contended that there were five major features of the conceptual definition of values (Schwartz, 1994): “A value is a (1) belief (2) pertaining to desirable end states or modes of conduct, that (3) transcends specific situations, (4) guides selection or evaluation of behavior, people, and events, and (5) is ordered by importance relative to other values to form a system of value priorities” (p. 20). These five features were already implied in Rokeach’s definition. For example, Rokeach mentioned that “A value is enduring” (p. 5). This enduring characteristic suggests that a value transcends specific situations. Rokeach also proposed that values were used to judge actions. This is similar to the fourth feature of Schwartz’s value concept that a value guides evaluation of behavior. In addition, referring to Williams’ (1968) concept of value-as-criterion, Rokeach indicated that values could be organized into systems of values. Although Rokeach did not emphasize that values would be ordered by importance, the idea of a value system still implies part of the fifth feature of Schwartz’s value concept that a value is ordered by importance relative to other values to form a system of value priorities. Further, in terms of the assumption behind the value definition, Schwartz raised a similar concern as Rokeach did. Both viewed values as criteria that people use to justify actions

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rather than as qualities that objects have (Schwartz, 1992). However, Schwartz extended Rokeach’s value concept to view values as criteria not only to select actions but also to evaluate people (including the self) and events. One difference between Schwartz’ and Rokeach’s value concept is that the former emphasized only a cognitive component (Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987) whereas the latter emphasized cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of values (Rokeach, 1973). Finally, by performing smallest space analyses on ratings of the importance of 36 Rokeach values and partitioning the multidimensional space into regions, Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) confirmed their seven distinct motivational types of values. Thirty six specific values in the Rokeach lists served as markers in Schwartz and Bilsky’s seven motivational domains of values. Later, to represent eleven potential universal value types, Schwartz (1992, 1994) selected 56 values from the Rokeach (1973) survey and from other instruments (e.g., Braithwaite & Law, 1985; Chinese Culture Connection, 1987; Hofstede, 1980; Levy & Guttman, 1974; Munro, 1985; cited by Schwartz, 1992, p. 17). However, empirical data only identified ten value types from 52 values. (Spirituality did not appear to be a value type.) Table 3.2 shows the Schwartz’ value types. Table 3.2 Schwartz’ Value Types 1987 Version Enjoyment Security Achievement Self-direction Prosocial Restrictive conformity Maturity

1992 Version Hedonism Security Achievement Self-direction Benevolence Conformity Universalism Power Tradition Stimulation

Comparing Schwartz’ theory of the psychological content of human values to the biological perspective, we can find some similarities and differences. When Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) developed their theory, they made the assumption about the nature and sources of values “from the literature on needs, social motives, institutional demands, and functional requirements

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of social groups” (Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987, p. 551). They argued that values were representations of three types of universal human requirements: “biological based needs of the organism, social interactional requirements for interpersonal coordination, and social institutional demands for group welfare and survival (cf., Becker, 1950; Kluckhohn, 1951; Parsons, 1957; Rokeach, 1973; Williams, 1968; cited by Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987, p. 551). Part of the requirements are similar to human beings’ needs in the biological perspective. The first two requirements overlap with part of Alderfer’s (1972) ERG needs and Maslow’s (1987) needs theories with some differences. Alderfer and Maslow might emphasize the existence and basic survival needs whereas the first requirement about needs of individuals as biological organisms has broader meanings. Beyond the basic physical needs, the first requirement may refer to pleasure, sensuous gratification, and excitement (Schwartz, 1994). In addition, the second requirement for social interaction is similar to Alderfer’s relatedness need and Maslow’s social need. The third requirement for smooth functioning and survival of groups is not contained in Alderfer’s and Maslow’s needs theories. In contrast, the three requirements do not contain Alderfer’s growth need and Maslow’s self-esteem and self-actualization needs. From a psychological perspective, Rokeach’s and Schwartz’ value concepts indicated the differences between value and attitude. Rokeach (1973) stated that “values are guides and determinants of social attitudes and ideologies on the one hand and of social behavior on the other” (p. 24). Rokeach disagreed that values were “special cases of the attitude concept” (Newcomb, Turner, & Converse, 1965, p. 45, cited by Rokeach, 1973, p. 18). Rather, compared to attitude, a value was more central to cognition which was a criterion for judgment and evaluation and transcended objects and situations. Thus, attitudes depended on pre-existing social values (Allport, 1961, pp. 802-803, cited by Rokeach, 1973, p. 18) and are functions of values (Woodruff, 1942, p. 33, cited by Rokeach, 1973, p. 18). Sociology and Anthropology In sociology and anthropology, sociologists (e.g., Williams, 1968, cited by Schwartz, 1992) and anthropologists (e.g., Kluckhohn, 1951, cited by Schwartz, 1992) adopted similar value concepts. They “view values as the criteria people use to select and justify actions and to evaluate people … and events” (Schwartz, 1992, p. 1). “In sociology and anthropology values are considered to be basic determinants of social action” (Hechter et al., 1993, p. ix). Rokeach (1973) also mentioned that he had probably been influenced most by the work of Williams in

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sociology and Kluckhohn in anthropology (p. ix). Williams (1968) indicated that “one of the more widely accepted definitions in the social science literature considers values to be conceptions of the desirable, influencing selective behavior” (p. 283). He emphasized that what is desirable is different from what is desired and is equated with what we ought to desire or what should be regarded as desirable in accord with the requirements of personality and a sociocultural system for order. For him, values served as criteria for judgment, preference, and choice. Williams (1968) also distinguished between norms and values. Norms were specifically applied in given circumstances, whereas values served as “a point of reference for a great many specific norms” (p. 284). In addition, Kluckhohn (1951) mentioned that the term value was vaguely used in anthropology “as more or less synonymous with ‘strongly held belief,’ ‘moral code,’ ‘culturally defined aspirations,’ or even ‘sanctions’” (p. 421). Kluckhohn argued that values differed from beliefs. Belief referred primarily to “true” and “false” whereas value referred to “good” and “bad.” There are feeling and commitment attached to values. This is slightly different from Schwartz’ value concept. The author tends to suggest that a value is a central cognition and that feeling and commitment are peripheral and accompany the cognition. Further, compared to cathexis, a value “canalizes impulses in terms of wider and more perduring goals” and “implies a broader and long-term view” (Kluckhohn, 1951, p. 399). Also, “values regulate ‘impulse satisfaction in accord with the whole array of hierarchical enduring goals of the personality, the requirements of both personality and sociocultural system for order, the need for respecting the interests of others and of the group as a whole in social living’” (Kluckhohn, 1951, p. 399, cited by Williams, 1968, p. 283). In short, Williams’ and Kluckhohn’s definitions of values are mainly covered by Schwartz’ five major features of the conceptual definition of values and three types of universal human requirements. The weaknesses of Williams’ and Kluckhohn’s value concepts are that they do not provide concrete domains, types, dimensions, or contents of values. Philosophy In philosophy, philosophers tend to treat evaluative statements as statements of value (Alicke, 1983). They do not discriminate the values that a person has and values that an object has. Rather, “value defines a relationship between a cognizing subject and the object of the subject’s apprehension” (Alicke, 1983, p. 4). The object referred to may be either material things such as goods or abstract concepts such as wisdom, truth, and courage. Philosophers deal with

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whether values exist objectively or subjectively. That is, values have an objective life of their own or values inhere in the perceptions of the knower. The objectivity theory of value argues that values such as truth and beauty have their objective significance and possess an ontological status of their own (Alicke, 1983). Perry (1926) mentioned that the most venerable classification of values is “the trinity of canonized values, known as ‘the True, the Beautiful and the Good’” (p. 693). Perry himself cast doubt on this classification because it treats truth as a value and assumes a questionable view of the relation of cognition and interest. However, for exponents of objectivity theories of value, truth, beauty, and goodness do have their own intrinsic values and are likely to provoke interest and conscious activity to pursue these values. In contrast, the subjectivity theory of value argues that values exist inside of a person. “From the subject’s perspective a value is expressed in a feeling of pleasure or desire in relation to an object” (Eaton, 1930, cited by Alicke, 1983, p. 4). Perry’s (1926) well-known definition, “value as any object of any interest” (p. 115) (Kluckhohn, 1951, p. 390), also indicates that an object acquires value when any interest is taken in it. Value is a specific relation into which things may enter with interested subjects (Perry, 1926). “Anything is properly said to have value in case, and only in case, it is the object of … being interested in, positively or negatively” (Prall, 1921, pp. 215, 227, cited by Perry, 1926, p. 117). Thus, value can be expressed in a feeling of pleasure or desire in a state of interest that the subject takes in the object (subjectivity) or in a state of interest that an object arouses (objectivity). For this dissertation, the object is the activity of watching sports. Economics In economics, a presupposed underlying concept is that there is a potential relationship between two sides: supply and demand, producer and consumer, or seller and buyer. The economic relationship occurs as the two sides become partnerships to engage in a joint enterprise for their mutual benefit (Perry, 1954). Each side invests or pays a cost out of its benefit and contributes to the needs of others and meets their own needs. It seems that the satisfaction of human needs is the original incentive to create the reciprocity and establish an automotive or self-propelling economic system (Perry, 1954) with an invisible hand behind. Given this background of supply and demand, value-in-exchange occurs. The exchange value or economic value is commonly identified by benefit and cost or utility and price. That is, economists place value within the context of exchange; an exchange value to a provider is represented by the profit

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(price minus cost); a value of a consumption to a consumer “is represented by the price s/he is willing to pay and stems from the utilities or satisfactions” (Richins, 1994, p. 504) the consumption provides (utilities minus price). The economist’s definition of utility is “a subjective measure of the usefulness or want satisfaction that results from consumption” (Zeithaml, 1988, p. 13). Perry (1954) argued that “since needs are to be explained in terms of interests, economic value conceived as exchange value is a derivative of value in general, defined as an object of interest” (p. 250). However, the economic value concept derived from a utility model presumes that consumers carefully calculate the benefits and costs or the get and give components of value (Zeithaml, 1988). This may not hold true for all consumption situations. Some benefit components of value might be of high level abstractions (Zeithaml, 1988) such as emotional and social benefits (Kotler, 2003; Sheth, Newman, & Gross, 1991) and are not easily calculated. Thus, economic value may not fully capture the actual value of many consumption situations (Richins, 1994). Marketing In the marketing literature, the discussion of value is also in the exchange context. This context assumes that “consumer value is largely determined by what is designed into products” (Woodruff, Schumann, & Gardial, 1993, p. 35) and which attributes of product are preferred by consumers. Customer value is defined as “a trade-off between desirable attributes (i.e., that which is desired from the seller) compared to sacrifice attributes (i.e., that which is given up to buy and use the product)” (Woodruff, Schumann, & Gardial, 1993, p. 35). “Operationally, value frequently is measured as attribute-based desires (or preferences)” (Woodruff, 1997, p. 141) because data on attribute value is relatively easy to obtain and to be translated into operational specification for the offer (Woodruff, Schumann, & Gardial, 1993). When the paradigm of marketing philosophy shifted from product-oriented thinking to market-oriented thinking, the discussion of value began to emphasize consumers’ perceptions of value in particular when the consumer faces choices within a product category. “The higher the perceived value, the higher the expected consumer interest” (Kotler, 2003, p. 361). Zeithaml (1988) defined perceived value as “the consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given” (p. 14). Zeithaml’s definition emphasizes that customer value is subjectively perceived by customers rather than objectively determined by the product. In addition, the definition views the value concept as values that an object provides rather than the

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values that a person has. Finally, the definition involves a trade-off between what a consumer receives and what he or she gives up (Woodruff, 1997, p. 141). Zeithaml (1988) proposed that “The benefit components of value include salient intrinsic attributes, extrinsic attributes, perceived quality, and other relevant high level abstractions” (p.14). However, Woodruff (1997) criticized that utility, benefit, and quality in the definition and the proposition may not be well defined and that the definition and the proposition neglected the desired consequences in use situations. Hence, Woodruff revised the definition of customer value and developed a customer value hierarchy model. Woodruff (1997) proposed that “Customer value is a customer’s perceived preference for and evaluation of those product attributes, attribute performances, and consequences arising from use that facilitate (or block) achieving the customer’s goals and purposes in use situations” (p. 142). This definition was broader than prior definitions and clarified three levels of value in a means-end way. Figure 3.1 shows the three levels in The Customer Value Hierarchy Model (Woodruff, 1997, p. 142). Prior to purchase, customers may think about attributes and attribute performances in the bottom level. Then, in the next level, when using a product, customers form preferences for certain attributes based on consequence experiences. In the highest level, customers learn to desire consequences based on their ability to help achieve customers’ goals. In the opposite direction in the model, the goals and purposes Desired Customer Values

Customers’ goals and purposes

Desired consequences in use situations

Desired product attributes and attribute performances

Figure 3.1 Three Levels of Value in Customer Value Hierarchy Model (Woodruff, 1997, p. 142)

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may guide customers to attach importance to consequences, and further the conceived important consequences will guide customers to attach importance to different attributes. For example, smooth shift and comfortable seats might be some of desired attributes of a car; driving ease might be one of desired consequences in use situations; and peace of mind might be one of customer’s goals and purposes (Woodruff, Schumann, & Gardial, 1993). Although Woodruff’s definition of customer value reflects the richness and complexity of the value concept, ironically, the definition suffers in a potential operational deficiency due to its conceptual richness (Parasuraman, 1997). The definition includes “the multiple contexts (preand post-purchase), multiple cognitive tasks (‘preference for’ and ‘evaluation of’), and multiple, increasingly abstract levels of assessment criteria (product attributes, usage consequences, and customer goals)” (Parasuraman, 1997, p. 154). These multiple contexts, tasks, and criteria may require different measurement approaches and metrics (Parasuraman, 1997) and become operational weakness and challenge of Woodruff’s definition. For this dissertation, the measurement issue might be solved by going back to the original means-end chain model proposed by Gutman (1982). In Gutman’s conceptual model for means-end chain, values are defined as “desirable end-states of existence,” which plays “a dominant role in guiding choice patterns” (Gutman, 1982, p. 60). This model attempted to categorize functional information about products (Woodruff, 1997) related to desired consequences. The valence and importance of consequences were guided by consumer values and might be modified by the situations (Gutman, 1982). That is, “consumer values give consequences valence and importance” (Gutman,1982, p. 61). The relevant consequences coming out of person-situation interactions “are the basis of a functional category of products that can best produce the relevant consequences” (Gutman, 1982, p. 61). “These products are selected on the basis of attributes they possess” to produce the desired consequences (Gutman, 1982, p. 61, 62). For example, a customer may place importance on the value of social recognition, and this value might guide the customer to seek the benefit of prestige from his/her clothing selections as a means of gaining social recognition (Gutman, 1982). The benefit of prestige might be implied by a category of clothes carried in the finest stores. The customer’s means-end chain is shown by Figure 3.2 (revised from Gutman, 1982, p. 68).

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Levels Value Consequence Grouping

Distinctions Social recognition Prestige Clothes carried by finest stores

Figure 3.2 An Example of Means-end Chain Model

The Gutman means-end chain model was adapted by Woodruff and Gardial (1996, cited by Woodruff, 1997) to capture the essence of customer value (c.f. Figure 3.1). When Woodruff’s customer value hierarchy model and Gutman’s means-end chain model are compared, we find two major differences. First, the value concepts employed in these two models are different. The value concept in Woodruff’s model refers to values that a product can potentially provide as perceived by customers, whereas the value concept in Gutman’s model refers to human values that a person has. Second, the product concepts employed in these two models are different. The product concept in Woodruff’s model refers to a specific product, whereas the product concept in Gutman’s model refers to a product category. Woodruff’s model presumes a specific product, for example, a car, whose attributes would influence consequences in use situations and further influence customers’ goals. Woodruff’s model presumes that a specific product should be improved or formed based on customers’ goals and desired consequences in use situation from the specific product. However, Gutman’s model uses human values as a guide or criterion for selection of consumption and for formation of a category of product alternatives. This dissertation tries to combine these two models. Delved deeply, the first difference between the two models about value concept may not be too different. As explained in the philosophical perspective of value, the difference may become a subjectivity-objectivity dichotomy issue. From market-oriented thinking, exponents may argue that customers’ goals and purposes in Woodruff’s model could be their personal values and that products are created to meet these values. On the other hand, if human values in Gutman’s model are fulfilled by selected products, this implies that the products can provide the values. The debate of the subjectivity-objectivity dichotomy issue is not the focus of the dissertation. The dissertation simply wants to point out that there is a close relationship between values that a person has and values that an object has. Delved deeply, the second difference between the two models about product concept may not be too different, either. This issue is related to how to define a product. A train can be defined as a

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train, but this may commit marketing myopia. Defined broadly, a train can be one mode of transportation. Nevertheless, Woodruff’s model specifies a product whereas product categories in Gutman’s model are contingent based on different individuals and human values. This dissertation specifies the object, spectator sports. One caution is that watching sports is a specific product from a supply point of view, but from consumption point of view, it may be in different product categories in various situations in different people’s minds. Thus, for different people, watching sports has different values. In addition, Woodruff’s model proposed three levels of values whereas Gutman’s model had only one level of value. Because Woodruff’s model suffers in a potential operational deficiency, the dissertation adopts Gutman’s model and focuses on the customers’ goals and purposes in watching sports. The revised model for this dissertation is illustrated in Figure 3.3.

Values (goals and purposes) associated with watching sports

Desired consequence(s) from spectator sport consumption

Desired attributes and attribute performance of watching sports

Figure 3.3 A Means-End Chain Model for the Values in Watching Sports

When spectator sports are viewed as a product, examples of its attributes might be close games, big games, concession food, stadium quality, and ticket prices. Examples for use situations might be attending games or watching games on TV, different sports, or watching games alone or with friends. Examples of consequences might be psychological such as

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happiness, sadness and sociological such as belongingness. Typically, consequences are less abstract (more concrete, specific, and narrower) than customers’ goals and purposes. For example, prestige is more specific and narrower than social recognition. However, the differences between consequences and goals in the model may not be clear. Finally, the customers’ values are their goals and purposes in watching sports. This is similar to Schwartz’ (1994) later definition of values --- values are “desirable transsituational goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in the life of a person or other social entity” (p. 21). This definition also views values as goals. Table 3.3 summarizes the elements of different definitions of values. Definitions of Values Employed in this Dissertation Given the definitions of “values” from different disciplines, this study suggests a definition of values associated with spectator sports as the conceived desirable goals in accord with the requirements of an individual’s personality and societal demands. The word, conceived, is from the conception emphasized by Williams (1968) and Kluckhohn (1951). Kluckhohn stated that “A conception identifies value as a logical construct” (p. 395) and mentioned that “In its analytic meaning, the locus of value is neither in the organism nor in the immediately observable world; its locus is rather that of all scientific abstractions” (p. 396). Use of the term conceived emphasizes that the major part of values is from cognition rather than intuition and emotion. Conception also implies that a value is enduring rather than whimsical or changeable overnight. The “enduring” characteristic is an important nature of values mentioned by Rokeach (1973). The phrase, desirable goals, is a combination from Williams’ (1968), Kluckhohn’s (1951), and Schwartz’ (1987) desirable and Woodruff’s (1997) and Schwartz’ (1994) goals. The word desirable can refer to needs, desires, interests, and preferences. From the biological perspective discussed earlier, values are manifested by meeting human needs or desires. Similarly, Perry (1954) mentioned that “needs are to be explained in terms of interests” (p. 250) and defined “value as any object of any interest” (Perry, 1926, p. 115). The term desirable implies preference to and relative importance of something in a person’s mind. In addition, Williams (1968) mentioned that desirable implies “what we ought to desire” (p. 283), and Kluckhohn (1951) mentioned that the desirable “includes the aesthetic and those elements of the cognitive which reflects appraisal” (p. 398). Thus, the word desirable also implies assessment, evaluation, and judgment under consideration of tradition and societal demands. Both the preference and

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Table 3. 3 Different Definitions of Value

Person's value or object's value

The current study Object: Spectator sports

Source

Desire

Construct

Goals

Characteristics

Conceived

Constraint

A person's personality and societal demands Goals (assessment criteria)

Function

Biological

Objects Needs

Objects

Rokeach (1973)

Person Desirable and Preferable

Schwartz (1987, 1990, 1992, 1994)

Williams (1968)

Person

Desirable Desirable A Belief (Mode A Belief (Mode of conduct, endof conduct, end- states of states of existence); Goals existence) (1994) The desirable Transcend specific Enduring situations Conception Requirements of personality and a sociocultural system for Societal Three order demands requirements Influence Values as Guide selection selective standards or evaluation behavior

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Perry (1926)

Philosophy

Marketing

Object

Closely related

Object

Interest

Desire

Object

Attributebased desires (or preferences)

appraisal are important natures of values. As for the term goals, Woodruff’s (1997) Customer Value Hierarchy Model includes three increasingly abstract levels of assessment criteria from product attributes as the least abstract level, usage consequences at the middle level, to customer goals at the highest abstract level (Parasuraman, 1997). The customers’ goals and purposes at the highest abstract level of assessment criteria are the focus of the current study for definition of desired customer value. This definition echoes Schwartz’ (1994) later definition of values: values are “desirable trans-situational goals” (p. 21). For example, some attributes of the spectator sport product are competition, players’ skills, drama, and break activities; possible consequences of consuming spectator sports are excitement, fun, and relaxation; a final goal pursued in the consumption is enjoyment. Compared to attributes and consequences, the goal, enjoyment, is the most abstract and is the focus of the current research. Finally, “the requirements of an individual’s personality and societal demands” is a combination from Williams’ (1968) requirements of personality and Rokeach’s (1973) societal demands. In general, these two requirements contain Schwartz’ three types of universal human requirements. Biological organisms and part of interpersonal coordination are included in an individual’s personality; social institutional demands for group welfare and survival, and parts of interpersonal coordination, are included in societal demands. Relationships among Needs, Values, and Motivations Maslow’s (1970a) theory of human motivations includes a hierarchy of human desires or needs. “Needs are the basic human requirement” (Kotler, 2003, p. 11). People need water and shelter to survive and have strong needs for friends, self-esteem, recreation and perhaps knowledge, aesthetics, and self-actualization (Kotler, 2003; Maslow, 1970). Needs serve as an original source of values and motivations. Kotler noted that “A need becomes a motive when it is aroused to a sufficient level of intensity” (p. 195). Thus, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that motivations are the product of aroused needs. In addition, Maslow (1970) contended that sound motivational theory should assume that “motivation is…never ending, fluctuating, and complex” (p. 24). That is, motivations might vary in different use situations. For example, using the Internet at home is motivated by fun whereas using the Internet at an office is motivated by efficiency. Another example, watching sports at home might be motivated by entertainment whereas attending sports in a stadium might be motivated by being with friends. Further, Rokeach (1973) argued that “values possess some attributes that needs do not” and that “values

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are the cognitive representations and transformations of needs” (p. 20). Thus, it seems that values may be representations of needs but are also constrained in accord with the requirements of societal demand (Rokeach, 1973; Williams, 1968). Transformations of needs suggest that values not only represent needs but also have to meet societal requirements. Rokeach (1973) said that “Values are the cognitive representation not only of individual needs but also of societal and institutional demands” (p. 20). Most importantly, human values are centrally held and more enduring and general in a more abstract level than motivations and may influence motivations. Deci and Ryan (1985) mentioned that “The study of motivation is the exploration of the energization and direction of behavior” (p. 3). Energy is fundamentally a matter of needs (Deci & Ryan, 1985) whereas the direction of behavior refers to “an inquiry into the why of behavior” (p. 3). It seems reasonable to refer the why of behavior to be related to a person’s human values which were defined as assessment criteria or goals. Values can give an action direction (Schwartz, 1994) and “stimulate motivation for behavioral response” (Vinson, Scott, & Lamont, 1977, p. 45, cited by Gutman, 1982, p. 64). In short, motivations and values stem from needs. Motivations are needs aroused and more situational than needs. Values not only represent needs but also are transformations of needs in accord with societal demands. As for the relationship between values and motivations, values serve as criteria to stimulate and guide motivation for behavioral response. Figure 3.4 illustrates the relationships among needs, human values, and motivations. For example, a person could be motivated to attend a game to enjoy friendship because his or her friends will be attending. However, this might not exactly mean that spectator sports have a value of sociability for him or her. The person might think that it is noisy and people drink too much. She or he does not think that spectating sports has a value of sociability. In this example the motivation is situational, the motivation is based on a desire to enjoy time with a friend. If sociability is a value a person associates with watching spectator sports, the value for him or her may then become a motive to attend a game. In short, motivations may be aroused needs that are not necessarily related to one’s values. Values may, however, stimulate motivation. In addition, the person could hold sociability as a human value. The value of sociability may be important, but that does not mean that the value is associated with watching spectator sports. She or he might satisfy a need for sociability by eating together with friends in a restaurant. That is, some people who have a human value of sociability can pursue the goal of sociability through

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watching spectating sports. However, other people who have a human value of sociability may not pursue the goal of sociability through watching spectating sports. The examples are given to illustrate the difference between human values and values associated with watching spectator sports. The current study sought to ascertain what values may be associated with watching spectator sports.

Needs

Values

Individual’s personality and societal demands

Motivations Use Situations

Figure 3.4 Relationships among Needs, Values, and Motivations

Types of Needs and Values Maslow (1970a) mentioned seven basic needs: physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization, desire to know and understand, and aesthetic needs. These needs primarily refer to needs of individuals except that the belongingness and love needs might be satisfied by interactions with others. In Schwartz’ (1992) value types, Security that serves both individual and collective interests contains national security, family security, sense of belonging, and others. Thus, Security in Schwartz’ value system seems to have broader sense and might cover Maslow’s safety and belongingness and love needs. In contrast, Maslow’s Esteem needs seem to be broader and include both Schwartz’ Self-Direction and Power. Schwartz’s value types that serve collective interests (benevolence, tradition, conformity) (1992) might not parallel to any type of Maslow’s needs, but since two of single values in Benevolence are true friends and mature love, some part of Benevolence might be the same as Maslow’s belongingness and love needs. Schwartz’s value type Universalism that serves both individual and collective interests (1992) is complicated, including single values Wisdom, A world of beauty, and others. Somehow,

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Universalism may cover Maslow’s The Desire to Know and to Understand and The Aesthetic Needs, but in general, “it did not seem related to any clear, universal motivation” (Schwartz, 1996, p. 11). In short, compared to Maslow’s motivation theory, Schwartz’s motivational types of values seem to focus more on growth needs (Self-direction, Power, Achievement) and emphasize values that can serve collective interests (Benevolence, Tradition, Conformity, Universalism). However, because Schwartz’s motivational types of values include several single values, their meanings might be diverse and unclear. Table 3.4 summarizes the comparisons. Kahle’s (1983) list of nine values were collapsed into five categories in Veroff, Douvan, and Kulka’s (1981) primary values: hedonism (excitement, fun and enjoyment), security, sociability (sense of belonging, warm relationships with others), moral respect (self-respect, being well-respected), and self-actualization (self-fulfillment, sense of accomplishment) (p. 62). Except for hedonism, the other four categories bear resemblance to Maslow’s safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, and need for self-actualization (see Table 3.5). Schwartz (1996) commented that “The List of Values (Kahle, 1983) uses single items to measure nine values, and it omits universalism, tradition, and conformity values” (p. 22). Basically, those values that serve collective interests such as benevolence, tradition, and conformity in Schwartz’ value system are not covered in Kahle’s value system. That is, Kahle’s value system discussed the values that serves individual interests or mixed interests but did not focus on the values that serve collective interests. Similarly, a number of items in the Rokeach list (e.g., a world of peace, a world of beauty, equality, and salvation) were not included in Kahle’s list. Kahle and Timmer (1983) explained that these values “did not meet the criterion of generality across all of life’s major roles” (p. 63). In short, compared to Schwartz’ value system, Kahle’s is more concise and straightforward but excludes values that serve collective interests. Kahle’s list of values is parallel to Maslow’s five needs categories except that physiological needs might not be the same as fun-enjoyment-excitement in Kahle’s list. Because Schwartz and Kahle applied Rokeach’s value lists, the discussion related to Rokeach would be similar to the discussions of the relationships among Maslow, Schwartz, and Kahle given above. Schwartz (1996, p. 22) contended that Power and Tradition is omitted in Rokeach’s value items. For Tradition, it might be true, but for Power, Rokeach’s Social recognition might be part of Power. In general, Rokeach’s (1973) 18 instrumental values and 18 terminal values came after his “several years of research” (p. 27) and were widely cited.

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Schwartz combined the 36 values into 10 value types and Kahle selected and revised values of Rokeach’s list into 9.

Table 3.4 Comparisons among Maslow, Schwartz, Kahle, Rokeach, and Spectator Sport Values Maslow

Schwartz

Kahle

Rokeach (Terminal values)

Spectator Sport Values

The Physiological Needs Stimulation Hedonism The Safety Needs

Excitement Fun and enjoyment Security

Security The Belongingness and Love Needs

The Esteem Needs

Self-Direction Power

The Need for SelfActualization

Achievement

Sense of Belonging; Warm Relationships with others; Self-respect; Being wellrespected Self-fulfillment;

An exciting life Pleasure Family security; National security; A comfortable life

Sociability True friendship

Sociability

Self-respect; Identity Social recognition Status Spirituality

A Sense of A Sense of accomplishment accomplishment Wisdom

The Desire to Know and to Understand The Aesthetic Needs

Enjoyment Enjoyment

Spirituality Epistemic

A world of beauty Aesthetic Universalism

A world of beauty; A world of peace; Wisdom; Equality; Inner harmony Mature love

Benevolence Tradition Conformity

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Moral Ritual, Moral Moral

Motivations for Sport Spectating Factors influencing spectator sport consumption could be endless from macro factors (e.g., cultural, economical, social, political, technical factors, and weather), micro personal factors (e.g., demographic, psychographic, sociodemographic), product factors (e.g., industry, institution, product attributes, facilities) (c.f. e.g., Hansen & Gauthier, 1989), to situational factors (e.g., television coverage of the game, other substitutes for attending a game). Values are individual psychological factors. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, until now, no studies in a sport setting have comprehensively examined spectator sport values for individuals. However, a stream of studies (e.g., Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995; Zhang, Pease, Lam, Bellerive, Pham, Williamson, Lee, & Wall, 2001) about motivation or motives for sports spectating is relevant and needs to be reviewed. In the review, three aspects were used: definition of motivations, sources of motivations, level of abstraction. Definition of Motivations Regarding definitions of motivation or motives, prior studies have not provided clear definitions. Gau and Kim (2006) mentioned that “reasons explaining various sport consumer behaviors have been referred to as motives in previous research (e.g., Funk, Mahony, & Ridinger, 2002; James & Ross, 2004; Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995)”. In other words, prior studies tended to view motives as any factors (e.g., Funk, Mahony, & Ridinger, 2002; Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2003) which can stir people to attend sporting events. A challenge with this approach, as mentioned earlier, is the factors influencing spectator sport consumption could be endless. The boundaries of research in the stream of studies in fan motivation for spectating sports are not clear. Funk, Mahony, and Ridinger (2002) did mention that “Motivation refers to an activated state within a person---consisting of drive urges, wishes, and desires---that leads to goal-directed behavior (Mowen & Minor, 1998)” (p. 34). However, they did not stick to this definition but shifted their focus to “identify different motivational factors” (p. 34). Then, the focus went back to any factors which could motivate people to attend sporting events. For example, Wholesome Environment, “the extent to which a friendly, family atmosphere contributes to the enjoyment of the event (Funk et al., 2002)” (cited by Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2003, p. 27), might be a reason which urges people to attend games. However, strictly, “wholesome environment” is not a motive. It is one of attributes of the product, the sporting event. Similarly, in Trail and James’ (2001) Motivation Scale for Sport

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Consumption (MSSC), Drama and Physical Skills are two of their nine motivations. Although they can urge people to attend sporting events, they are attributes of a sporting event. They are not consumers’ motives. In short, in prior studies of fan motivations for sports spectating have not provided a clear definition of what constitutes a motive, and there is a question as to whether the various dimensions studied are truly motives or other constructs such as product attributes. Sources of Motivations With respect to sources of motivations, prior studies of purported fan motivations have derived their list of motives from previous writings and research (e.g., Sloan, 1989; Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2000; Zillmann, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1989). Zillmann et. al. (1989) focused on the discussion of enjoyment from sports spectatorship. Sloan (1989) mentioned theories of salubrious effects, stress and stimulation seeking, catharsis and aggression, entertainment, and achievement seeking but might ignore security and social needs or motivations. The literature provides some theoretical support for individual motives, but is unable to support a comprehensive and exhaustive exploration of fan motivations. Perhaps this is one of the reasons why prior research has not reached a consensus scale to measure fan motivations. Funk, Ridinger, and Moorman (2003) did conduct focus groups to “determine if the literature review had failed to identify any potential motivational factors in general and for women’s basketball in particular” (p. 8). The constraint of their study is that their focus groups were comprised of “women’s basketball season ticket holders.” The generalization of their results might be limited. In addition, in their four focus groups, although participants did respond to questions about their motivations for attending games, the categorizing process might not be consistent with the definition of motivations. As a result, the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) included not only motives but also product attributes of a sporting event (e.g., customer service, wholesome environment). Milne and McDonald (1999) organized their literature review around Maslow’s (1943, 1968, cited by Milne & McDonald, 1999) human needs hierarchy and “distilled 13 broad types of motivation for sport participation and spectatorship” (p. 23) from an extensive review of the literature. Since Milne and McDonald (1999) adopted Maslow’s human needs hierarchy as their theoretical framework, it seemed that Milne and McDonald suggested that motivations were needs. Indeed, Maslow (1943, 1970a) used needs and motivations interchangeably in his article. However, the problem is whether Maslow’s five categories of human needs are exhaustive. For example, Hedonism (excitement, fun and enjoyment) might not be included in Maslow’s

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classification (Kahle & Timmer, 1983). Maslow (1970a) mentioned that “it seems impossible … to make any list of fundamental physiological needs” (p. 36). And whether the various sensory pleasures (e.g., smells), a tendency to inertia (e.g., laziness), and a need for activity, stimulation, and excitement should be included in the list was inconclusive, “depending on the degree of specificity of description” (p. 36). However, because Maslow’s theory of human motivation is hierarchical (i.e. the most basic level must be met before the next becomes salient), the most basic level of physiological needs usually refers to needs for food, water, shelter. Also, physiological needs implied somatic pleasure and did not include psychological pleasure. Thus, hedonism does not belong to the level of physiological needs in Maslow’s theory. Given this reasoning, it would be questionable that Milne and McDonald assigned Risk-taking, Stress reduction, and Aggression to Maslow’s Physiological category. Since Maslow’s theory is a frequently used framework, the theory has its credit. However, directed by Maslow’s framework, Milne and McDonald did not explain clearly how these 13 sport motivation constructs were obtained. Also, it might not be appropriate to mix participation and spectating motivations together. Among their 13 constructs, Value Development and Skill Mastery were vague when applied to sport spectating. Level of Abstraction In terms of level of abstraction, the motives in the lists proposed by prior studies in fan motivations might not be consistent (e.g., Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2003; Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995). The level of abstraction refers to a meansend chain model (c.f. Figure 3.3). The means-end model explains that products attributes (e.g. a good seat in a car) are means to achieve ends of functional (e.g., comfortable in sitting) and practical benefits (e.g., safe in driving), which lead to further ends of psychological or emotional pay-off (e.g., feeling of security) (Young & Feigin, 1975, cited by Gutman 1982, examples by the author). About the means and ends, Maslow mentioned that “when a conscious desire is analyzed we find that we can go behind it, so to speak, to other, more fundamental aims of the individual” (p. 21). Thus, the specific level refers to product attributes. Then, the next levels refer to what a product can do to meet consumers’ desires functionally, practically, and further psychologically. The functional and practical benefits and psychological pay-offs might be defined as types of consequences (Gutman, 1982). The surface properties of products and benefits seek to associate with the core values (goals and purposes) of the consumer. A laddering

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procedure may be used to help trace the means-end chain and get a deeper understanding of a person’s psychological motivations and values in his or her consumption (Kotler, 2003). Although the judgment of the levels of abstraction (attributes offs

benefits

psychological pay-

values) might be subjective, some cases might be obvious. Since the specific level refers

to product attributes and their performance, Gambling (Wann, 1995), Competition (Milne & McDonald, 1999), Physical Attraction, Drama, Skills (Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2000; Trail & James, 2001), and Role Model (Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2003) should be regarded as product attributes. Therefore, these attributes of products viewed as types of motivations by the prior studies were not adopted in the current research. The value type, Product attributes (with four themes: core benefits of sports, basic product of sports, important games, and different sports), derived from the pilot study was not included in the subsequent discussions. Next, a more abstract level refers to desired benefits or consequences in use situations (c.f. Figure 3.3). Given that, for example, different sports and team players are attributes of a sporting event, Interest in Sport and Interest in Players (Funk, Ridinger, & Moorman, 2003), therefore, are situational. Examples of desired consequences are feelings of identification with preferable teams and players and eustress due to the competition. The most abstract level refers to customers’ values (goals and purposes) in watching sports. Self-esteem enhancement (Wann, 1995) might be the goal from feelings of identification; enjoyment might be the goal from eustress (Wann, 1995). Most motivations discussed in the prior studies (e.g., Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2000; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995) were between levels of consequences and goals. Therefore, they provided useful information to identify and confirm some value types for individuals in spectator sports. Brief comparisons between value types associated with spectator sports and three motivation scales (SFMS by Wann, 1995, Milne and McDonald’s Sport Motivation Constructs, 1999, and MSSC by Trail and James, 2001) are shown in Table 3.5. Because the scope of each label is different, the comparisons are approximate. For example, self-esteem from SFMS and Milne and McDonald’s scale is a broad concept, and identity of spectator sports values might be only part of self-esteem. Vicarious achievement from Milne and McDonald’s scale and the MSSC is directly related to self-esteem enhancement, but in current research, achievement is viewed as part of spirituality. That is the reason why selfesteem and achievement are associated with different values. Some other detailed discussions of the comparisons are included in the section, theoretical framework.

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Table 3.5 Brief Comparisons between Spectator Sport Value Types and Three Motivation Scales The Spectator Sport Value Types in the Current Research Enjoyment

Sociability Ritual Identity Status Spirituality

Epistemology Moral No or Negative Aesthetics

SFMS, (Wann, 1995)

Milne & McDonald, 1999

MSSC (Trail & James, 2001)

Escape, Entertainment, Eustress Group affiliation, Family

Risk-taking, Stress reduction, Aggression Affiliation, Social facilitation

Escape

Self-esteem Economic

Self-esteem

Family, Social

Achievement, Achievement Self-actualization, Knowledge

Aesthetics

Aesthetics

Aesthetics

Given the limitations of prior studies of fan motivations for sports spectating, the current research attempts to advance our knowledge of motives and values. First, results of prior studies of fan motivation are confusing without consensus conclusions partly because the studies did not provide clear definitions of what is a motive and did not adhere to definitions that were presented when developing the motivation scales. For the proposed study, a definition of values is presented based on the literature review, an appropriate definition is proposed and employed. This clarification is important because the core definition will be the criterion of judgment and evaluation to decide which elements can be included as value types. Second, prior studies of fan motivation derived their framework only by using extant literature, which might be only fragmented and incomprehensive. Thus, their findings might not be conclusive, and motives in the scales might not be comprehensive. To support the proposed study, a pilot study was conducted to help develop the framework of spectator sport values. Third, in terms of level of abstraction, the framework tries to maintain all value types in a consistent level. The following section describes the framework.

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Theoretical Framework Based on the preceding review of literature, plus the results of the pilot study, the current project proposes ten value types associated with spectator sports. When integrated, the ten value types provide a framework that is comprehensive. The ten value types in the framework follow the definition of spectator sport values employed in this proposal: the conceived desirable goals of watching sports in accord with the requirements of an individual’s personality and societal demands. The ten value types also follow the boundary defined in Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4. The literature related to needs (Maslow, 1970a), values (Kahle, 1983, 1996; Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1987, 1990, 1992, 1994), and motivations for spectating sports (Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995) were major sources of reference for the development of the framework. As noted previously, the information from the literature review was also used to analyze and interpret the data in the pilot study. The value type, Attributes of the product, from the pilot study was discarded because it did not fit the definition of spectator sport value. The proposed research will be examining the hypotheses derived from the ten value types. The following first describes the general framework and then each value type in the framework. Values, Attitudes, and Behavior The framework indicates a general structure: Values

Attitudes

Behavior. Rokeach

(1973, 1979) explicitly mentioned that values are determinants of attitudes. Attitudes then exert influence upon people’s behavior and serve as predictors of behavior (Eagly & Chaiken, 1992). The proposed framework includes different themes associated with each value type. Derived from the pilot study, the themes are also indicative of what individual may experience as a result of consuming spectator sport and may be representative of value-based attitudes toward spectator sports. The themes will be further discussed in the discussion chapter of this dissertation. The focus of the current proposal is on the relationships between values and sport spectator behavior. It is believed that the examination of the relationships is requisite to have a macro picture prior to looking at the mediator, attitudes. Previous studies have found that values significantly predict various behaviors (Rokeach, 1973, 1979). Shao (2002) specifically found that personal values significantly predicted sport spectator consumptions in terms of watching sports in person and on TV. The current research project extends previous work by including sport talks and additional media consumption such as the Internet, radio, newspaper and magazines. In addition, Shao (2002) used nine values from

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Kahle’s (1983) List of Values whereas the current research extracts values from different sources (Kahle, 1996; Maslow, 1970a, 1970b; Schwartz 1992, 2004, 2005). The current research attempts to confirm the previous findings about the significant relationships between values and live attendance at sporting events and between values and televised consumption of sporting events and proposes four new hypotheses as follows: H1a: Values significantly ( α = 0.05) predict watching sports via the Internet. H1b: Values significantly ( α = 0.05) predict reading printed stories about sporting events. H1c: Values significantly ( α = 0.05) predict listening to sporting events on the radio. H1d: Values significantly ( α = 0.05) predict talking about sporting events with others.

The current research refers to the use of Motivational Types of Values by Schwartz (1992, 1994). Schwartz identified Motivational Types of Values indicating broader categories and associated single values with the respective types. The current research follows a similar approach to working with values, using value types and single values. The ten value types were extracted from the pilot study. Themes derived from the pilot study can help identify the single values. The following section reviews the literature to justify the ten value types and identify relevant single values. Ten Value Types Enjoyment. The first value type is enjoyment chosen from Kahle’s system (1983). The value type of enjoyment may come from entertainment, excitement, and feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression in a regulated war. In their article, Enjoyment from Sports Spectatorship, Zillmann, Bryant, and Sapolsky (1989) seemed to use Enjoyment to include the recreational value of sports spectatorship, including a boredom-relieving function and relief of tension. They mentioned that enjoyment of watching sport contests comes from the drama in sport displays, the unpredictability of the sports event, and the uncertainty about the outcome. In the pilot study, one participant mentioned that watching games may be like watching a drama and enjoying the succeeding and failing. Many respondents mentioned that they watched sports for fun and relaxation. Also, the excitement from sports spectatorship would be ultimately for the enjoyment of sport contests (Zillmann, et al., 1989). In sporting events, a spectator has an opportunity to experience “a range of euphoric and dysphoric emotions” (Ferguson, 1981, cited 68

by Wann, et al., 2001, p. 181) “with an intense emotional workout” (p. 181). Additionally, “sport fandom can provide an antidote to feelings of apathy, marginalization, and neglect” (Wann, et. al., 2001, p. 182), and individuals would escape daily hassles and find pleasure in sporting events. Further, sport spectating provides a means for people to release their rebelling sentiments against modern impersonal society and provides an opportunity for citizens to vent hostile and aggressive sentiments (Duncan, 1983) in a regulated war. In short, enjoyment is the goal of watching sports no matter if the consequences are entertainment, excitement, or feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression in a regulated war. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), the following figure 3.5 illustrates their relationships. Value type: Enjoyment

Desired consequences from spectator sport consumption: entertainment, excitement, feelings of pleasure from vicarious aggression in a regulated war

Attributes: e.g., the drama in sport displays, the unpredictability of the sports event, the uncertainty about the outcome, a regulated war Figure 3.5 Means-end Model for Enjoyment Value Similarly, Wann’s (1995) entertainment, eustress, and Milne and McDonald’s (1999) aggression are viewed as desired consequences in spectator sport consumptions given a personal value of enjoyment. The value type of enjoyment in watching sports means that people achieve a goal of pleasure and satisfaction from spectator sports. Some people simply watch sports for fun. For some people, spectator sports may have a salutary effect on the audience to arouse positive emotions by freely and openly engaging in a type of emotional aerobics and experiencing the pleasant emotional stress (Wann, et. al., 2001). Other people might engage in vicarious aggression from spectating sports to feel pleasure. In short, people who associate enjoyment with spectator sports are expected to experience pleasure when consuming sports. Fun and enjoyment in life (Kahle, 1996), Excitement (Kahle, 1996) are possible single values associated with the

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value type Enjoyment. The experience associated with the value type is that “When I consume sports, I experience pleasure.” The following hypothesis is proposed: H2a: People who have a higher personal value of enjoyment are more likely to experience pleasure when consuming sports than people who have lower personal value of enjoyment.

Sociability. The second value type is sociability value. This term is from Melnick’s (1993) article, Search for Sociability in the Stands: A Theory of Sports Spectating and from one of Veroff, Douvan, and Kulka’s (1981) five value categories. The value of sociability means that a person pursues a goal of satisfaction of social needs through spectator sports. Spectator sports provide good venues for sociability with family members, friends, and neighbors and bonding opportunities when people spend their leisure time watching sports together. Sports provide “the rich social interaction and bonding opportunities” (Wann, et. al., 2001, p. 187). This implies that from an individual perspective, spectator sports can serve a vehicle of sociability in daily life and satisfy a person’s social needs. Spectator sports may provide a chance for sociability in a less intimate form than traditional institutions such as family, workplace, and neighborhoods. Because of technology, individualism, and geographical mobility, family and workplace no longer satisfy people’s social needs. Instead, spectator sports provide a new locale which is alive with communal possibility for the satisfaction of sociability. Sport spectators may share a quasiintimacy and social connectedness (Wann, et. al., 2001). Sports provide social interaction and group affiliation “to counter the impersonality and alienation of a technological society” (Wann, et. al., 2001, p. 32). In the pilot study, one participant mentioned that “watching sports creates camaraderie.” “It is more about friendship.” Also, spectating sports might encourage sport talks and casual socializing with others. The sociability value from small sport talks can extend to colleagues and friends. In addition, in the study conducted by the researcher, fifty-nine out of 174 participants answered that social interaction with friends has the strongest influence on them attending a Seminoles football game. This implies that lots of people pursue a goal of social interaction through sport spectating. In conclusion, sociability is a value dimension for individuals in spectator sports. Sociability can cover at lease three situations: Social interactions with friends, family members, and new encounters. Sociability implies satisfaction of social needs coming

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from various psychological pay-offs such as sense of belonging, warm relationships (Kahle, 1983), sociable, quasi-intimate relationships (Anderson & Stone, 1981; Melnick, 1993). Wann’s (1995) family, and group affiliation (“the desire to maintain group contacts” (p. 378), Milne and McDonald’s (1999) social facilitation (“the chance to spend more time with family members, friends, and business associates” (p. 24), Trail and James’ (2001) family, and social interaction (with other fans or other people sitting nearby) seem to represent one or two situations which can contribute to a goal of sociability. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), the following figure 3.6 illustrates their relationships. In short, when people consume sports, they may experience social interaction with others. That is, people who associate sociability with spectator sports are expected to use consuming sports as a venue to socialize with others. Single values, Sense of belonging (Kahle, 1996) and Warm relationships with others (Kahle, 1996), are associated with the value type Sociability. The experience associated with the value type is that “When I consume sports, I experience social interactions with others.” The following hypothesis is proposed: H2b: People who have a higher personal value of sociability are more likely to experience social interaction with others when consuming sports than people who have lower personal value of sociability.

Value type: Sociability

Desired consequences from spectator sport consumption: Togetherness with acquaintances, part of group.

Attributes: e.g., venues for sociability, sport talks Figure 3.6 Means-end Model for Sociability Value Identity. Richins (1994) mentioned that possessions have private and public meanings. The private meaning is related to value due to an important role possessions play in forming and reflecting the self, i.e. personal identity. The public meaning is related to value due to an inherent communicative power of possessions. The private and public meanings can be also found in

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spectator sports in terms of identity value and status value. This section discusses identity value, and the next section discusses status value. Sport teams serve as an object with which consumers identify, evoking emotional attachment (Sutton, McDonald, Milne, & Cimperman, 1997). According to social identity theory (Tajfel, 1981), identifying with a group enhances a person’s self-esteem because of the personal meaning and value that comes from belonging to or associating with a particular group. For example, when an individual identifies with a team, through team identification the person forms a psychological connection with the team (Wann, 1997), thinks of him or herself as part of the particular team, and enhances self-esteem when his or her team performs well. People who do the face painting, hair tinting, and iconographic costuming, enjoy identifying with their team. In addition, as reflected in Wann et. al.’s (2001) National Identity and Duncan’s (1983) dimension, Political Dimensions of Spectator Sports, sport can serve as a collective representation of a nation “representing in symbolic form the social identity” (Wann, et. al., 2001, p. 185). In the pilot study, one participant mentioned that “you have a passion for the team of your city.” Some respondents said that it would be more interesting to watch sports if they knew some of the players. Others indicated they watched sports for players they knew or for the team from their home countries. Citizens in a nation or people who identify with the nation would be committed to and cheer up for the national team and meet a goal to satisfy their identity needs. The sportive nationalism can serve as an attractive goal for a person to meet national identity. Similarly, when sport teams or players represent a school, a community, or a city, the team or players would foster sentiments of identification (Anderson & Stone, 1981) for students in the school or residents in the community or city to satisfy a desire of their identity. Further, a team can be a source of parental pride (Anderson & Stone, 1981), sibling pride, peer pride, or hero admiration when one or some players in the team are associated and supported. This can contribute to enhance people’s self-esteem no matter whether they are aware of their propensity to support or admire one or some of a team’s players. For example, when a fan wears a player’s jersey, there is identity value for the fan. In addition, Wann’s (1995) self-esteem benefits, and Milne and McDonald’s (1999) affiliation and self-esteem (a spectator sport can support a consumer’s selfconcept and meet a desire to confirm his or her sense of identity) provide similar concepts. In conclusion, sport spectating serves as a good source of identity, and people can experience an

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enhancement of personal identity and meet a goal to satisfy their identity needs in spectator sports. Identity is an appropriate label because it explicitly expresses the identification effects. Satisfying identity needs is a general goal to cover different situations such as team identification, nationalism, parental and peer pride, and hero admiration. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), the following figure 3.7 summarizes their relationships. Single values, Self-respect (Kahle, 1996), Loyal (Schwartz, 1992), and National security (Schwartz, 1992), are associated with the value type Identity. It is hypothesized that people who associate identity with spectator sports are expected to experience an enhancement of personal identity through consuming sports. The experience associated with the value type, Identity, is that “When I consume sports, I enhance my personal identity (by associating with a team or players)”.Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2c: People who have a higher personal value of identity are more likely to experience an enhancement of personal identity when consuming sports than people who have lower personal value of identity.

Value type: Identity

Desired consequences from spectator sport consumption: Support players, support the team

Attributes: e.g., collective representation

Figure 3.7 Means-end Model for Identity Value

Status. Like identity, status serves a similar purpose for enhancement of self-esteem. The label status is one of the values of possessions in Richins’ (1994) findings. Coming from public

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meaning, status value may be built on three background environments. First, sport spectatorship has become an important part of a society. Second, as demonstrated by Wann, et. al. (2001), one of societal values of spectator sports is their communicative power because “the language of sport finds its way into almost every aspect of life” (p. 183). Third, sport is a microcosm of society (Snyder & Spreizter, 1974, 1989). Given these three backgrounds, sport spectatorship can become a means to pursue a status goal. Because sport becomes important in a society and has communicative power, a person can show that he or she is with the world in sport talks and can be perceived as fashionable and knowledgeable in particular when important sporting events are going on. For being well-recognized, the person watches sports to serve a purpose of pursuing status. In the pilot study, one participant said that “Because of the peer pressure thing. Because when he went to work next day, every one would talk about the game. Soccer you got to know what is going on.” Some respondents from other countries mentioned that watching football in the US is like a cultural fashion that they have to experience. Further, since sport is a microcosm of society, people may use sport spectatorship as a conspicuous consumption to demonstrate their social status. Luxury boxes and premium seats are a status symbol of our society divided along socioeconomic lines. That is, for example, a person who can afford an expensive ticket sitting in a luxury box or premium seat for a professional sporting event or an important event demonstrates the person’s social position or power for selfesteem. Like a car which can be a status symbol, sport spectating can serve as a status goal. The managerial implication suggests that this status value type is worthy to be recognized. In short, the status value for individuals in spectator sport means pursuing a goal of social recognized status through spectating sports no matter if the consequences are fashion or conspicuous consumption. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), the following figure 3.8 summarizes their relationships. People who associate status with spectator sports are more likely to experience an enhancement of social recognition through consuming sports. Single values, Wealth (Schwartz, 1992), Preserving my public image (Schwartz, 1992), and Being wellrespected (Kahle, 1996), are associated with the value type Status. The experience associated with the value type is that “Through consuming sports, I enhance social recognition (by, for example, sitting in good seats, attending important games, talking sports fashionably etc.)” The following hypothesis is proposed:

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H2d: People who have a higher personal value of status are more likely to experience an enhancement of social recognition through consumption of spectator sports than people who have lower personal value of status.

Value type: Status

Desired consequence from spectator sport consumption: Catch up with fashion, Conspicuous consumption

Attributes: e.g., communicative power, microcosm of society, premium seats

Figure 3.8 Means-end Model for Status Value Moral. Moral values for spectator sports refer to a goal of learning what is good and right from watching sports. This value type can be derived from moral values in sport participation. In participation, sports serve as an arena for practicing moral virtues such as discipline, team work, excellence, commitment, and fair play (Burleson, 1997). These moral virtues are illustrated in sports and might be learned from watching sports. Like moral lessons learned from reading a fable, the moral values such as sportsmanship, empathy (Values in Sports, 1963), discipline, religiosity (Edwards, 1973, cited by Snyder & Spreizter, 1989), dedication, integrity, fairness, and courage (Simon, 2004, p. 215) can be demonstrated in playing sports and learned from watching sports. It is likely that when parents and children watch sports together, one of the goals for parents who are sport participants is to show children the important values of fair play, team work, obedience, diligence, and spirit. That is, some morals can be taught and socialized through sports. Because “sport has the potential to model several values regarded as crucial to a … society” (Wann, et. al., 2001, p. 190), these values could be transmitted through sports. For

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example, the values could be “a sense of fairness” (Zillmann, Bryant, & Sapolsky, 1989), legitimization of authority, honesty, justice, equality, respect for the rule of law, respect for the rights of others, cooperation, competition, fair play, the importance of success, hard work, courage, self-discipline, self-control, confidence, altruism, ambition, sacrifice, and loyalty (Wann, et. al., p. 190, 191). For individual spectators alike, these values like moral values are expected to be taught as a goal of spectator sports. In addition, competitions in sports “reflect the drama of life in miniature” (Roby, 1974, cited by Duncan, 1983, p. 30), and in the drama, “all moral and emotional interests are in a manner involved” (Santayana, 1979, cited by Duncan, 1983, p. 30). Thus, the moral and emotional elements embedded in sport competition may serve as desirable goals for people in spectatorship. For example, for some people, sport spectatorship might be a good means to achieve a goal of vicariously experiencing discipline and cruelty from the competition because of the low risk in spectating. Further, because “the language of sport finds its way into almost every aspect of life” (p. 183), it is likely that parents, teachers, and educators can use sport metaphors or anecdotes to communicate moral lessons after witnessing sporting events. Moreover, some values such as conformity that serve collective interests in Schwartz’ value system might be also viewed as morals and can be learned in spectator sports. Next, morals are produced by meeting requirements of societal demands. “Sports by their very nature demand socially desirable behaviors and beliefs” (Stevenson, 1974). In short, because of rules, competition, the drama embedded in sports and their language and metaphors, sports can express many specific examples of moral virtues and reflect examples of moral virtues in real lives. The moral values associated with spectator sports indicates a goal of learning virtues and lessons about what is good and right from watching sports. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), the following figure 3.9 summarizes the relationships. People who associate a moral value with spectator sports are more likely to appreciate and learn morals through consuming sports. Single values associated with the value type, Moral, are: Honest (Schwartz, 1992), Ambitious (Schwartz, 1992), Obedient (Schwartz, 1992), and Self-discipline (Schwartz, 1992). Based on the definition of the value type, the current research creates the single value, Moral (to stick to what is good and right). Experience associated with the value type is that “When I consume sports, I appreciate/learn morals (for example fairness, sportsmanship, team work etc)”. The following hypothesis is proposed:

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H2e: People who have a higher personal value of morals are more likely to learn morals when consuming sports than people who have a lower personal value of morals.

Value type: Moral

Desired consequences from spectator sport consumption: Learning morals through consuming sports

Attributes: e.g., rules, competition, drama, language of sport, sport metaphors Figure 3.9 Means-end Model for Moral Values Spirituality. The sixth value type is spirituality. Schwartz’ (1992) spirituality overlapped with benevolence and universalism and did not appear to be a universal motivational type of value. Nevertheless, theologians of play such as Harvey Cox, David Miller, Sam Keen, and Jurgen Moltmann noted that there are similarities between sports and spirituality (Burleson, 1997). Notes from the pilot study also indicated that some people might experience spirituality in spectating sports. The current research provides a specific definition of spirituality related to spectator sports. The spirituality value includes achievement, peak experience, transcendence, and existentialism. Achievement is based on the literature review of sport fan motivation; peak experience and transcendence are from Maslow’s (1970a) explanation about characteristics of self-actualization; existentialism is from the pilot study. Spirituality is defined variously. It could mean “a transcendent reality, a focus on ultimate concerns, peak experiences, a personally central belief system, connectedness with others, connectedness with a divine reality, connectedness with nature, empathy, and altruism” (Greenwald & Harder, 2003, p. 975). Various definitions of spirituality seem to suggest no consensus. This is part of the reason why spirituality does not appear to be a universal

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motivational type of value in Schwartz’ value system (Schwartz, 1992). However, after narrowing down and specifying the definition of spirituality, the value type of spirituality should be appropriate in spectator sports. The current research suggested that spirituality values for individuals watching sports include peak experiences, transcendence, and ultimate concerns in terms of existentialism. Vicarious achievement is relevant to these three themes and thus included. “A personally central belief system” is too broad and vague. Connectedness with others, with a divine reality, with nature, and empathy and altruism are either partly reflected in moral values or irrelevant to spectator sports. A spirituality value for individuals watching spectator sports means that people pursue a goal of experiencing something spiritual. Something spiritual includes vicarious achievement, peak experiences (Maslow, 1970b), transcendence, and ultimate existentialism. Spectator sports, the sporting drama, and spectator sport’s rituals provide spiritual sustenance and allow spectators to experience a type of spiritual transformation (Duncan, 1983; Wann, et. al., 2001). Sport may be seen as a humanistic religion (Duncan, 1983; Dunning, 1986) in which spectators may worship star players and their achievement (Wann, et. al., 2001). “Like religion, spectator sports contain mystical elements” (Duncan, 1983, p. 33) such as the charisma, flow, spirit, and momentum. The vicarious achievement through witnessing the flow of movement may further become peak experiences. The vicarious experience of achievement through feeling the intangible quality of spirit demonstrated by players or a team may suggest unfettered human potential. This potential shows illimitable possibilities for a person to experience transcendence beyond the realities of everyday life (Duncan, 1983). The peak experiences and transcendence provide a way in which spectators express themselves (Duncan, 1983) and affirm who they are (Richins, 2005). Achievement is vicariously experienced when people watch a good performance. As Duncan (1983) suggested in Transcendence of Human Limitations, spectators may “participate vicariously in the athlete’s achievement which exceeds their own capabilities” (p. 30). Vicarious peak experiences might refer to vicariously experienced flow, effortless-like perfection, and harmonious balance between concentration and relaxing, between aggression and composure, and between body and intellect. For example, when playing billiards, players need to control and balance their minds and their muscles. In the peak experience, the cue stick will become part of the body with precision to follow the mind. Going further, vicarious peak transcendence might

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refer to momentum, chi, total immersion, or tremendous concentration. In the peak transcendence, the audience may feel that momentum or chi is there and frightening even though players may not do anything yet or are in fact behind. In the peak transcendence of total immersion and tremendous concentration, disturbance from the audience seems to disappear, and “important and unimportant are less sharply differentiated” (Maslow, 1970b, p. 60). It seems that with ego-transcendence, detached awareness, a person may feel something beyond win and loss. It seems that a person can compartmentalize emotions. It seems that something there is everything. It seems that a person is suddenly without heart and would be non-interfering and would not be disturbed. Like Mana, the inarticulate elements in transcendence might be powerful and consciously or unconsciously appreciated greatly. For example, in basketball, a game won by a final shot in a final second might have something transcendental there. The peak experience and transcendence in this dissertation take reference with Maslow’s peak experience (1970a, 1970b), but the focus may not be exactly the same. According to Maslow’s (1970b, p. 164) peak experience,

“there were the same feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before, the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable had happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in his daily life by such experiences.”

This dissertation tends to simplify the explanation with two parts. The first part, still called peak experience, tends to relate to vicarious flow experience. The second part, called peak transcendence, tends to adopt a Taoistic and Buddhist perspective, for example, “the loss of placing in time and space,” the emptiness of heart without desire and emotion. The emptiness may come from intense concentration, and the emptiness may produce inner harmony, stability, power and strength. “Saying the ego or self is empty means it is better to ground awareness in the soul and experience the ego as a garment” (Tibetan Buddhism, 1995). That is part of the reason that the final shot is confident and fearless.

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Regarding spiritual existentialism in spectator sports, the consumption activity of sport spectatorship might be idealized (Richins, 2005) or sacralized (Belk, Wallendorf, & Sherry, 1989), affirming who we are by seeing others who have overcome difficulties in sports (Richins, 2005). Belk et al. (1989) proposed that ordinary consumption might be transformed into a sacred activity. The reason why some sport consumers may sacrilize their consumption of sports (Belk, et al., 1989; Ohl, 2005) is that games evoke intense emotions and give meaning to lives and that there is a quest for perfection and flow or peak experience in sports (Coakley, 2006). The peak experience and transcendence and other prior-during-after game rituals may further contribute to a blissful and meaningful feeling of ultimate existentialism, that is, reassurance being symbolic of the continued personal existence and reaffirmation of personal importance in the social structure (Stevenson, 1974). In the experience of ultimate existentialism, people may feel inner peace, strength, meaning and purpose in life (Greenwald & Harder, 2003). Some people might view sport as a substitute for religion (Coakley, 2006) and use it as a means to satisfy a need for a sense of ultimate self-existence. In short, this spirituality “offers human beings motivations to perform behaviors” and produces “a heightened sense of well-being” (Greenwald & Harder, 2003, p. 978). Different from self-esteem, spirituality is fulfilling, self-satisfied, with self acceptance and aspiration. Because of drama, performance, competition in sports, sports are expected to provide an existential meaning and experience for spectators. They may find out a type of spiritual transformation and transcendental feeling in watching sports. The sporting drama allows “fans to transcend their existential existence and experience a type of spiritual transformation” (Lever, 1983, cited by Wann et. al., 2001, p. 200). This might be also described as “experiencing Tao through [sport] arts.” All these vicarious achievement, peak experiences, transcendence beyond the fate in everyday life, and blissful existentialism might provide a purpose for spectators indulging in spectatorship. In addition, spirituality is different from entertainment or enjoyment because spirituality may contain a sense of sacredness coming from peak experiences, transcendence, and ultimate existentialism. Although people might be unconscious of spirituality, they pursue a goal of something spiritual in spectator sports. People might feel enlightened, purified, or cleansed after watching sports. It could be because of the release of tension, but it might be also because of a spiritual shower---witnessing amazing spectacles from unbelievable performance, competition, sportsmanship, or outcome.

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Basically, spirituality in this dissertation extends vicarious achievement discussed in fan motivation research to have a broader connotation than achievement, i.e. something beyond achievement such as peak experiences, transcendence, and existentialism. From a metaphysical point of view, peak experiences, transcendence, and ultimate existentialism somehow are in different level and beyond immediate and perceivable achievement. Peak experiences, transcendence, and existentialism might be a revelation, an insight, or enlightenment beyond normal experiences or boundaries. They might create inner peace, inner strength, and inner blissfulness. Sport spectatorship can serve a bridge to contribute to the ineffable spirituality. People may not be consciously aware of the power of spirituality, but they pursue a goal to be spiritualized in watching sports. This is the reason why big games attract lots of attention and interest because big games are more likely to create a spiritual shower for the audience. Similarly, a reason why some sport movies, Rocky for example, are successful is because they catch the spiritual elements in sports and put them together intensely. If they only replicate a real normal game, they might not be so attractive. Only human beings can pursue B-values (Being values) (Maslow, 1970b) or spirituality. “Man has a higher and transcendent nature, and this is part of his essence” (Maslow, 1970b, p. xvi). If spectating sports did not touch human spiritual nerves, it might not have been so pervasive and so visibly central (Stevenson, 1974) and might have otherwise perished. In the study conducted by the researcher about the strongest motive influencing people to attend a Seminoles football game, Big game and Vicarious achievement are the fourth and fifth frequently answered motives, following Social interaction with friends (i.e. Sociability value), Entertainment (i.e. Enjoyment value), and Team affiliation (i.e. Identity value). Based on very preliminary evidence, spirituality has the potential to be recognized as an important value type for individuals in spectator sports. In conclusion, spirituality is a general label to indicate the indescribable goal people pursue in sport spectating, including various spiritual implications such as vicarious achievement, peak experiences, transcendence, and ultimate existentialism associated with spectator sports. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), the following figure 3.10 summarizes the relationships. Single values associated with the value type, Spirituality, are: A spiritual life (Schwartz, 1992), A sense of accomplishment (Kahle, 1996), Self-fulfillment (Kahle, 1996), Successful (Schwartz, 1992), Peak experience (Maslow, 1970b), Peak transcendence (Maslow, 1970b; Piedmont, 1999), and Meaning in life (Schwartz, 1992). It is hypothesized that people who associate spirituality with spectator sports are more

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likely to experience vicarious achievement, peak experience, peak transcendence and ultimate existentialism through watching sports. The experience associated with the value type is that “Through consuming sports, I experience spirituality (such as vicarious achievement, peak experiences, transcendence, and/or existentialism)”. The following hypothesis is proposed: H2f: People who have a higher personal value of spirituality are more likely to experience vicarious achievement, peak experience, peak transcendence, and ultimate existentialism when consuming sports than people who have a lower personal value of spirituality.

Value type: Spirituality

Desired consequences from spectator sport consumption: Vicarious achievement, vicarious peak experience, transcendence, ultimate existentialism

Attributes: e.g., big game, spiritual elements in competition, performance, sportsmanship, outcome

Figure 3.10 Means-end Model for Spirituality Value

Epistemic value. Epistemic value, Aesthetic value, and Ritual value. These three value types are viewed as intrinsic values. That is, they exist for their own sake. The label, epistemic value, is from one of five categories of values provided by a product in Sheth, Newman, and Gross’ (1991) classification. Maslow (1970a) pointed out that people are “attracted to the mysterious, to the unknown, to the chaotic, unorganized, and unexplained” (p. 49). “This seems to be a per se attractiveness; these areas are in themselves and of their own right interesting” (p. 49). “The gratification of the cognitive impulses is subjectively satisfying and yields endexperience” (p. 50). Moreover, the intellectual value in Zukowska’s (1987) typology of sport

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values, might be also related to the epistemic value (c.f. Sheth, Newman, & Gross, 1991). The elements of skills, strategies (Snyder & Spreizter, 1989), techniques (Simon, 1985, p. 89), tactics, rules, records, and team histories inherent in sports and teams are likely to be appreciated for their own sake (intrinsic value). In the pilot study, one participant mentioned that “Every time when I watched sports, I need energy.” “I don’t want to miss any moment and any play. Watching sports is serious for me. I pay attention to the technique, strategy, and statistics, and sometimes I do take notes.” Like witnessing people playing chess, watching people playing sports may appeal to a goal of an intrinsic value in terms of knowledge (Taylor, 1977) embedded in sports. The knowledge can be also the purpose for people who want to emulate and imitate the top players (Simon, 1985). Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Briere, and Blais (1995) also mentioned an “epistemic need to know” (p. 36, cited by Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2000, p. 158). This intrinsic motivation is one of the motives called Acquisition of Knowledge in Trail and James’ (2001) Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC). As mentioned earlier, skills, strategies, techniques, tactics, rules, records, statistics, and team histories embedded in sports are likely to be appreciated for their own sake. Thus, watching people playing sports may appeal to a desire for relevant knowledge. Spectator sports provide a goal for some individuals to pursue knowledge as end-experience and satisfaction. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), figure 3.11 summarizes the relationships. Single values expected to associate with the value type are: Creativity (Schwartz, 1992), Curious (Schwartz, 1992), Intelligent (Schwartz, 1992), and Broad-minded (Schwartz, 1992). It is likely that a person who values these single values is more interested in sports knowledge. It is hypothesized that people who associate epistemic value with spectator sports are more likely to appreciate/learn skills, strategies, and techniques as endexperience in sports. The experience associated with the value type is that “When I consume sports, I acquire sports knowledge (for example strategies, tactics, techniques etc)”. The following hypothesis is proposed: H2g: People who have a higher personal value of knowledge are more likely to learn strategies, tactics, and techniques when consuming sports than people who have a lower personal value of knowledge.

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Value type: Epistemic value

Desired consequences from spectator sport consumption: Pursue the sport knowledge

Attributes: e.g., skills, tactics, strategies

Figure 3.11 Means-end Model for Epistemic Value

Aesthetic value. Similar to epistemic value, aesthetic value is also for its own right and end-experience. All three fan motivation scales (Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995) have aesthetic motives. Wann (1995) mentioned that sporting events are seen as a form of art by some fans (Duncan, 1983; Guttmann, 1986; Sloan, 1989; Smith, 1988; cited by Wann, 1995). The beauty, grace, or other artistic characteristics in sports (Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2000; Willis & Campbell, 1992, cited by Milne & McDonald, 1999) such as figure skating, synchronized swimming, and gymnastics (Milne & McDonald, 1999) may be greatly appreciated for their own sake in watching sports. The power, intensity, beauty, precision, the flow of movement, harmony, complexity, completeness, and unity consist of aesthetic elements in sports and may appeal to viewer’s need for aesthetic satisfaction. In addition, “the trinity of canonized values, known as ‘the True, the Beautiful and the Good’” (Perry, 1926, p. 693), suggests that truth (epistemic value), beauty (aesthetic value), and goodness (moral value) have their own intrinsic values. Based on objectivity theory of value, pursuing these values can serve as a goal individuals associate with spectator sports. Maslow (1970a) also pointed out that “in some individuals there is a truly basic aesthetic need” (p. 51). Thus, it is likely for some individuals to pursue aesthetics as a goal of end-experience in spectating sports. In the pilot study, some respondents pointed out that they were fond of sporting events such as diving, figure skating, and

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synchronized swimming because of their beauty and grace. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), figure 3.12 summarizes the relationships. Single values expected to associate with the value type are: Capable (Schwartz, 1992), A world of beauty (Schwartz, 1992), and Aesthetics (Maslow, 1970a). It is hypothesized that people who associate aesthetic values with spectator sports are more likely to appreciate arts in sports as end-experience. The experience associated with the value type is that “When I consume sports, I appreciate the beauty that takes place in sports”. The following hypothesis is proposed: H2h: People who have a higher personal value of aesthetics are more likely to appreciate the artistic aspects of sports when consuming them than people who have a lower personal value of aesthetics. Value type: Aesthetic value

Desired consequences from spectator sport consumption: Pursue the beauty

Attributes: e.g., a form of art, grace, movement

Figure 3.12 Means-end Model for Aesthetic Value

Ritual value. The ninth value type is ritual value. It emerged from the findings of the qualitative inquiry in the pilot study. This might be a unique value in spectator sports. Similar to epistemic and aesthetic values, ritual value is also viewed as an intrinsic value for its own sake and end-experience. The ritual value emerged from the interviews and focus groups. It means that watching sports for some individuals provides a goal for performing the ritual as an endexperience. Like a festival, a sporting event may create ritual values. For some people, watching or attending sporting events may play an important role in their daily lives. Sport spectatorship makes their lives meaningful and colorful.

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Because ritual acts have expressive or symbolic element (Radcliffe-Brown, 1952, cited by Grund, 1993), ritual activity in pursuit of ritual value is an end in itself (Durkheim, 1971; Malinowski, 1948; cited by Grund, 1993) without direct purposiveness. When people sacrilize (Belk, Wallendorf, & Sherry, Jr., 1989) and ritualize their consumption in sports, sports spectating might become a ritual activity. Since ritual activity is an end in itself, ritual value from ritual activity is for its own sake. Rituals are formal and serious activities of multiple behaviors that occur in a fixed sequence and tend to be repeated over time and dramatically performed with intensity (Rook, 1985). That is, a ritual is “a series of actions or type of behavior regularly and invariably followed by someone” (English dictionary). Rituals would imbue a meaning for life without an individual’s conscious knowing, and they may also enhance the sentiment, consolidate a group of people (Radcliffe-Brown, 1939; Gau & Gailliot, 2006), and increase the person’s life satisfaction. In sport settings, some people view sport itself as a ritual (Birrell, 1981; Blanchard, 1988; Guttmann, 1978; Stevenson & Alaug, 1997). In the same token, spectating sport itself can be a ritual. Spectating sports would be conditioned in daily lives or in a season or annual cycle and become a daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal or yearly routine ritual. Those who perform the rituals would find meanings and values in the rituals themselves although they may not be consciously aware of this psychological transformation and dependence on the rituals. The obvious example is going to a ceremonial type of sport events such as FSU football games. The event may become an accustomed ritual. Many people look forward to the FSU football season. The sports event itself is looked forward to as much as the ritual activities that surround it, for example, tailgating, FSU related parties, and booster events. For some FSU football fans being a spectator at an FSU game is a ritual event. They participate in this ritual on a yearly basis and look forward to it in the same way people look forward to a religious festival. Sports for some people are like a religion, and watching sports becomes a ritual. This value dimension implies the symbolic element of a ritual and indicates that spectating sports has an intrinsic value as a ritual. Based on means-end model (c.f. Figure 3.3), Figure 3.13 summarizes the relationships. Single values expected to associate with the value type are: Devout (Schwartz, 1992), Respect for tradition (Schwartz, 1992), and Self-indulgent (Schwartz, 1992). When a person is serious, earnest in consuming sports, views consuming sports as a tradition, and/or indulges in consuming sports, it seems that consuming sports becomes his or her ritual. It is hypothesized that people who tend to view consuming sports as a ritual are more likely to consume sports

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regularly and invariably. The experience associated with the value type is that “Like brushing my teeth, consuming sports is part of my daily routine.” The following hypothesis is proposed: H2i: People who have higher personal values associated with rituals are more likely to consume sports regularly than people who have lower personal values associated with rituals.

Value type: Ritual

Desired consequences from spectator sport consumption: Ritualized obsession, Ritualized schedule, Ritual activities

Attributes: e.g., tailgating, booster events Figure 3.13 Means-end Model for Ritual Value No value and negative value. In contrast to moral values, no value or negative value means that a person denies any goal can be achieved in spectating sports or thinks of negative effects from watching sports. Values that an object has are subjective. For some people, spectator sport could be something they have never thought to consume or they ignore because they are not interested in it and they do not want it. They are indifferent to sport spectatorship. For some people, spectating sport may have negative connotation and mean a “waste of time” or would contaminate a mind due to violent and aggressive nature. They may feel bored in watching sports and discourage others to watch them. In the pilot study, a few respondents mentioned that watching sports is a waste of time. One respondent said that watching sports is like living in a jail---she hoped it would end sooner. Critics might point out that sport spectatorship is a lazy (Wann et. al, 2001, p. 157), passive and indolent (Simon, 1985, p. 90) activity or consumption leading to ill effects on the health. Some people may also feel that sport should not hold such importance in our society. A feminist might view sport spectating as reproducing an ideology of masculinity; the elitist might view sport fandom as a superficial activity without intellectual challenge and stimulation; the moralist might view some sports spectacles as barbaric and bloody; the humanist might view

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sport fandom and spectating as passive activities, and “passivity is viewed as inherently impoverishing” (Wann, et. al., 2001, p. 206). All these thoughts could contribute to no value or negative value for some individuals in spectator sports. In addition, some people might feel exhausted and sad after watching sports. They might, therefore, have negative value for spectating sports. In short, people who see no values or negative values associated with spectator sports are less likely to consume sports. Single values expected to associate with the value type are: A world at peace (Schwartz, 1992), Inner harmony (Schwartz, 1992), and Equality (Schwartz, 1992). A person who emphasizes these single values may dislike consuming sports because of competition, conflict, win/loss, and social status embedded in sports. The experience associated with the value type is that “I do not consume sports”. The following hypothesis is proposed. H2j: People who have higher personal values of a world at peace, inner harmony, and equality are less likely to consume sports than people who have lower personal values of a world at peace, inner harmony, and equality.

In conclusion, this proposal primarily took references from Maslow’s, Kahle’s, and Schwartz’ value categories. Survival needs, i.e. physiological and safety needs in Maslow’s needs theory, were discarded because they are obviously irrelevant to spectator sports. In the growth needs, Maslow’s self-actualization is included in part of spirituality value type. Enjoyment was not in Maslow’s categories but in Kahle’s and Schwartz’ categories. In general, all of Kahle’s categories were included with exception of security value (c.f. Table 3.5). Similar to safety needs, security value is irrelevant to spectator sports. In Schwartz’ value systems, values that serve collective interests such as benevolence and conformity were partly included in moral values or might be irrelevant with spectator sports. The framework of spectator sport values is believed to be comprehensive and merits the empirical test of their prediction of sport spectator behavior. The framework is an initial step to explore the values individuals associate with spectator sports. The framework will be a good starting point for a series of studies. Each value type in the framework has potential to be further explored. Future research can comprehensively investigate which attributes of the product of spectator sports can contribute to the pursuit of each value type. The framework can be also examined across cultures. In addition, future studies can examine

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other factors which influence the values associated with spectator sports. The framework can also help understand the process of spectator sport consumption. The following chapter presents the methodology to examine the proposed hypotheses derived from the framework.

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CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY The current research explores values people associate with watching spectator sports and proposes a ten-value framework. Based on the framework, hypotheses about the relationships between the values and sport spectator behavior are proposed. The previous chapters contributed to the exploration of spectator sport values and developed the theoretical framework. Ten value types were identified through the analysis of the interview and focus group data, and the review of literature. This chapter introduces the empirical research design and methods to examine hypotheses derived from the framework. The research design provides the “big picture” regarding the connection among the framework, hypotheses, and each step in the research process. The research process includes development of questionnaire, sampling procedures, data collection, and data analyses. Research Design The qualitative inquiry in the pilot study preceding the dissertation research was completed in an effort to guide the direction of the literature review to develop the theoretical framework. The framework is the basis for proposing hypotheses regarding relationships between values and sport spectator behavior. In order to examine these hypotheses, a questionnaire was developed. The efforts from the pilot study and literature review contributed to the creation of items in the questionnaire. Some items were extracted from the literature; other items were developed by the researcher. The questionnaire was revised based on the results of the first data collection and analyses. Then, the modified questionnaire was disseminated through a second data collection. The data was input into Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 14.0 (SPSS 14.0). The statistical tools, regression analyses and coefficients, were used to examine the hypotheses. Other statistical tools such as frequencies and Analysis-of-variance (ANOVA) were also used to analyze the data. The following sections describe the development of questionnaire, data collection and analyses. Development of Questionnaire The questionnaire has three major parts: values, sport spectator behavior, and demographics. The following describes in details how items in these three parts were created.

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Values Since the framework in the current research is drawn from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Rokeach, Kahle, and Schwartz’s value systems, items assessing values in the first part of questionnaire were primarily extracted from these prior studies. Maslow (1970a) proposed his needs theory primarily based on his “clinical experience” (p. 35). From a literature review and a number of his clinical cases, Maslow came to his conclusions of the theory from his own insights into human needs. Rokeach (1973) acquired two lists of eighteen instrumental and terminal values after several years of research. The eighteen terminal values were distilled from existing literature, the writers’ own values, and those obtained from about 30 graduate students in psychology, and interviews. The eighteen instrumental values were selected from Anderson’s (1968) list of 555 trait-names based on several criteria. The criteria included retaining positive values, retaining only one from a group of synonyms, and retaining those judged to be maximally different values, important values in American society, discriminating values across social stratum, and meaningful values across cultures. In a survey, the 36 values were arranged alphabetically along with a brief definition in parentheses for each value. The instructions directed respondents to “arrange them in order of importance to YOU, as guiding principles in YOUR life” (Rokeach, 1973, p. 27). The ranking method assumed the relative importance of values. The weakness of this ranking method was that eighteen values might not be easy to rank “given that in short-term memory people can store only about 7 items, plus or minus 2” (Peterson & Peterson, 1959, cited by Kahle & Timmer, 1983, p. 62). The strength of the ranking method is that ranking of one value versus other values can imply the intensity of values (Hofstede, 2001). The List of Values (LOV) supported by Kahle (Kahle, 1983; Kahle & Kennedy, 1988) consisted of eight values after Excitement was collapsed into Fun and Excitement. “This list was culled from Rokeach’s [1973] list of eighteen terminal values, Maslow’s [1954] hierarchy of values, and various other contemporaries in value research” (Kahle & Kennedy, 1988, p. 50). In a questionnaire, respondents were asked to rate the importance of each value on a scale from 1 to 9 and to circle one value that is most important to them in their daily life (Kahle & Kennedy, 1988). Kahle and Kennedy (1988) argued that assumed interval-level data from the rating method instead of ordinal-level data from the ranking method allowed for more statistical analyses.

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Schwartz (1992, 1994) used values from the Rokeach (1973) survey and from instruments developed in other cultures to derive 56 values. A slightly expanded, 57-item version, of the Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) included one more item “self-indulgence” (Schwartz, 2004, 2005). Respondents were asked to rate each value “AS A GUIDING PRINCIPLE IN MY LIFE,” using nine-point scale: of supreme importance (7), very important (6), unlabeled (5, 4), important (3), unlabeled (2, 1), not important (0), and opposed to my values (-1) (Schwartz, 1992, 1994, 2004, 2005). Prior to rating the values, respondents were asked to choose their most and least important values, “thereby anchoring their use of the response scale” (Schwartz, 1994, p. 26). Schwartz (1994) argued that rating in preference to ranking provided methodological benefits in terms of more useful statistical properties. The current research used two criteria to decide upon items to measure the individual values. The first criterion was parsimony. The second criterion considered was comprehensiveness. The number of items included is an attempt to balance parsimony and comprehensiveness. Kahle’s (1996) Excitement and Fan and enjoyment in life are used to measure the individual values associated with Enjoyment. Kahle’s (1996) Sense of belonging and Warm relationships with others are used to measure the individual values associated with Sociability. Kahle’s (1996) Self-respect is used to measure an individual value associated with Identity. Schwartz’ (1992) Loyal and National security are also included to measure the individual values associated with Identity. The rationale is that a person who values loyalty may be loyal to his or her identified team and that a person who values national security may have nationalism and support the team from his or her home country. Kahle’s (1996) Being well-respected and Schwartz’ (1992) Wealth and Preserving my public image were included to measure the individual values associated with Status. These values are considered the manifestation of status and relevant to spectator sports. Schwartz’ (1992) Ambitious, Self-discipline, Obedient, and Honest are used to measure the individual values associated with the Moral value type. These items are obvious manifestations of morals in sports. Spectators might appreciate whether a team and players work hard, have self-restraint, obey game rules, and play sports sincerely. In addition, based on the definition of moral values, the researcher created one item, Moral, with a brief description, “stick to what is good and right.” The items used to measure the Spirituality value type included Schwartz’ (1992) A spiritual life, Meaning in life, Successful, Kahle’s (1996) A sense of accomplishment, Self-fulfillment, and

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Maslow’s (1970b) Peak experience and Peak transcendence. A spiritual life is a general item. Successful, a sense of accomplishment, and self-fulfillment can be referred to as vicarious achievement; meaning in life can be referred to as existentialism. The items used to measure the Epistemic value type included Schwartz’ (1992) Intelligent, Creativity, Curious and Broadminded. It seems reasonable to presume that a person who emphasizes values of intelligence, creativity, curious, and broad-minded may be interested in what happens in sports in terms of strategies, tactics, and techniques. The items used to measure the Aesthetic value type included Schwartz’ (1992) A world of beauty, Capable and Aesthetics (to pursue beauty) (c.f. Maslow, 1970a). A person who emphasizes personal values of a world of beauty and capable may be interested in the artistic aspects of sports. The items used to measure the Ritual value type included Schwartz’ (1992) Respect for tradition, Devout, and Self-indulgent (Schwartz, 2004, 2005). It is expected that a person will watch sports as rituals when he or she views sports as tradition, is devout toward sports and self-indulgent in watching sport. The brief explanation for Devout was changed from “holding to religious faith and belief” (Schwartz, 1992) to “serious, earnest in a pursuit, belief, or mode of behavior” (Webster dictionary) because the original explanation may only refer to religion. The brief explanation for Self-indulgent (Schwartz, 2004) is “unstrained gratification” from Webster dictionary. Finally, for people who see no or negative values in spectator sports, they may tend to emphasize personal values of A world at peace, Inner Harmony, and Equality (Schwartz, 1992). People who value peace and harmony may not like the competition in sports; people who value equality may not want to fight for who is better. Table 4.1 summarizes the values and their measuring items extracted from literature. Given the discussions above, the current study used three criteria to develop the values surveyed in the first part of questionnaire. First, in order to anchor their use of the response scale, respondents were asked to choose their most and least important values prior to rating the values. Second, respondents were asked to rate the importance of each value “AS A GUIDING PRINCIPLE IN MY LIFE,” on a scale from -1 to 7. Third, a brief definition for each value was provided in parenthesis. The list of values was further specified based on the results of the first data collection and analyses. Appendix B shows the instruction and items in the questionnaire.

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Table 4.1 Values and their Measuring Items Value Types associated with spectator sports Enjoyment Sociability Identity

Status

Moral

Spirituality

Epistemic value

Aesthetics

Ritual

No or negative value

Total: 10

Measures of Individual values drawn from existing value instruments 1. Fun and enjoyment in life (Kahle, 1996) 2. Excitement (Kahle, 1996) 1. Sense of belonging (Kahle, 1996) 2. Warm relationships with others (Kahle, 1996) 1. Self-respect (Kahle, 1996) 2. Loyal (Schwartz, 1992) 3. National security (Schwartz, 1992) 1. Wealth (Schwartz, 1992) 2. Preserving my public image (Schwartz, 1992) 3. Social recognition (Schwartz, 1992) 1. Obedient (Schwartz, 1992) 2. Self-discipline (Schwartz, 1992) 3. Honest (Schwartz, 1992) 4. Ambitious (Schwartz, 1992) 5. Moral (Researcher) 1. A spiritual life (Schwartz, 1992) 2. A sense of accomplishment (Kahle, 1996) 3. Self-fulfillment (Kahle, 1996) 4. Successful (Schwartz, 1992) 5. Peak experience (Maslow, 1970b) 6. Peak transcendence (Maslow, 1970b; Piedmont, 1999) 7. Meaning in life (Schwartz, 1992) 1. Creativity (Schwartz, 1992) 2. Curious (Schwartz, 1992) 3. Intelligent (Schwartz, 1992) 4. Broad-minded (Schwartz, 1992) 1. Capable (Schwartz, 1992) 2. A world of beauty (Schwartz, 1992) 3. Aesthetics (c.f. Maslow, 1970a) 1. Respect for tradition (Schwartz, 1992) 2. Self-indulgent (Schwartz, 1992) 3. Devout (Schwartz, 1992) 1. Inner harmony (Schwartz, 1992) 2. A world at peace (Schwartz, 1992) 3. Equality (Schwartz, 1992) 35

Sport Spectator Behaviors Items assessing sport spectator behavior were created from a review of literature and the results of the framework. The measures include six items about spectator sport consumptions

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(James, 2006), and ten items about spectator sport experiences corresponding to the ten values. The ten experience items were derived from the ten-value-type framework and created by the researcher. The major function of these ten experience items is to help confirm the values people associate with spectator sports. The values were identified in the pilot study and further specified through the review of literature. The empirical examination was an attempt to confirm the values associated with spectator sports. One major purpose of the examination of hypotheses between personal values and spectator sport consumption and between personal values and spectator sport experiences was to confirm that the values associated with spectator sports and identified previously are valid. If the personal values can predict spectator sport consumption and/or experiences, the values are valid and considered relevant to spectator sports. It is consistent in the current research project that the efforts in the pilot study and literature review contributed to identifying and specifying the values people associate with spectator sports and then in the empirical stage, the effort contributes to confirming the values. The sixteen items comprised the second part of the questionnaire. Based on the results of the first data collection and analyses, the items were revised for the second data collection. Appendix B illustrates the instruction and the sixteen items. Demographics The third part of the questionnaire included measures of demographic characteristics. Four items were included to measure the demographic characteristics. The first item is gender. The reason why gender was measured is that there are sex differences in value choices (Kahle, 1983; Kahle, Duncan, Dalakas, & Aiken, 2001). The second and third items are age and ethnicity. Kahle (1983) found that these two demographic variables might influence the value choices. Similar to age, education level might also influence value choices. Income was not included because the sample is primarily college students. The students are assumed to have low individual incomes. Appendix B illustrates the five demographic items. Data Collection There were two stages for data collection. In the first stage, the data were collected from respondents answering the initial questionnaire. Regression and coefficient analyses were conducted to narrow down the list of values associated with spectator sports. A revised

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questionnaire was used for a second data collection. Given the constraints of time, finance, and personnel, the sampling was convenience sampling from college students and adults in the general population. Because the research focuses on personal beliefs and spectator sports, every individual who has at least high school education is considered capable to answer the survey. In the first data collection, because the campus was in the summer break, the researcher was not able to administer the data collection in classrooms. Instead, the researcher went to a public library and the major university library to collect data. The questionnaires were distributed one by one. When a person entered or left the library, the researcher approached him or her by saying, “Excuse me. Would you mind filling out a questionnaire to help me with dissertation?” If the person was interested or at least willing, further explanation of the project was provided. Data was also collected by sending out the questionnaire via e-mail to friends of the researcher. The email message explained that the survey was for a dissertation study about the comparisons between Americans and Taiwanese in personal beliefs and spectator sport consumption. A third source for completed questionnaires was colleagues that were contacted by the researcher’s brother. Since a seven-point or nine-point Likert scale was used with most items, the estimated sample size was determined to be between 100 and 256. Typical range of variances with a sevenpoint scale is between 2.5 and 4.0 (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2005). If a reasonable precision of ± 0.5 point and a confidence of 95 % (i.e. z = 2) are required, the sample size can be calculated by:

(2) 2 (2) 2 2 = and ( 2 . 5 ) 100 (4.0) 2 = 256 (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2005). The results of the (0.5) 2 (0.5) 2

regression and coefficient analyses provided information for revising the questionnaire. In the second data collection, a revised questionnaire was distributed to students enrolled in a large southeastern university in the US and a national university in the middle of Taiwan. College students were utilized because they could be conveniently reached. Another reason is that the college students have various opportunities to consume sports. Also, college students are believed to have relevant knowledge and ability to reflect on their personal values. Thus, college students are a reasonable sample for testing values associated with spectator sports. In the US, the researcher contacted instructors across campus to request participation in the project. If the instructors were willing to help, the researcher attended the classes to explain the research and answer any questions. Students either completed the questionnaire online or completed a paper

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version of the questionnaire. The participation was anonymous and voluntary without any penalty. The researcher also collected data at the main university library and fitness center. The questionnaires were distributed one by one. When a person entered or left the library or the fitness center, the researcher approached him or her by saying, “Excuse me. Would you mind filling out a questionnaire to help me with my dissertation?” If the person was interested or at least willing, further explanation of the project was provided. In Taiwan, the data collection was administered by one of the researcher’s previous students, Lee. She went to classrooms at the university, the university library, and the General Building on campus to collect data. In the classroom, Lee said, “同學您好，可以請您填份問卷嗎? 我同學目前在美國攻讀博士班，這 是他博士班論文問卷，擔誤您幾分鐘，麻煩請您幫我填寫一下，謝謝您!” (Hello everyone.

Could you please do me a favor? Help me by filling out a questionnaire. My classmate is currently working on a doctoral degree. This questionnaire is for his dissertation. Can I bother you a couple of minutes to help fill in this questionnaire? I appreciate it.) Sometimes Lee added that the researcher is an alumnus of this university. A similar invitation was used in front of library and the General Building. The data from the formal questionnaire was examined with SPSS. The analyses were expected to have an alpha level of .05, fifteen predictors in the regression, and a statistical power of 0.8. Given that R2 from the prior study (Shao, 2002) was between .02 and .06, the sample size would have to be between 326 and 950. Data Analyses

The data analyses included computation of descriptive statistics, regression and coefficient analyses, and Multivariate Analysis-of-variance (MANOVA) using SPSS 14.0. First, descriptive statistics were calculated including frequencies, means, and standard deviation. Descriptive statistics provide a general picture about the data and help check whether there were abnormal cases. Frequencies were also used to calculate how many respondents ranked each value as the most important and the least important values. Second, regression and coefficient analyses were used to test the hypotheses about whether values significantly predict sport spectator behavior. Values were treated as independent variables whereas the consumption variables and experiences were treated as dependent variables. Sixteen hypotheses were tested

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using sixteen regression equations. The results show whether values significantly predict spectator sport consumption and experiences and which values have significant coefficients. In addition to regression, correlation coefficients between values and consumption and values and experiences were calculated. The results show whether values are correlated with spectator sport consumption and spectator sports experiences. The results from regression analyses were further compared to the results from analyses of correlation coefficients. Third, MANOVA will be used for two purposes. MANOVA will help examine whether people who emphasize one specific value have different spectator sport consumptions or experiences from people who emphasize other values. Also, MANOVA was used to examine whether there were differences among gender and nationality groups in terms of value choices, spectator sport consumption and experiences. The results of MANOVA show whether values and demographic variables have an impact on spectator sport consumption and experiences.

In conclusion, this chapter presents the methodology used to develop a questionnaire for data collection. The data was analyzed to test the hypotheses derived from the theoretical framework of ten value types associated with spectator sports. The framework was derived from the pilot study and literature review. Existing value and sport consumption instruments were used; items related to spectator sport experiences were created by this research. The first data collection was administrated for a pilot test to revise the questionnaire. The revised questionnaire was disseminated in the second data collection. Various statistical tools were used to analyze the data and test the hypotheses.

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CHAPTER 5 RESULTS

This research project explores the values people associate with spectator sports and investigates the relationships between the values and spectator sport behavior. The prior qualitative inquiry and literature review developed a ten-value-type framework and proposed sixteen hypotheses about the relationships between the values and spectator sport behavior. Based on the framework and the relevant literature, a questionnaire was designed. A survey using the questionnaire was conducted in the first data collection. Based on the results of the first data analyses, the questionnaire was revised. A survey using the revised questionnaire was then conducted primarily on a large southeastern university in U.S.A. and a national university in the middle of Taiwan. This chapter first describes the procedure of the Chinese translation of the questionnaire. Then, the process of the first data collection, the first data analyses, and the process of revision of the questionnaire are presented. Next, the process of the second data collection, i.e. the main data collection, is described, and the difference tests of the online responses and the responses using paper are computed. Then, demographic characteristics of the data and their descriptive statistics are provided. After the presentation of the basic information, comparisons between gender (males versus females), nationality (the American group versus the Taiwanese group), and consumption group versus non-consumption group are analyzed. The age and education groups were not compared because the majority of the respondents (91%) were between 18 and 29 years old and were college undergraduate or graduate students. In addition, nationality groups rather than ethnicity groups are compared because nationality groups are believed to have larger differences. People living in totally different countries are expected to have larger differences resulting from the cultural influences. Thus, the comparison of nationality groups will provide more meaningful results. Finally, after the comparisons, the ten-value-type framework and the sixteen hypotheses are examined. Translation of Questionnaire

The questionnaire was translated into Chinese by the researcher, two doctoral students from mainland China and three doctoral students from Taiwan. The personal values already had common Chinese translations either in the relevant literature or in the dictionary and were translated referring to the literature (Yang, 1998; Shao, 2002) and using a Chinese-English

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dictionary. If there were more than one translation, the researcher made the final judgment. The six consumption items were explicitly straightforward and translated by the researcher. Thus, the focus of the translation was on the ten experience items. Their translation was as follows. First, the researcher discussed the translation with two doctoral students from mainland China to acquire the first draft. Second, the researcher discussed the draft with three doctoral students from Taiwan by phone. Third, the Chinese version of the ten experience items was tested by one person in mainland China and three people in Taiwan to assess whether the meaning they perceived in the Chinese version was consistent with the meaning in the English version. The researcher made the final judgment about the translation. The final questionnaire was bilingual including both English and Chinese. This process was used to maintain the consistency of questionnaire in terms of its contents. Respondents speaking English could read the English items. As for respondents whose native language was not English, the English was included in order to help them understand the meaning of concepts. It was assumed that they knew some English and could refer to it if needed. A common mode of translating, back translation, was not used in the process of the translation by the current research for three reasons. First, most content in the questionnaire already had Chinese translations. Second, the focus of the translation was on the ten experience items. These ten items are short, follow similar patterns and consist of some key terms. Most of the key terms are values such as pleasure, morals, self-confidence, and social recognition and already had Chinese translations. The main task of translating the ten items was to decide how to translate the pattern and few terms such as spectator sport consumption and spiritual enlightenment. This is more related to the essence of the research than to the linguistics. For example, in the translation of the sentence pattern, spectator sport consumption was translated like a cause leading to experience pleasure, companionship, and spiritual enlightenment, to enhance self-confidence and social recognition, and to acquire knowledge. This translation can be consistent with the definition of value as a goal discussed in the literature review and the framework. The translation of spiritual enlightenment refers to its original context in the framework because Chinese has no explicit translation for this term. The third reason why the back translation was not adopted is that people whose first language is English and know Chinese well is very rare. Therefore, people whose first language is Chinese and who know English very well were invited to participate.

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Pilot Questionnaire Data Collection Convenience sampling was utilized. The questionnaire was distributed in three ways: e-

mail, on a website, and in person. By e-mail, the questionnaire was sent as an attachment to the people in the researcher’s contact list. The contact list included the researcher’s friends, previous classmates and students. Respondents answered the questionnaire and e-mailed it back to the researcher. The questionnaire was also posted online through surveypro.com. One of the researcher’s friends in Taiwan, Kelly, helped by sending out the website address to her friends and colleagues. In addition, the researcher printed out the questionnaire and went to the Leon County public library and the university library to collect data. The researcher’s brother also printed out the questionnaire and collected data from his colleagues in Yuan-Lin court where he worked in the middle of Taiwan. Table 5.1 summarizes the resources for the data collection in the pilot study.

Table 5.1 Summary of Sources of the First Data Collection Sources E-mail by attachment On the website Leon Country public library Strozier library Yuan-Lin court in Taiwan Total

Frequencies 43 13 26 13 14 109

Descriptive Analyses of Data

The profile of respondents based on demographic characteristics indicates that 95.4% of respondents had some college or higher education and thus had enough knowledge to participate in the survey. Fifty-eight percent were females; the majority of respondents (82.7%) were younger than 42 years old; the majority were Asian/Pacific Islander (57.9%) and 24.3% of respondents were White/Caucasian. The nationality of respondents had two major groups: the

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Taiwanese group (44.3%) and the USA group (38.7%). The analyses included comparison of these two groups. Values. The value with the highest mean overall was WARM RELATIONSHIPS WITH

OTHERS whereas the value with the lowest mean overall was SELF-INDULGENT. In the Taiwanese group, the value with the highest mean was BROAD-MINDED whereas the value with the lowest mean was DEVOUT. In the USA group, the value with the highest mean was HONEST whereas the value with the lowest mean was SOCIAL POWER. The value with the biggest difference between these two groups was SOCIAL POWER (the Taiwanese group: 3.58, the USA group: 2.10, t-value = 3.337, p < 0.05). For females, the value with the highest mean was BROAD-MINDED whereas the value with the lowest mean was SOCIAL POWER. For males, the value with the highest mean was WARM RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHERS whereas the value with the lowest mean was SELF-INDULGENT. The value with the biggest difference based on gender was A WORLD AT PEACE (females: 5.71, males: 4.29, t-value = 4.292, p < 0.05). Spectator sport consumption. The most common mode of spectator sport consumption

was reading about sports in newspapers or magazines; the least common mode of spectator sport consumption was listening to sports on the radio. In the Taiwanese group, the most common mode of consumption was reading about sports in newspapers or magazines whereas the least common mode was listening to the radio. In the USA group, the most common mode of spectator sport consumption was talking about sports with others whereas the least common mode of consumption was listening to the radio. When comparing the two groups, the results showed that Americans significantly (p < 0.01) attended more games in person than Taiwanese respondents. For females, the most common mode of spectator sport consumption was reading about sports in newspapers or magazines whereas the least common mode of consumption was listening to the radio. For males, the most common mode of spectator sport consumption was talking about sports with others whereas the least common mode of consumption was listening to the radio. When comparing the two groups, the results showed that males significantly (p < .01) watched more sports on TV, read more sports in newspapers or magazines, watched more sports on Internet, and talked more about sports than females. Sport spectator experience. The sport spectator experience with the highest mean score

was appreciating beauty in sports whereas the sport spectator experience with the lowest mean

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was consuming spectator sports like a daily routine. In the Taiwanese group, the sport spectator experience with the highest mean was appreciating beauty in sports whereas the sport spectator experience with the lowest mean was enhancing personal identity. In the USA group, the sport spectator experience with the highest mean was appreciating beauty in sports whereas the sport spectator experience with the lowest mean was consuming spectator sports like a daily routine. When comparing the two groups, the results showed that the sport spectator experience with the biggest difference was experiencing spirituality through consuming sports. Taiwanese had significantly (p < 0.01) higher mean scores than Americans. For females, the sport spectator experience with the highest mean score was that they do not consume spectator sports. Consequently, the sport spectator experience with the lowest mean was consuming spectator sports like a daily routine. For males, the sport spectator experience with the highest mean score was appreciating beauty in sports. The sport spectator experience with the lowest mean for males was that they disagreed that they did not consume spectator sports. When comparing the two groups, the results showed that the sport spectator experience with the biggest difference was that males disagreed that they did not consume spectator sports but females agreed. Table 5.2 summarizes the results of descriptive analyses and comparisons. Revision of the Questionnaire

The goals for revising the questionnaire were threefold. The first goal was to ensure the questions convey the meaning of inquiry as exactly as possible. Thus, the questions in the questionnaire can allow respondents to provide accurate information that the research intended to measure (Biemer & Lyberg, 2003). For achieving this goal, the sentence patterns of the ten experience items were revised so the wording would be more consistently and correctly referred to the ten-value-type framework. In addition, the value, BEING WELL-RESPECTED was changed to SELF-RECOGNITION, and the value SELF-RESPECT was changed to SELFCONFIDENCE. The revisions were made so the terms used in the measures of personal values and sport spectator experiences would be consistent. The second goal was to address the feasibility of obtaining the information (Czaja & Blair, 2005). That is, the questionnaire was revised to help respondents understand the questions and respond to them accurately (Biemer & Lyberg, 2003). For achieving this goal, an experience statement developed from the value type of spirituality was revised. The term, spirituality, in the

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Table 5.2 Summary of the Results of Descriptive and Comparisons of the Pilot Data In general

Value with the highest mean Value with the lowest mean Value with the biggest difference Consumption with the highest mean Consumption with the lowest mean Consumption with the biggest difference Experience with the highest mean Experience with the lowest mean Experience with the biggest difference

Taiwan (TW) WARM BROADRELATIONSHIPS MINDED WITH OTHERS SELFDEVOUT INDULGENT

USA

Females

HONEST

BROAD- WARM MINDED RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHERS SOCIAL SELFPOWER INDULGENT

SOCIAL POWER

Males

N/A

SOCIAL POWER (TW > USA)

A WORLD AT PEACE (F > M)

Reading sports

Reading sports

Talking about sports

Reading sports

Talking about sports

Listening to radio

Listening to radio

Listening to radio

Listening to radio

Listening to radio

N/A

Watching sports in person (USA > TW)

Appreciating beauty

Appreciating Appreciating Do not beauty beauty consume

Like a daily routine

Enhancing Like a daily personal routine identity Experiencing spirituality (TW > USA)

N/A

Talking about sports (M > F)

Appreciating beauty

Like a Do not consume daily routine Do not consume (F > M)

statement was determined to be too abstract, leading to difficulty for readers to understand the statement. The term was changed to “spiritual enlightenment” to make the statement more explicit. In addition, in other two statements pertaining to sport spectator experiences, social interaction and personal identity, were changed to companionship and self-confidence respectively. Because companionship and self-confidence were more commonly used terms, it was believed that these changes can help readers more easily understand the statements.

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Companionship and self-confidence were also the terms used in the measures of personal values. Therefore, the statements measuring personal values and statements measuring sport spectator experiences would be more consistent. The third goal was to revise the questionnaire so the time and burden required to complete the questionnaire would be minimized (Biemer & Lyberg, 2003). For achieving this goal, a statistical process was developed to select values that were more likely to associate with spectator sports. The first step was to conduct the regression analyses; the values that had significant regression coefficients (Beta) were retained in the revised questionnaire. A significant regression coefficient suggested that a behavior could be significantly predicted by the value. In the regression analyses, each mode of spectator sport behavior (6 modes of consumption and 10 experiences) was a dependent variable, and values with significant Pearson correlation coefficients with the respective behaviors were selected as independent variables. The second

step was to examine values which had significant Pearson correlation coefficients. If a value did not have significant regression coefficient but had significant Pearson correlation coefficient, this value might still have potential to predict the behavior. The third step was to examine the value differences between the spectator sport consumption group and the non-consumption group. If a value was significantly different between these two groups, it is reasonable to imply that the value might play a role predicting the consumption behavior. Therefore, based on the three steps described, five specific criteria were used to select values for the revised questionnaire. The following describes the five criteria in details. If a value met any of the five criteria, the value was retained. 1. A value significantly correlated (Pearson correlation coefficients, p < 0.05) with at least two types of spectator sport consumption for the whole group, consumption group, Taiwanese group, or USA group. Spectator sport consumption included watching sports in person, on TV, reading about sports in newspapers or magazines, and talking about sports with others. Watching sports on the Internet and listening to sports on the radio were not included in the calculation because these two types of spectator sport consumption were highly positively skewed. The consumption group for this criterion meant that the group of people responded 1 (strongly disagree), 2, 3, or 4 to the statement, I do not consume sports, on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1, strongly disagree, to 7, strongly agree.

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2. A value significantly (regression coefficient, p < 0.05) predicted any of the four types of spectator sport consumption in the linear regressions for the whole group, consumption group, Taiwanese group, or USA group. Values which had significant correlations (Pearson correlation coefficient, p < 0.05) with the spectator sport consumption items were chosen as independent

variables in the linear regression model. Spectator sport consumption was the dependent variable. The consumption group for this criterion meant that the group of people responded 1 (strongly disagree), 2, 3, or 4 to the statement, I do not consume sports. 3. A value significantly correlated (Pearson correlation coefficients, p < 0.05) with any two of the sport spectator experiences in the whole group, consumption group, Taiwanese group, or USA group. The consumption group for this criterion meant that the group of people responded 1 (strongly disagree), 2, 3, or 4 to the statement, I do not consume sports. 4. A value significantly (regression coefficient, p < 0.05) predicted any of the sport spectator experiences in the linear regression computations for the whole group, consumption group, Taiwanese group, or USA group. Values which had significant correlations (Pearson correlation coefficient, p < 0.05) with the sport spectator experience items were chosen as

independent variables in the linear regression model. The sport spectator experience items served as the dependent variable. The consumption group in this criterion meant that the group of people responded 1 (strongly disagree), 2, 3, or 4 to the statement, I do not consume sports. 5. A value was significantly different between the group who reported consuming sports and the group reporting they did not consume sports. People who responded strongly disagree (1 or 2) to the statement, I do not consume sports, were assigned to the sport consumption group; people who responded strongly agree (7 or 6) to the statement, I do not consume sports, were assigned to the non-consumption group.

Based on the five criteria, 26 values were retained. In addition, two revised values, SELFCONFIDENCE and SOCIAL RECOGNITION, were added to be tested again. In the revised questionnaire these two terms were also used in the descriptions of two sport spectator experiences. Table 5.3 summarizes these 28 values, the criterion used to retain them, and their respective significant coefficients or a mean difference.

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Table 5.3 Summary of the Retained 28 Values Values A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT A SPIRITUAL LIFE A WORLD AT PEACE AESTHETICS AMBITIOUS

CAPABLE CREATIVITY CURIOUS DEVOUT EQUALITY EXCITEMENT FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE HONESTY

INFLUENTIAL INNER HARMONY INTELLIGENT

KNOWLEDGE

LOYAL MORAL

Criteria Notes 4 0.33a (e.g. predict appreciating morals in the consumption group) 4 0.27a (predict experiencing spirituality in the consumption group) 4 -0.25a (predict acquiring knowledge in the consumption group) 2 -0.26a (predict watching sports in person in the whole group) 3 0.28b correlated with appreciating morals in the consumption group, 0.26b correlated with acquiring knowledge in the whole group 4 -0.19a (predict experiencing social interaction in the whole group) 4 0.33a (e.g. predict experiencing pleasure in a whole group) 4 0.24a (predict appreciating beauty in the consumption group) 4 -0.24a (predict experiencing pleasure in a whole group) 4 -0.25a (predict experiencing spirituality in the consumption group) 2 0.29a (e.g. predict watching sports on TV in the whole group) 4 0.47a (predict experiencing social interaction in the whole group) 3 0.42b correlated with appreciating morals in the Taiwanese group, 0.29b correlated with acquiring knowledge in the Taiwanese group 2 -0.28a (predict watching sports on TV in the consumption group) 2 -0.26a (e.g. predict watching sports on TV in the whole group) 3 0.30b correlated with appreciating morals in the Taiwanese group, 0.32b correlated with experiencing social interaction in the Taiwanese group 3 0.28b correlated with appreciating morals in the consumption group, -0.20b correlated with appreciating spirituality in the whole group 2 0.31a (predict watching sports in person in the consumption group) 4 -0.28a (predict experiencing pleasure in the consumption group)

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Table 5.3 (continued) -0.23a (predict experiencing social interaction in the whole group) -0.22a (e.g. predict talking about sports with others in the whole group)

OBEDIENT

4

PRESERVING MY PUBLIC IMAGE SELF-CONFIDENCE SELF-FULLFILLMENT

2 Added 1

SENSE OF BELONGING

5

SOCIAL POWER

4

SOCIAL RECOGNITION SUCCESSFUL

Added 2

WARM RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHERS

1

-0.23b correlated with watching sports on TV in the whole group, -0.20b correlated with talking about sports in the whole group Value mean 4.93 for the consumption group, 5.65 for the non-consumption groupc 0.23a (e.g. predict enhancing social recognition in the whole group) -0.21a (e.g. predict watching sports on TV in the whole group) 0.18b correlated with watching sports in person in the whole group, -0.27b correlated with reading about sports in the whole group

Note: a represents a significant standardized regression coefficient (Beta) at the critical level of 0.05. b represents a significant Pearson correlation coefficient at the critical level of 0.05. c : These two value means are significantly different at the critical level of 0.05.

Main Data Collection

Convenience sampling was utilized. The researcher disseminated the questionnaire in three ways: Blackboard, online, and paper. With Blackboard, the questionnaire was posted as an assignment for students enrolled in Lifetime Activities Program (LAP) courses taught by the researcher at the southeastern university. For the other online administration the questionnaire was posted through surveypro.com. Individuals enrolled in LAP courses, a marketing concept course, and an Introduction to Mass Media course, were recruited as participants to complete the questionnaire through surveypro.com. A paper version of the questionnaire was also distributed. The researcher went to the Leach Recreation Center, Strozier Library, and the Leon County Public Library to disseminate the questionnaire. The researcher also went to some classes to administer the data collection by using the paper version. The classes included one LAP weight training class, Athletic Academic Counseling, and ANOVA. One of the researcher’s previous

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students, Lee, administered the data collection on the campus of National Chung Hsing University in Taiwan by using the paper version of the questionnaire. She disseminated the paper questionnaires in classrooms or distributed the survey in front of library and the General Building. Table 5.4 provides a summary of the data collection efforts.

Table 5.4 Different Ways and Places to Collect Data Different ways to answer the survey Blackboard/LAP classes Online LAP Basic Market Concepts Intro to Mass Media Othersa Paper LAP Leon County Library Graduate classesb Strozier Library Leach Center National Chung Hsing University in Taiwanc Othersd Total

Received Usable

Sub-total

Percentage (%)

13 29 34

13 28 33

13

1.7

170

22.2

52

51

68 11 16

58 11 10

55 60 195 272

52 55 179 255

584

76.1

22 827

22 767

767

100

Notes: a: Personal contacts. b: Two courses, Athletic Academic Counseling and ANOVA. c: Data collection administered by a former student of the researcher. d: Five were from the researcher’s friends on the campus, and seventeen were collected by a colleague from friends and roommates on the university campus. The researcher’s students who completed the questionnaire on Blackboard earned extra credit points for the LAP courses. With the online survey, two instructors of LAP courses provided extra credit for students who completed the survey. For the marketing concept and introduction to mass media courses, the researcher went to classrooms to explain the survey. Students who enrolled in these two courses were provided extra credit to answer the online survey. With the paper version of the survey, the researcher collected data in the Leach Center,

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Strozier Library, or the Leon Public Library. The researcher also used one LAP weight training class, Athletic Academic Counseling, and ANOVA to collect the paper questionnaires. Explanations of the survey were either provided by the instructor or the researcher. One of the researcher’s former students, Lee, administered the data collection on the campus of National Chung Hsing University in Taiwan. About eighty questionnaires were distributed in two classrooms of two general education courses, first-year Chinese and first-year English; thirty questionnaires were distributed to classmates of Lee’s roommate in classrooms on campus; twenty questionnaires were distributed in front of library; one hundred and seventy questionnaires were distributed in front of the General Building. Most of the participants were expected to be freshmen or sophomores because they were required to take general education classes and their classes were usually arranged in the General Building. Six hundred and eighty paper questionnaires were distributed and six hundred and thirtyone were returned. One hundred and ninety-six people participated in the online survey. In total, eight hundred and twenty-seven questionnaires were received, from which 767 were considered useable. Sixty questionnaires were not used. The percentage of useable questionnaire was about 93%. Four criteria were used to decide which questionnaires would not be used for data analysis. The first criterion was to examine whether the questionnaire was completed. If the questionnaire had one side not filled out, it was not used. Twenty incomplete questionnaires were not used. The second criterion was to examine whether the respondent ranked and rated the values consistently. If a questionnaire ranked a value as the least important value but contradictorily rated it as supremely important value, the questionnaire was not considered effective. Sixteen questionnaires were not used for this reason. The third criterion was to examine whether the respondent answered the spectator sport consumption items consistently. If a person answered that he or she had never consumed spectator sports in any modes but strongly disagreed that he or she did not consume sports, his or her questionnaire was not used; if a person answered that he or she had consumed spectator sports almost every day but strongly agreed that he or she did not consume sports, his or her questionnaire was not used. Twenty-two questionnaires were not used for this reason. Finally, two questionnaires were not used because the respondents had less than senior high education. Table 5.5 summarizes the number of unused questionnaires.

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Table 5.5 Summary of the Number of Unused Questionnaires Incomplete questionnaire Inconsistent answers in values Inconsistent answers in spectator sport consumption Education less than high school

20 16 22

Total

2 60

The two major different sources of data collection included the online version of the questionnaire and the paper version of the questionnaire. Twenty-two percent of the usable forms (n = 170) were completed online, and 76% (n = 584) were completed using paper and pencil forms. Before proceeding to examine the actual responses, basic difference tests to ascertain whether there were sample differences between the online responses and paper responses were computed. Difference tests between the Online and Paper Responses

It is presumed that the method of administration would not influence the results. The rationale is that people who answered the survey online did not have any other choices. People who answered the survey using pen and paper did not have any other choices. In other words, when a person was invited to answer the survey, he or she was provided only one way to complete the respective forms whether online or paper. Another rationale is that the format of online and paper questionnaires was the same with one exception. The one difference between the two forms was that the ten sport spectator experience items were automatically randomized by the computer; each time the online version of the questionnaire was administered, the ten experience items appeared in a different order. The items were automatically randomized in the online version, but the same order was used for all the paper copies. It is possible that the randomization could result in the response differences between the online survey and the paper survey for the ten experience items. Accordingly, difference tests were computed to test for any differences between the two groups. A multivariate test was conducted to determine whether any of the ten experience items had significantly (p < 0.01) different mean scores across the online and paper versions. The results showed no differences. Based on the findings, no other concern

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was raised regarding differences between the online and paper and pencil versions of the questionnaire. Demographics of the Sample

There were five demographic items: Gender, Age, Ethnicity, Education, and Nationality. The characteristic Income was not included for three reasons. Income can be a sensitive topic, and people might not want to reveal this information. Income also has different purchasing power in different countries. Thus, the same income in different countries might represent various social economic statuses. Income was not the focus of the current research and therefore was not included. In terms of gender, forty-nine percent were females, providing a good gender distribution. In terms of age, the majority of respondents (91%) were between 18 and 29 years old. That is, the majority of respondents were college undergraduate or graduate students. In terms of ethnicity, the largest percentages of respondents were Asian/Pacific Islander (44.9%) and White/Caucasian (40.1%). Black/African American respondents accounted for 9.0% of the sample and the percentage of Latino/Latina respondents was 4.0%. In terms of education, the overwhelming majority of respondents (98%) had received at least some college education and thus had enough knowledge to complete the survey. In terms of nationality, 50.3% of the respondents were from the USA and 37% were from Taiwan; the remaining respondents indicated their nationality was Other (6.9%), Chinese (2.8%), Japanese (1.8%), or Korean (1.2%). The nationality of respondents had two major groups: American and Taiwanese. In addition to a general analysis for the entire respondents, separate analyses with just these two groups were computed. Table 5.6 summarizes the demographic characteristics of the sample. Descriptive Analyses

The following presents the descriptive results for the values, spectator sport consumption, and sport spectator experiences. Values The most important values. In the list of twenty-eight values, almost all of the values

were selected as the most important values by some respondents with the exception of PRESERVING MY PUBLIC IMAGE. No one selected this value as most important. The most

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Table 5.6 Summary of Demographics of the Sample Category Age < 18 18 ~ 20 21 ~ 23 24 ~ 26 27 ~ 29 > 29

% 0.3 39.2 34.1 10.3 7.4 8.7 Total 100

Frequency 2 297 258 78 56 66 757

Ethnicity Black/African American Native American White/Caucasian Asian/Pacific Islander Latino/Latina Other Total Education

9.0 0.3 40.1 44.9 4.0 1.7 100

69 2 307 344 31 13 766

Middle school or less High school Some college/technical school College Graduate Other Total Nationality

0 1.7 10.3

0 13 79

70.1 17.5 0.4 100

538 134 3 767

50.3 2.8 1.8 1.2 37.0 6.9 Total 100

384 21 14 9 282 53 763

48.6 51.4 Total 100

371 393 764

USA China Japan Korea Taiwan Other Gender Female Male

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frequently mentioned value among all respondents as the most important was FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE. Ninety nine people (14%) selected the value as the most important. The least important values. In the list of twenty-eight values, almost all of the values

were selected as the least important values by one or some respondents with the exception of SELF-CONFIDENCE. No one selected this value as the least important. The most frequently mentioned value as the least important was SOCIAL POWER. From among all the respondents, 162 people (24%) selected the value as the least important. Means and standard deviations. Table 5.7 summarizes the mean and standard deviation

of each value. In terms of mean scores, twenty five values were rated above 4.0; only three Table 5.7 Summary of Mean and Standard Deviation of Each Value Values FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE SELF-CONFIDENCE HONEST SELF-FULFILLMENT WARM RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHERS A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT INTELLIGENT MORAL INNER HARMONY LOYAL SUCCESSFUL CAPABLE KNOWLEDGE AMBITIOUS EQUALITY CREATIVITY SENSE OF BELONGING A SPIRITUAL LIFE EXCITEMENT INFLUENTIAL CURIOUS A WORLD AT PEACE SOCIAL RECOGNITION AESTHETICS OBEDIENT PRESERVING MY PUBLIC IMAGE DEVOUT SOCIAL POWER

114

Means 6.01 5.90 5.72 5.67 5.66 5.64 5.63 5.53 5.51 5.50 5.49 5.48 5.47 5.22 5.20 5.15 5.06 4.93 4.88 4.73 4.70 4.64 4.38 4.16 4.01 3.99 3.67 3.09

Standard deviations 1.21 1.19 1.40 1.34 1.36 1.37 1.27 1.50 1.46 1.47 1.38 1.29 1.41 1.54 1.80 1.53 1.52 1.87 1.58 1.62 1.64 1.99 1.81 1.93 1.89 1.87 2.18 2.12

values were below 4.0. The three values with means lower than 4.0 were RESERVING MY PUBLIC IMAGE, DEVOUT, and SOCIAL POWER. Values with higher means had lower standard deviations compared to values with lower means (see Table 5.7). In other words, values with higher means were rated consistently among respondents whereas values with lower means were rated with larger deviation among respondents. For example, FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE and SELF-CONFIDENCE had the highest means but had the lowest standard deviations. Respondents’ answers to these two values were quite consistent. In contrast, DEVOUT and SOCIAL POWER had the lowest means but had the highest standard deviations. Respondents’ answers to these two values varied greatly.

Correlations among values. The highest significant correlation among the twenty-eight

values was 0.61 between KNOWLEDGE and INTELLIGENT with a p value lower than 0.01. There were two significant negative correlations with p values lower than 0.01: -0.10 between HONEST and SOCIAL POWER and -0.17 between DEVOUT and SOCIAL RECOGNITION. Table 5.8 lists the twenty-eight values and table 5.9 shows all significant correlations (p < 0.01) among the twenty-eight values.

Table 5.8 Twenty-eight Values V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10 V11

A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT A SPIRITUAL LIFE HONEST A WORLD AT PEACE AMBITIOUS SOCIAL RECOGNITION CAPABLE SOCIAL POWER CURIOUS DEVOUT WARM RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHERS V12 EXCITEMENT V13 KNOWLEDGE V14 OBEDIENT

V15 V16 V17 V18 V19 V20 V21 V22 V23 V24 V25

CREATIVITY LOYAL INTELLIGENT FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE MORAL SENSE OF BELONGING SUCCESSFUL AESTHETICS PRESERVING MY PUBLIC IMAGE INNER HARMONY SELF-CONFIDENCE

V26 V27 V28

INFLUENTIAL SELF-FULFILLMENT EQUALITY

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Table 5.9 Significant Correlations among the Twenty-eight Values

Note: The blank cells in the lower half represent non-significant relationships.

Spectator Sport Consumption Means and standard deviations. The most common modes of consuming spectator

sport were talking about sports and watching sports on TV. The least common modes were listening to sports on the radio and watching sports on the Internet. Table 5.10 shows the means and standard deviations of the six modes of spectator sport consumption.

Table 5.10 Means and Standard Deviations of Six Ways of Spectator Sport Consumption

In Person TV Internet Read Talk Radio

Mean 2.42 2.69 1.81 2.28 2.72 1.44

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Std. Deviation 1.41 1.26 1.14 1.19 1.34 0.78

Frequencies. In terms of frequencies of watching sports in person, the number of

respondents decreased as the frequency of watching increased. Thirty seven percent of respondents never watched sports in person. The distribution of frequency of watching sports on TV, reading about sports, and talking about sports had a bell shape but had a mode of 2 instead of 3. That is, the majority of respondents watched sports on TV less than 0.5 hour per week, read about sports less than 0.5 hour per week, and talked about sports one time per week. Regarding consumption via the Internet, 80.6% of respondents either never watched sports on the Internet or watched sports on the Internet less than 0.5 hour per week. Regarding the consumption by listening to the radio, 90.1 % of respondents never listened to sports on the radio or listened to sports on the radio less than 0.5 hour per week. Table 5.11 illustrates the representation of each category, and table 5.12 shows the percentage of respondents in each category.

Table 5.11 Representation of each Category 1 2

In Person Never 1-2 times

3

3-5 times

4 5

5-10 times More than 10 times

TV Never Less than 0.5 hour Less than two hours 2-4 days Every day

Internet Never Less than 0.5 hour Less than two hours 2-4 days Every day

Read Never Less than 0.5 hour Less than two hours 2-4 days Every day

Talk Never One time 2-3 times 2-4 days Every day

Radio Never Less than 0.5 hour Less than two hours 2-4 days Every day

Table 5.12 Percentage of Respondents in each Category

1 2 3 4 5 Total

In Person (%) 37.2 21.9 15.3 13.4 12.3 100

TV (%) 20.0 29.0 23.8 16.7 10.5 100

Internet (%) 54.1 26.5 8.5 5.7 5.2 100

Read (%) 28.7 38.7 16.3 8.6 7.7 100

Talk (%) 21.1 28.7 23.2 11.2 15.7 100

Radio (%) 69.6 20.5 7.0 2.1 0.8 100

Correlations. The correlations among these six modes of spectator sport consumption

were all significant at the 0.01 level. The correlations were between 0.23 and 0.74. The highest correlation (0.74) was between talking about sports and watching sports on TV. The lowest correlation (0.23) was between watching sports in person and watching sports on the Internet. 117

Table 5.13 shows the correlations (p < 0.01) among the six modes of spectator sport consumption. Table 5.13 Correlations among Six Ways of Spectator Sport Consumption

In Person TV Internet Read Talk Radio

In Person 1.00 0.51 0.23 0.34 0.57 0.39

TV

Internet Read

Talk

Radio

1.00 0.50 0.58 0.74 0.43

1.00 0.56 0.51 0.40

1.00 0.49

1.00

1.00 0.59 0.42

Sport Spectator Experiences Means and standard deviations. In general, the mean scores for the ten experience

items were between 3.09 and 4.69 using a Likert scale anchored with 1 (Strongly disagree) and 7 (Strongly agree). The item experiencing pleasure through spectator sport consumption had the highest mean score. This was consistent with the finding that the value FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE was rated with the highest mean score (see Table 5.7). In addition, the items appreciating the beauty in spectator sports and acquiring knowledge through spectator sport consumption were rated with the second and third highest mean scores. On the other hand, the least frequently cited experience associated with spectator sport consumption was spiritual enlightenment. Ritualistic consumption of spectator sports, described in the item as “part of my daily routine,” was also not very common. Table 5.14 shows the means and deviations of the ten

sport spectator experiences. Table 5.14 Means and Standard Deviation of Ten Sport Spectator Experiences

Pleasure Beauty Knowledge Companion Moral Recognition Not Consume Confidence Ritual Spiritual

Mean 4.69 4.42 4.38 4.35 4.33 3.64 3.27 3.22 3.11 3.09

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Std. Deviation 1.72 1.70 1.74 1.64 1.65 1.60 2.06 1.64 1.89 1.82

Correlations. All of the correlations among the ten experience items were significant at

the 0.01 level. The correlations were between 0.10 and 0.65. The highest correlation (0.65) was between pleasure and companionship. The nine correlations between the nine experience items and the item of not consuming spectator sports were negative, as expected. The lowest correlation (-0.10) was between the experience of spiritual enlightenment and not consuming spectator sports. Table 5.15 shows the correlations among the ten experience items.

Table 5.15 Correlations among the Ten Sport Spectator Experiences Pl Pleasure 1.00 Companion 0.65 Moral 0.41 Ritual 0.56 Beauty 0.47 Confidence 0.42 Not Consume -0.59 Knowledge 0.45 Recognition 0.40 Spiritual 0.22

Kno Rec

Spi

Com

Mor

Rit

Bea

Con

NC

1.00 0.44 0.45 0.42 0.42 -0.42 0.45 0.45 0.25

1.00 0.36 0.55 0.49 -0.24 0.46 0.41 0.44

1.00 0.44 0.51 -0.48 0.43 0.42 0.35

1.00 0.53 -0.31 0.51 0.42 0.40

1.00 -0.30 0.53 0.58 0.51

1.00 -0.31 1.00 -0.29 0.61 1.00 -0.10 0.47 0.48 1.00

Comparisons by Gender

This section presents the results of the analyses for differences on the three sets of variables – values, spectator sport consumption, and sport experience items - by gender. Values

Examination of the responses by gender led to the finding that the value FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE was identified most often as the most important value for both females (16%) and males (13%). For females, the most frequently mentioned value as the least important was SOCIAL POWER (29%). For males, the most frequently mentioned value as the least important was DEVOUT (20%). When comparing the mean scores, the results showed that females rated 26 values with higher mean scores than males. Only two values, A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT and SOCIAL POWER, were rated higher by males. There was a significant difference (p < .01) by 119

gender for six values: A SPIRITUAL LIFE, FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE, MORAL, SENSE OF BELONGING, AESTHETICS, and EQUALITY. Females had higher mean scores on the six values compared to males. Table 5.16 summarizes the comparison between the male and the female groups regarding the importance of values in one’s daily life.

Table 5.16 Mean Differences in Values between Genders Males (n =366) A SPIRITUAL LIFE 4.76 (1.866) FUN AND ENJOYMENT IN LIFE 5.87 (1.284) MORAL 5.37 (1.653) SENSE OF BELONGING 4.82 (1.587) AESTHETICS 3.97 (1.979) EQUALITY 4.95 (1.997) Note: * Mean scores were significantly different.

Females (n =351) 5.15 (1.832) 6.15 (1.091) 5.70 (1.274) 5.31 (1.407) 4.44 (1.794) 5.46 (1.457)

p* .005 .002 .003 < .001 .001