FAUST AND BYRON:

THE INFLUENCE OF GOETHE'S FAUST

ON CERTAIN WRITINGS OP LORD BYRON by MARY DEE HARRIS SHORTER, B.A. A THESIS IN ENGLISH Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Technological College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS Approved

Accepted

August, 1965

AG

rs No. 11^

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Appreciation is gratefully acknowledged to Dr. Joseph HcCuIlen for his kind assistance in direoting this thesis. My stocere thanks also to Dr. G. Ross Hoy for his helpful criticism during the early stages of preparation.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

11

INTRODUCTION

........

1

Chapter I. II. III. IV. V.

THE FAUST LEGEND AND GOETHE'S FAUST

....

4

FAUST AND MANFRED

23

FAUST AND CAIN

35

FAUST AND A FRAGMENT

i^7

CONCLUSION

54 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ill

INTRODUCTION The story of the man who sells his soul to the powers of evil in return for material gain, is one of the most ancient in the history of humanity. It is perhaps as old as humanity, for when the light of self-consciousness first begsun to dawn on man, he no doubt desired to know more than his limited intellect could tell him, or to possess something that the world could not or would not give hlm.^ Throughout the ages the Faust concept has been the embodiment of human striving, of paying dearly to attain the tmattainable.

The ideas presented in the legend centered

around Faust are universal: all men have wished for more than they had, and every crime committed has involved selling one's soul to the Devil.

Indeed, what is sin,

but giving in to the powers of evllt The first chapter of this thesis is a brief discussion of the Faust legend:

the historical and legendary

Faust8, Marlowe's Faustus and Goethe's Faust.

Special

emphasis is placed on Goethe's masterpiece—because of its greatness and the particular focus of this study. As a whole, this paper is concerned with a study of the extent of the Influence of Goethe's Faust on three of Lord Byron's dramatic works: Manfred, Cain, and The

Iwilllara Rose (ed,). The History of the Deanable Life and Deserved Death of Doctor John Faustus: 1592 (London: George Routledge and Sons Ltd., 1925), p. 1.

2 Deformed Transformed.

Byron himself was, like Goethe's

Faust, a victim of Weltschmerz. the melancholy longing for Something, the personal pain over the state of life and the world.

Therefore, It is logical that Byron should be

very much Interested in Goethe's Faust. Chapter II deals with Faust as reflected in Manfred. Manfred, a solitary, turns to supernatural forces to find relief from the remorse from an unexplained crime.

He is

not satisfied with worldly knowledge and existence, but turns away from God in his distress, Cain, the subject of Chapter III, also seeks knowledge, as did Faust and Manfred.

Lucifer promises to show

him the knowledge he desires and takes Cain on a journey through the universe.

Here again appears the rebel

against society and God. Chapter IV discusses Byron's fragment. The Deformed Transformed, and its similarities with Fa.ust. Several of the scenes from this play are practically reproductions of Goethe's scenes. Byron has here failed to assimilate jP^ust into his story and so, by comparison with Manfred and Cain, turns out an inferior work. Although the influence of Goethe's Faust is seen distinctly in all three of these works, only in The Deformed Transformed has Byron merely copied Goethe's Ideas.

In Manfred and Cain he adopted ideas presented in

Faust and made them his own.

To survey and assess the

Impact of the Faust legend upon three selections by Byron

Is the objective of this thesis.

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CHAPTER I THE FAUST LEGEND AND GOETHE'S FAUST Sixteenth century literature has been a source of confusion for more than a few researchers because of the Inconslstandes and contradictions to be found at every point.

The fact that scholars can even argue whether

Shakespeare really wrote the plays attributed to him is an illustration of the problem involved.

Thus, like

arguing the identity of Shakepeare, any discussion of the beginnings of the Faust legend is subject to criticism and speculation. Scholars agree that the legend behind the great dramas of Marlowe and Goethe was based on the biography of an actual man of the sixteenth century.

Who this man

was and what he really did have been contraverslal subjects since the first mention of the name Faust. mention two Fausts: J6rg and Johann,

Records

Whether these two

were related in any way (or perhaps the same man) seems to be immaterial to this discussion. Whoever the historical Faust might have been, most authorities assume that almost all of the feats attributed to him were either exaggerated or false.

Many of the

tales about the man were also told about other magicians.

5 and, as Butler says in The Mvth of the Mapois. the •*. . . future hero of Marlowe, Goethe, and ocnmtless other poets was a big name in magic only in his own estimation.*^ He was a braggart and a charlatan.

"Scandalous misconduct and

a good theological degree . . . 5 Insensate boastings and a sinister reputation? horoscopes cast and the future foretold; this . . . is all that is really known about the historical Faust."3 In spite of the vagueness of his life, after Faust's death in about 1539, tales began to circulate concerning the strange deeds of the infamous man. The facts became hazy, and his feats became more and more fantastic.

The

rumor spread that he was a descendant of Simon Magus of biblical times.

Several manuscripts and volumes giving

instructions in the practice of magic and attributed to Faust were published,^ to 158?) less than fifty years after his death, the first printed account of the history of Faust was published at Prankfort-on-the-Main by Johann Spies.

The title ie very complicatedj the first part in

translation is:

2E. H, Butler, The Myth of the Magus (Cambridge1 University Press, 19^8), p. 121. ^Butler, p. 123. ^Acts xlil. (See also Lewis Spence, An Ehcyclopedia of Occultiem (New York: University Books, I960), p. 369. ^Rose, pp. 18-21.

History of D. Johann Faust, the notorious Magician and Necromancer, how he sold himself for a stipulated Time to the Devil, What strange Things he saw, performed and practised during this Time, until at last he received his well-merited Reward.° The book was published as a warning to Chrlstains not to try to follow in Faust's footsteps and thus to avoid the horrible death resulting from a pact with the Devil. The popularity of the volume was so great that, by the turn of the century, it had seen its fifth edition.7 The German Faustbuoh represents the most Important step from historical fact to legend.

The man Faust was

known primarily because of the story In the book, and we can reasonably assume that much of the book was exaggerated and Invented,

Dr. Faust becjame confused with other

legendary, or exaggerated, figures, such as Simon Magus, Cornelius Agrippa, and the Abbot Trithemlus; and in the confusion, the other magicians were nearly forgotten, Faust carried forward a composite of many legends and became known as the greatest magician.8 After the publication of the German Faustbuoh, several earlier manuscripts which seem fairly reliable were discovered, but the next work of importance to the legend was the English Faust booki

The History of the Damnable

Life and Deserved Death of Doctor John Faustus. An

^Rose, p. 23. ^Michel Poirier, Christopher Marlowe (Londoni Chatto and Wlndus, 1951)» P. i-'W. ^Rose, pp. 29-30.

7 edition printed during 1592 in London is the earliest extant text, but was based on an earlier edition, probably translated from the German in I587.

"The translator

is called p. F. Gen^t. (i.e. Gentleman, and not, as some editors have thought, his surname). . . ,»9 p, p., with a somewhat shaky knowledge of Geiman, "tones down the German author's denunclsatlon of Faust's wicked ways, and emphasizes the fantasies and cogitations . . . of the sorcerer."10 Perhaps the greatest reason for the importance of the English Faust book is that it is assumed to be the source of Marlowe's drama. The Tragical History of D. Faustus. probably written to I588-89, which was the first of the two greatest lltea^ry treatments of the legend. There has been debate, as on most other phases of the legend, whether Marlowe used the English Fauet book or knew enough German to read the story In Its original language.

Sufficient evidence exists to assume that he

had only the ti^nslatlon for his Information, even though he did stray from this version somewhat.

The differences

between Marlowe's Faustus and Its source are most likely the result of his originality In handling the theme.

^Bese, pp. 42-^3* ^^Rose, p. 4^. •^•'•C. P. Tucker Brooke (ed.), The Works of Christopher Marlowe (Oxford: University Press, 1909?), p. 1^2.

8 Marlowe's Faustus Is more than a pseudo-biographical study of a magician; rather, for the first time the conjurer is presented as a tragic hero, representative of mankind.

Although the character of Marlowe's hero Is not

always clear-cut, his motives and ambitions are delineated, to the first few scenes of the play Faustus is presented as a man of great learning, reputedly not unlike Marlowe in position and beliefs, desiring power and knowledge beyond humeui capacity.

He is a professed atheist denying

God to gain power through association with Mephestophllls. The most obvious difference In the protagonist from the original Is seen In the Helen episode.

In Marlowe's

desire for Helen Is the embodiment of the Renaissance. She represents true beauty and Faustus* striving for knowledge of It, while in the Faust book she was merely a demon who assured Faustus' damnation by his association with her.

According to Thorslev, Helen's being a repre-

sentation of true beauty is the basic similarity between the Renaissance and the Romantic Movement. Faust in Marlowe's drama Is a Renaissance hero struggling out from under the repression of medieval orthodoxy; and Faust In Goethe's drama Is a Romantic hero emerging from the dead certainties of the eighteenth-century enlightenment.^2 Marlowe's Faustus Is a high point In the history of the legend. In Renaissance literature, and even in the

12peter L. Thorslev, Jr., The Byronio Heroi Types Prototypes (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962)1, p. 85.

9 history of drama ^s a whole.

His was the only ^reat Faust

until Goethe produced his masterpiece.

Subsequent to

Marlowe, treatment of the legend degenerated for nearly two himdred years and was kept alive only by comic adaptations, apparently derived from the Faust book, rather than from Marlowe's tragedy.

Two such farcical productions

of the story were W. Mountford's Life and Death of Doctor Faustiis. with Humours of Harlequin and Soaramuoh. 1684^, and John Thurmond*s Harlequin Dr. Faustus. 172^. The Punch and Judy Theatre in Covent Garden produced several Faust puppet-plays which were quite popular.

Even in Germany

there was little serious treatment of the legend.

In the

homeland of Faust the puppet-plays were thriving, and the most common presentation of the story was the popular drama based on Marlowe's Faustus.^3 The German Sturm und Drang proved to be the new soil In which the Faust legend was revived.

Lesslng had reported

losing the manuscript of a fragment on the subject, but he most likely gave up trying to reconcile a search for knowledge and truth with the assumption of the period that both had been achieved.

A number of the Sturm jmd Drana;

writers, including Prledrioh von Kllnger and Chamlsso, produced Fausts. Of course, the outstanding Faust drama of the period, and perhaps of any period. Is Goethe's. M«—ii«HiM

13Rose, pp. 46-48. l^Thorslev, p. 86.

iZj.

10 Goethe's Faust has been the subject for a great deal of criticism, commentary, and Interpretation; and In all of these studies hardly any two critics agree on the meaning wlthto and behind this outstanding drama.

This

discussion Is of necessity, therefore, speculative. In an age "emerging from the dead oertalntles of the eighteenth-century enlightenment," Goethe was writing about the period of the Renaissance, "struggling out from under the repression of medieval orthodoxy."15

Although

his drama Is set In the Renaissance, In many «»ye hie Ideaa provide a foundation for the beginnings of Romanticism.

However, the differences between Romanticism

and the Renaissance are less apparent than are the similarities.

The philosophy of both periods was based on

the concepts of Individualism, non-oonformlty, the uniqueness of man.

The Romantic man and the Renaissance man

sought knowledge, revolted against authority and the existing order; yet neither was reprimanded for his quest because It was the spirit of the times,^ The world of the sixteenth century was the world of Faust: the historical and legendary Fausts, Marlowe's Faustus and Goethe's Faust.

Marlowe's Faustus was an

15Thorslev, p, 85. (See note 12.) l^Lllllan H. Homsteln gt gj.. (ed,), The Reader's Compar^3,on to World Literature (New York: The New American Library of World Literature, Inc., 1956), pp. 322, 379381, 390-91.

11 individual searching for knowledge and rejecting authority. The basis for his sin was that of dissatisfaction with the ^prld and what It could offer him.

He went beyond his

world Into the world of the supernatural to seek power. He found power, but only In exchange for his soul, according to Marlowe and the ohapbooks.

Faustus was con-

demned, not for seeking knowledge, but for despairing— the one unpardonable sin.

Faustus does not repent because

he doubts God's willingness to forgive him. He omits a consoling promise which could allay his doubts: 'If we confess our sins, he Is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness' (I John 1, 8-9).17 Faustus listens only to the words of Lucifer:

"Christ

cannot save thy soul, for he is just;/ There's none but I have interest in the same."l8 Goethe's Faust was saved, was taken Into heaven by the angels; and Marlowe's Faustus could have been saved If he had repented, but he did not.

Goethe has simply written

a new conclusion to the story. However, the conclusion Is not the only original part of Goethe's Faust. He spent most of his adult life In the composition of Part II, and the masterpiece as a whole contains some of the most beautiful poetry, poignant feeling, and profound thought In all

17Joseph T. MoCullen, "Dr. Faustus and Renaissance Learning," Modem Language Review. LI (January, 1956), 9. 18chrlstopher Marlowe, The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus. ed. W. W. Greg (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950), p. 21.

12 of world literature. He adapted the story into a sounding board for his own philosophy on many subjects.

Yet, one

must not Ignore the fact that Faust Is much more than a conglomoratlon of Goethe's Ideas on life. "I agree with Harold Jantz that the draiw must be viewed against the background from which It was taken.

In his book, Goethe's

Faust aa a Renalssa^es M^^, jantz said that "Goethe found himself and his Faust in the Renaissance."^9

i believe

this quotation Indicates, not so much that Goethe >;as a belated Renaissance man, but rather a man, during the eighteenth century, who oould understand and appreciate the Ideas of the Renaissance.

Or In Goethe's words,

As long as the poet merely expresses his ox«i few subjective perceptions, he cannot yet be called a poet; but as soon as he knows how to make the world his o\m and to express It, he is a poet.^O Thus, Goethe was at once subjective and objective, writing about the Renaissance and the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The most important thread of unity throughout Parts I and II is presented in the "Prologue in Heaven," for One can see the basis for Faust's redemption In the Lord's wager with Mephlstopheles, When the Lord says.

l9Harold Jantz, Goethe's Faust as a Henalseance Mafii ?fty|Mfflig mA ?,m9l^yRPS (Princeton: University Press, 20jantz, p. 12, quoting Flodoard Prhr, von Bledermann, 99?,ffi^§ft?fPffgP^?,.alr and disillusionment is presented.

After Wagner leaves, Faust

21jolTann Wolfgang Goethe, Faust.. Part One* trans. Philip Wayne (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1949), p. 41. All subsequent references vrill be to this edition with line numbers from the original text as given In R-M. S. Heffner, Helmut Hehder, and W, F. Twaddell (ed.). fleathafg FauetI Part One (Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1954).

14 realizes that the knowledge that he deelree Is beyond his earthly limitations and decides to take his life.

He Is

stopped by the sound of church bells and a choir singing praises of the Easter momlng irtiloh Is about to dawn.

He

recalls his childhood before he lost his faitht Begin once more, 0 sweet celestial strain. Tears dim my eyes: earth's child I am agato, (11. 783-84) But he does not realize that the angels' song can apply to him. Lo, frc«m your prison. Love sets you free. . . , Who works and who prays, As love fills his days. May know without fear His master le near. (11. 797-807) to the first scene Faust Is presented as being more than an ordinary man, "stm^gllng to tmdersitand what transcends the boundaries of human understanding, the secrets of the xinlverse."22

He Is bound by his environment and Is

outside the realm of the living world.

His tragedy la

based on the limitations of human existence, and Faust Is very human In spite of his knowledge. Faust and Wagner are next seen "otitslde the City Gate" on Easter morning.

Faust is somewhat relieved to be

among the common people, but he Is also uncomfortable In remembering his failure while trying to help the people

22Alexander Gillies, Goethe's Fausts An Interpretation (Oxford! Blaokwell, 1957), P. 20.

15 during an epidemic.

"He poisoned his patients' bodies

just as he poisoned his pupils' minds. he knows nothing,"^3

He now knows that

so, despite his previous pleasure, he

is back Triiere he started~dislllusioned and doubting. This scene Is necessary In further dellneatttig Faust's character before he meets Mephlstopheles, Little does Faust know that the little black dog that follows him home Is Mephlstopheles In disguise. Back In Faust's study the scholar's despair has abated somewhat after his journey Into the world of the living.

He attempts to translate the beginning of the

Gospel of St, John Into German, but Is stopped by the first phrase, which he translates as "to the beginning was the Word,"

He substitutes "Ihought" for "Word," then

"Power," and finally settles on "Deed,"

This Incident Is

actually quite Important to the unfolding of the drama, for It shows a steady progression of Faust's development. At the beginning of Faust's career the "Word" or literature, "book-learning," was dominant in his mind, but then he realized that the "Thought" behind the "Word" should surpass it. As we see him, Faust desires "Power," received from the "Thought," Only at the end of Part II does Faust recognize the Importance of "Deed." His salvation is based in part on his awareness of the necessity for action, rather than simply contemplation.24

23Glllles, p. 35.

242^Jantz, pp. 113-16.

16 Before Faust can contemplate his translation, he Is interrupted by the dog.

He recognizes the dog as some

sort of spirit, but Is unable to control it by the magic that he knows.

Finally Mephlstopheles appears out of a

mist and talks to Faust In riddles, not revealing his Identity.

He leaves and returns In the next scene to

Introduce his wager while Faust Is still susceptible. They discuss Faust's state of mind and agree to make a wager.

In offer to Mephlsto's offer to show him the

pleasures of life, Faust replies: If I be quieted with a bed of ease. Then let that moment be the and of me I If ever flattering lies of yours can please And soothe my soul to self-sufficiency. And make me one of pleasure's devotee. Then take my soul, for I desire to die: And that's a wager I (11. 1692-98) And he repeats the conditions in different words. If to the fleeting hour I say 'Remain, so fair thou art, remain I' Then bind me with your fatal chain. For I will perish In that day. (11. 1699-1702) Mephlstopheles says that he must have Faust sign a statement In blood to keep his word, although Faust feels that is unnecessary.

He is certain that the wager is to his

advantage for gaining what he desires, and therefore his promise Is enough.

The remainder of the scene shows

Mephlstopheles disguised as Faust, talking to a student. Faust and Mephlsto then depart on a magic cape to begin their journeys. In the next scene the pair are In "Auerbaoh's

17 Cellar in Leipzig" where Mephlsto will show Faust "die kleine, dann die grosse Welt." According to D. J. Enright's Commentary. Faust is to be introduced to evil through the "lesser sensual pleasures," to "oonfuse him, deaden his critical faculties. . . ."25 After a display of magic the two leave to continue their adventure. The "Witch's Kltohen" Is their next stop.

It Is

more than merely a second step In Mephlstopheles' endeavour to degrade his companion; It brings out with greater sharpness elements In Faust's character ^Ich present an attraction and a problem for his tormentor and lead to something he did not expect,2o Faust Is for the first time delivered into the world of fantasy to receive the potion which will restore his youth.

He is repulsed by the images he sees around him,

until the vision of a beautiful woman appears in a mirror. This vision is certainly not Mephlsto's work because It paves the way for his greatest failure with Faust.

Faust

sees In the vision the "Ideal womsm" and realizes her to be part of the Infinite, bound up Indlssolubly with the heavenly forces.27 What Faust has seen prepares him for the following scene—his encounter with Grotchen.

He comments:

25D. J. Enrlght, Commentary on Goethe's Faust (Norfolk: New Directions, 1949), P. 45. ^^Gillles, p. 59. 27Enrlsht, pp. 46-47.

18 By Heaven, there goes a maid of rarest beauty: I never saw a girl more exquisite. . , , (11. 26Q9-610) He asks Mephlstopheles' help In winning her; and. In spite of his hesitation, the Devil agrees to help Faust. Mephlsto seems to suspect that he Is losing at this point because Gretchen is an Innocent girl, and Faust's desire for her Is more spiritual than lustful. Faust vraoes Gretchen and wins her, kills her mother with a sleeping potion, slays her brother, who was trying to defend her name, and, unknowingly, leaves her with child.

He flees the town, little knowing the full Impli-

cations of his deed, to this section Goethe has created one of the most charming love stories of all history.

The

poetry Is grand and dellcsate, expressing the very tenderest of emotions.

(Although the Gretchen episode Is Important

In the development of the story, there Is no need to devote much space to It since It Is only indirectly related to the study at hand.) After Mephlstopheles and Faust leave Gretchen, we see them again only after about a year.

"Walpumls Night"

Is "the climax of a long series of diabolical distractions designed to complete Faust's ruin, . , ,"^®

We are back In

the world of fantasy and Imagination as In the Witch's Kitchen.

It Is a wild orgy of spirits and witches, but

Faust becomes disillusioned by the confusion and fantasy.

28Glllles, p, 86.

19 Mephlstopheles takes Faust to view the 'Intermezzo,' "Walpurgls Night's Dream" which is a "satire on culttiral and social vanities."29 Despite Mephlsto's wishes, Faust's ruin Is not complete.

In fact, Faust Is angry at Mephlstopheles for

keeping the truth from him, for not telling him of GretChen's troubles.

She Is now In prison for killing her

child, after wandering In ostracism.

She Is condemned to

die, and Faust feels a terrible guilt for having deserted her.

He Insists that Mephlstopheles take him back to her, Faust returns to Gretchen to find her mad.

She Is

seeing visions of Hell and at first does not recognize him.

Faust viants to take her away, but she knows that she

can never find happiness on earth and refuses to go with him.

Part I closes Vrith Mephlstopheles begging Faust to

flee, with the vxords, "She Is condemned to die,"

But the

reply le heard from above, "Is redeemed on high" (1. 4611), So Faust deserts her at her death as he did in life, but Gretchen is the means by which he can now withstand Mephlstopheles. The tragedy of Faust Is completed In Part II, which was published many years after the first part.

Since this

paper Is primarily concerned with the Influence of the drama upon Lord Byron, Part II will be dealt with only briefly, because It was not published until after Byron's death.

29Glllles, p, 89.

20 Here the Influence is reversed: Byron.

Goethe was Influenced by

Certain scenes of the second part are an admitted

tribute to the great Romantic poet.

Before discussing

Byron's Influence further, selected sections of Part II will be mentioned. Mephlstopheles gives Faust the "Power" that he has desired from the beginning.

Faust advises the Emperor on

financial matters and helps him win a battle; he conjures up spirits from ancient Greece and falls in love with his vision of Helen of Troy.

After the Classical Walpurgls

Night, Faust finds Helen; they are married, and a son is bom.

Faust returns to reality and because of his aid to

the Emperor Is given some land.

Faust works for many

years developing the land which he has to recover frc»a the sea and is seen at the end of the play, an old man still working.

He has given many people homes by pro-

ducing fertile land where none was before, to the final scene before Faust's death, when he has renounced magic, Fftust tells Mephlstopheles that If he could see his plans cchnpleted. Then to the moment oould I say: Linger you now, you are so fairf30 At these words he falls dead,

Mephlsto thinks he has -mn

the wager and Faust's soul, but the angels appear to take

30Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Faust. Part Two, trans. Philip Wayne (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1959), p. 270.

21 Faust's soul to heaven.

They convey him to t^e guidance of

the spirit of Gretchen, who. In turn, will take him to the center of heaven.

Thus, Faust Is saved In spite of his

misdeeds, because he realized before his death that what he sought could be foimd In life.

He asked for more than

human beings can expect, but only at his death did he receive It.

He leemied the duty of self-sacrifice, that

something existed outside himself to which he must give himself.

Before his death he became aware of the necessity

of action for a worthwhile life, Mephlstopheles lost, both the wager with the Lord and the one with Faust. As the Lord said In the Prologue, A good man In his dark, bewildered course Will not forget the way of righteousness, (11. 328-29) Faust, like Faustus, despairs at the beginning, but at his death Faust found the truth that he had sought,31 The most obvious Influence of Byron on Goethe can be seen in Act III of Faust II. in the figure of Euphorlon, the child of the marriage of Faust and Helen. Euphorlon, like Goethe's conception of Byron, represents " . . . the theory that the Ideal poetry consists of a perfect fusion of romantic and classic elements,"32

Paust represents

northern romanticism, and Helen Is, of course, Greek: she Is the ideal of classic beauty.

The offspring of

3lGinies, p. 204. 32James Boyd, Goethe's Knowledge of English Literature (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932), p, 202.

22 their union fuses the best of each ideal.

Byron was to

Goethe a "true representative of modem times, uniting as he does, both the classic and romantic conceptions of art,"33 The eulogy to Euphorlon after his death is definitely an allusion to Byron's death at Mlssolonghl In 1824 when he was about to participate in the Greek war of Independence. Goethe's notebooks show that he read many of Byron's works and was favorably Impressed,

Between the two, admi-

ration was mutual; both were practically legends during their lifetimes.

Byron dedicated Werner to Goethe, and

Goethe paid tribute to Byron in his conception of Euphorlon.

333oyd, p. 202.

CHAPTER II PAUST AND MANFRED This chapter Is concerned with Byron the writer and how he was Influenced in hie writing of Manfred by Goethe's Faust. When Manfred was published on June l6, 181?, Byron oould read no German, for he had forgotten all of that language that he had studied as a child. 34

in spite of

this fact, Byron was accused of plagarlsm, from both Marlowe's Faustus and Goethe's Faust. knowledge of either:

Byron denied any

"The devil may take both Faustuses,

German and Engllsh-I have taken neither. "35 Although ho repeatedly refused to admit that he had read Marlowe's drama, he later said that "Monk" Lewis had translated viva voca some passages from Goethe's Faust. This Incident took place In 1816 when he was developing the Ideas for Manfred. His comment on the subject was, I was naturally much struck with It; but It was the StfiUbbach and the Jiuigfrau, and something else, , much more than Faustus. that made me write Manfred,-'" Shelley also translated and repeated to Byron some scenes

34samuel C. Chew, Jr., The Dramas of Lord Byron more: Johns Hopkins Press, 1915), PP. 60, 174. (Baltimore 35Boyd, p. l6l. 36Boyd, pp. 161-62. 23

24 from JEfiUst. That Goethe's masterpiece should Influence him Is quite logical, for Byron was almost the personification of Goethe's concept of Weltschmer^. Goethe read Manfred In October of the year of Its publication and was so much Impressed by it that he wrote an article about It In his magazine, Kunst und Alterthum. He said. In essence, that Byron had taken his Faust and Incorporated It into his character Manfred until It was no longer Paust.37

Byron ™ s pleased with the article

after he had Richard Hoppner translate it for hlra.38 Goethe's reading of Manfred led him to a further Interest to Byron's works, and he praised Bjrron the rest of his life.

He looked on Byron as not merely a good writer, but

as one of the greatest English poets.39 Goethe's interest in Manfred can be judged by his translating frc«a It four main scenes, which he felt had the most In common with Faxjst.

The first scene of Act I

was one of the four translated, and even Byron admitted that It was much like Faust. The second translation was the tocantatlon from Act I, Scene.I; the third frcan Act II, Scene II, when Manfred refuses to accept the assistance of

37Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Gedenkaus.^^abe der Werke. un4 Gesprftche. Vol. 14: Sphrlften " ~ Briefe un^ zur Llteratur (Ztlrlch: Artemis-Verlag, 1950) ), p. 785. 38gthel Colbum Mayne, Rvron (New York: Scrlbner's, 1924), pp. 354-55. 39Boyd, pp. 149-158.

25 the Witch of the Alps.

The dialogue between Manfred and

Astarte In Act II, Scene Iv, was the fourth.^

Each of

the four will oe dealt with to turn. At the beginning of the first scene of Act I, Manfred Is In a "Gothic Gallery," lamenting his fate.

He

Is a solitary in nature and to desire i "Prom my youth upwards/ My spirit walked not with the souls of men" (II, II, 50-51).

He has studied many things:

"Philosophy and

science, and the springs/ Of wcmder, and the wlsdcsa of the world" (I, I, 13-14); yet Is not satisfied, for "The Tree of Knowledge Is not that of Life" (1. 12). Like Faust, whom we first saw In a "high-vaalted, narrow, gothic chamber," Manfred Is restless and dissatisfied uoid so turns to magic to discover the suiswers he seeks. Both Manfred and Faust se^n to acknowledge that their search for knowledge Is "sinful," but their dissatisfaction has caused them to turn away from God and conventional Ideas.^2 Faust has studied all the faculties, and yet he says, "I stand no wiser than I was before" (11. 358-59). calls up the Spirit of Earth In his despair.

He

Manfred con-

jures the "Spirits of the tmbounded Universe";

each of

^Boyd, p. 163. ^iLord Byron, George Gordon, "Manfred," The Hoetlcal Works of Lord Byron (New York: Oxford University Press, 1'^%J, p. 396. All subsequent references will be given by Act, scene, and line. ^^Thorelev, p. 171.

26 the seven spirits represents one of the "various and Individual phenomena that together make up earth,"^3

30th

heroes are overcome by Weltschmerz. the longing for some truth to cling to; but. In their pride and self-assertion, neither will accept vAiat others have called absotote.

In

their frustration and desperation they both turn to the supernatural for the answers they have not found In earthly knowledge ^ ^ Even communion with the spirits falls to yield a solution for Manfred. Although the spirits cannot give Manfred what he desires, that Is forgetfutoess, they offer him power—or death.

He replies.

Slaves, scoff not at my will! The mind, the spirit, the Promethean spark, The lightning of my being. Is as bright< Pervading, and far darting as your own. And shall not yield to yours, though coop'd In clayt (11. 153-57) This statement Is reminiscent of Faust's challenge to the Earth Spirit:

"My name Is Faust, In everything your equal"

(1. 500), The spirits reinforce Manfred's Idea that all that can be known Is false and Illusory,

At his request

that the most powerful of the seven appear In an appropriate form, the spirit representing the star of his destiny asBumes the shape of a beautiful woman.

This vision

seems to symbolize the Ideal woman, much like the vision

^3chew, p. 176. ^^horslev, p. 171.

27 Faust sees In the mirror at the Witch's Kltohen. Manfred faints at the sight of the woman, and a voice is heard speaking to him. ^5 The Incantation heard iflhile Manfred Is unconscious is the second of the passages Goethe translated, a passage which has been debated extensively.

The Incantation was

written in September, I8i6, the month during i^lch Byron >rrote "Lines on Hearing that Lady Byron was 111," The passage Tras first published In the Prisoner of Chi lion volume, and later Incorporated Into Manfred. The references In the Incmntatlon can be related to Byron's feelings for his wife at that time, for several lines are quite reminiscent of "Lines on Hearing that Lady Byron \-ms 111,"46

in the context of Manfred the lines do

not fit very well, but can be regarded as simply a prediction of Manfred's fate. Whatever the Interpretation, one wonders why Goethe was so interested In this i)artloular passage.

He had read extensively abcjut Byron's life and

no doubt had heard of problems in his marriage, but the Incantation to Paust Is rather vague.

Possibly Goethe

was applying the Ideas to Gretchen's wandering and despair at killing her child, but this assumption seems to be stretching the point, since Paust was not concerned with Gretchen for almost a year.

^5chew, pp.

176^77.

^^Mayne, p. 247.

28 Act I, Scene ii, of Manfred seems to have been inapired by PaUst's decision to take his life after the Earth Spirit departed. to despair.

Manfred stands atop the Jungfrau

He has been abandoned by the spirits and feels

that nothing can oc»nfort his remorse.

Like Paust, he

attempts to commit suicide, but his effort is "thwarted by the Intrusion of piety. In the person of the Chamoishunter. , . ,"47 One Interesting potot to notice In this scene is that part of Manfred's soliloquy can be cc»npared to Faust's ccMaments to Wa^er when they go outside the gates of the city.

In praising the beauties of the world,

Manfred says. But we, who name ourselves Its sovereigns, we. Half duet, half deity, alike unfit To sink or soar, with our mix'd essence make A ccmfllct of its elements. . . . (I, li, 39-42) Faust's statment Inplies the same ideas: "TXTO souls, alas, are housed within my breast,/ And eaoh will wrestle for the mastery there" (11. 1112-14).

He goes on to explain that

one soul Is spiritual; the other, base. These statements are basic to the characters of Manfred and Faust: two Titans struggling against their fates,

ftoth desire more

than they are capable of achieving; yet, knowing that, they still strive for the unattainable. In the first scene of Act II the Chamois Hxmter tries to discover whom he has saved on the mountain, and

^7chew, p. 177.

29 although his questions are not clearly answered, the reader is given a better picture of Manfred's nature. When the hunter hands Manfred a cup of wine, he sees blood upon the rim.

From his words the reader gains some Insight Into

the nature of his crime for which he has suffered such remorse. I say 'tis blood—my blood! the pure warm stream Which ran in the veins of my fathers, and In ours When we were in our youth, and had one heart. And,loved eaoh other as we should not love. And this is shed, . . . (11. 24-28) He menticms his age, the many long years he has lived, but is contradicted by the older man.

Manfred replies.

Think'fit thou existence doth depend on time? It dothI but actions are our epochs: mine Have made my days and ni-^hts imperishable.

(11. 51-53) His words can be compared to Faust's bein^ old before his time,

Faust has taught only

ten years

when the play opens,

but he says to Mephlstopheles, "Too old am I to be content with play. . . . " (1, 1546). Later when he and Mephlsto aire prepared to depart, he repeats this Idea: Bearded and grey, I fear I lack The sprlghtliness I need for the attack, . , , (11. 2055-56) After Manfred leaves the Chamois Hitnter, he csalls the Witch of the Alps, vdio "rises beneath the arch of the sunbow of the torrent" of a waterfall.^^ He tells her of hlB past, how he studied forbidden knowledge and with i^hom

^^Stage directions following line 12, Act II, scene 11,

30 he spent his days,

she offers her assistance In over-

coming his fate if he will become her servant.

He refuses

to be subservient to those whom he has connnanded, and the beautiful spirit vanishes. Manfred Is left alone to lament his destiny.

His

soliloquy at this time Is the third of the passages translated by Goethe,

He was quite probably Impressed with

Byron's hero, who could refuse a pact with the supernatural forces.

It was perhaps this same passage that caused

Nietzsche to comment late In his life: v/ords fall me, I have merely a glance of contempt for those who dare to mention Faust In the presence of Manfred. The Geraan^. are incapable of a conceptlon of greatness. ,. . .^9 Manfred says In his soliloquy. We are the fools of time and terror: Days Steal on us, and steal from us; yet we live. Loathing our life, and dreading still to die. (II, II, 164-66) He decides to call the dead to try to find an answer to his destiny.

And In speaking of Astarte, one can hear

Paust referring to Gretchen after he flees from the prison: If I had never lived, that which I love Had still been living; had I never loved. That which I love would still be beautiful, Happy and giving happiness, (11. 192-95) Faust's words before he flees are, "Would I had never

^9prledrlch Nietzsche, "Ecce Homo,'' The Fhilosophv of NietzBChe. trans. Clifton P. Padlman (New York: The Modem Llbrar./, 195^), p. 842.

31 been bomt" (1, 4596). Manfred feels remorse as Faust does when he goes to save Grotchen from death.

It Is no wonder

that Goethe ftr&s aware of this passage In particular, Manfred has said that he would call up the dead and with this purpose to mind appears In the Hall of Arlmanes as the great festival of the spirits is beginning. Jtist as Faust turns to magic and is confronted with Mephlsto, so Manfred faces the leader of the spirits, Arlmanes, one Is reminded by this scene of the Walpurgls Night In Faust with the many spirits cavorting and celeb3:^tlng.

One

difference, however. Is that Manfred Intrudes in the Hall of Arlmanes and Interrupts the festivities, whereas Faust takes part in the celebration he visits.

In Manfred the

spirits are amazed that a mortal has entered, but Arlmanes allows Manfred to make his request.

Some of the spirits

are aware of his being apart from other men.

The First

Destiny explains to Arlmanes that Manfred Is powerful and through hie power has learned what they. Immortal beings, know* That knowledge Is not happiness, and science But an exchange of Ignorance for that Which le another kind of Ignorance, (II, iv, 61-63) This passage echoes Faust's soliloquy of the first scene when he laments tliat after ten years oif study, all ho knows Is that "Ignorance Is our fate* (1, 364), He continues: All plague of doubts and scruples I can quell, And have no fear of devil or of hell. And In return am destitute of pleasure.

32 Knowing that Imowledge tricks us beyond measure. That man's conversion Is beyond my reach. Knowing the emptiness of what I teach, (11. 368-373) Faust repeats this Idea later when he la speaking with Wagner: What no man knows, alone could make us wise; And what we know, we well oould do x^lthout, (11. 1066-67) Manfred makes his request to see Astarte, and one of the spirits. Nemesis, calls her forth.

The Phantom

appears, and when Manfred begs her forgiveness, makes no answer other than, "Manfred! To-morrow ends thine earthly Ills" (1, 151). Goethe translated i>art of the dialogue between Manfred and Astarte, which contains same of the loveliest poetry of the entire vrork: Yet speak to me I I have outwatoh'd the stars. And gazed o'er heaven to vain in search of thee. Speak to me! I have wander'd o'er the earth. And never foiind thy llkenesa>*-i^eak to met Look on the fiends aroimd—they feel for met I fear theia not, and feel for thee alone— Speak to mef though It be to x-jrath;—but say— I reck not what—but let me hear thee once— This once—once morel (11. 142-49) At the point of Manfred's leaving the Hall of Arlmanes Manfred departs from Goethe's Faust except In further delineation of the hero's character.

In fact, despite Byron's

denial, the conclusion of Manfred closely resembles Marlowe's Fauetus. On the evening when Manfred knows he will die, he Is visited by the Abbot of St, Maurice, who pleads with him to repent, as does the Old Kan who tries to persuade Faustus.

But unlike even Faustus, who was

33 afraid to repent, I4anfred stands as a Titan In the face of death.

His reply to the Abbot Is,

Whate'er I may have been, or am, doth rest between Heaven and myself. I shall not choose a mortal To be my mediator. (Ill, I, 52-55) Later he even defies the spirits who come for him: Thou didst not tempt me, and thou couldst not tempt me; I have not been thy dupe, nor am thy preyBut was my own destroyer, and will be My own hereafter, (ill, iv, 137-140) At hie words the spirits vanish^ and Manfred dies with the words, "Old man! 'tis not so difficult to die" (1. 151). And like the Abbot, we must say, "His soul hath ta'en its earthless flight;/ Whither? I dread to think—but he Is gone" (11. 152-53). Because of Manfred's defiance, he has been ctnapared with Satan of Paradise Lost and Shelley's Prometheus. Byron was, of course, familiar with these figures; and no doubt his hero, Manfred, Is In part developed frcHn the Ideas Of the two Titans. For . . , Byron, Satan and Prometheus had come to stand for the ultimate In titanic rebellion: a rebellion which asserted the Independence of the Individual and the primacy of his values not only to the face of society, but even to the faee of "God,"50 Another character promtoent In world literature that can be compared to Manfred Is Ahasuerus, the Wandering Jew. Like the Jew, Manfred had T