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A L E R T S : (1) Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction connecting two independent clauses; see 23b. (2) When independent clauses are long or contain commas, use a subordinating conjunction—or use a semicolon to connect the sentences; see 24d.

EXERCISE 7-11

Decide whether each of the following sentences is simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. For help, consult 7o.

EXAMPLE

Many people would love to eat a healthy meal at a fast-food restaurant or a food concession at the movies. (simple)

1. A fried-chicken sandwich packs an enormous number of calories and fat, and a fried-fish sandwich is no better. 2. You can purchase other relatively healthy meals at a fast-food restaurant, if you first get to know the chart of nutritional values provided for customers. 3. Even though US government regulations require that nutritional charts be posted on the wall in the public areas of every fast-food restaurant, consumers often ignore the information, and they choose main meals and side dishes with the most flavor, calories, and fat. 4. A healthy meal available at many fast-food restaurants is a salad with lowfat dressing, along with bottled water. 5. In truth, many people need to stay away from fast-food restaurants and food concessions at the movies and thereby avoid the tasty temptations of high-calorie foods.

CHAPTER 8

Verbs 8a

What do verbs do?

A verb expresses an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. Verbs also reveal when something occurs—in the present, the past, or the future. Many people overeat on Thanksgiving. [action] Mother’s Day fell early this year. [occurrence] Memorial Day is tomorrow. [state of being] Verbs convey other information as well; see Box 8-1. For types of Verbs, see Box 8-2.

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What do verbs do?

B OX 8 - 1

8a

S U M M A RY

Information that verbs convey PERSON

NUMBER TENSE MOOD

VOICE

First person (the speaker: I dance), second person (the one spoken to: you dance), or third person (the one spoken about: the dog dances). Singular (one) or plural (more than one). Past (we danced), present (we dance), or future (we will dance); see 8g through 8k. Moods are indicative (we dance), imperative (commands and polite requests: Dance), or conditional (speculation, wishes: if we were dancing . . .); see 8l and 8m. Active voice or passive voice; see 8n through 8p.

B OX 8 - 2

S U M M A RY

Types of verbs MAIN VERB

AUXILIARY VERB

LINKING VERB

TRANSITIVE VERB

INTRANSITIVE VERB

The word in a PREDICATE that says something about the SUBJECT: She danced for the group. A verb that combines with a main verb to convey information about TENSE, MOOD, or VOICE (8e). The verbs be, do, and have can be auxiliary verbs or main verbs. The verbs can, could, may, might, should, would, must, and others are MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS. They add shades of meaning such as ability or possibility to verbs: She might dance again. The verb that links a subject to a COMPLEMENT, a word or words that rename or describe the subject: She was happy dancing. Be is the most common linking verb; sometimes sense verbs (smell, taste) or verbs of perception (seem, feel) function as linking verbs. See also Box 8-3. The verb followed by a DIRECT OBJECT that completes the verb’s message: They sent her a fan letter. A verb that does not require a direct object: Yesterday she danced.

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Linking verbs are main verbs that indicate a state of being or a condition. They link a SUBJECT with one or more words that rename or describe the subject, which is called a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT. A linking verb works like an equal sign between a subject and its complement. Box 8-3 shows how linking verbs function in sentences. B OX 8 - 3

S U M M A RY

Linking verbs n Linking verbs may be forms of the verb be (am, is, was, were; see 8e for a complete list). George Washington SUBJECT

was LINKING VERB

president. COMPLEMENT (PREDICATE NOMINATIVE: RENAMES SUBJECT)

n Linking verbs may deal with the senses (look, smell, taste, sound, feel). George Washington SUBJECT

sounded LINKING VERB

confident. COMPLEMENT (PREDICATE ADJECTIVE: DESCRIBES SUBJECT)

n Linking verbs can be verbs that convey a sense of existing or becoming—appear, seem, become, get, grow, turn, remain, stay, and prove, for example. George Washington grew old. SUBJECT

LINKING VERB

COMPLEMENT (PREDICATE ADJECTIVE DESCRIBES SUBJECT)

n To test whether a verb other than a form of be is functioning as a linking verb, substitute was (for a singular subject) or were (for a plural subject) for the original verb. If the sentence makes sense, the original verb is functioning as a linking verb. NO YES

George Washington grew a beard George Washington was a beard. [Grew is not functioning as a linking verb.] George Washington grew old George Washington was old. [Grew is functioning as a linking verb.]

VERB FORMS

8b

What are the forms of main verbs?

A main verb names an action (People dance), an occurrence (Christmas comes once a year), or a state of being (It will be warm tomorrow). Every main verb has five forms.

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What is the -s form of a verb?

■

The simple form conveys an action, occurrence, or state of being taking place in the present (I laugh) or, with an AUXILIARY VERB, in the future (I will laugh).

■

The past-tense form conveys an action, occurrence, or state completed in the past (I laughed). REGULAR VERBS add -ed or -d to the simple form. IRREGULAR VERBS vary (see Box 8-4 on page 129).

■

The past participle form in regular verbs uses the same form as the past tense. Irregular verbs vary; see Box 8-4. To function as a verb, a past participle must combine with a SUBJECT and one or more auxiliary verbs (I have laughed). Otherwise, past participles function as ADJECTIVES (crumbled cookies).

■

The present participle form adds -ing to the simple form (laughing). To function as a verb, a present participle combines with a subject and one or more auxiliary verbs (I was laughing). Otherwise, present participles function as adjectives (my laughing friends) or as NOUNS (Laughing is healthy).

■

The infinitive usually consists of to and the simple form following to (I started to laugh at his joke); see 9i. The infinitive functions as a noun or an adjective, not a verb.

8c

ESL NOTE: When verbs function as other parts of speech, they’re called When present participles function as nouns, they’re called GERUNDS. For information about using gerunds and infinitives as OBJECTS after certain verbs, see Chapter 43. VERBALS: INFINITIVES, PRESENT PARTICIPLES, PAST PARTICIPLES.

8c

What is the - s form of a verb?

The -s form of a verb is the third-person singular in the PRESENT TENSE. The ending -s (or -es) is added to the verb’s SIMPLE FORM (smell becomes smells, as in The bread smells delicious). Be and have are irregular verbs. For the third-person singular, present tense, be uses is and have uses has. The cheesecake is popular. The éclair has chocolate icing. If you tend to drop the -s or -es ending when you speak, always use it when you write. Proofread carefully to make sure you’ve not omitted any -s forms. ALERT: In informal speech, the LINKING, or copula, VERB to be sometimes doesn’t change forms in the present tense. However, ACADEMIC WRITING requires standard third-person singular forms in the present tense. He is [not be] hungry. The bakery has [not have] fresh bread.

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EXERCISE 8-1

Rewrite each sentence, changing the subjects to the word or words given in parentheses. Change the form of the verbs shown in italics to match the new subject. Keep all sentences in the present tense. For help, consult 8c.

EXAMPLE

The Oregon giant earthworm escapes all attempts at detection. (Oregon giant earthworms) Oregon giant earthworms escape all attempts at detection.

1. Before declaring the Oregon giant earthworm a protected species, US government agencies require concrete proof that it is not extinct. (a government agency) (they) 2. A scientist who finds one alive will demonstrate that Oregon giant earthworms do still exist, in spite of no one’s having seen any for over twenty years. (Scientists) (the Oregon giant earthworm) 3. Last seen in the Willamette Valley near Portland, Oregon, the earthworms are white, and they smell like lilies. (the earthworm) (it) 4. Oregon giant earthworms grow up to three feet long. (The Oregon giant earthworm) 5. A clump of soil with a strange shape indicates that the giant creatures continue to live, but to demonstrate that they are not extinct, only a real specimen will do. (clumps of soil) (creature) (it)

8d

What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs?

A regular verb forms its PAST TENSE and PAST PARTICIPLE by adding -ed or -d to the SIMPLE FORM: type, typed; cook, cooked; work, worked. Most verbs in English are regular. In informal speech, some people skip over the -ed sound, pronouncing it softly or not at all. In ACADEMIC WRITING, however, you’re required to use it. If you’re not used to hearing or pronouncing this sound, proofread carefully to see that you have all the needed -ed endings in your writing. NO YES

The cake was suppose to be tasty. The cake was supposed to be tasty.

Irregular verbs, in contrast, don’t consistently add -ed or -d to form the past tense and past participle. Some irregular verbs change an internal vowel to make past tense and past participle: sing, sang, sung. Some change an internal vowel and add an ending other than -ed or -d: grow, grew, grown. Some use the simple form throughout: cost, cost, cost. Unfortunately, a verb’s simple form doesn’t provide a clue about whether the verb is irregular or regular.

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8d

What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs?

Although you can always look up the principal parts of any verb, memorizing any you don’t know solidly is much more efficient in the long run. About two hundred verbs in English are irregular. Box 8-4 lists the most frequently used irregular verbs. A L E R T: For information about changing y to i, or doubling a final consonant before adding the -ed ending, see 21d. B OX 8 - 4

S U M M A RY

Common irregular verbs SIMPLE FORM

PAST TENSE

PAST PARTICIPLE

arise awake be (is, am, are) bear beat become begin bend bet bid (“to offer”) bid (“to command”) bind bite blow break bring build burst buy cast catch choose cling come cost creep cut

arose awoke or awaked was, were bore beat became began bent bet bid bade bound bit blew broke brought built burst bought cast caught chose clung came cost crept cut

arisen awaked or awoken been borne or born beaten become begun bent bet bid bidden bound bitten or bit blown broken brought built burst bought cast caught chosen clung come cost crept cut

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Common irregular verbs (Continued) SIMPLE FORM

PAST TENSE

PAST PARTICIPLE

deal dig dive do draw drink drive eat fall feed feel fight find flee fling fly forbid forget forgive forsake freeze get give go grow hang (“to suspend”)* have hear hide hit hurt

dealt dug dived or dove did drew drank drove ate fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forbade or forbad forgot forgave forsook froze got gave went grew hung had heard hid hit hurt

dealt dug dived done drawn drunk driven eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown forbidden forgotten or forgot forgiven forsaken frozen got or gotten given gone grown hung had heard hidden hit hurt

*When it means “to execute by hanging,” hang is a regular verb: In wartime, some armies routinely hanged deserters.

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8d

What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs?

Common irregular verbs (Continued) SIMPLE FORM

PAST TENSE

PAST PARTICIPLE

keep know lay lead leave lend let lie light lose make mean pay prove quit read rid ride ring rise run say see seek send set shake shine (“to glow”)* shoot show shrink

kept knew laid led left lent let lay lighted or lit lost made meant paid proved quit read rid rode rang rose ran said saw sought sent set shook shone shot showed shrank

kept known laid led left lent let lain lighted or lit lost made meant paid proved or proven quit read rid ridden rung risen run said seen sought sent set shaken shone shot shown or showed shrunk

*When it means “to polish,” shine is a regular verb: We shined our shoes.

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Common irregular verbs (Continued)

132

SIMPLE FORM

PAST TENSE

PAST PARTICIPLE

sing sink sit slay sleep sling speak spend spin spring stand steal sting stink stride strike strive swear sweep swim swing take teach tear tell think throw understand wake wear wring write

sang sank or sunk sat slew slept slung spoke spent spun sprang or sprung stood stole stung stank or stunk strode struck strove swore swept swam swung took taught tore told thought threw understood woke or waked wore wrung wrote

sung sunk sat slain slept slung spoken spent spun sprung stood stolen stung stunk stridden struck striven sworn swept swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrown understood waked or woken worn wrung written

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What are auxiliary verbs?

8e

E X E R C I S E 8 - 2 Write the correct past-tense form of the regular verbs given in parentheses. For help, consult 8d. EXAMPLE The Stanford University football team (uses) used an innovative system to cool down after workouts.

(1) Many athletes (need) ______ a way to lower their body temperatures quickly. (2) They normally just (dump) ______ ice on themselves, but this method (lack) ______ efficiency and sometimes even (cause) ______ collapse. (3) To solve the problem, scientists (develop) ______ the Rapid Thermal Exchange system, which (cools) ______ an athlete from inside. (4) To test the new device, a football player (places) ______ his hand on a cool metal plate inside an airtight chamber, where a mild vacuum pressure (increases) ______ blood flow. (5) This (results) ______ in lowered body temperature as the cooled-down blood (flows) ______ throughout the body and (reduces) ______ the discomfort of being overly hot.

EXERCISE 8-3

Write the correct past-tense form of the irregular verbs given in parentheses. For help, consult Box 8-4 in 8d. EXAMPLE

Ben Johnson (think) thought as he (speak) spoke to prison inmates that his story might help them.

(1) At age 33, Ben Johnson (become) ______ the youngest chief of pediatric neurosurgery in the United States at one of the top hospitals, Baltimore’s Johns Hopkins. (2) This accomplishment seemed impossible for a young African-American youth who (grow) ______ up in run-down apartments in Boston and Detroit. (3) His mother, with only a thirdgrade education herself, (teach) ______ Ben to care about his education. (4) Ben and his older brother, Curtis, (write) ______ two book reports each week and watched no more than three TV shows a week. (5) By seventh grade, Ben (be) ______ at the top of his class at Wilson Junior High.

8e

What are auxiliary verbs?

Auxiliary verbs, also called helping verbs, combine with MAIN VERBS to make VERB PHRASES.

Box 8-5 on the next page shows how auxiliary verbs work.

Using be, do, have The three most common auxiliary verbs are be, do, and have. These three verbs can also be main verbs. Their forms vary more than most irregular verbs, as shown in Boxes 8-6 and 8-7 on pages 134 and 135. A L E R T: In ACADEMIC WRITING, always use the standard forms for be, do, and have, as shown in Boxes 8-6 and 8-7. The gym is [not be] a busy place. The gym is [not be] filling with spectators.

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B OX 8 - 5

PAT T E R N

Auxiliary verbs AUXILIARY VERB

n I am

MAIN VERB

shopping

for new shoes.

VERB PHRASE AUXILIARY VERB

n Clothing prices have

MAIN VERB

soared recently.

VERB PHRASE AUXILIARY VERB

n Leather shoes might

MAIN VERB

cost hundreds of dollars.

VERB PHRASE

B OX 8 - 6

S U M M A RY

Forms of the verb be be is was, were being been

SIMPLE FORM

-S FORM PAST TENSE PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE

Person

Present Tense

I you (singular) he, she, it we you (plural) they

am are is are are are

Past Tense was were was were were were

E S L N O T E : When be, do, and have function as auxiliary verbs, change their form to agree with a third-person singular subject—and don’t add -s to the main verb. NO YES

134

Does the library closes at 6:00? Does the library close at 6:00?

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What are auxiliary verbs?

B OX 8 - 7

8e

S U M M A RY

Forms of the verbs do and have do does did doing done

SIMPLE FORM

-S FORM PAST TENSE PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE

have has had having had

Modal auxiliary verbs Can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, and must are the nine modal auxiliary verbs. Modal auxiliary verbs communicate ability, permission, obligation, advisability, necessity, or possibility. They never change form. Exercise can lengthen lives. [possibility] She can jog for five miles. [ability] The exercise must occur regularly. [necessity, obligation] People should protect their bodies. [advisability] May I exercise? [permission] E S L N O T E : For more about modal auxiliary verbs and the meanings they communicate, see Chapter 44.

E X E R C I S E 8 - 4 Using the auxiliary verbs in the list below, fill in the blanks in the following passage. Use each auxiliary word only once, even if a listed word can fit into more than one blank. For help, consult section 8e. are

have

may

will

might

can

has

EXAMPLE Psychologists have discovered that most personal memories focus on recent events.

(1) Most adults ______ recall recent events more readily than distant ones when they ______ presented with a standard test of memory. (2) However, an important exception ______ been found among older adults, those age 50 and above. (3) People in this older age group ______ most readily recall events that happened in their late teens and early adulthood. (4) Researchers ______ concluded that because many significant life events, such as getting married and choosing a career, occur during this period, older adults ______

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VERBS

prefer to look back on this highly memorable period. (5) Similarly, younger adults ______ tend to focus on those same memorable events, which means that they summon more recent memories.

8f

What are intransitive and transitive verbs?

A verb is intransitive when an OBJECT isn’t required to complete the verb’s meaning: I sing. A verb is transitive when an object is necessary to complete the verb’s meaning: I need a guitar. Many verbs have both transitive and intransitive meanings. Some verbs are only transitive: need, have, like, owe, remember. Only transitive verbs function in the PASSIVE VOICE. Dictionaries label verbs as transitive (vt) or intransitive (vi). Box 8-8 shows how transitive and intransitive verbs operate in sentences.

B OX 8 - 8

S U M M A RY

Comparing intransitive and transitive verbs INTRANSITIVE (OBJECT NOT NEEDED) They sat together quietly. [Together and quietly are not direct objects; they are modifiers.]

The cat sees in the dark. [In the dark is not a direct object; it is a modifier.]

I can hear well. [Well is not a direct object; it is a modifier.]

TRANSITIVE (OBJECT NEEDED) They sent a birthday card to me. [Birthday card is a direct object.] The cat sees the dog. [Dog is a direct object.] I can hear you. [You is a direct object.]

The verbs lie and lay are particularly confusing. Lie means “to recline, to place oneself down, or to remain.” Lie is intransitive (it cannot be followed by an object). Lay means “to put something down.” Lay is transitive (it must be followed by an object). As you can see in Box 8-9 on the next page, the word lay is both the past tense of lie and the present-tense simple form of lay. That makes things difficult. Our best advice is memorize them. Yet truthfully, each time you use lie and lay, you need to pause, think, and recite the list to yourself. Two other verb pairs tend to confuse people because of their intransitive and transitive forms: raise and rise and set and sit. Raise and set are transitive (they must be followed by an object). Rise and sit are intransitive (they cannot be followed by an object). Fortunately,

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What are intransitive and transitive verbs?

8f

although each word has a meaning different from the other words, they don’t share forms: raise, raised, raised; rise, rose, risen; and set, set, set; sit, sat, sat.

B OX 8 - 9

S U M M A RY

Using lie and lay SIMPLE FORM

-S FORM PAST TENSE PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE

lie

lay

lie lies lay lying lain

lay lays laid laying laid

Intransitive Forms PRESENT TENSE

PAST TENSE

The hikers lie down to rest. The hikers lay down to rest.

Transitive Forms PRESENT TENSE

The hikers lay their backpacks on a rock. [Backpacks is a direct object.]

PAST TENSE

The hikers laid their backpacks on a rock. [Backpacks is a direct object.]

EXERCISE 8-5

Underline the correct word of each pair in parentheses. For

help, consult 8f. EXAMPLE

Whenever I come home, I always check to see where my cat is (laying, lying).

(1) Coming home from jogging one morning, I (laid, lay) my keys on the counter and saw my cat, Andy, (laying, lying) in a patch of sunlight on the living room floor. (2) When I (sat, set) down beside him, he (raised, rose) up on his toes, stretched, and then (laid, lay) down a few feet away. (3) (Sitting, Setting) there, I reached out to Andy, and my contrary cat jumped up onto the couch. As he landed, I heard a clinking noise. (4) I (raised, rose) the bottom of the slipcover, and there (laid, lay) my favorite earrings, the ones I thought I had lost last week. Deciding he had earned a special privilege, Andy curled up on a red silk pillow in the corner of the couch. (5) Since the earrings now (laid, lay) safely in my pocket, I let him (lay, lie) there undisturbed.

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VERB TENSE

8g

What is verb tense?

Verb tense conveys time. Verbs show tense (time) by changing form. Eng-

lish has six verb tenses, divided into simple and perfect groups. The three simple tenses divide time into present, past, and future. The simple present tense describes what happens regularly, what takes place in the present, and what is consistently or generally true. The simple past tense tells of an action completed or a condition ended. The simple future tense indicates action

yet to be taken or a condition not yet experienced. Rick wants to speak Spanish fluently. [simple present tense] Rick wanted to improve rapidly. [simple past tense] Rick will want to progress even further next year. [simple future tense] The three perfect tenses also divide time into present, past, and future. They show more complex time relationships than the simple tenses. For information on using the perfect tenses, see section 8i. The three simple tenses and the three perfect tenses also have progressive forms. These forms indicate that the verb describes what is ongoing or continuing. For information on using progressive forms, see section 8j. Box 8-10 on the next page summarizes verb tenses and progressive forms. E S L N O T E : Box 8-10 shows that most verb tenses are formed by combining one or more AUXILIARY VERBS with the SIMPLE FORM, the PRESENT PARTICIPLE, or the PAST PARTICIPLE of a MAIN VERB. Auxiliary verbs are necessary in the formation of most tenses, so never omit them. NO YES

8h

I talking to you. I am talking to you.

How do I use the simple present tense?

The simple present tense uses the SIMPLE FORM of the verb (see 8b). It describes what happens regularly, what takes place in the present, and what is generally or consistently true. Also, it can convey a future occurrence with verbs such as start, stop, begin, end, arrive, and depart. Calculus class meets every morning. [regularly occurring action] Mastering calculus takes time. [general truth] The course ends in eight weeks. [specific future event] A L E R T: For a work of literature, always describe or discuss the action in the present tense. This holds true no matter how old the work. In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Juliet’s father wants her to marry Paris, but Juliet loves Romeo.

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How do I form and use the perfect tenses?

B OX 8 - 1 0

8i

S U M M A RY

Simple, perfect, and progressive tenses Simple Tenses Regular Verb

Irregular Verb

Progressive Form

PRESENT

I talk

I eat

I am talking; I am eating

PAST

I talked

I ate

I was talking; I was eating

FUTURE

I will talk

I will eat

I will be talking; I will be eating

Perfect Tenses

PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT

8i

Regular Verb

Irregular Verb

Progressive Form

I have talked

I have eaten

I have been talking; I have been eating

I had talked

I had eaten

I had been talking; I had been eating

I will have talked

I will have eaten

I will have been talking; I will have been eating

How do I form and use the perfect tenses?

The perfect tenses generally describe actions or occurrences that are still having an effect at the present time or are having an effect until a specified time. The perfect tenses are composed of an AUXILIARY VERB and a main verb’s PAST PARTICIPLE (see 8b). For the present perfect tense (see Box 8-10), use has only for the THIRD-PERSON SINGULAR subjects and have for all other subjects. For the past perfect, use had with the past participle. For the future perfect, use will have with the past participle. PRESENT PERFECT

Our government has offered to help. [having effect now]

PRESENT PERFECT

The drought has created terrible hardship. [having effect until a specified time—when the rains come]

PAST PERFECT

As soon as the tornado had passed, the heavy rain started. [Both events occurred in the past; the tornado occurred before the rain, so the earlier event uses had.]

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VERBS

FUTURE PERFECT

Our chickens’ egg production will have reached five hundred per day by next year. [The event will occur before a specified time.]

8j

How do I form and use progressive forms?

Progressive forms describe an ongoing action or condition. They also express habitual or recurring actions or conditions. The present progressive uses the

present-tense form of be that agrees with the subject in PERSON and NUMBER, plus the -ing form (PRESENT PARTICIPLE) of the main verb. The past progressive uses was or were to agree with the subject in person and number, and it uses the present participle of the main verb. The future progressive uses will be and the present participle. The present perfect progressive uses have been or has been to agree with the subject, plus the -ing form of the main verb. The past perfect progressive uses had been and the -ing form of the main verb. The future perfect progressive uses will have been plus the PRESENT PARTICIPLE. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

The smog is stinging everyone’s eyes. [event taking place now]

PAST PROGRESSIVE

Eye drops were selling well last week. [event ongoing in the past within stated limits]

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

We will be ordering more eye drops than usual this month. [recurring event that will take place in the future]

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Scientists have been warning us about air pollution for years. [recurring event that took place in the past and may still take place]

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

We had been ordering three cases of eye drops a month until the smog worsened. [recurring past event that has now ended]

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

By May, we will have been selling eye drops for eight months. [ongoing condition to be completed at a specific time in the future]

E X E R C I S E 8 - 6 Underline the correct verb in each pair of parentheses. If more than one answer is possible, be prepared to explain the differences in meaning between the choices. For help, consult 8g through 8j. EXAMPLE

Planet Earth (experiences, will be experiencing) a dramatic attack every eleven years.

1. A huge magnetic force, called a “solar maximum,” (is racing, races) every eleven years from the sun toward the earth at two million miles per hour. 2. While these occurrences (had, were having) little effect in previous years, advances in technology today (had made, have made) us vulnerable to the sun’s shifting winds.

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How do I use tense sequences accurately?

8k

3. Such communication disruptions (cost, have been costing) over $100 million a year in repairs and lost business, which (affects, has affected) government offices, companies, and individual citizens. 4. Currently, government space scientists (are collecting, will be collecting) data and soon (are evaluating, will evaluate) the effects of solar maximums on satellites, airplanes, power lines, oil and gas pipelines, and spacecraft. 5. Space experts at NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, (hope, were hoping) the new “Living with a Star” program (will be telling, will tell) them how the next solar maximum in 2011 (will affect, was affecting) us.

8k

How do I use tense sequences accurately?

Verb tense sequences communicate time relationships. They help deliver messages about actions, occurrences, or states that take place at different times. Tenses in the same sentence can vary depending on when actions (or occurrences or states) occur. See Box 8-11.

B OX 8 – 1 1

S U M M A RY

Sequence of tenses with independent and dependent clauses Verb Tense in the Independent Clause

Verb Tense to Use in the Dependent Clause

PRESENT

Use present tense to show same-time action: • I avoid shellfish because I am allergic to it. Use past tense to show earlier action: • I am sure that I deposited the check. Use present perfect tense to show (1) a period of time extending from some point in the past to the present or (2) an indefinite time in the past: • They say that they have lived in Canada since 1979. • I believe that I have seen this movie before. Use future tense for action to come: • The book is open because I will be reading it later. Use past perfect tense to show earlier action: • The sprinter knew that she had broken the record. Use present tense to state a general truth: • Columbus determined that the world is round.

PAST

➞

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VERBS

Sequence of tenses with independent and dependent clauses (continued) PRESENT PERFECT OR PAST PERFECT

Use past tense: • The bread has become moldy since I purchased it. • Sugar prices had already declined when artificial sweeteners first appeared.

FUTURE

Use present tense to show action happening at the same time: • You will be rich if you win the prize. Use past tense to show earlier action: • You will have a good chance of winning if you remembered to send in your entry form. Use present perfect tense to show future action occurring sooner than the action of the verb in the independent clause: • The river will flood again next year unless we have built a better dam by then.

FUTURE PERFECT

Use present tense or past perfect tense: • Dr. Chang will have delivered five thousand babies by the time she retires. • Dr. Chang will have delivered five thousand babies by the time she has retired.

A L E R T: Never use a future-tense verb in a dependent clause when the verb in the independent clause is in the future tense. Instead, use a presenttense verb in the independent clause. NO YES

The river will flood us unless we will prepare our defense. The river will flood us unless we prepare our defense. [Prepare is a present-tense verb.]

YES

The river will flood us unless we have prepared our defense. [Have prepared is a present perfect verb.]

Tense sequences may include INFINITIVES and PARTICIPLES. To name or describe an activity or occurrence coming either at the same time or after the time expressed in the MAIN VERB, use the present infinitive. I hope to buy a used car. [To buy comes at a future time. Hope is the main verb, and its action is now.]

I hoped to buy a used car. [Hoped is the main verb, and its action is over.]

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What is “mood” in verbs?

8l

I had hoped to buy a used car. [Had hoped is the main verb, and its action is over.]

The PRESENT PARTICIPLE (a verb’s -ing form) can describe action happening at the same time. Driving his new car, the man smiled. [The driving and the smiling happened at the same time.]

To describe an action that occurs before the action in the main verb, use the perfect infinitive (to have gone, to have smiled), the PAST PARTICIPLE, or the present perfect participle (having gone, having smiled). Candida claimed to have written fifty short stories in college. [Claimed is the main verb, and to have written happened first.]

Pleased with the short story, Candida mailed it to several magazines. [Mailed is the main verb, and pleased happened first.]

EXERCISE 8-7

Underline the correct verb in each pair of parentheses that best suits the sequence of tenses. Be ready to explain your choices. For help, consult 8k.

EXAMPLE

When he (is, was) seven years old, Yo-Yo Ma, possibly the world’s greatest living cellist, (moves, moved) to the United States with his family.

1. Yo-Yo Ma, who (had been born, was born) in France to Chinese parents, (lived, lives) in Boston, Massachusetts, today and (toured, tours) as one of the world’s greatest cellists. 2. Mr. Ma’s older sister, Dr. Yeou-Cheng Ma, was nearly the person with the concert career. She had been training to become a concert violinist until her brother’s musical genius (began, had begun) to be noticed. 3. Although most people today (knew, know) Mr. Ma as a brilliant cellist, he (was making, has made) films as well. 4. One year, while he (had been traveling, was traveling) in the Kalahari Desert, he (films, filmed) dances of southern Africa’s Bush people. 5. When he shows visitors around Boston now, Mr. Ma has been known to point out the Harvard University library where, he claims, he (fell asleep, was falling asleep) in the stacks when he (had been, was) a student.

MOOD

8l

What is “mood” in verbs?

Mood in verbs conveys an attitude toward the action in a sentence. English has three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Use the indicative mood to make statements about real things, about highly likely things, and for questions about fact.

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VERBS

INDICATIVE

The door to the tutoring center opened. [real] She seemed to be looking for someone. [highly likely] Do you want to see a tutor? [question about a fact]

The imperative mood expresses commands and direct requests. Often the subject is omitted in an imperative sentence, but nevertheless the subject is implied to be either you or one of the indefinite pronouns such as anybody, somebody, or everybody. A L E R T: Use an exclamation point after a strong command; use a period after a mild command or a request (22e, 22a). IMPERATIVE

Please shut the door. Watch out! That screw is loose.

The subjunctive mood expresses speculation, other unreal conditions, conjectures, wishes, recommendations, indirect requests, and demands. Often, the words that signal the subjunctive mood are if, as if, as though, and unless. In speaking, subjunctive verb forms were once used frequently in English, but they’re heard far less today. Nevertheless, in ACADEMIC WRITING, you need to use the subjunctive mood. SUBJUNCTIVE

8m

If I were you, I would ask for a tutor.

What are subjunctive forms?

For the present subjunctive, always use the SIMPLE FORM of the verb for all PERSONS and NUMBERS. The prosecutor asks that she testify [not testifies] again. It is important that they be [not are] allowed to testify. For the past subjunctive, use the simple past tense: I wish that I had a car. The one exception is for the past subjunctive of be: Use were for all forms. I wish that I were [not was] leaving on vacation today. They asked if she were [not was] leaving on vacation today.

Using the subjunctive in if, as if, as though, and unless clauses In dependent clauses introduced by if and sometimes by unless, the subjunctive describes speculations or conditions contrary to fact. If it were [not was] to rain, attendance at the race would be disappointing. [speculation] The runner looked as if he were [not was] winded, but he said he wasn’t. [a condition contrary to fact]

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What are subjunctive forms?

8m

In an unless clause, the subjunctive signals that what the clause says is highly unlikely. Unless rain were [not was] to create floods, the race will be held this Sunday. [Floods are highly unlikely.] Not every clause introduced by if, unless, as if, or as though requires the subjunctive. Use the subjunctive only when the dependent clause describes speculation or a condition contrary to fact. INDICATIVE

If she is going to leave late, I will drive her to the race. [Her leaving late is highly likely.]

SUBJUNCTIVE

If she were going to leave late, I would drive her to the race. [Her leaving late is a speculation.]

Using the subjunctive in that clauses When that clauses describe wishes, requests, demands, or recommendations, the subjunctive can convey the message. I wish that this race were [not was] over. [a wish about something happening now]

He wishes that he had seen [not saw] the race. [a wish about something that is past]

The judges are demanding that the doctor examine [not examines] the runners. [a demand for something to happen in the future] Also, MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS would, could, might, and should can convey speculations and conditions contrary to fact. If the runner were [not was] faster, we would see a better race. [Would is a modal auxiliary verb.]

The issue here is that when an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE expresses a conditional statement using a modal auxiliary verb, you want to be sure that in the DEPENDENT CLAUSE you don’t use another modal auxiliary verb. NO YES

If I would have trained for the race, I might have won. If I had trained for the race, I might have won.

E X E R C I S E 8 - 8 Fill in each blank with the correct form of the verb given in parentheses. For help, consult 8l and 8m. EXAMPLE

Imagining the possibility of brain transplants requires that we (to be) be open-minded.

(1) If almost any organ other than the brain (to be) _____ the candidate for a swap, we would probably give our consent. (2) If the brain (to be) _____ to hold whatever impulses form our personalities, few people would want to risk a transplant. (3) Many popular movies have asked that we (to suspend) _____ disbelief and imagine the consequences should a personality actually (to be) _____ transferred to

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VERBS

another body. (4) In real life, however, the complexities of a successful brain transplant require that not-yet-developed surgical techniques (to be) _____ used. (5) For example, it would be essential that during the actual transplant each one of the 500 trillion nerve connections within the brain (to continue) _____ to function as though the brain (to be) _____ lying undisturbed in a living human body.

VOICE

8n

What is “voice” in verbs?

Voice in a verb tells whether a SUBJECT acts or is acted upon. English has two voices, active and passive. A subject in the active voice performs the action.

Most clams live in salt water. [The subject clams does the acting: Clams live.]

They burrow into the sandy bottoms of shallow waters. [The subject they does the acting: They burrow.]

A subject in the passive voice is acted upon. The person or thing doing the acting often appears in a PHRASE that starts with by. Verbs in the passive voice use forms of be, have, and will as AUXILIARY VERBS with the PAST PARTICIPLE of the MAIN VERB. Clams are considered a delicacy by many people. [The subject clams is acted upon by many people.]

Some types of clams are highly valued by seashell collectors. [The subject types is acted upon by seashell collectors.]

8o

How do I write in the active, not passive, voice?

Because the ACTIVE VOICE emphasizes the doer of an action, active constructions are more direct and dramatic. Active constructions usually require fewer words than passive constructions, which makes for greater conciseness (see 16c). Most sentences in the PASSIVE VOICE can be converted to active voice. PASSIVE ACTIVE

8p

African tribal masks are often imitated by Western sculptors. Western sculptors often imitate African tribal masks.

What are proper uses of the passive voice?

Although the active voice is usually best, in special circumstances you need to use the passive voice. When no one knows who or what did something or when the doer of an action isn’t important, writers use the passive voice.

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What are proper uses of the passive voice?

8p

The lock was broken sometime after four o’clock. [Who broke the lock is unknown.]

In 1899, the year I was born, a peace conference was held at The Hague. [The doers of the action—holders of the conference—aren’t important.]

—E. B. White, “Unity” Sometimes the action in the sentence is more important than the doer of the action. For example, if you want to focus on historical discoveries in a narrative, use the passive voice. Conversely, if you want to emphasize the people making the discoveries, use the active voice. ACTIVE

Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen in 1774. [Joseph Priestley is the subject.]

PASSIVE

Oxygen was discovered in 1774 by Joseph Priestley. [Oxygen is the subject.]

ACTIVE

The postal clerk sent the unsigned letter before I could retrieve it from the mailroom. [The emphasis is on the person, the postal clerk, rather than on the action, sent.]

PASSIVE

The unsigned letter was sent before it could be retrieved from the postal clerk. [The emphasis is on the events, was sent and could be retrieved, not on the doer of the action, the unknown sender and the postal clerk.]

In former years, the social sciences and natural sciences preferred the passive voice. Recently, style manuals for these disciplines have been advising writers to use the active voice whenever possible. “Verbs are vigorous, direct communicators,” point out the editors of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. “Use the active rather than the passive voice,” they say.*

E X E R C I S E 8 - 9 First, determine which sentences are in the active voice and which the passive voice. Second, rewrite the sentence in the other voice, and then decide which voice better suits the meaning. Be ready to explain your choice. For help, consult 8n through 8p. EXAMPLE

In the West African country of Ghana, a few woodcarvers are creating coffins that reflect their occupants’ special interests. (active; change to passive) In the West African country of Ghana, coffins that reflect their occupants’ special interests are being created by a few woodcarvers.

1. A coffin in the shape of a green onion was chosen by a farmer. 2. A hunter’s family buried him in a wooden coffin shaped like a leopard.

*American Psychological Association, Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th ed. (Washington: APA, 2001) 41.

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PRONOUNS: CASE AND REFERENCE

3. A dead chief was carried through his fishing village by friends and relatives bearing his body in a large pink wooden replica of a fish. 4. The family of a wealthy man who greatly admired cars buried him in a coffin shaped like a Mercedes car. 5. Although a few of these fantasy coffins have been displayed in museums, most of them end up buried in the ground.

CHAPTER 9

Pronouns: Case and Reference PRONOUN CASE

9a

What does “case” mean?

Case applies in different ways to PRONOUNS and to NOUNS. For pronouns, case refers to three pronoun forms: the subjective (pronoun as a SUBJECT), the objective (pronoun as an OBJECT), and the possessive (pronouns used in pos-

sessive constructions). For nouns, case refers to only one noun form: the possessive. (For help in using apostrophes in the possessive case, see Chapter 26.)

9b

What are personal pronouns?

Personal pronouns refer to persons or things. Box 9-1 shows the case forms

of personal pronouns (subjective, objective, and possessive), in both the singular and the plural. Many of the most difficult questions about pronoun case concern who/whom and whoever/whomever. For a full discussion of how to choose between them, see 9g. B OX 9 - 1

S U M M A RY

Case forms of personal pronouns SINGULAR PLURAL

148

Subjective

Objective

Possessive

I, you, he, she, it we, you, they

me, you, him, her, it us, you, them

mine, yours, his, hers, its ours, yours, theirs