402/95 - 14 e PVI
Division 402 Environmental Protection, Conservation of Natural Resources, Dissemination of Appropriate Technologies (GATE)
Environmental Information and its Management Contributions to institutional development in environment
Division 402 Environmental Protection, Conservation of Natural Resources, Dissemination of Appropriate Technologies (GATE) 402/95 - 14 e PVI
Environmental Information and its Management Contributions to institutional development in environment
Eschborn 1995
Published by: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH Postfach 5180, 65726 Eschborn Division 402, Environment and Natural Resources Management/ Appropriate Technologies (GATE) Pilot Project Institutional Development in Environment Wachsbleiche 1, 53111 Bonn Tel.: (+49) 0228 98533-0 / Fax: (+49) 0228 98570-18
Authors: W. Zimmermann Responsible: W. Hamacher, S. Paulus, B. Winkler Editors: G. Schuler, B. Winkler Printed by: Universum Verlagsanstalt, D-65175 Wiesbaden
Schutzgebühr
DM 10,--
Foreword
Assisting environmental organisations in developing countries has been a key element of both German and international development cooperation since the mid-Eighties. Due to its intersectoral nature and the large number of actors involved, the environmental sector generally involves very complex problems. In advisory services on environmental policy there is accordingly a special need for a solid basis of information for each decision relating to the environment. Such a basis can, however, only be ensured by an appropriate information management system drawing on a database which is as broad and current as possible and which can process information in a userspecific form. This is the only approach that can guarantee a direct and comprehensive application with a high degree of relevance and value for policy decisions. In view of the significant growth in the volume and variety of data, there has been increasing need in recent years for computerised information technologies (IT) in managing environmental information. Geographical information systems (GIS) in particular now offer relatively low-cost ways to enter, store and model geographical data over longer periods. Project experience to date, however, shows clearly that lasting implementation of GIS-based environmental information systems requires prior support in the form of hardware and software and technical training for the staff. Effective management of environmental information also specifically requires modification of the procedures within the organisation and institutional integration into existing environmental institutions. Viewed in this way, the management of environmental information takes on a new dimension, with greater emphasis on internal and external communication and networking. To meet these important needs and also to study potential forms of action more closely, the pilot project “Institutional Development in Environment”, commissioned by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation, has studied the available experience of the GTZ. The following contribution accordingly focuses on the institutional environment and the requirements for the management of environmental information. Specifically, it seeks to present the role of environmental information systems in the planning and decision-making process, using examples from practice in industrial and developing countries. It also attempts to establish the relationship with other spheres of action in environmental policy and identify possibilities for integrating environmental information systems into Technical Cooperation programmes. Bonn/Eschborn, June 1995
Dr. E. Kürzinger-Wiemann German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation Division 224 (Environmental Protection, Resource Conservation and Forestry)
B. Winkler GTZ GmbH Pilot project “Institutional Development in Environment”
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II
Contents Foreword
I
Contents
III
Summary
IV
1 1.1 1.2
The context Background Objectives of the study
1 1 1
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.7
EIS in the planning and decision-making process Categories of environmental information Principles for action Approaches to decision-making Indicators as the transition from database to decision-making The context for the management of environmental information Experience in industrialised countries The environmental information system of Baden-Württemberg The Norwegian environmental report The European CORINE information system Cost-benefit aspects
3 3 5 6 7 7 8 8 12 12 13
3 3.1 3.2 3.2.1
Environmental information systems in Technical Cooperation Examples of projects from the GTZ’s work International networks The programme "Environmental Information Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa" The programme "Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel, (OSS)"
13 13 15
Institutional aspects Institutional outcomes of environmental information systems Links with other spheres of environmental policy action Networking as a process-oriented step towards better management of environmental information
17 17 18
Outlook and recommendations for Development Cooperation Trends in the management of environmental information Prerequisites and potential for environmental information management within projects of Institutional Development in Environment Integrating bilateral Technical Cooperation into international initiatives and programmes Implications for the requirements profile for environmental experts Upgrading and ongoing training aspects Navigation through the flood of information and access to databases
21 21
3.2.2 4 4.1 4.2 4.3
5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
Appendix: References The suitability of GIS in the environmental sector Publications to date on the work of Division 402
15 16
20
22 22 23 23 24
27 29 33
III
Summary
The 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro laid a new foundation for international environmental and development policy. Agenda 21 committed its signatories to improve their ability to handle all the factors which are important for an effective environmental policy. The central task is accordingly to improve the state of knowledge of the actors in industrial and developing countries. The keyword is capacity development. The route to this involves intersectoral development of institutions. Government and nongovernmental organisations must cooperate on environmental protection and learn how to handle large volumes of information. One instrument that they must be provided with is an environmental information system. An idea that runs through Agenda 21 is that this tool must also be used in developing countries to improve systematically the information available for informed i decision and action. Chapter 40 in particular notes the importance of using environmental information systems to satisfy the need for information for sustainable development. Although such information systems cannot provide a direct solution to environmental problems, they can, however, improve access to information with environmental relevance and make it available as a basis for decision-making. In this way, they make a contribution towards more efficient intersectoral (and, not least, inexpensive) information management. One of the strengths of environmental information systems is their flexibility in application: they can be attached to a local, national or global structure. At the same time their use can be limited to a single administrative unit (e.g. a province) or a geo-ecological region (e.g. the Sahel). Experience to date in industrial and developing countries shows clearly that it is not enough to tackle the technical aspects of managing environmental information. Much greater consideration must also be given to the institutional environment and requirements than has been done in the past. There are many ways to improve the quality of decisions and actions. Besides developing the relevant capability, the crucial factor is the quality of the basis for decision-making. An important part of enhancing capability is improving the quality of the information used in making decisions. Environmental information management must accordingly ensure that the steps needed to move from knowledge of the date to capability to act are established in methodological, organisational and technical terms. This transition can be achieved through precisely defined process-oriented environmental indicators. Management using an environmental information system can accordingly be viewed as an institutional response to the challenge of supporting environmentally-relevant planning and decisionmaking processes at local, national and global level. Agenda 21 calls urgently for more democratic and user-friendly access to information. Access to environmental information, intersectoral exchange of information, data protection and copyright, questions of mandate, standards and rules for a harmonised basis for data, and the incorporation of environmental information into integrated planning processes – all these are very much institutional challenges. Standard approaches will inevitably only be available for certain aspects of a problem. The crucial elements are the ongoing willingness to learn and the commitment to a process-oriented and intersectoral view. Development policy advisory services should accordingly focus on the following aspects: − refining process-oriented environmental indicators, − models for establishing horizontal and vertical networks, − defining standards for environmental information, − greater orientation towards users and decision-making in environmental information, − improving available upgrading and ongoing training.
IV
A heterogeneous market for environmental information is also emerging in developing countries. A major responsibility of environmental information management is accordingly to provide help in navigation and draw attention to new possibilities for communication. Summing up, the implementation of Agenda 21 requires a new quality of cooperation and consultation between multilateral institutions, bilateral donors, governmental and non-governmental institutions in developing countries.
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1
The context
1.1
Background
Developing countries are particularly affected by environmental problems, as the following problem areas clearly show. Population growth is increasing pressure on natural resources, water is becoming increasingly scarce and increasingly polluted, deforestation is rampant, environmental damage and natural disasters (particularly in coastal and mountainous areas) are becoming more frequent. Uncontrolled and (in some cases) runaway growth of settlements are another consequence of environmental problems, as is the decline in biodiversity. The developing countries are also particularly vulnerable to possible impending climatic changes. These problems are closely interrelated and cannot be considered and/or tackled in isolation. Proper management of the resources in this sector depends on informed decision-making. This means that in view of the complexity of the problems, correct decisions can only be taken on the basis of the necessary information. This in turn requires availability of problem-related, up-to-date and adequate information on the environment and the nature of the development process. Institutional and organisational problems can be more of an obstacle to effective management of environmental information than technical inadequacies. The actual weakness is evident from the practical experience of Technical Cooperation, which shows that the fundamental importance of adequate data on the environment and the systematic integration of this into planning, monitoring and evaluation of projects and programmes is generally underestimated. This leads not only to wrong decisions and bad investments, but also a failure to identify critical trends in development in time or at all.
1.2
Objectives of the study
The management of environmental information seeks to avoid the adverse results referred to above. It also aims to make planning and implementation processes more reliable and focused and to reduce the risk and improve the efficiency of steps in development with environmental relevance. Environmental information management (EIM) can also identify development processes rapidly and make them more comprehensible for the actors and their decisions. This study is an attempt to present in clear terms the recent experience with EIM in developing countries. It also discusses possible approaches in the context of global challenges and programmes. Initial recommendations for action are developed for the following important issues: What effect can EIM have on decision-making processes and environmental planning? What is the importance of EIM for the development of corresponding institutions? How can the conditions for the use of environmental information systems in developing countries be improved in stages? How can mistakes in establishing networks be avoided? The study, and particularly the first part, seeks to elucidate the debate on effective technology transfer, minimise errors in setting up environmental information systems and curb exaggerated expectations. The time needed for the corresponding learning process is shown by the fact that, for example, the Federal Republic of Germany only passed the Environmental Information Act in 1994. The role of environmental information systems in the planning and decision-making process is explored in the second section. The emphasis here is on making a task and user oriented contribution to intersectoral planning, decision-making and coordination. The third section reviews the use of environmental information systems in Technical Cooperation and compares the (still very brief) experience with environmental information systems to the high
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demands posed by the Agenda 21 action programme on future practice. This section demonstrates the truth of the claim in the introduction that the institutional aspects of an environmental information system are generally seriously underrated. The fourth section deals with the effects on institutions, closing with a review of the prospects and recommendations for effective EIM as a contribution to sustainable development.
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2
EIS in the planning and decision-making process
2.1
Categories of environmental information
Skilled management of environmental information makes it possible to answer the following questions: • What environmental information is required for a decision? • Where is the information accessible? • Does the information already exist or must it be created from scratch? • What statements are possible on quality, timeliness and completeness? • How can the information help improve decision-making? The importance of these questions for various levels of decision-making becomes clear when information as a factor is considered in various categories. The following table rates the importance for the various levels.
categories of operational strategic management information level level level ____________________________________________________________________________________ detailed and sectoral knowledge system knowledge structure knowledge action knowledge ____________________________________________________________________________________ = little importance
Tab. 1
= average importance
= great importance
Importance of the various categories of information at various decision-making levels
On its own, good detailed knowledge does not guarantee better decisions. Even good knowledge of systems on its own has little value unless it is clear which objectives it is to be applied to. It is a question of the degree of resolution. Knowledgeable management is in a position here to provide a valuable advisory service by specifying the degree of resolution of the four categories of information, taking into account the importance, urgency and cost-benefit relationships involved.
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The characteristics of information categories for EIM
examples of relevant tools for EIM __________________________________________________________________________________________________ detailed knowledge
principal components
possible problem areas -
spatial information and temporal information
data cemetery lack of quality control
quality control standardisation and harmonisation EIM working parties systematic training
(sectoral measuring methods lack of managing knowledge) specialist data compatibility updating __________________________________________________________________________________________________ system knowledge
interactions handling complexity communication
impact analysis not always quantifiable
lack of access to information
scenarios
modelling
synergies
systematic upgrading nat.ional and Internat. networks __________________________________________________________________________________________________ structural knowledge
organisations
problems ofresponsibility
AGENDA 21 structures UNEP-HEM Infosystem.
programmes
centralism
regional networks (SADC, ICIMOD etc.)
networks
contradictions/ conflicts
vertical networking access to databases
environmenta frameworkl standards for legislation data exchange __________________________________________________________________________________________________ actionknowledge
setting goals
unclear goals
monitoring impact
short horizont environmental reports inadequate expertise
actors
financing mechanisms
no donor coordination
lack of financial resources
Tab. 2
4
environmental impact assesment; EIS network indicators / training and upgrading on EIM
institutionalised communication cost-benefit analysis simulations limits / standards participatory and intersectoral action
Description of information categories for the management of environmental information
Levels of intervention in environmental information management examples from global to local level administrative classification
geo-ecological classification
institution examples of examples of examples databases programmes of EIS __________________________________________________________________________________________________ global level
UNCED UNEP
Global climateGRID INFOTERRA desertification ocean - terresHEMIS DIS convention trial observing FAO AGRO Stat climate convention systems GTOS WRI WR database Global Change DIS __________________________________________________________________________________________________ international supraregional level
EU SADC ASEAN
CORINE SADC EIS network in preparation
country level
e.g. NEAPMadagascar
EIS Madagascar
ICIMOD (Himalaya) MENRIS ICM (Mekong) MEXES CILSS (Sahel West) Aghrymet ACSAD (Syria) ACSAD-EIS network IGADD (Sahel Easr) IGADD-EIS network __________________________________________________________________________________________________ e.g. vegetation resources GTZ supported project
VEG-RIS Zimbabwe
e.g. Norwegian indicators PC based report environm. report with graphics __________________________________________________________________________________________________ regional level
e.g. India, District level
DISNIC e.g. coastal region Coastal zone District Information Tamil Nadu, India Information System for each GTZ supported Management of the 500 districts System __________________________________________________________________________________________________ local level
community village
Tab. 3
2.2
e.g. project region nature reserve
Examples of local to global levels of intervention for EIS
Principles for action
Complex environment-related problems can only be tackled through complex activities. Typically, these situations are interconnected, unclear and dynamic. They have many variables which interact more or less strongly. Current information and knowledge about such complex problems are also mostly incomplete, inadequate and also create heavy pressure to act. This does not, however, mean that they are intrinsically complex, either individually or as a whole. These situations only develop real complexity through their degree of interconnection. Pressure to act means that the information actually needed for planning decisions cannot be collected at any given desired level of resolution. This in turn means that the actors must accept a situation involving not only heavy pressure to act and limited financial resources but also approximate solutions. Information must then be collected as it emerges and refined on an ongoing and solution-oriented basis as the programme or project continues. In times of rapid changes in complex situations, excessively detailed planning and data collection are a waste of time. Insecure decision-makers in particular have a tendency to plan and collect data
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in too great detail, and all too often in a familiar but relatively irrelevant subsector. This in turn often leads to even greater insecurity, which may result in the actors grasping at action for its own sake and deluding themselves that they have relevant expertise. The principles guiding EIM in turbulent periods must be to establish the general line of strategy in a participatory and solution-oriented form, take early action based on initial rough planning and data collection, delegate decision-making after advanced training measures, support self-organisation of the actors in institutional structures, agree a code of behaviour (priorities, professional ethics, minimum standards) and introduce informal and formal control mechanisms. In addition there is the need for: learning by doing as an ongoing responsibility, early documenting of development trends, stepwise improvement in line with programme evolution of knowledge of detail, structure, system and action, and documenting the complex of impact through ecological, economic and social indicators. Knowledge of development trends is just as important as knowledge of the current situation. Can the management of information to solve complex problems even be learned? The answer is, yes. Actors can learn that they can identify goals even if they cannot achieve them all simultaneously. Consensus solutions can be found for mutually exclusive goals. Development trends and dynamic can be identified at an early stage. Priorities can be set and modified at the right time. It is appropriate to set up a basic model of the overall situation in order to document side effects and remote effects of planned measures. Actors can also learn to ensure the right degree of resolution for the information (neither too fine nor too coarse), to identify existing information efficiently and to document and give it logical structure (rapid data appraisal). How long should be spent collecting data and when to stop can be learned just as much as navigation aids for finding a way through the flood of information. Final points that can be learned are systematically initiating synergetic effects, avoiding unconsidered use of methods, improving the management of temporal processes, analysing planning errors and drawing the right conclusions. In times of rapid change, the transition from knowledge of data to action capability is decisive in professional EIM.
2.3
Approaches to decision-making
Decisions are taken by a very wide range of actors – development planners, project managers, decision-makers at international, national and local level. These actors are ultimately the people who determine core needs, i.e. determine which environmental information is required for what purpose. This approach is based on informed dialogue exploring the expectations of the actors. Users need better information on how decisions can be more cost-effectively made. Providers can expect a partial compensation for making databases available. The dialogue between users and providers of environmental information will determine the model for the solution. The first step in analysis depends on the decision to be taken subsequently. It may also be simply a question of delimiting the problem. The questions may be global or local, strategic or more operational. Strategic, global issues like climate changes are primarily debated in international bodies in the framework of conventions and action programmes. Operational issues relate more to local resource management. Irrespective of the scale of the problem, the second step should be to set up a model of the overall situation capable of documenting effects and causes. Depending on the complexity and transparency of the initial situation, the model may be very sim-ple or very complex. Models and systems have the advantage that they are capable of displaying the interactions between critical variables and indicators. The model can be used to determine which environmental information is needed to create a basis for analysis and the parameters for action. In addition, we should document the structure of impacts, draw up terminological hierarchies, determine the relationship between parts and the whole (and conversely) and define the degree of resolution. Finally, the direct and indirect costs of options should also be estimated. In a demandoriented information system, the data recorded represent the information required to implement the model. In many cases, this approach to planning will mean that the individuals involved in researching environmental data will have to rethink their approaches. There are two key elements in an information system for environmental management:
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• The first is, the emphasis in the technical capability of the providers of environmental information must be on the real needs of the actual end-users. • The second is that management capacity and capability in handling environmental information must be significantly improved. In industrialised and developing countries we often encounter the phenomenon that the ability to establish dialogue between the data provider for an environmental information system and the political and technical decision-makers is extremely weak. The fascination with technology is often followed by a rude awakening. Management responsibilities in connection with an environmental information system in particular require a high degree of ability to learn and willingness to maintain ongoing dialogue. Dialogue is the only way of establishing process-oriented indicators, data analysis with a management and decision-making orientation, and refining planning processes.
2.4
Indicators as the transition from database to decision-making
The quality of EIM depends on how far we succeed in using data to derive knowledge for action and decision-making. For this it is important to identify informative environmental indicators. A distinction must be made between descriptive and process-oriented indicators: descriptive indicators are e.g. the danger of erosion or the quality of water. An example of a process-oriented indicator is the difference between the current situation and a standard or objective – e.g. the difference between the current ozone concentration and the permissible value. The more strongly an environmental information system leans on process-oriented indicators, the more directly it can be used by decision-makers. The recent trend (particularly since the Rio conference) shows the need to refine environmental indicators in both qualitative and quantitative terms, link them with economic and social indicators, combine environmental statistics with geographical information and use this to derive models of the problem and solutions (WRI 1995, "Environmental Indicators"). The traditional classification of natural resources into water, air, flora and fauna is being abandoned in favour of ecological units or initial constellations of problems. A provisional database with 55 environmental indicators was developed by the World Resources Institute (WRI, Washington) for the 53 countries in Africa as a model, and is available on diskette.
2.5
The context for the management of environmental information
Growing local and global pressure to act is resulting in a breakup of adverse contexts and emerging scope for new design and steering opportunities. There are three factors determining the context for EIM: social norms and values, institutional structures, and ultimately the people themselves and their patterns of behaviour, which determine the limits. Social norms and values generally show the following shortcomings: they limit environmental policy as a sectoral issue and delay urgent decisions. Environmental legislation, standards and limits are still in their infancy, implementation and monitoring are completely inadequate. There is a lack of guidelines for setting and monitoring standards and limits. Environmental planning is ad hoc and sectoral, rather than process oriented. There are also shortcomings in the institutional structures. Environmental planning is done by central government agencies (top down), actors in regional and local structures (particularly in the nongovernmental sector) are not included. The turf-drive for demarcation by the actors and institutions involved is stronger than their will to cooperate. Issues of mandate are unresolved and subject to political power struggles. Environmental programmes trail at the end of the budget debates rather than heading it. Uncoordinated donor behaviour by bilateral and multilateral institutions further weakens the institutional structures. Human patterns of behaviour also have an adverse impact. Free access to information is seen as a loss of power rather than a democratic catalyst. The ability to integrate temporal processes into spatial structures is often seriously undeveloped. People frequently prefer ad hoc decisions to process-oriented patterns of behaviour, often feel their scope for decision is disrupted and cramped by current and well-presented information.
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There are also bottlenecks in the normative area. Environmental planning – even where it is multisectoral and not solely a preserve of central government – is hardly ever based on current information with management orientation. There is also a lack of skill in the objective-oriented use of environmental information. Conversely, there are development trends emerging whose individual impact and interactions will substantially affect the context and will also open up new areas for action in Technical Cooperation. These involve the liberalisation of the government sector, the increased linking of local, national and global environmental issues and programmes, the rapid development of information and communications technology and the future reporting obligations under conventions such as the Climate Convention. The implementation of Agenda 21 will show whether environmental information systems will be abused by central government to increase further the exploitation of natural resources, as was the case on the Aral Sea up to 1992, or whether they will be used as a catalyst for decentralised environmental management with government and nongovernmental structures and easy access to information. The development of information and communications technology can provide inexpensive support to the liberalisation, decentralisation and coordination process. This opportunity and the synergetic potential of these three trends in development should be progressively utilised.
2.6
Experience in industrialised countries
The following three examples give better insight into available experience and applications. They represent different levels and objectives. The first case involves an environmental information system at the level of a German Federal land (Baden-Württemberg) and its experience with interdisciplinary organisational structures. The second case is the pioneering Norwegian environmental report, an environmental information system at national level with 25 indicators which are also relevant for the international conventions. The environmental report is compiled in a userfriendly form on two diskettes of text and graphics. Finally the extract from the European environmental information system CORINE, with the problems specific to national information structures, constitutes a good example. The critical review of experience with EIM in the industrialised countries is intended to help learn from errors, avoid exaggerated expectations, and initiate an iterative process of institutional, technical and training-specific approaches (where necessary) in the developing countries.
2.6.1 The environmental information system of Baden-Württemberg (based on “UIS B.W.”, Umweltministerium, 1993) The environmental information system of the Land Baden-Württemberg has five central tasks and goals: 1. Implementing planning and administration. The information technology is used here to perform effectively administrative tasks with environmental relevance. 2. Environmental monitoring. This is used to identify, analyse and forecast the local and regional environmental situation. 3. Integration and protection of investment. This covers coordination and integration of existing processes of environmental information. 4. Emergency. This component covers the management of emergencies, incidents and precautionary cases, particularly through information transmission and processing. 5. Information. This means information for the political and administrative leadership in the parliament, government, administration and general public, and creation of free access for citizens to information on the environment.
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The tasks with environmental relevance determine the scope and nature of the system support. The environmental information system is accordingly independent of the bureaucracy and largely immune to organisational changes. This makes it easier to link information with systems of local authorities, other Federal Länder, the Federal government and international institutions. The individual responsibilities of the Land political and administrative systems can be divided into five blocks, including strategic early warning and concept development. This is concerned with deriving consequences from fundamental research and technological and scientific developments for prophylactic environmental policy and determining the need for action. Strategic concept development in the sense of long-term positioning of environmental management includes e.g. the elaboration of utilisation plans and action programmes and the creation of programmes for promotional and compensation payments. The third block of responsibilities covers policy action. This focuses on determining environmental policy goals, the regulatory framework and priorities. Implementation is ultimately the process of translating policy objectives into clear instructions for their implementation. Implementation as the last block of responsibilities involves performing the environmental tasks. These include e.g. planning individual measures, approving industrial plants and facilities and issuing retrospective restrictions, technical advisory services for projects with environmental relevance, specialist planning of protective and maintenance measures, and particularly the supervision of environmental protection assets and elements of the technosphere.
Rules and standards As an interdisciplinary and interagency information system, the environmental information system needs rules and standards to link its individual components and ensure that they work together smoothly. This is done by developing a pervasive reporting system and establishing a coordinated system architecture for all components of the environmental information system. A central idea in environmental information system reporting philosophy is the principle of management orientation. Information for managers must be provided in line with the needs of the situation, i.e. the only information provided is what is absolutely essential for handling a management task. The reporting system applies at all levels of the technological-ecological chain of effect: policy and administrative measures are taken to affect the technosphere and, under some circumstances, the environmental resources. Information on this chain of effect and the status and condition of the resources and the technosphere is intended to enable the responsible administrators to identify the need for action and take suitable measures. Trend monitoring, comparisons and reports on special events can be useful here. Success monitoring aims to check the effectiveness and efficiency of implementation and (for example) also the assess the relative position in comparisons between various agencies. In this way, the reporting system facilitates feedback between legislative and executive and also between the various levels of management in administration. The fundamental features of the architecture of the environmental information system are the pervasiveness of data (i.e. vertical access to data within the administrative and system hierarchy) and the capability to link it, i.e. the ability to merge data at the same level of aggregation horizontally. The linkage capability reflects in particular the interdisciplinary and interagency nature of environmental responsibilities. The pervasiveness of data throughout the system architecture ensures that management information for ministries or Land central administrations can be generated without further manual intervention directly from the primary data held by the specialist agencies.
Project organisation of the environmental information system A project like the environmental information system cannot be implemented with conventional organisational structures and methods of linear organisation or with the normal course of business in public administration. As a result, new organisational forms had to be developed and tested for the environmental information system project within the framework of the strategic guidelines for new organisation forms.
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The Ministry of Environment and the agencies involved developed the environmental information system project organisation jointly. To coordinate the EIS-project with the local authorities and the Land information system, the computer centres and Land Statistical Office worked together right from the part in the core team and steering committee. In refining and implementing the framework concept in the years 1989-92, the requirements were primarily concerned with developing specialist and organisational concepts for the overarching components. For this responsibility the Ministry of Environment took six particularly well-qualified staff members and largely released them from line responsibilities for a three-year period as a project group within the ministry. This form of organisation has proved its value. Besides this, the formation of mixed working groups responsible for developing key projects was particularly successful. There was no prior experience in the Land administration with tackling specific tasks in project form covering a limited period and having temporary project organisation in addition to the setup organisation. The installation of the project organisation and the development of a project culture enables the environmental information system to provide other agencies with aids in orientation and guidelines for major projects. There can be no single, all-purpose solution.
Access to the Baden-Württemberg EIS components is data and user specific
management level
report data background data
parliament
public
(ministries)
middle management office manager, division-
technical data
lmanager Land administration R i ä idi
technical level environmental specialists in spec. agencies
supporting administrative tasks direct access to EIS
Fig. 3
basic information environmental data from EIS
municipalities “pure information” access mainly via EIS
Diagram of access to the Baden-Württemberg environmental information system
While installing the project organisation, all those involved had the goal in view of establishing working teams with extensive autonomy regarding line responsibilities, operating as groups with self-management capability and rated solely by their success with the project in question. This success could e.g. be compliance with project timetables, the quality of the system solution developed, or even the satisfaction of system users.
Information management The expansion of the individual components of the environmental information system will lead to a sharp increase in the volume of data available and in demand. The practical implications of this were listed in a detailed concept developed jointly by representatives of the Ministry of Environment and the Land Environmental Protection Agency with external consultants. This concept is intended to serve as the basis for regulating data exchange between data sources and users and ensuring quality, clarity, access facilities and the ability to link the data.
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The aims of the planned information management are to give users an overview of the available data, its sources and its potential interpretations and to establish the organisational framework for ensuring sustainable data capture, updating and provision. Data cemeteries are prevented because of the record of who, when, where, at what date, why, who for and with what accuracy the data was collected and stored.
Prospects and benefits The environmental information system makes it possible to meet environmental responsibilities more easily and better. The potential benefit can only be realised in stages: the scale of the benefit depends on investment in key environmental information system components and how far the conditions for providing data have been met. The system satisfies the requirements set by the European Union (EU) Council set in its Directive of 7 June 1990. This document calls for free access to official information on the environment. This includes all information in print, image, sound and data on the state of water, air, soil, flora and fauna and the natural biotopes. The benefit of the environmental information system lies in the time saved in processing and providing information. This means that for a given level of personnel resources, the quality and quantity of the available information can be increased. Regional planning, for example, can be tackled with considerably smaller resources of time and labour than in the past using basic topographical data and thematic maps. In this way the location of various protected areas can be very quickly located in this way in the planning documentation for a projected highway. Data which has to be assembled from a number of different sources can be quickly and easily combined to give an overall picture. There is no longer any problem in combining at a single workstation e.g. energy consumption figures from the Federal Transportation Agency, projected figures on emissions from the Land Statistical Office, regional emission levels from the Clean Air planning and current immission levels. The environmental information system can also be used to establish which environmental data is used as a guide in administrative practice and, conversely, how official activities can affect the environment. This satisfies an important condition for success monitoring. It is possible to show in context where and to what extent promotional funds for sewage treatment plant construction are being used, how far plant output was actually increased, and whether the desired improvement in water quality was actually achieved in the target stretches of water. The key prerequisites for the interdisciplinary and inter-agency structure of the Baden-Württemberg environmental information system are cooperation by industry and commerce, science, politics and administration and the motivation of and acceptance by the staff in these areas and the citizens generally. Far-reaching conceptual thinking has to be linked to the question how future information exchange can be organised with private facilities, municipalities, the German Federal government, other countries, EU bodies and others. Here again, it is necessary to establish how free access by citizens to the data can be ensured. Some examples are the projects to strengthen the European Environmental Agency and European environmental information system and environmental monitoring network and to establish municipal environmental information systems.
Experience for Technical Cooperation The creation of the Baden-Württemberg environmental information system produced a range of important experience for technical cooperation. It shows that environmental information for decision-makers must be presented in a management oriented format. The more user friendly the navigation system is, the more likely it is that all those interested will have access to the data. As experience shows, an environmental information system is primarily an organisational model with technological components, rather than a technological model with organisational components. Interagency, task-oriented working groups have proved their value. A final important piece of experience is:
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"Setting up an environmental information system is an ongoing responsibility."
2.6.2 The Norwegian environmental report The OECD member nations have agreed to publish regular national environmental reports (“State of the Environment Reports”). In addition, Environmental Performance Reviews are being produced under a new initiative dating from 1991. The national Reviews are already available for Germany, Portugal, Iceland and Norway. The response in the political debate and public opinion will depend on user-oriented summaries and further dissemination of the results. A particularly good example is the Norwegian environmental report: this covers the 25 key environmental indicators and is available to everybody on diskette as public domain information. Each indicator is visualised as a separate screen with digital cartographic presentation and graphics (copies are available at UNEPGrid Arendal/Norway). Special environmental information system tools and indicator-based software applications were developed for efficient graphic production of environmental reports and environmental performance reviews. The PC program is distinguished by ease of installation and use: it runs on standard PCs, offers navigation help, has export functions for data and tables, and omits copy protection -in order to promote wide dissemination. A tool box on environmental reporting, the "State of Environment Sourcebook", is prepared by UNEP in cooperation with Canada and the Netherlands and will be published end of 1995.
2.6.3 The European CORINE information system Supraregional environmental programmes in developing countries always face the problem of harmonising and standardising environmental information. Supraregional initiatives for environmental management already exist for example for SADC, OSS, ASEAN and ICIMOD. Much can be learned from the CORINE programme in minimazing tough coordination processes and achieving a consensus on goals and applications of a European environmental information system. The European nations have been expanding the CORINE information system in stages since 1985 in order to record, standardise and harmonise environmental information at EU (European Union) level. CORINE is intended to assist environmental policy decisions of the EU and monitor their implementation. The European Environmental Agency in Copenhagen was created in 1994 and will collect environmental data and process and analyse it and configure, use and coordinate the information system in future as an environmental policy instrument. The most important task of the Environmental Agency is to collect objective information for the purposes of environmental protection in the Union. The data is passed on to the Commission for the necessary environmental measures and regulations to be formulated and evaluated. Another task is recording, summarising and analysing data on the state of the environment and its quality, vulnerability and stress. Based on this, the aim is to evolve uniform evaluation criteria for all member states, which will make it easier to compare environmental data at the European level and introduce uniform measuring techniques. The Commission uses the information to monitor whether EU regulations are having an effect in the member states. The European Environmental Agency will also use the CORINE information system to assemble data for developing techniques for assessing the cost of environmental damage and for prophylaxis, protection and rehabilitation. The exchange of information on the best available technologies for preventing or reducing environmental damage is also being improved. For more detailed information see [ 2 ] .
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2.7
Cost-benefit aspects
Setting up an environmental information system constitutes a long term investment which will not generate a positive cost-benefit ratio for at least three to six years. The break-even point can be achieved if the environmental information system is set up and implemented with the focus on needs and tasks, and if the relationship between technology costs (hardware and software, maintenance) and operating costs (staff, training, data capture, data management and presentation) is about 20:80. Exceeding the 20% cost limit for technology generally indicates inefficient utilisation. A positive cost-benefit ratio will also be achieved by using the analytical capability to identify indicators (e.g. danger of erosion) and thus to provide direct support to decision-making. Internal financing of operating costs of around 30 % should be achieved after an initial phase of up to five years. Another premise is that the budget (income and expenditure) must be administered by the institution responsible for the environmental information system. Private services and partnerships with universities must also be more strongly supported and utilised, synergetic effects from networks, data exchange and joint venture programmes must be mobilised, and donors and consultants required to cooperate with EIS-structures in developing countries [ 24 ] . The costs of an environmental information system naturally vary widely. They depend in particular on the volume of detailed information required, the geographical scale of the area, and the availability of existing information. Approaches and values based on experience are already available – for example, the costs of a task-oriented national environmental information system for planning and implementing national environmental action plans (NEAP) are between two and eight per cent (Madagascar) of the total costs of a NEAP. For national use, total costs will lie between DM 150,000 for a small PC-based approach and DM 5-10 million.
3
Environmental information systems in Technical Cooperation
Environmental information systems do not by themselves solve any environmental policy problems in Technical Cooperation. They merely provide a tool to support decision-making in a way which is more efficient and transparent and (in the long term) more cost-effective and timely. Recording and managing environmental information in developing countries on a comprehensive, geographically extensive, current and adequately detailed basis are long term goals. As such, they can generally not be achieved by Technical Cooperation projects only, which are mostly medium term.
3.1
Examples of projects from the GTZ’s work
Within the framework of Technical Cooperation, the conceptual basis accordingly involve the following requirements for the application of EIS: • demand-oriented recording and management of environmental information, • integration of the main actors into the institutional structures, • network orientation, • systematic incorporation into programmes (e.g. national strategies for sustainable development) and methods of integrated planning. In addition capacity for decentralised use of environmental information must be supported, access to information improved, transparency created, data quality and determination of minimum standards monitored, environmental indicators relevant to environmental information systems debated, cost-benefit aspects considered, and coordination between bilateral and multilateral donor institutions improved.
13
All this is done in the context of the necessary strategic coordination of local, national and global projects for EIM, as called for by Agenda 21, the Climatic Change Convention, the Convention on Combatting Desertification and the Convention on Biological Diversity. The criteria for EIM which are important for development policy coincide to a high degree with the criteria for "Institutional Development in Environment (IDE)". At this point, however, it should be emphasised that implementation of these criteria in Technical Cooperation is still limited, and this remains a major challenge for future work. In particular, the institutional structures for EIM cover both governmental and nongovernmental sectors at various levels, although information exchange in a network with different actors presupposes at least a minimum of consensus and standards on data capture, management and classification systems. The implementation of international conventions in national legislation and guidelines on standards, limits and measuring techniques is generally preceded by a learning process for all those involved. The necessary dialogue between all the actors should be tackled as early as possible. EIM can significantly support process-oriented action if firstly it is recognised that the capture, updating and management-oriented presentation of environmental information is a continuous rather than ad hoc process and secondly the information base and also integrated planning methods are systematically improved. In this context it should always be remembered that the structure of the information base is derived from demand and user needs rather than technical considerations. The “excess” of environmental information sometimes complained of is not a real problem, but rather reflects an open society. Markets for environmental information will quickly emerge in developing countries too in the next few years. The decisive need is to improve the skills needed to structure, harmonise, carry out quality control and efficiently navigate through environmental information.
local level (Zimbab.)
clients: • local and national institution • private sector (mining etc) • international donor (Ford Found., EU etc)
services for projects
Ý ß national level
ERSI (Environmental Remote Sensing Institute)
current training - programme
joint venture with forestry for vegetation monitoring
-
service supplier to 25 institutions
-
supporting Zimbabwe WG-GIS
-
coop. with Zimb. University.
Ý ß SADC level
service supplier to projects in Mozambique Zambia etc
-
ongoing training for SADC experts
SADC Workshop together with UNEP and SADC-ELMS "GIS for Natural Resources Management"
-
in cooperation with SADC-ELMS and UNEP support to the creation of SADC-EISNetwork
Ý ß AFRICA level
14
support for EIS Meeting 4/1994
-
convenor of Africa Conference ‘GIS in Environment and Natural Resources Assessment in Africa’ (03/96)
-
ongoing training programme with CDG “Uses of remote sensing in African geology”
Fig. 4
Institutional integration and services (horizontal and vertical) of the remote sensing, environmental and geographical information systems (ERSI) in Zimbabwe
Experience with EIM in Technical Cooperation is relatively new and covers all aspects of favourable and adverse project examples. Project approaches have little prospect of succeeding if two adverse factors coincide: • concentration on hardware and software procurement within a central government organisation • unrealistic expectations. Good project approaches always have the following elements: effective institutional conditions are created in the first phase, debate over concepts initiated, environmental indicators relevant to environmental information systems discussed, and the minimum requirements for technical skills on the part of the staff assured. With a slight lag, these are followed by discussion of technological aspects combined with stepwise buildup of the technical infrastructure, services, capacity and networks.
3.2
International networks
3.2.1 The programme "Environment Information Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa" The “Programme on Environmental Information Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa” was initiated in 1990 by the World Bank together with other bilateral and multilateral donors and African partners. The context was the recognition that the national strategies for sustainable development drawn up by several African countries (e.g. the National Environmental Action Plan, NEAP) cannot be implemented without effective EIM. The programme includes the following components: Advisory services to African partners on the political, technical, institutional and training aspects of setting up EIS-programmes. These services are provided by an international Advisory Committee. Improving coordination of concepts for African, bilateral and multilateral activities with regional, national or global character. South-South and North-South exchanges of experience to increase productivity and quality in implementing environmental information systems. Presently there are more than 25 African nations participating in the environmental information system programme. The EIS-Secretariat handles management activities (e.g. organising workshops and publishes a newsletter which is currently sent to around 700 addresses, mostly in Africa). The partners in the programme are multilateral (World Bank, UNEP/UNITAR, UNDP/UNSO and the FAO) and supraregional African institutions (NESDA, ADB, RCSSMRS, SADC and IGADD), representatives from 25 African nations, bilateral donors (GTZ, DANIDA, USAID, Coopération Française and NORAD) and international NGOs and training institutions (WRI, WCMC, IDRC and ITC). The results to date of the programme and the activities of the Advisory Committee can be described as predominately favourable. The following important achievements have been reported: Development of guidelines for designing and implementing environmental information systems within the framework of national environmental programmes. Guidelines for designing training programmes in environmental information systems. Improvement of transparency of EIS-activities in national and international development programmes. • Technical papers (see [ 24 ]) Documentation of the international activities of UNEP, UNSO, FAO, WB, ADB and EU.
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Documentation of bilateral activities of GTZ, DANIDA, NORAD and SIDA. Documentation of the regional structures IGADD, CILLSS, SADC, OSS and their programmes with relevance to environmental information systems. Documentation of the EIS-situation in 25 African countries. Concept for setting up regional EIM networks at SADC and IGADD under a joint initiative by GTZ, UNEP, IGADD and SADC-ELMS. Improved exchange of information through the EIS Newsletter (which now goes to 700 addresses). Increased South-South cooperation through services of African experts and institutions. Permanent learning from each other through formal and informal discussion of strategy papers.
3.2.2 The programme “Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel, (OSS)” The International Convention to Combat Desertification that has been signed by more than a hundred of states since October 1994 also stresses the importance of better information management for decision making in the field of natural resources management and desertification control. Nevertheless, the role, that EIS and GIS could play in providing guidance for policy and decision making, in enhancing cooperation between institutions involved in decision-making and in monitoring the implementation of national plans faces in practice a number of constraints such as: • lack of suitable data • legal or institutional constraints for free access to data • lack of training and of African expertise in GIS / EIS • maintenance problems • lack of communication between technicians and decision makers The Sahara and Sahel Observatory (Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel, OSS) has been created in 1992 as international association by 20 African states bordering the Sahara and the Sahel whose development is threatened by desertification and drought, several bilateral donors - such as Germany and France - and specialised UN-Organisations. The mission of the OSS is to compensate for shortage of information exchange and the inaccessibility of existing information and technologies needed to combat desertification in the OSS-zone. One of the major programmes of OSS, that is carried out jointly with UNITAR (United Nations Institute for Training and Research) intends to promote exchange of information and experiences on "Integrated Information Systems on Environment (IISE)" in Africa.
Since 1993 the major activities within the OSS/UNITAR programme on IISE have been: • the elaboration of an inventory of GIS in Africa • the state of the art and guide on Internet in Africa • the organisatioon of an e-mail forum on GIS (
[email protected]) as a low-cost information link between GIS and remote sensing experts in Africa, Europe and America • a regular publication of the "AFRICAGIS Newsletter" • the organisation of the conferences AFRICAGIS 93 and 95 as a platform for exchange of experience on GIS applications in Africa • training courses for GIS in co-operation African centers of excellence • elaboration of documents on the integration of multisource data
16
The correlation between the existence and the application of potentially useful technologies and a better management of natural resources is not automatically evident. The success of a technology transfer such as GIS and Remote Sensing does not only depend on the quality of data and technologies but does also depend on the institutional environment in which they are applied. This is why OSS/UNITAR are currently preparing short term training courses on information management for decision makers responsible for the elaboration and implementation of National Action Plans under the Convention to Combat Desertification. The objective of this course is not just to inform decision makers about technical options for access to information and management of information more than that, experiences on • how to define information needs and the necessary basic data, • how to get access to data, • means and ways of communication of data and information, • evaluating existing information systems and the services they can provide, • criteria to estimate investment and maintenance costs shall be presented and discussed. Through the new programme on "Desertification Information Systems (DIS)" that started in 1995, OSS / UNITAR intend to launch the establishment of regional, sub-regional - and maybe in a second phase of national - data bases on desertification and georeferenced documentation on desertification and activities in the framework of the implementation of the desertification convention.
4
Institutional aspects
4.1
Institutional outcomes of environmental information systems
Environmental problems affect people at all levels of action. Institutional development and assistance to institutions accordingly are not aimed at one clearly defined target group or individual project executing agency, but rather at all actors involved in the process of environmental development. Institutional structures are the links making possible the complex interaction between people, organisations and norms as the three system variables and revealing the relationships between these variables and their modes of interaction (H. Müller-Glodde, 1994). To ensure sustainable integration of environmental aspects into the development process, the actors involved in implementing the UNCED action programme AGENDA 21 rely primarily on building local human and institutional resources and mobilising social forces. The key areas in such programmes as identified by the "Pilot Project Institutional Development in Environment” are: improving human skills and knowledge in order to use available resources in an optimal and ecofriendly way (programme focus: Human Resources Development) establishing, reforming and managing capacities of individual organisations in the environmental sector (programme focus: organisational and management consultancy) developing ecologically, economically and socially compatible policy approaches and norms (programme focus: legal, economic and social advisory services) establishing and networking institutional structures (programme focus: management of information and cooperation, cooperation consultancy and conflict management). These focal areas in programmes can be used to generate a large number of environmental policy fields of action which are interdependent and constitute a complex web of effects. EIM comes under the fourth key area, but its effectiveness depends directly on the quality of the first three key areas. EIM as an area for action aims to improve the basis for recording, gathering and implementing environmental policy information. Compared with the technological issues, far too little attention has been given so far to the institutional problems involved in installing environmental information
17
systems. Experience shows that the degree of institutional ability to adapt and evolve is the main factor in making efficient EIM possible at all. The following comments show clearly why an EIM will inevitably run into difficulties in a traditional hierarchical organisational environment: • Environmental information systems require a permanent intersectoral flow of information. Strictly vertically oriented structures are an obstacle to efficient networking at the executive level. • Environmental information systems change mandates, areas of authority and planning methods. Struggles over areas of authority can be a serious obstacle to the application of such systems. • Environmental information systems make new demands on the technical skills of staff at decision-making and operation levels. New jobs are created and traditional jobs heavily modified. Human resources development often fails to keep pace with these changes. • Environmental information systems also improve access to existing information. However, central government institutions often tend to make access as difficult as possible. Incorporation of an environmental information system into an institution or network of institutions always creates pressure for change and adjustment. An effort should be made to link the energy necessary to adapt and develop organisations with the development policy principles of transparency, decentralisation and democratisation of information, networked action and liberalisation of the information market. EIM has important institutional responsibilities: it improves access to information, establishes norms, limits and standards, covers issues of mandate (who records and updates which information), lays the foundation for better organized communication between the actors involved (through networks, data protection and copyright) and improves the decision-making processes relating to the environment.
4.2
Links with other spheres of environmental policy action
The following eight areas were identified as environmental policy action areas in connection with approaches to developing local capacity in the environmental sector (cf. ‘Developing Environmental Capacity’, OECD 1995) and institutional development in environment (cf. “The round table as a programme”, GTZ 1994): promotion of environmental information and monitoring systems advisory services to environmental institutions advisory services on designing and using environmental policy instruments promoting integrated planning systems advisory services on formulating, amending and enforcing environmental legislation integrating environmental aspects into sectoral policies promoting PR and environmental education promoting inter-institutional cooperation, conflict management and mediation. These areas for action comprise many interrelated variables which interact more or less strongly and also display different levels of internal dynamism. The table below shows the connection and level of impact between “Promotion of environmental information and monitoring systems” and the other seven areas for action. The effect is ranked on a scale from 0 (no impact) to 3 (strong impact).
18
area for action _______________________________________________________________ advisory services to environmental institutions government organisations
possible impact of_EIS _
•
creation, reorientation, reform, transformation, transition of governmental and semi-statal environmental organisations at all levels; ll • involvement of local authority institutions (municipalities, towns and downstream sectoral agencies) in intersectoral processes of planning, decision-making and implementation to integrate the environment and development; l • support to central planning and action approaches under the principle of subsidiarity. ll • upgrading technical, methodological and social expertise; ll • improving coordination, communication and cooperation capability (networking); lll • clarifying their social role, scope for action and relationship to state (general conditions) ¡ __________________________________________________________________________________________________
advisory services on designing and using environmental policy instruments • • •
setting limits and standards; lll formulating bans, restrictions and controlling them; ll introducing processes and criteria for environmental impact assessment and approval procedures; ll • introducing systems of economic incentives; ¡ • developing ecological cost-benefit analyses ll • setting up indicator banks. lll __________________________________________________________________________________________________
promoting integrated planning systems •
introducing multisectoral, multimedia, decentralised planning approaches: e.g. regional, land use, clean air and water management plans. ll __________________________________________________________________________________________________
advisory services on formulating, amending and enforcing environmental legislation • • • • •
formulating environmental framework legislation ¡ determining legally binding mandates for individual environmental institutions; l introducing implementation-oriented regulations and guidelines; ll reforming sectoral legislation relevant to the environment (forestry, industry, fishing etc); l analysing shortcomings in enforcement and formulating proposals for improvement (implementation programmes) l __________________________________________________________________________________________________
integrating environmental aspects into sectoral policies •
formulating and implementing national environmental action plans and “National Strategies for Sustainable Development"; ll • expanding access to information and improving transparency; lll • decentralising information flows, planning processes and decision-making procedures; lll • institutionalising consultation processes in sectoral decision-making; ¡ • developing environmental-economic national accounts which assign environmental costs to polluters ll • improving conservation-oriented use and allocation of scarce resources; l1 • correcting ecologically damaging price signals, incentives, subsidies and rights of exploitation; ¡ • developing appropriate technologies. ll __________________________________________________________________________________________________
promoting PR and environmental education • •
preparing national environmental reports for public information; lll supporting grassroots initiatives with the aim of supplying the general public with information and promoting general environmental awareness; l • promoting regional research, advisory and training centres (environmental resources centres) to study and promote ecologically compatible norms and patterns of behaviour (action research); ll • integrating environmental issues in school and university curricula; l • preparing case studies and training modules for multisectoral, multimedia environmental action ll __________________________________________________________________________________________________
promoting inter-institutional cooperation, conflict management and mediation • •
promoting communication and cooperation between the various interest groups developing procedures and instruments for balancing interests and settling conflicts
l l
Tab. 4 Possible impact of “Promotion of EISs” on other areas of environmental policy action ¡ no impact l little impact ll average impact lll strong impact
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4.3
Networking as a process-oriented step towards better management of environmental information
Establishing a network for EIM involves institutional, technological and human components. A network may be formal or informal, or even a mixture of the two. In establishing a network the key issue is reaching a basic consensus on the general goal and the main rules of play and behaviour. The goals of a network for EIM are generally: • exchange and joint use of environmental information, • easier access to environmental information, • greater transparency on mandates and responsibilities, • exchange of experience, • integration into international activities, • linking services, methodology development, applied research and training aspects, • mobilising synergetic effects, • coordinating the recording and use of environmental information. The members of the network should be the main governmental and nongovernmental actors producing or using environmental information, including educational and research institutions.
Instruments which have proved particularly useful for networking are permanent formal or informal working parties with goal-oriented programmes, regular meetings and a (modest) secretariat. Other important instruments are: publication of a newsletter on “management of environmental information and environmental information systems” and preparing recommendations for standards for data exchange, classification systems, measuring techniques, database management, data updating and the definition of a uniform spatial reference system. In addition, recommendations should be made on hardware, software and maintenance issues, a “Directory of Environmental Information” (national variants on UNEP-HEMIS) should be published and training and ongoing training programmes, seminars and workshops (diary of events) designed. Rules for the vertical integration of local, regional and national activities in the environmental information sector should be formulated along with recommendations on copyright and data protection for environmental information. PR work on “Using environmental information as a resource” completes the catalogue of ongoing instruments.
Establishing a network must be understood as a permanent learning process with many difficulties and weaknesses. Generally, the main problem is overcoming the central bureaucracy mentality, treating information as a resource rather than a weapon in power struggles, neutralising competitive attitudes between actors, reducing high-profile donor intervention, and securing the basic resources in the medium term. Generally it is advisable to identify a “leading agency” for efficient network management which also has appropriate service facilities.
If the network succeeds in creating obvious advantages for actors, making it easier to achieve joint goals and creating a pool of more expert partners, it is making an important contribution to the entire environmental sector. The network operationalises cooperation between actors. In terms of information technology (i.e. online networking of the databases of the institutions involved) its creation is a long-term task which cannot have high priority in the initial phase. This requires much more comprehensive technological and organisational arrangements.
Rigorous implementation of common standards is of fundamental importance to a network (e.g. using a uniform geographical reference system) and the definition of quality characteristics for primary data. Network operation without fundamental standards has no point. EIM requires
20
process-oriented thought and action right from the start. Central components of process orientation are flexibility in integrating actors, stepwise approximation in complex approaches to complex problems, and growing clarity on who is collecting and using what environmental information for what purpose. In addition, the expertise and implementation capability of all those involved in the network need improvement, and corresponding activities must be integrated into longer term programmes and international conventions.
5
Outlook and recommendations for Development Cooperation
5.1
Trends in the management of environmental information
The evolution of EIM is distinguished by four trends: growing institutional and individual environmental consciousness liberalisation of the public sector rapid development of information and communications technology increased interdependence of local, national and global environmental issues and solutions. The first two trends mean that resources are made available for new partnerships and programmes. Government institutions, the private sector, training and research facilities and NGOs will enter into a large number of new partnerships. The second and third trends result in increased decentralisation of decisions. Technological development acts in this as a catalyst for decentralised resource management. All this means that the emergence of new services is certain. Trends three and four will lead to the establishment of comprehensive databases in connection with scientific (Global Change), environmental policy (Agenda 21), specialist and project specific tasks. This will force the actors to improve standards, harmonise data and expand networks for improving communications. The innovative combination of data from satellite systems for communication (IMARSAT), navigation (GPS) and earth resources (LANDSAT, SPOT, MOMS 02, etc.) makes possible new forms of decentralised use of environmental information (environmental telematics). Customised distance learning courses (Workshop EURISY - Distance learning and environmental awareness - the role of satellites) also open up new horizons for study. By the end of 1996 most of the developing countries will be linked to INTERNET (AFRICA-GIS '95, INTERNET Guide). The following table shows a selection of favourable examples of uses for environmental information systems based on or evolving from these trends. Federal Länder (Germany)
EIS Baden-Württemberg, EIS Niedersachsen
global meta-databases
UNEP GRID Meta Data Directory UNEP Global Resource Information Data Base GRID, US Global Change Master Directory, WRI Data Directory
developing countries
EIS Madagascar (under NEAP) VEG-RIS Zimbabwe (Vegetation Resources Information System) DIS NIC India (District Information System)
regional facilities
EU CORINE Information System of EU Environmental Agency ICIMOD Menris "Mountain Environmental Natural Resources Information System" (Himalaya Region) EIS in SADC Region
modelling
IKARUS, modelling climate gas, research centre Jülich Expert Systems for Environmental Screening Lower Mekong Basin and CLIMEX Climate Impact Assessment Expert system II ASA Luxembourg Austria
reporting
State of the Environment in NORWAY (on PC), POLAND and Uganda GRID Arendal
21
Tab. 5
5.2
Examples of modern EIS-system applications following the above trends
Prerequisites and potential for environmental information management within projects of Institutional Development in Environment
The further evolution of the four trends listed above for environmental information systems leads to the basic concept: the management of environmental information using environmental information systems is an institutional response to the challenge of improving environmentally-relevant planning and decision-making processes at local, national and global levels. The expansion of an environmental information system should constitute a typical component for promoting institutional structures. Access to information, intersectoral exchange of information, data protection and copyright, networks, standardisation and harmonisation, mandate for information management, incorporation into planning and decision-making processes all involve challenges which are more institutional than technical in nature. This means that efficient management of environmental information generally also requires managing change in institutional and organisational structures. Environmental information is increasingly being used by two different user groups with different objectives. First, there is the user group primarily concerned with the geographical dimension of the environmental information (GIS users, planners or resource managers), and then there are those primarily concerned with integrating environmental concerns into development strategies, development policy and ecological-economic national accounts (environmental economists, those responsible for national environmental reports). An important future challenge to EIM is identifying indicators for processes with environmental relevance, including their geographical and economic dimension, their interrelationship and the associated task-oriented information management. Environmental information systems could accordingly tackle important monitoring and evaluation functions for environmental processes, and EIM should therefore be an integral component of Institutional Development in Environment (IDE) projects. Part of process-oriented advisory services in environmental policy is improving the capabilities of the actors, their cooperation in a network and the general conditions. This includes decentralisation, open access to environmental information and user orientation. Environmental reports and progress reports (e.g. on the Climatic Change Convention) rely heavily on structured and/or indicator-based environmental information. Environmental programmes such as NEAPs in Africa include EIM and the creation of environmental information systems as conceptual and operational elements.
5.3
Integrating bilateral Technical Cooperation into international initiatives and programmes
Implementing Agenda 21 requires a new quality of cooperation between bilateral and multilateral institutions. The term “coordination” itself falls far short of what is required: what is needed are concrete partnerships with long-term, sustainable perspectives as well as the development of network structures. Without a commitment to partnership, the wide range of conceptual and operational approaches of the various donors in terms of EIM will result in greater uncertainty rather than improved institutional structures. In the strategic debate on supraregional institutions, the project experience of bilateral donors plays an important role. Multilateral donor organisations (e.g. UNEP) rely on the implementation skills of executing organisations (such as GTZ). Conversely, the operational element on the various commissions can have greater impact on improved action capability. Networks have also proved their value in networks where supraregional, regional and bilateral donors work together with national organisations and exchange their experience. One example of this is the “Programme on EIS in Sub-Saharan Africa”: This network can be seen as a suitable forum for consultation between donor institutions, for ongoing learning through the discussion of project progress, for improved South-South cooperation
22
and the refinement of guidelines. Network structures like this are particularly valuable for the implementation of Agenda 21 in making possible the important exchange of experience between local problems and global strategies, and keeping abreast of experience and making it generally available. The tasks of the programme were adapted to meet the new needs in August 1994. They now include both short-term goals (up to 1996) and medium-term goals up to the turn of the century. The following organisations are involved in the network: IGADD OSS SADC RCSSMRS NESDA AGRHYMET
5.4
WB UNEP UNSO FAO EU WRI
DANIDA NORAD CF US-AID GTZ 25 African countries
Implications for the requirements profile for environmental experts
The profile for environmental advisers proposed in “The round table as programme” (GTZ, 1994) should give greater emphasis to the EIM area. An expert introductory programme could include the following topics: − the management of environmental information within the framework of IDE, − introduction to applications-oriented environmental information systems for planning and decision-making, − introduction to environmental monitoring and case studies on environmental information systems in resource management and integrated planning. Other possible topics are: institutional structures, relevant environmental indicators, access to and use of existing databases (UNEP, FAO), cost-benefit aspects, access to tools, services and guidelines, information on international programmes and on networks, institutions, experts, contacts.
5.5
Upgrading and ongoing training aspects
A good review of the necessary structure and content of upgrading and ongoing training programmes is provided by the study “Education and Training for EIS” of the "Program on EIS in Sub-Saharian Africa" [ 24 ]. This distinguishes between training (leading to a diploma or masters degree), ongoing training, workshops and seminars. Existing training and ongoing training for EIS-use in developing countries should be revised and improved on the following criteria in particular: − analysis of necessary content, − donor coordination, − stronger involvement of local trainers and local institutions. Instead of ad hoc ongoing training, the aim should be to establish longer-term partnerships for basic courses, advanced courses, refresher courses and specialist seminars. It also seems important to integrate the courses more strongly into the project context and develop case studies from the project context. The combination fo on the job training supported by distance learning modules opens new chances.
Examples of training programmes: basic and advanced course on environmental monitoring at the University of Osnabrück in Vechta • Postgraduate studies "Environmental Management for Developing Countries" TU Dresden, UNEP, UNESCO
23
Distance Learning Diploma in GIS, University of Salford together with three other European universities Natural Resources Master's Degree, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok course in geoinformatics, Anna University, Madras The course, supported by the GTZ as part of cooperation with the Institute of Remote Sensing, has technical support from four institutes at the University of Hannover various masters degrees and diploma courses at ITC, Enschede Examples of ongoing training programmes: DSE courses "GIS for Natural Resource Management" in Malaysia and Indonesia for South-east Asia ongoing training programmes in the context of GTZ projects such as − ERSI project in Zimbabwe − ACSAD Syria − Anna University Madras India − LUPAM / LREPP Indonesia − NRSA Hyderabad India ongoing training programmes of regional centres such as − RCSSMR Nairobi (in cooperation with ITC) − RECTAS, Nigeria − ICIMOD, Nepal − AGRHYMET, Niger − UNEP EAP, Bangkok UNITAR training programme "Environmental Information System", Genève, Examples of workshops: AFRICA-GIS 1993 in Tunis, AFRICA-GIS 1995 in Abidjan EURISY Workshop "Distance Learning and Environmental Awareness: The Role of Satellites”, Frascati 1994 • African Regional Symposium "TELEMATICS FOR DEVELOPMENT" UNECA, UNESCO, Addis Abeba 04/1995
5.6
Navigation through the flood of information and access to databases
The liberalisation of the government sector means that there is a sharp rise in accessible information on the environment. Environmental information will also increasingly be recognised as a resource. However, effective management of this resource relies just as much on the thematic content as on the origin, quality (accuracy, completeness, standards) and timeliness (recording and updating) of environmental information. There is little point in complaining about junk information or a flood of information: nonswimmers are always threatened by floods. The flood of information is a phenomenon common to all open societies and a permanent challenge to filter out useful, important and problem-oriented information. Integral parts of managing environmental information are accordingly navigation tools, transparent quality characteristics, management-oriented presentation and the use of efficient communication routes, like E-mail and INTERNET.
Some helpful tools in this are: the UNEP-HEM (Munich) information system
24
directory of environmental organisations and environmental monitoring programmes with the associated databases in books, diskettes and e-mail the open access UNEP-IE clearing house (dial-up modem and e-mail) on electronic system freely accessible environmental information at country level e.g. environmental CD-ROM on Thailand newsletters - EIS Subsaharan Africa Newsletter - OSS Newsletter - Global Resource Information Base (UNEP GRID) News - GTZ GIS Newsletter - IGBP Newsletter - Earth Views, UNEP Nairobi databases - World Resource Electronic Data Base (WRI) - EROS Data Centre - GRID (UNEP) and GRID Meta Data Directory - ISIS DLR (Modem, Datex-P, Internet) There is generally no lack of environmental information for the top policy decision-making level. Setting the basic direction of policy is possible on the basis of existing environmental information and development trends. What is lacking above all is the commitment to an environmentallyoriented policy. There are, however, huge gaps at the specialist and planning levels in developing countries, and these major shortfalls have serious consequences for economic and environmental policy.
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26
References
[1] MAB and DVK
Ökosystemforschung "Der Einfluß des Menschen auf Hochgebirgsöko systeme". BFANL Bonn 1995
[2] EC
CORINE Information System, European Environment Agency Task Force. Brussels 1994
[3] Engel, A.
Umwelt-Informationssysteme in der öffentlichen Verwaltung. Schriftenreihe Verwaltungsinformatik, vol. 10. Heidelberg, 1994
[4] EURISY
Workshop Documentation Distance Learning and Environmental Aware ness: The Role of Satellites. Paris 1994
[5] GTZ
Geographische Informationssysteme. Einsatz in Projekten der Tech nischen Zusammenarbeit. GTZ Abt. 425 1994
[6] GTZ
Der runde Tisch als Programm. Helmut Müller-Glodde. GTZ 402/94 - 4 d PVI 1994
[7] GTZ
The Round Table as a Programme. Helmut Müller-Glodde. GTZ 402/94 - 4 e PVI 1994
[8] Jaeschke, P.
Informatik für den Umweltschutz. 7. Symposium 1993. Ulm 1993
[9] OSS / UNITAR
INTERNET Guide Africa. Geneve 1995
[10] OSS / UNITAR
Inventory of GIS Applications in Africa. Geneve 1995
[11] OECD
Invironmental Information Systems and Indicators. Paris 1993
[12] UNEP
A Survey of Organizations working in the field of Environment and Data. UNEP-HEM Munich 1993
Statistics
[13] UNEP, CANADA State of Environment Source Book. UNEP Nairobi 1995 NETHERLANDS [14] UNEP
Directory of Organizations and Institutes active in Environmental Moni toring. UNEP-HEM Munich 1993
[15] UNEP
Geographic Information System for Environment and Development. O.G. Simonett, GRID Information Series No. 19. Nairobi 1993
[16] UNEP
State of the Environment Norway. PC-programme presentation with 25 selected environmental indicators. UNEP-GRID Arendal 1994
[17] UNESCO
Integrated Environmental Cartography. A tool for research and land use planning, MAB Technical Note 16. Paris 1987
[18] UNITAR
AFRICA GIS. Proceedings of the workshop in Tunis 1993 and in Abidjan 1995 UNITAR, AFRICA GIS Programme. Geneve
[19] WORLD BANK
Environmental Assessment Sourcebook. World Bank Environment Department 1991
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[20] WORLD BANK Natural Resource and Environmental Information for Decision Making. Hassan M. Hassan, Charles Hutchinson. Washington 1992 [21] WORLD BANK Knowledge Tools for Environmentally Sustainable Indicators. John C. O'Connor, first draft August 1994 [22] WORLD BANK Land Information and Remote Sensing for Renewable Resource Man agement in Sub Saharan Africa. Francois Falloux, 1989 [23] WORLD BANK Programme on Environment Information System in Subsaharan Africa. Proceedings of the seven Advisory Committee Meetings held between 1990 and 1995. EIS secretariat Washington [24] WORLD BANK
[25] WRI
- Economics of GIS / EIS by Svein Tveitdal - Education and Training for EIS by ITC EIS secretariat Washington
Moving toward Eco Development: Generating Environmental for Decision Makers. Daniel B. Tunstall, Jessica T. Mathews. Washington 1991
[26] WRI
World Resources 1994-1995. A Guide to Global Environment. New York 1994
[27] WRI
Developing Environmental Indicators. Daniel B. Tunstall, World Resource Institute 1993
[28] WRI
28
Information
Environmental Indicators: A systematic approach to measuring and reporting on Environmental Policy Performance. Washington 1995
The suitability of GIS in the environmental sector (based on R. Bill, FIG Symposium 1991) Geo-information systems or geographical information systems (GIS) are computerised data processing systems developed and used to collect, store, analyse and present geographical information. They integrate geometric and topological elements (points, lines, surfaces), graphic imaging and attributes (descriptive data) and significant objects in the real world. An “object” in a GIS is an item of interest to the user which has a topological type, desired thematic presentation and a wealth of descriptive information. Digital treatment of descriptive and geometrical data makes it possible to combine the data in various ways on a user-specific basis. The result is models of the real world. A GIS comprises recording, management, analysis and presentation. In terms of the information system, GIS can also be characterised in terms of the four basic elements hardware, software, data and human resources. An environmental information system can be regarded as an expanded GIS. It is used to record, store and process data with geographical, temporal and thematic content. In this way the state of and trends in the environment can be described in terms of the pollutions and hazards. Recording and analysing the pace of environmental changes are particularly important within an environmental information system. The tasks of environmental management are to enable environmental monitoring and evaluation, support decision-making on environmental monitoring and planning, and analyse causes and effects. In geographical terms, these can mean local, regional, national or global responsibilities. Environmental information systems are generally understood as extensive and institutionalised systems ranging from permanent logging of measured values (pollutants, water quality) through processing (particularly linking a wide range of sources of information) to direct knowledge-based aids to decision-making or cause and effect analysis. The volume of data generated in the course of environmental monitoring is generally large, often heterogeneous and usually requires interpretation. There is particular need for interpretation when it is a question of identifying long-term indicators as early as possible or studying the effectiveness of damage control. Under these circumstances it is necessary to evaluate the data with as much expertise as possible (metaknowledge, methodology), correlate it with experience from other areas and use models to interpolate it spatially and extrapolate it in time. Model-based interpretation supplements graphical, statistical and purely descriptive presentation of data.
GIS and environmental information processing: a comparison The possibilities offered by the GIS in the context of environmental information systems are illustrated below in the context of several important points, starting with data capture and data types. Modern GIS recognise the following types of data: geometry and topology, descriptive data and descriptions of graphical presentation. These are used to form objects. For geometry and topology, the GIS distinguishes between vector and raster data. Vector data is described geometrically by a pair or triplet or coordinates. Raster data is formed geometrically by pixels within a matrix whose topological relationships are determined by the matrix presentation. A system capable of administering both types of data is called a hybrid GIS. Descriptive data is all kinds of additional information capable of conveying geometry, topology and objects. These include information on length, area, links and proximity information as topological elements extending to object-related information such as owner, type of biotope and other details. The imaging data determines the graphical representation of the geometry, the attributes and the object data on a given topic or for a specific output medium. The definitive feature of GIS data is its spatial reference in the form of coordinates. A GIS manages data which is stable over time. In an environmental information system the following additional types of data can occur: geometry and topology, time, measuring values, textual information up to full text, visual images, knowledge, regulations, algorithms (program code) and models, information on the quality and timeliness of the data. Time joins spatial location as another basic dimension of information which serves as the reference basis e.g. for measurements from autonomous measuring networks, and which links
29
other information, recording, queries, interpolation etc. The geometric operations supported by the GIS accordingly have to be supplemented by time-related functions. Many of the data which are important for environmental monitoring and protection are continuously recorded in measuring networks, for example for the air or ground water. Very few GIS are able to manage original data, which they have to handle (either directly or as derived and compressed information) as attributes. Visual information on objects extending to video recordings can be very helpful for orientation purposes in an environmental information system. For an environmental information system to evaluate different kinds of data at the same time, information on the quality and timeliness of the data is also required. The environmental databases which are generally available and computer-based involve a danger which must not be underestimated: more and more often, the user is calling up data which they did not produce themselves or – even more difficult – which does not give any information about its production and correlation.
Data capture Data capture in a GIS is a task currently performed by an operator interactively with the GIS. Generally, field data is transferred to the GIS and processed interactively or analogue maps are input at a digitising station – a basic component of a GIS – recording points, lines and areas interactively. Modern technologies such as scanning in analogue maps and the subsequent conversion of the raster information input by the scanner into vector data have been only partly automated for a few types of maps, and still require extensive manual post-processing. Direct use of raster data, e.g. recorded by sensors on earth satellites and transmitted, is practised in remote sensing.
Data management The layer principle which separates data into various layers is a very widespread form of GIS data model. There is a relational model for technical data. The physical combination of different types of data structure stored on computers with different architectures and uniform access for users with all levels of expertise to these extensive and diverse files held in distributed archives is still a problem. One question is whether environmental information system applications can be reduced to a model of the real world. There are general reservations about the scale and dedicated use of the model. As far as the scale is concerned, the question is whether a 1:1 stored image of the objects in the real world can be used to generate all subsequent scales. It is more likely that three scale ranges (e.g. 1:500 to 1:2,000, 1:25,000 to 1:50,000, < 1:200,000) will cover data for identical objects. As far as dedicated use is concerned, the question is whether different users of one and the same environmental information system have the same ideas about objects in terms of geometry (shape, resolution etc) and significance (technical data).
Data processing and analysis GIS analytical processes are based on geometric, statistical and logical operations. Geometric operations are computer geometry, surface blending, zone generation, interpolation (z = f (x,y)), filtering, image processing and aggregation. Statistical methods are limited on the whole to descriptive statistics, i.e. figures, the calculation of frequency distributions and description of phenomena using a few parameters such as average and standard deviation, and classification. Logical operations involve particularly Boolean combination of attribute data, e.g. in the geometrical operation of surface blending. The requirements of an environmental information system extend the geometrical analysis to cover generalisation (scale and functional), compression and analysis of ongoing monitoring, and classification. Analytical statistics are required e.g. for regression and correlation or multicriteria analysis. Logical operations should be capable of extension to spatial and temporal elements and content of the database. Simulation models, scenario generation, sensitivity analysis, compression
30
and analysis of measurements are all important analytical procedures in the environmental sector. Analysis is generally performed interactively.
Data output and imaging Output from a GIS is largely cartographic, either on a graphics monitor or as a map. Two or three dimensional map-type graphics can be generated, either thematic or combining selective criteria. Database queries can also result in reports and tables. User shells as the communications interface between developer, system and user are highly diverse and are often aimed at the expert user, requiring knowledge of the material. The environmental information system also requires cartographic visualisation of new types of data such as time series, pictures or animated sequences. These and reports increasingly have to be integrated into business graphics.
The user spectrum in EIM The user spectrum for an environmental information system is very broad, covering both policy making and implementation levels. We can distinguish broadly between various groups of users: first, there are specialist data generators and users who want to generate, store and present their maps digitally. They record data with spatial dimensions, e.g. on the basis of topographic maps, and expect the future to bring a digital replacement for these maps. They update the data in different cycles. This group needs data recording, management and presentation facilities with the emphasis in the near future on recording and presentation. A second group of users comprises specialist data processors and analysts who want to be able to access their entire database and other data to achieve significant improvements in their work with the help of a GIS and many other tools, such as statistics, simulation and modelling. This group primarily needs the analytical and presentation facilities of a GIS, combining these with their own techniques and statistical analysis. Finally, specialist report generators use a GIS to access all possible data, mainly in order to upgrade their reports with graphics or cross-references to other specialist data. The impact of this group on the decision-making level cannot be underestimated, as their annual reports are read at top levels. The role of the GIS in the EIS A GIS product should have the following five characteristics: it should run on a wide area network on computers from different manufacturers, from PC to mainframe. Its software should ideally be based on standard languages such as UNIX, X-Windows SQL or MS-DOS. The database should be relational (possibly with object-oriented facilities) for both geometry and technical data, and should be capable of distributed organisation on various computers. Another desirable characteristic is the ability to use both vector and raster data, and possibly be capable of expansion to cover other types of data. As an applications program the GIS should also support the four basic components for both types of data, namely entry, management, analysis and presentation. One function of the GIS as an open system is that it can be regarded as a basic component in a multicomponent network. Not all types of users need the GIS component to the same extent. However, a great deal of work remains to be done to enable the GIS to be linked with a large number of other modules. The link of the GIS with communication facilities like E-mail and Internet will open access to a wide range of data bases and information networks. By the end of 1996 nearly all developing countries will have access to the global information infrastructure.
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32
Publications to date on the work of Division 402 July 1997 Publication-No. 402/93 - 1 d PVI
402/93 - 2 d PVI
Titel Ökonomische Instrumente der Umweltpolitik: Bedeutung für die Entwicklung von umweltrelevanten Institutionen im Rahmen der praktischen EZ Institutionenentwicklung im Umweltbereich - Ergebnisse eines GTZ-Mitarbeiter-Workshops
Order-No. P3-001-d out of print P3-002-d out of print P3-003-d
402/94 - 3 d PVI
Ökonomische Instrumente der Umweltpolitik als Beratungsfeld im Rahmen der TZ - Systematische Kurzdarstellung der in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland angewandten Instrumente und relevanter Institutionen
402/94 - 4 d PVI
Der Runde Tisch als Programm? Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Institutionenförderung im Spannungsfeld von Umwelt und Entwicklung
P3-004-d
402/94 - 4 e PVI
The round table as a Programme? Institutional Development caught between the Environment and Development - Options and Limitations
P3-004-e
402/94 - 5 e PVI
Pollution Prevention Through Market-Based Incentives Two Case Studies on Thailand
P3-005-e
402/94 - 6 e PVI
The Use of Economic Instruments in the Environmental Policy of Chile
P3-006-e
402/94 - 7 e PVI
The Role of Land Tenure and Property Rights in Sustainable Resource Use: The Case of Benin
P3-007-e
402/94 - 7 f PVI
Le rôle des systèmes fonciers et des droits de disposition pour la gestion durable des ressources naturelles: Le cas du Bénin
P3-007-f
402/94 - 8 d RMSH
Dokumentation zum Consulting Workshop - Anwendung von Beteiligungs- und Selbsthilfeansätzen in Vorhaben zum Ressourcenmanagement
P3-008-d
402/94 - 9 d PVI
Information, Bildung und Kommunikation im Umweltbereich
P3-009-d
402/94 - 10 d RMSH
Hinweise auf Schlüsseldokumente für die Anwendung von P3-010-d Beteiligungs- und Selbsthilfeansätzen im Ressourcenmanagement out of print
402/94 - 11 d RMSH
Beteiligungs- und Selbsthilfeansätze im Ressourcenmanagement - Ein Positionspapier
P3-011-d
402/94 - 11 e RMSH
Participatory and self-help approaches in natural resource management - A position paper
P3-011-e
402/95 - 11 f RMSH
Participation et auto-promotion dans la gestion des ressources naturelles - Document de base
P3-011-f
402/95 - 11 s RMSH
Participación y auto-ayuda en el manejo de recursos naturales Documento básico
P3-011-s
out of print
33
402/95 - 12 d PVI
Marktwirtschaftliche Instrumente der Umweltpolitik in Entwicklungs-ländern - Beiträge zur Institutionenentwicklung und Politikberatung im Umweltbereich
P3-012-d
402/95 - 12 e PVI
Market-Based Instruments in Environmental Policy in Developing Countries - Framework for Policy Planning and Institutional Development in the Environment
P3-012-e
402/95 - 12 f PVI
Instruments économiques applicables aux politiques de l’environne-ment dans les pays en développement - Contributions au développe-ment institutionnel et à l’assistance technique en matière de politique de l’environnement
P3-012-f
402/95 - 12 s PVI
Instrumentos económicos y política ambiental en los paises en desarrollo - Desarrollo institucional y asesoramiento politico en materia de protección ambiental
P3-012-s
402/95 - 13 d RMSH
Die Rolle von Anreizen bei der Anwendung von RMSH als P3-013-d Vorgehensweise
402/95 - 13 e RMSH
Incentives and the NARMS Approach - A hand-out for project desk P3-013-e officers, consultants and onside project staff
402/95 - 13 f RMSH
P3-013-f Le rôle des mesures d'incitation dans l'application de la stratégie GERNAP - Outil de travail à l’intention des chargés de projets, des consultants et des collaborateurs de projet
P3-013-s 402/95 - 13 s AMREN El papel de los incentivos en la aplicación del enfoque AMREN Folleto de información para encargados de proyectos, consultores out of print y colaboradores de proyectos 402/95 - 14 d PVI
Umweltinformation und ihr Management
P3-014-d
402/95 - 14 e PVI
Environmental information and its management
P3-014-e
402/95 - 15 d Biodiv
Biologische Vielfalt erhalten! Eine Aufgabe der Entwicklungszusammenarbeit
P3-015-d
402/95 - 16 d
Lösungsansätze für den technischen Umweltschutz in kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen in Entwicklungsländern
P3-016-d
402/96 - 16 e
Approaches to cleaner production in small and medium-sized enterprises
P3-016-e
402/95 - 17 d PVI
Mediation / Konfliktmanagement im Umweltbereich und seine Bedeutung im Rahmen der TZ Dokumentation eines Fachgesprächs in der GTZ
P3-017-d
402/95 - 18 e RMSH
Creating Local Agendas (A) Participatory Appraisal Methods for Interinstitutional collaboration in Integrated Watershed Management - Lessons from a Colombian Experience (B) Participatory Planning and Evaluation Methods: Suggestions for complementary methodologies
P3-018-e
402/96 - 19 d PVI
Konfliktmanagement im Umweltbereich Instrument der Umweltpolitik in Entwicklungsländern
P3-019-d
402/96 - 19 e PVI
Environmental Conflict Management An environmental policy instrument in developing countries
P3-019-e
34
out of print
402/96 - 19 f PVI
La gestion des conflits dans le domaine de l'environnement Instrument de la politique de l'environnement dans les pays en développement
P3-019-f
402/96 - 19 s PVI
Manejo de conflictos en el área de medio ambiente - Instrumento de política ambiental en los países en desarrollo
P3-019-s
402/96 - 20 e
Environmental Protection in Small and Medium Enterprises in Developing Countries - Proceedings of the GTZ-workshop
P3-020-e
402/96 - 21 d PVI
Methodenkompaß - Eine praktische Orientierungshilfe für Planungs- und Managementaufgaben im Umweltbereich
P3-021-d
402/96 - 22 d RMSH
Prozeßmonitoring - Eine Arbeitshilfe für Projektmitarbeiter/-innen
P3-022-d
402/96 - 22 e RMSH
Process Monitoring (ProM) - Work Document for project staff
P3-022-e
402/96 - 22 f RMSH
Suivi des processus - Un outil de travail pour des collaborateurs de projet
P3-022-f
402/96 - 22 s RMSH
Seguimiento de procesos - Una auyuda para personal de proyectos
P3-022-s
402/96 - 23 d PVI
Indikatoren der Institutionenentwicklung im Umweltbereich Anregungen und Beispiele für Projektplanung und -management
P3-023-d
402/96 - PVI
Umweltprojekte durch Kommunikation verbessern
P3-901-d
402/96 - PVI
Erfahrungen und Ansätze der TZ bei der Unterstützung von Umweltaktionsplänen - Dokumentation eines Erfahrungsaustausches in der GTZ
P3-902-d
402/96 - RMSH
Prozeßbegleitende Beratung Eine Arbeitshilfe für Berater/-innen im Ressourcenmanagement
P3-903-d
402/96 - RMSH
P3-903-e
402/96 - RMSH
In Process Consultancy A Work Document for Consultants to Natural Resource Management Projects Consultation interne
402/96 - RMSH
Asesoramiento a procesos
P3-903-s
402/96 - RMSH
Toward decentralised Natural Resource Management Case study: The village of Balingnar in Burkina Faso
P3-904-e
402/96 - PVI
Vers une Gestion Decentralisee des Ressources Naturelles Cas du village de Balingnar au Burkina Faso
P3-904-f
402/96 - PVI
Umweltkommunikation in der TZ Dokumentation eines Fachgespräches in der GTZ
P3-905-d
402/96 - PVI
Bibliographie Umweltkommunikation
P3-906-d
P3-903-f
35
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