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DO YOU UNDERSTAND WHAT YOU ARE READING? The Bible in African homes, schools and churches ABSTRACT The article discusses the influence of the Bible in Africa, with special reference to homes, schools and churches. The author finds strong biblical influences in African literature, referring specifically to Ngugi wa Thiong'o. The Bible has deeply influenced many cultures and peoples in Africa. Bible reading in Africa can be called a mass movement The Bible functions in Africa also as a motivation for personal and national well-being, to the extent that it gave rise to creative approaches to reading and understanding the Bible. Mbiti concludes that Africa indeed understands what she is reading. The availability of the Bible or Bible portions in indigenous African languages, as well as in the dominant colonial languages, contributes to this. Specific factors, some unique to Africa, benefit a growing indigenous interpretation of the Bible. African biblical scholars, however, often still read and interpret the Bible through Western eyes. Mbiti calls for an exodus in Bible interpretation to take place in Africa.

INTRODUCTION According to Acts 8:26-40 the Holy Spirit directed the Apostle Philip to befriend a group of African pilgrims returning home from Jerusalem. Evidently the head of the group, the government minister of finance under Queen Candace, was reading to the others from a scroll with a text from Isaiah. Probably the pilgrims discussed the text and Philip heard their comments when he joined them. His question to the eunuch was clear and direct: "Do you understand what you are reading?" This was meant for the whole group: "Do you understand what is being read to you?" The eunuch's response, "How can I, unless someone guides me?," provided an opportunity for Philip to explain the passage. The eunuch then requested baptism, and "when they came up out of the water the Spirit caught up Philip; and the eunuch saw him no more, and went on his way rejoicing". Two thousand year~'later, the Bible in full or ill part has become th~ ,.-,

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• Prof John Mbiti, originally from Kenya, is Professor Emeritus'of the University of Bern, Switzerland. He lives at Max Buri Str 12,' CH3400 Burgdorf, Switzerland. His email address is [email protected]

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universal book, as statistics bear witness. 1 Millions upon millions are reading the Bible today, as did the finance minister on the way from Jerusalem. Philip's question has also become a universal question. The readers and listeners would give Philip various answers concerning this (and other) Bible passages. That passage from Isaiah 53:7-8 is notoriously difficult and even professors of Biblical studies are still wrestling with it. Fortunately the Bible has many more passages and people respond to them in a variety of ways. I wish to revisit Philip and the African finance minister on the chariot two thousands years later. We (Africans) are hearing and reading more and more of the Bible in our own languages, thanks to the thousands of translators, publishers, distributors, sellers and expounders of the Bible. Millions are constantly exposed to the Scriptures in both their own mother tongues and in ex-colonial languages such as English, French, Afrikaans, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic. Philip's question remains a constant challenge: "Do you understand what you are reading - and hearing being read?" As I do not live permanently in Africa, I cannot investigate this question empirically by way of field work research, interviews, questionnaires and some valuable library/archival material. I am also not aware of published works addreSSing the question. I venture, however, to explore some impressions concerning the Bible and African readers and listeners. My basic conviction is that, as a whole, readers and listeners do get something out of the Bible. There is no question about that. They understand what they wish to understand. They keep, or use, what they understand. The issue is: What do they get and how much of it? To what degree is their understanding valid in the light of the scientific meaning of the passages they read and hear? Their practice of reading and interpreting the Bible in their own ways poses the question whether the scientific method is the only or best way to access the Bible. How does academic study feed into people's readingllistening and understanding/interpreting of the Bible?

THE BIBLE AND AFRICAN LITERATURE The majority of children who went to school in Africa during the past century received an education that included Biblical knowledge. The exception to this is in the Muslim third of the continent up north. References to Biblical images and expreSSions, or discussions of Biblical themes, come up regularly in the 1 According to the United Bible Societies' World Report no #273, March 4, 2004, the Bible or portions of it is available in 665 African languages, 585 Asian languages, 414 languages in the Oceania area and 404 in Central and Southern America. A total of 14,015,226 whole Bibles, Testaments, portions, selections, etc. were distributed by the UBS (churches and mission societies would also have done their own distribution). Many African languages are, however, without any portion of the Bible.

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press. We also find Bible knowledge at a deeper level, in the emerging works by artists, novelists, dramatists, poets and songwriters. I take as an illustration of this use of the Bible Ngugi wa Thiong'o, a leading Kenyan novelist. My information derives mainly from an essay by Peter Wamulungwe Mwikisa, "The limits of difference: Ngugi wa Thiong'o's redeployment of Biblical signifiers in A grain of wheat and I will marry when I Will."2 Mwikisa (2000:164) indicates how the Bible served as an important source not only in Ngugi's approach to social and political issues, but also in his creative output: The Bible and Christianity are an important seam in Ngugi's intellectual make-up, and to understand the different ways in which he taps this resource is to understand a crucial elementofthe larger, complex picture ... Ngugi constructs his own narrative out of the Bible and the Christianity of his missionary education ... The resilience of the Bible's influence on so radical a writer is astonishing when one considers how deeply implicated this book is in the propagation of ideologies which naturalise the hierarchical oppositions of slave and master, native and coloniser, pagan and Christian, savage and European ... upon which colonial and imperial rule were predicated.

Yes, the Bible has been used to initiate or justify or perpetuate injustices that have been wrought upon millions of people through Christian slavery, AntiSemitism, colonisation, apartheid and coercive forms of evangelisation. Mwikisa explores Ngugi employs the same Bible to attack the very system that had brought about oppression and injustices. He points out that "Ngugi has repeatedly drawn attention to how the gun and the Bible were used concurrently in the colonial occupation of Africa" (:165). This "wholesale repudiation of the masters' texts" could happen I?ecause "it seems possible to read into the same text a number of meanings... In other words, it is possible to read 'colonial' texts in ways that may have a decolonising effect" (:165). Did Ngugi understand these so-called "coloni~1 texts" that he read? Would he have used these Biblical texts so effectively in his novels if, within his frame of reference, he had npt understood what he was reading? Mwikisa points out the (obvious) Biblical reference in the title of Ngugi's novel, A grain of wheat. He remarks that even through the title, "Ngugi signals his intentions to deconstruct missionary interpretations ofthe gospels." Ngugi sees in the Biblical "grain,ofwheat" (John 12:24 ang, 1 Cor 15:36f) "the blinding array of meanings; missionary proselytising discourse have already i~­ scribed on it. As far i:fs the peasants, whose meanings Ngugi seeks to re~d into it, are concerned, the metaphor is an occupied territory, and his effo~ are the moral equivalent of a liberation war." So here we have one clear cas~ where readers and interpreters of a mere and brief reference in the Bible have gone different or basically opposing ways in underst~nding and interpreting 2 Direct quotations in this section come from various parts of Mwikisa's essay.

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it. But Mwikisa pOints out that "besides the weight which the title bears in the novel, there are other re-presentations of the Bible" in Ngugi's novel. "The villages of Thabai and Rungei, which form the setting of the novel, are peopled by characters with strong biblical echoes". For example, "Mugo, the person who betrays Kihika [a main character] to the colonial authorities, is clearly a compilation of the character of Judas Iscarior (:169ff). Mwikisa is critical, though, of the "unfinished" way in which Ngugi has used the Bible in that novel. "It is characterised by the uncomplicated way in which Ngugi relies on the Bible and Christian tenets to inform his vision of social justice. His anti-colonialism uses Christianity and the Bible to attack colonialism, but it leaves them un-interrogated or un-interpellated by other discourses." Mwikisa concludes that in A grain of wheat, "Ngugi's call for social justice is based on the world view of the gospels, and implicitly marginalised sources other than Christianity. The moral vision he expounds is almost exclusively informed by Christianity, which he hardly interrogates. But I will marry when I want is informed by the Bible as well as African Traditional Religion and historical materialism" (:179). This account illustrates how artists and writers read (parts of) the Bible and interpret it (them) according to their talents, their ideologies and their concerns. In particular, Christian art and music expose people's understanding of scriptural passages. Through art the reader interprets the Bible and communicates her/his understanding to viewers who, in turn, interpret her/his interpretation. This would seem to mean that a Bible passage might get a series of interpretations. The same process takes place when people hear passages read, espeCially in church, and then retell those passages afterwards at home or at places of work. Retelling a passage is not a neutral exercise. It involves an interpretation that in turn assumes a certain degree of understanding of the passage on the part of the first reader or listener. In our basically oral culture, there is no limit to the number of times a biblical passage may be retold (hence re-interpreted) from one person to another.

Let us look at another setting of Bible reading. Anthony O. Nkwoka (2000) has written on "The role of the Bible in the Igbo Christianity of Nigeria." The impact of the Bible is so strong that he can assert, "Christianity is a religion of the Book in Igboland. Much of Igbo Christianity may be summarised in the phrase, 'Is it in the Bible?'" (Nkwoka 2000:326). The standard Igbo Bible was translated between 1913 and 1917 and amounted to 1,035 pages. Heavy, yes, yet Nkwoka tells that when he was a boy, "no one might be baptised or confirmed as a young adult without possessing an Igbo Bible and being fluent

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in reading it" (:326). Over the years the Bible has continued to be used by all groupings of Christians. Igboland is one ofthe most intensely Christianised areas of Africa. The Bible has had a tremendous impact there. So Nkwoka explains that "to the Igbo, the Bible is a living book, the unique Word of God Almighty, Creator and Controller of the Universe." This means that the Igbo approach the reading and hearing of the Bible with this open attitude, which affects their understanding and interpretation. A very influential factor thus plays a role in the approach to the Bible, not only among the Igbo but all over the continent. Nkwoka explains that "the strong affinity between the Igbo and the Hebrew cultures all the more makes the Igbo feel very much at home with the Bible ... The Bible is the basic source of Igbo Christian theology, which is a small branch of African Christian Theology" (:327). Nkwoka continues that "waning missionary control and the [Biafra] war [1967-1970] were the two factors, among others, that led to greater autonomy in Igbo Bible reading" (:328). This is significant. It means not only autonomy in reading the Bible but also autonomy in interpreting and understanding it. This implies that "missionary control" may have hindered people's understanding the Bible to a certain degree. Perhaps this is a point that deserves further investigation. With this freedom and autonomy in reading the Bible, new developments began to take place in Igboland. According to Nkwoka, "the advent of Igbo reading and understanding of the Bible gave rise to early schismatic movements in the Igbo church" (:328). It is already well known that the translation and availability of the:Bible in indigenous languages is accompanied by the springing up of African Independent (or Indigenous or Initiated) Churches (AICs). David l;3a'rrett (1968) demonstrated this process in his book, Schism and renewatin Africa and other scholars ... have attested to the same fact. Nkwoka pOints out another impact ofthe Bible: "On~ of the foremost roles of the Bible in Igbo Christianity is the charismatic renewal, which in simple language was the rediscovery. of New T~stament Christianity. The widely circulated and used Scripture Union Bible reading cards in Protestant churches had inculcated the culture of Bible reading among Protestant Igbo members ... The strong emergence of the 'born again' Christians of the Scripture Union ignites,.;new understanding of the' Bible" (:329). Nkwokp explains the further impact of this "culture of Bible reading" in the area of evangelisation and interest among the youth: "Consequently, many churchef; were growing fast with young and energetic members itching for action ... " BLtt not everyone in the conservative church leadership w~lcomed this dynamic trend: "A spate of expulsions and excommunications from mainline churches gave rise to new Pentecostal churches ... These new Pentecostal churches stormed the society with the Gospel message opening branches in rural and

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urban centres" (:329). No doubt Bible reading, understanding and interpretation held them together and inspired them to work even harder: "Many Charismatic Igbo Christians became founders and leaders of new denominations" (:329). Nkwoka mentions a vital feature that arises from reading the Bible and interpreting it in personally applicable ways: The one discovery (or recovery) from the Bible that seems to have towered above any other in these new Christian movements in Igboland is the central place of healing in the Bible. The promises of God to Israel, such as those recorded in EXOdus 15:26, Deuteronomy 7:15, and Jeremiah 30:1, are regarded as the direct inheritance of anyone who has received salvation in Christ. The ministry of Jesus as healer and exorcist confirms these Old Testament promises of healing (:330).

Linking the Bible with health concerns is a widespread factor in African Christianity. People read and listen to relevant passages and stories, with keen interest and, on the basis of their understanding, switch from the Bible to their own personal situations in matters of health. What Nk\Voka says could easily apply elsewhere: "Faith healing is an incontrovertible aspect of Igbo Christianity. The faith healers believe that they do not possess any magical or healing powers. They are com m issioned by Jesus Christ who Himself does the healing. Therefore, strong faith in Jesus Christ is emphasised ... " (:331). Worship also is being replenished and nourished by Bible reading: Lively worship is another new discovery from the Bible. The confirmation of some worship practices of the African Independent Churches has been one of the strong factors that have brought the youth back to the church. The Roman Catholic and the main Protestant churChes in Igboland inherited organ music and solemnity of worship, and people had few occasions in the year, like the harvest thanksgiving service, when they were free to sing indigenous local tunes and dance. The clapping, drumming, and dancing that accompanied singing in the Independent African Churches were initially viewed with suspicion as irreverent and as a paganisation of Christianity by the mission churches, since these were prominent features of the African Traditional Religion ... The Bible was used by both thosa adopting traditional and those taking up modem Western resources for worship to justify their position. The users of traditional and modern musical instruments claimed that their use is biblical, especially in Yahweh approved worship. This led to are-reading of the Bible by many. Psalms 47, 150, and 1 Chronicles 25 were frequently cited. When the Igbo Christian youth discovered that boisterous worship with musical instruments, clapping, shouting and dancing is biblical, it produced an electrifying (even literally!) effect on the youth in the church. Independent Gospel bands such as the Disciples' Band, Jesus Revolution Voices, The Reconcilers Group and Lift up Jesus Singers were formed and shook the church. These bands performed at weddings, funerals, conferences and interdenominational meetings (:331f).

Anthony Nkwoka tells of an additional stream of church life that has been strongly impacted upon by Bible reading. It is "the rediscovery oftithing, which

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has enriched many churches and improved the financial bases of others. The Scripture Union popularised that receiving without giving is unbiblical." From Malachi 3:8-10, Hebrews 7:1-10 and Jesus' reference to tithing in Matthew 23:23, it was strongly emphasised that tithing is a must for believers, to avoid "robbing God and attracting God's decreed curse" (Malachi 3:9). For Charismatics and Pentecostals, tithing became "an established practice and a veritable source of revenue generation for their churches and ministries" (:332). People read and hear the Bible read not only in churches and schools, but more so in their own homes. It is inevitable that there would be a method of interpreting it so as to address the home and the family. Nkwoka does not overlook this: "Finally, the role of the Bible in Igbo Christianity will not have received a fair treatment without mentioning its influence on the Igbo Christian family life". He mentions the way of looking at "polygynous" family life in the light of Bible passages: "Other aspects of the human life that are given strong biblical backing include stability of marriage, care for family members covering the extended family system, a proper upbringing of children, unalloyed obedi/ ence by children to their parents and elders and priority of Scripture teaching in the family. Divorce, which was almost impossible in the Igbo culture, was further anathemised from Scriptures such as Malachi 2:16, Matthew 19:3-9 and 1 Corinthians 7: 10-16" (:333). Aware that "modern" life has brought about changes away from the traditional family values, Nkwoka indicates that The back-to-the-Bible revolution in Igboland has been used to restore, in the view of many Igbo, every member of the Christian family to his or lier ordained position ... The Bible has an important position in the life of the Igbo family, particularly in Charismatic and Pentecostal churches. There is a strong emphasis on what is called the family altar as well as the quiet time. The family altar involves morning and evening prayers by every family unit, which prayers are preCeded by systelJlatic Bible reading and discussion. The quiet time demands that every member find trme to be alone with God in Bible reading, meditation and prayers. The Bible is progressively fashioning the family life of Igbo Christianity" (333).

Nkwoka concludes that "the role of the Bible in Igbo Christianity is tremendous. Despite the scarcity of Bibles as earlier mentioned, more and more Igbo Christians are falling in love with the Bible ClfId immersing themselves deep in the religiou,~~iraditions of the Bible. The Bible is to them a living bqok of practical realities... Archdeacon Dennis' Union Igbo Bible has left ian indelible mark on Igbo Christianity" (p.334). It is clear therefore that the Bible, is "floating freely" in Igboland, which is probably the C9se in other areas vJithi Bible translations (especially the 446 languages lII!ith the full Bible or New Testament translations as of the end of 2003). This "free floating" of the Bible means, among other things, that people search for, or attribute meanings to I

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passages of the Bible which, to a certain degree, they understand or interpret to their satisfaction. They love the Bible and they let it "float freely" in their private, family and church lives. And the Bible does exert an impact at these different levels of life. To Philip's question, "Do you understand what you are reading?", many Igbo Christians might answer, "Yes, we understand something. Just have a look at what the Bible is doing in our lives!". B~BlE READING AND THE MOT~\IAlION FOR WEll~BE~~G ~N !PIERSONAl A~ID Ii\DA llONAl UFIE

David T. Adamo (2001) has done considerable and useful investigation on the Bible and health concerns, especially among the Yoruba in Nigeria. In his book, Reading and interpreting the Bible in African Indigenous Churches, he first gives an outline of the cultural, religious and spiritual setting of the traditional African world and briefly surveys Indigenous Churches. He highlights in particular three areas in which people in Nigeria. relate the Bible to their own welfare. He expands them in three chapters entitled respectively: "Reading and interpreting the Bible therapeutically"; "Reading and interpreting the Bible for protection in life"; and "Reading and interpreting the Bible for success in life." His investigation reveals how the three concerns - health, protection and success - have generated a whole culture of reading the Bible. These concerns seem to lead in particular directions of choosing Bible passages, reading (and listening to) them, understanding, interpreting and applying them to individual and communal life. In turn, this method of dealing with the Bible has produced liturgical expressions (words), prayers, actions and observances that strengthen the people's trust or faith in understanding and applying the Bible that way. What is particularly remarkable is the use of the Psalms. On the question of health matters Adamo (2001) observes that "the reading of the Bible is combined with African indigenous methods of healing. Absolute faith in the word of God and in God himself is maintained but with the combination of herbs, prayer, fasting, and the use of the name of God in the healing process. It is believed that virtually all types of illness are curable with the combination of reading the Bible and the use of African medicines." Adamo gives descriptions of some diseases and their treatment. For example, for stomach trouble "according to T.N. Adeboyejo, Psalm 1,2 and 3 are special Psalms for stomach pain. According to him, for these Psalms to be effective one should read them into water and pronounce the holy name of God, Wa/o/a Asabata Jah for eight times. Mix together fried oil, potash, salt and fresh egg and sip it little by little. There is a perfect assurance that the stomach pain will disappear" (Adamo 2001 :55).

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The reading and interpreting of the Bible impacts widely at least in matters of health: "In most indigenous societies in Africa, as priests and diviners are contacted before any marriage contract to make sure that the spouse will not be barren or experience infant mortality, so also have some therapeutic Psalms and the Bible passages been identified as effective cure for such problems" (:56). Adamo states that the missionary factor acted as a stumbling block, especially in health and welfare matters: When Christian missionaries arrived in Africa, the converts were forbidden to use African indigenous medicine, that is potent words, talisman, and even herbal medicine for protection ... When they accepted Christianity and threw away their potent words, charms, and all kinds of medicme, they did that with the belief that there would be a better substitute for them for protection, healing and success. The unfortunate thing, however, is that the missionaries did not teach them the source of the white man's power which they thought might be present in the so-called white man's religion. They were disappointed, and therefore they took the law into their own hands by using the Christian book and the traditional means for protection, healing and success. Many were excommunicated from the mainline churches ... The inevitable result was the breaking away from the missionary churches. Determined to find that greater power in Christianity, they search the Bible in their own way ... The separation gave them the freedom to search the Bible, to discover that which supposedly was hidden power. The book of Psalms was the most favourite book read that contained that power for protection, healing and success· (:72f).

What we have here is therefore an adaptation of traditional methods of securing success in the light of Biblical precepts, or and integration of Bible reading with established traditional methods. Bible reading is complemented by rituals (fasting, prayer, etc.), the use of African herbal remedies, and the repetition of potent words. Christians are no' longer comfortable with using only the traditional methods, often because of its condemnation by Western Christians and missionaries. The most potent book proved to be the book of Psalms, and the most potent words to be Hebrew forms of descriptions of God adapted locally (:62). This is used for securing success in many respects, such as winning court cases, securing the love of a man/woman, success in business and work, etc. For example, Prophet Sam Adewole "recommends Psalm 51, 133 and Isaiah 60 for securing the love of a woman or man. Use the fo!lo~ing instruction: Sew blue ploth on four corners. Buy coconut. Write his or;her name three times around the coconut with a biro. Make three signs cil the cross around the name. Burn incense and sprinkle original perfume. Call these holy names: Jehovah, Jehovah Emmanuel, ~md. Jehovah Nissitwenty one times. Read Psalm 51,133 and Isaiah 60" (:95f).; These concerns in people's lives seem to h9ve generated not onlY, interest in the Bible, but also unique or particular' approaches to reading! understanding, interpreting and applying the Bible. Is this a peculiarly African' trait of using the Bible" Does it invite scholars to pay attention to such ~ I,

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method, as a valid way of reading and interpreting the Bible? According to Adamo this method is familiar also among African-Americans. 3 This is rooted in the era of slavery when the Bible was read in a similar way to secure deliverance from the oppression of the slave master: "Great power was attributed to the Bible as it is read among African Diaspora ... All over the Americas, the Bible is used for power and wisdom ... The Bible has played a great role among African Diaspora" (:111f). Gosnell Yorke (2000) takes up this argument in his article, "The Bible in the Black Diaspora: Link with African Christianity." He argues that through "creative use of the Bible" on the estates and plantations where they were enslaved, "the Church in the 'bush'" and the later black churches, AfricanAmericans "have been able to develop and largely maintain some kind of home. They have done this by developing a hermeneutic, not only of suspicion, but one of liberation as well. A hermeneutic which, for the most part, has enabled them to read the Bible historically, and like their counterparts in apartheid South Africa to 'read' the Bible politically. Additionally they have learned to approach the whole question of biblical history, theology, hermeneutics and translation from a distinctively Afrocentric perspective" (Yorke 2000: 130f). It is interesting that in connection with the "African Diaspora," Yorke mentions features of Bible reading and application that parallel some features found in Africa. He refers to "the Bible as icon", explaining that there is "this resilience of African cultures that explains, perhaps, what I choose to refer to as the literalist and quasi-magical approach to, and use of, the Bible among Anglophone Africa in the Diaspora" (:135). Yorke concludes that "for Africans in the Diaspora the Bible is as near and dear to them as it is for their counterparts at home" (:145). This is revealing, but it also calls for a closer investigation of both the similarities and differences in Bible reading between Africans "at home" and in the Diaspora (which is ethnically mixed and has been greatly affected by Western and Asian cultures). While "the Diaspora" may read or wish to see itself mirrored in Africa, such a feeling is not reciprocated from the African side. On the part of "the Diaspora" there is a desire to "look back" towards Africa, but on the part of Africa there is no "looking towards the Diaspora". Nevertheless there is place for an open and honest dialogue of exchanging views and experiences - at certain levels. Hilary Mijoga (2000) examines the role of the Bible in the broader life of the nation in his essay, "The Bible in Malawi: A brief survey of its impact on society." He pOints out that "one of the consequences of the vernacular Bible was that 'the believers had direct access to the Word of God and could therefore apply it relevantly within their cultural setting as they allowed it to 3 He gives no indication what his sources for these assertions are.

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either transform or confirm their cultural beliefs and practices' ... This direct access has ensured the spread of the Gospel in Malawi" (Mijoga 2000:375). So, for example, the introduction of the Chichewa Bible (in Union Nyanja) in 1936 stimulated the development of standardised Nyanja which "gave birth to a vigorous literature and became one of the most important national languages of Central and Southern Africa, spoken and understood in five countries" (:375). The Bible also played an important role on the political scene, since the very first nationalist uprising in 1915 (under John Chilembwe): "At the trial of the followers of Chilembwe, the Epistle of James, particularly chapter 5, was often quoted in their defence (:375). In 1992 the Catholic Bishops put out their Pastoral letter which became "the first public challenge" to the one party system under President Kamuzu Banda: "They used the Bible in support of their position, for the letter was explicitly based on biblical exposition" (:375). This led to the Bible eventually becoming a central text in public discourse concerning the transformation of Malawi: u ••• the church was measuring government policies and actions against the biblical message of the Kingdom of God ... In a predominantly Christian country like Malawi, where the biblical message has tremendous resonance, to make the exercise of power accountable to God in this way was a formidable political challenge" (:377f). But it was not only on the political scene where the Bible exerted its impact in Malawi. It also had a profound influence in the everyday lives of ordinary Christians. Particularly in connection with what Mijoga calls "grassroots Christology", the majority of people surveyed indicated "that their own personal Bible reading and prayer were the most important means of experiencing the person and presence of Jesl:ls. This means that the Bible stands out as the principal source of Christology" (Mijoga 2000:380). The Bible also contributed to personal transformation "as a means of grace". Mijoga illustrates this by showing how the Bible h~s tremendous effect in prisons. Under the one-party system many prisoners suffered terribly: "One thing that kept some of them 'goiflg ... was faith. Faith gave them power to resist, survive, endure, and overcome the overwhelming power of the government.,. The Bible gave them this power through its stories, which were comforting and encouraging ... The Bible was by far the most important 'means of grace,' in' a9dition to prayers, chaplaincty, hymns and sacram~nts" (:380f). ~:-' i One can see a similar impact ofthe Bible in many other African countrries, starting with the colonial period and leading up to political independenc~, if) the struggle against apartheid, and in the current defence of human rights;, as well as in the transformation of church life itself. /

I

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roo YOU lIJNDIER~1"A~fOl

WIHIA"If VOU ARE READiNG? We have considered the presence of the Bible in a few countries in Africa in search of an answer to Philip's question. Today, the answer to that question has a multitude of implications. We can only list them, some of which raise further questions. It seems that readers and hearers ofthe Bible in Africa make a conscious or unconscious selection of texts that they understand and can apply in concrete ways. These are both individual verses that some people memorise, and stories that people learn by heart and retell. Here the oral tradition is very receptive to such stories and proverbs. It would seem that, when people use them, they make use of them because they understand them to a certain extent. This understanding - and hence application - takes place best or most smoothly in given situations of life. These can include health matters, land questions, hunger for freedom and justice, material n~eds, travel and other undertakings. In these cases people would select verses or passages that apply to the situation in question. They interpret the texts in the light of the situation at hand, to see or confirm how the texts may be relevant. At times, some texts suddenly dawn on the reader and listener as being applicable to the situation in which she/he finds nim/herself. There are different levels of understanding of texts: personal, family, communal (congregation, study group, gathering), or even national. The various cases considered here have shown how the Bible plays a role at all levels of life - from personal transformation through evangelism and pastoral care to national transformation in the political sphere. Some of the impact of the Bible functions at cultural and spiritual levels, such as literature, art, music, dance, drama and liturgy. The Independent Churches are seemingly more open for this impact of the Bible than most of the "mainline" churches though these are also opening themselves for transformation. It seems that the publication and availability of the Bible in indigenous languages has sharpened the creativity of Christians in understanding and interpreting the Bible. It is as if the imported interpretation and understanding of the Bible did not reach the deepest level of people's religiosity. The power of the Bible through imported interpretation was not enough to quench the thirst of the believers (especially second and third generation Christians). Under the schema of imported interpretation, African religiosity and its spiritual heritage seem to have been (deliberately or unintentionally) kept out of the process of interpreting and understanding the Bible as officially taught in the (mission) churches. However, reading the Bible on their own in their own language enabled African people to evolve additional hermeneutical

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methods of reading and interpretation. These seem to have been better suited to their taste, and to address the spiritual hunger which had not been fully addressed before. Independent Churches found other ways of interpreting Bible passages, ways that either complemented "missionary methods," or aimed at correcting these methods and, in some cases, counteracting imported interpretations. Nevertheless, we do not wish to see this as a conflict in the understanding and interpretation ofthe Bible. It is rather complementary and not adversarial. People are open to whatever methods help them to get deeper insights into the Bible, and these include both imported and indigenous methods and insights. There seems to be a great variety of factors at work in the process of understanding and interpreting the Bible, some functioning simultaneously. Among them are: (i) The Holy Spirit; (ii) The readers' and listeners' own abilities; (iii) Formal school education; (iv) Theological education; (v) The use of explanatory texts; (vi) Study of the Bible in schools; (vii) Male and female priests, preachers, catechists and church teachers; (viii) Christian art and music; (ix) mass media: newspapers, magazines, radio, cassette tapes, TV and the Internet; (x) Church liturgies, services and symbols, prayers, hymns, dance and drama; (xi) Church conferences and retreats; (xii) House, school and other Bible study groups; (xiii) African Traditional Religions and culture which make it possible for many Bible passages "to ring a bell"; (xiv) Oral tradition with its refined methods of education and communication, especially proverbs, songs and stories. This list, which is ba,sed on study, personal observation and experience, and is by no meanscbmplete. That the Bible is making an enormous impact on the African scene is therefore obvious. This impact is the stronger because people do have a degree of understanding of (at least some) passages of the Bible. There are obviously varieties in understanding and interpretipg the same texts, often depending on which of the above list of factors are at work. Biblical texts that have close similarity to the African world in which people live do not require a complicated process of interpreting and understanding. People feel that such texts speak "directly" toJhem, affirming their experience, and that they are therefore free to use them. We see something of this at work especially in the Independent C.~urches that take up practices or injunctions from the Bible and apply thel1);8S features of their denomirlationallife: the Mosaic ~ws, taboos connected'Wlth death, and (unfortunately!) the patriarchal domination of society. African people attach mystical power to the Bible as "the Wotd 9f God" and this has an impact on how they interpret and,understand the Etible. It probably explains to a large extent the very conse!yative, literal explanatioh of Scripture, and even the formulation of "mini ideologies" (especiallyaroun'd the role of women in the church). Hilary Mijoga (2001 :60-90) provides a good summary of what he calls I

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"channels of interpretation." These "channels" describe the reality of Bible reading and listening to it as it exists and as it impacts in everyday life on the lives of Christians and their communities. He made a study of 299 sermons and found 8 "channels" that were regularly used in interpreting texts and delivering sermons. They are: prayers, songs, stories, proverbs, quotations ("in support of a view or as sources of authority - proof texts"), rhetorical questions, exclamations (Hallelujah!; Peace!), and references to local situations. I get the impression that we, Biblical scholars of Africa, read and interpret the Bible largely, if not exclusively, through Western eyes, especially those of us working in the Bible-type schools and colleges. There is nothing wrong with such eyes - as long as they are not myopic. I would appeal that we take the presence of the Bible in our languages and countries seriously. Africa is deeply immersed in the Bible. It needs a breakthrough in understanding and interpreting it in ways that are more fitting to the continent's peoples, languages, character and needs. Translating the "Bible into our languages is a great step forward in this process, in addition to its being available in formerly colonial languages (that have now become Africanised to a ctegree). We are ready for the exodus in Bible interpretation to start. Philip did not tell the Ethiopian eunuch to return to Jerusalem in order to get the "right" message from Isaiah 53. Using the scriptures at hand, he opened the eyes of the eunuch, told him the Gospel of Jesus Christ, baptised him and let him continue on his journey. As soon as Philip had done his initial work, he disappeared. The African pilgrims continued to travel, rejoicing and certainly reading the scriptures with more interest and better understanding. The Spirit who took Philip away is the same Spirit who accompanied the eunuch on his return journey. Africa has not put down the Bible since then. It is still reading the Bible, and raising questions that relate to the passages concerned: "About whom, pray, does the prophet say this: about himself or about someone else?" Africa is still moving on its chariot, still reading the Bible and letting the Bible shape personal, community and even national lives. The Bible in Africa is not a closed book resting on dusty shelves. It is an open book. People are reading it and listening to it within the framework of their understanding. They are also appropriating what they deem to understand, and its message is noticeably making changes to their lives. They can at least "rejoice" as they journey through time and history. So, our continent is deeply in love with the Bible. The main message of the Bible is clearly percolating to the people and they feel at home with it. The Bible, too, has found a home here where people read, cherish and treasure it. A 'culture of the Bible' seems to be developing, in which people are using the Bible in all kinds of ways. Some of these may not be very 'orthodox' or 'correct.' But, in any case, one of the Bible's greatest contributions is in generating what I have called "oral theology" in which African Christianity is

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basking. This is the common man's, woman's and child's theology that we find more in the fields under the African sun that in air-conditioned libraries. It is sung and danced more than it is defended as master's and doctor's theses. Oral theology is created where people are and in the ways they articulate their faith - in their homes, in buses, in hospitals, in prayers and locally produced songs, in schools, in prisons, in churches, at funerals and weddings, on Sundays and weekdays, on the streets and under the trees, on ocean shores and river banks, on walls of people's houses or in informal conversations, in search of healing and success, in celebrating noteworthy events and occasions. It is a theology of grief and joy, dripping with people's tears and thundering out of their laughter. Oral theology is bred and nourished by the Bible in people's homes, schools, churches and all areas of their endeavour to live. The translation of the Bible into local languages is a great stimulant in the development of oral theology. In turn, this feeds into the total African Theology, even if the latter may tend to be an elitist domain that is sometimes bombarded by self-made theological engineers from abroad. Oral theology helps to maintain the Bible as the most indispensable source and tool of African Theology, of any Christian Theology. Ultimately, Africa has moved beyond the question of whether we understand what we are reading and hearing. Rather, the rapidly increasing presence of the Bible in our continent has brought us to the point where we need to share that which we understand and how we understand it when we read the Bible and hear it read. That is the stage where our Biblical scholarship has to join hands and proceed in conversation with all the readers and hearers of the Bible themselves.

LIST OF REFERENCES J ADAMO, David T. 2001. Reading and interpreting the Bible in African Indigenous Churches. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. BARREn, David. 1968. Schism and'renewal in Africa. Oxford: OUP. M/JOGA, Hilary. 2000. The Bible in Malawi: A brief survey of its impact on society, in West & Dube 2000: 374-385. MIJOGA, Hilary. 2001. Preaching and the Bible in African churches. Acton Publishers, Nairobi. MWISIKA, Peter Wamulungwe. 2000. The limits of djfference: Ngugi wa Thiong'o's redeployment of Biblical signifiers in A grein of wheat and I will many when I will, in West & Dube 2000: 163!-183. \ 2000. The role of the Bible in the Igbo Christianity of Nigeria, in Wtst & NKWOKA, Anthony Dube 2000: 326-335. I : WEST, Gerald & DUBE, Musa (eds) 2000. The Bible in Africa: Trensactions, trajectories anq / I trands. Leiden: Brill. YORKE, Gosnell. 2000. The Bible in the Black Diaspora: Link with African Christianity., in West & Dube 2000: 127-147.

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