Chapter Sixteen: Architecture CHAPTER OVERVIEW • • •

Topography Technology Community Life

Works in Progress Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater Mirele Ukeles’s Fresh Kills Landfill Project The Critical Process Thinking About Architecture: Charles Moore’s Piazza d’Italia CHAPTER OBJECTIVES This Chapter Will: • discuss the significance of topography to architectural forms • identify and illustrate the history of architectural methods and technologies • consider the artistic impact on the environment KEY TERMS elevation platform column entablature Doric order Ionic order Corinthian order cast-iron suspension wood-frame truss steel I-beam reinforced concrete cantilever Prairie House International Style Postmodern infrastructure

topography technology ziggurats kiva shell system skeleton-and-skin tensile strength load-bearing post-and-lintel arch dome voussoir barrel vault groined vault pointed arch flying buttress Greek columns fluting colonnade

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LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS 1. Topography and Technology Introduce this chapter by asking students to identify the different types of architecture (religious, memorial, residential, commercial, etc) used by humankind throughout history. Proceed to describe the oldest surviving type of memorial architecture with the Egyptian Pyramids (fig. 486) stressing that architecture is dependent on two different factors, topography and technology, and their interrelation. Show the Ziggurat at Ur (fig.487) and Mesa Verde (fig. 488) to further explain topography and its relation to architecture. Engage students in a discussion about buildings and their shapes. Why are the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs in the shape of a pyramid, or the Ziggurat at Ur a mountain? Discuss the cliff dwelling Spruce Tree House (fig. 488) to provide a historical context for the ancient Anasazi people. Explain the significance of the kiva and sipapu, and their relation ship to Anasazi ceremonial life. Compare and contrast the Greek Parthenon, the Roman Pantheon and the Gothic Cathedral. Discuss the differences in appearance, function and location, and how these characteristics reflect their respective societies. 2. Early Building Technology Remind students that early building technology was predicated on the availability of materials. Sun-dried brick, timber, straw, and other perishable materials were used to create shelters and other ancient architecture, yet it is the structures made with more durable materials, such as stone, that have survived the centuries. The most basic and durable type of early construction methods is the load bearing, a method of stacking and piling (see the Egyptian Pyramids or the Ziggurat at Ur). The Post-and-Lintel method of construction, illustrated in Greek Corner of the Basilica (fig. 491) and the Temple of Athena Nike (fig. 493), allowed more flexibility in terms of architectural design. Specific to the philosophical ideas of the ancient Greeks, the postand-lintel method is visible in The Parthenon (fig. 610) and other buildings located on the acropolis in Athens. Architecture emphasized symmetry, order, logic, and rationality, attributes intrinsic to all areas of art and life in Classical Greece. Have students study and identify on campus, or in their community, the architectural components of the post-and-lintel method of construction, including the Greek orders. Pont du Gard (fig.495), an aqueduct and bridge built using the arch method of construction, illustrates the architectural achievements of Roman engineering. To overcome the limitations of the Greek post-and-lintel method of construction, the Romans perfected the arch method of construction and invented a new architectural material—concrete. These two developments allowed for a flexible architectural design. The arch could span a broader space and expand in both directions to form a barrel vault, or in 360 degrees to form a dome (see figs. 494 and 496), thus allowing for large open interior spaces, which was a completely new concept at the time. Show images of the

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Colosseum (fig. 497), a model of efficiency and innovation, and the interior of the Roman Pantheon (fig. 499), the world’s first uninterrupted, open, interior spaces. 3. Building in the Middle Ages Survey art and architecture in Western Europe from the 12th to the 15th centuries to focus on church building where sculpture and painting were integrated with architecture to create a multi-media environment for communal and personal devotion. Discuss the building techniques used during the age of cathedral building using examples from the chapter. Emphasize the scale of cathedrals such as Amiens (fig. 503) and Notre Dame (fig.505). In order to achieve the desired height for these cathedrals, builders developed an intricate support system. The innovation of the Gothic period was the development of flying buttresses, a series of external struts connecting the roofline to pillars (see fig. 505). The removal of the load-bearing function from the walls allowed for an increase in the amount, and size of openings to place glass windows. Inside, pointed arches and ribbed vaults helped to shift the weight from the roof to supporting columns and pillars. Chartres Cathedral was famous for its stained glass workshop. Incorporating stained glass into churches initially presented an engineering problem because cutting window holes into high walls without supports systems resulted in the collapse of the church. The innovation of flying buttresses solved the problem. With stained glass illustrations, such as the lower nine panels of the center lancet window in the west front of Chartres Cathedral (fig. 36), describe how religious imagery is presented the manner of manuscript illumination. The unique feature, though, is that the images come alive with the constant play of shifting light through them. The element of light not only served a practical purpose but a symbolic one, since light symbolized god. The stained glass at Chartres Cathedral (see The Rose Window, fig. 235) was made by assembling small bits of colored glass within a lead frame. Chartres is particularly unique because most of its stained glass has survived both world wars. 4. Modern Architecture With the invention of new materials, such as cast iron, steel, and steel reinforced concrete the architectural possibilities were endless. And, with the invention of the elevator in the late 19th century, buildings could be extended vertically. Illustrate the variety of building materials with examples from the chapter. Focus on the modern building philosophies of major modern architects Louis Sullivan and his dictum “form follows function” (see fig. 515), Frank Lloyd Wright’s Prairie Style (see fig. 516-518 and 529-31), Le Corbusier’s “machines for living” (see fig. 519 and 520), and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s “less is more” approach (see fig. 523 and 524). Point out the architectural contributions made by each architect. Stress to students that as the International style and Mies van der Rohe’s dictum “less is more” became to represent impersonality, and conformity, architects such as Le Corbusier and Eero Saarinen attempted to humanize architecture with such expressive works as Notre-Dame-du-Haut (fig 160), Kennedy Airport’s TWA Terminal (fig. 526), and The Dulles International Airport in Virginia (fig 528). Ask students which kinds of

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modern architecture they like and if they had the opportunity to live or work in one of these buildings, which one would they prefer? 5. Community Life Environmental design has tremendous impact on our daily lives. Encourage students to contemplate how they encounter environmental designs on a regular basis, whether it is in the campus community or the community itself. Point out the significance of incorporating parks and how the challenge of incorporating the natural world into the urban context has been resolved by urban designers and architects. Focus attention on Frederick Law Olmsted’s achievements in this area with illustrations from Central Park (fig. 533), the most well known of all city parks. Situated between 59th street and 110 streets in the heart of New York City, Central Park is arguably the most well known of all the parks designed by Olmsted. The design of the park had many aspects that would become trademarks of Olmsted's designs. There were winding paths, scenic views and large open areas for people to relax in. His interest in the English garden aesthetic resulted in the absence of sharp corners to emphasize a more natural relationship to nature. Another modern phenomenon attributed to Olmsted is the concept of the suburb. Riverside, Illinois has long been considered the best example of Olmsted's idea of how suburbs should look. Riverside is a 1600-acre community along the Des Plaines River west of Chicago (fig. 534). The planning of the community took Olmsted and Calvert Vaux (his partner) 2 years, beginning in 1868. The main idea was to secure enough space for recreation and to make sure that there were scenic areas available to all residents. To accomplish this, he preserved the floodplain and the riverbanks as well as two open areas of upland. The first act of construction was a shaded parkway to connect Riverside to Chicago. Also, Olmsted paid particular attention to the inner roads of the community making them as scenic as possible. He designed streets that followed the curve of the land and eased the grade of the slopes to fit his plans. Finally, he avoids all uses of right angle intersections. His avoidance of right angles created more public space, which was pleasing to him. He also decided that the area between public streets and houses was private land with a public function: it was the transitional area between public and private. When all was said and done only 1000 acres of the land was developed, which meant the loss of one of the large open spaces envisioned. The last major community that Olmsted had a part in planning was Druid Hills in Atlanta, Georgia. Stress to students the rapid growth of American cities in the 1920s. This was a time when suburbia exploded and by 1950, suburbs were growing at a rate of 10 times that of cities. Point out the two great consequences of this—the development of the highway system, and the collapse of urban center itself. Many cities attempted to revitalize their urban centers such as Baltimore (see fig. 539).

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CRITICAL THINKING: More Opportunities to Think About Art Several artworks are detailed in the Critical Thinking and Works in Progress features found in this chapter. In addition, diverse opportunities for studying these works are located on the Companion Website and Companion CD-ROM. 1. Works in Progress: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater The Works in Progress section of this chapter discusses Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater (figs. 529-531) an excellent example of modern architecture and Lloyd’s signature Prairie Style. Wright is responsible for many contributions to domestic architecture, such as an open plan, cathedral-style ceilings, built-in lighting and furniture, sliding glass windows, and the incorporation of natural materials. Emphasize the influence of Japanese ideas on his Prairie Style. 2. Works in Progress: Mierle Ukeles’s Fresh Kills Landfill Project Mierle Laderman Ukeles has been New York City sanitation department's unpaid artistin-residence since 1977. She has devoted her entire career to thinking about garbage, recycling, ecology, and the endless invisible labor involved in keeping things clean. In 1989, the Department of Cultural Affairs gave Ukeles a commission, making her the official artist of Fresh Kills, a 3,000-acre landfill located on Staten Island. The collaborative project led by Ukeles was designed to remediate, reshape, transform, and recapture the landfill as healed public space after it closed in 2001. Since 1948, Staten Islanders watched in outrage as the Fresh Kills Landfill, the so-called "temporary solution" to New York City's waste disposal problem, grew to a monstrosity as high as the Statue of Liberty and as large as four Central Parks. Ukeles brought in landscape architects, wetlands specialists, environmental engineers, and experts on the fine points of decomposing garbage and its odious by-products to transform it into something of worth and a place of beauty. Fresh Kills has since taken on new meaning since the events of September 11th. The Fresh Kills landfill reopened to take in the wreckage from the World Trade Center. Ultimately, about 175 of the landfill's 2200 acres were given over to sifting through the hundreds of thousands of tons from Ground Zero. This added a layer of tragedy to a site that was already contested, fragile, enormous, resented, and political. 3. Thinking about Charles Moores’s Piazza d’Italia Charles Moore’s Piazza d’Italia (fig. 542) was intended to honor Italian immigrants of New Orleans and to serve as a gateway to a new group of urban buildings behind it. Have students identify the different styles and architectural elements used for this structure to emphasize the eclecticism intrinsic to Postmodernism. WRITING ASSIGNMENTS Direct students to their Student Study Guide when assigning Writing Assignments as the following assignments are written as instruction for the student and are contained in the guide as they are here.

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1. Enhance Your Environment In essay form, have students propose how they could enhance their living environment? Topics could include community, campus, or dorm life. 2. A Meeting of the Minds Have students create a dialogue between two major figures associated with architecture such as Mies van der Rohe and Charles Moore, or Mierle Ukeles and Leonardo da Vinci. In their essays, students will reveal each person’s theories or thoughts as well as explore areas of possible disagreement. 3. Modern vs. Postmodern Assign students to visit the closest city and compile a list of buildings located in its center (or downtown). Students will then categorize each building as modern or postmodern according to its architectural characteristics. 4. Campus Architect Have students write a case study one problem facing their campus community. Then have them create a design that would alleviate the problem. For example, students may propose to design a campus recreation center, parking garage or expanded library. HANDS-ON PROJECTS Direct students to their Student Study Guide when assigning Hands-On Projects as the following assignments are written as instruction for the student and are contained in the guide as they are here. For additional project ideas, remember to investigate the HandsOn Projects found on the Companion Website. 1. A World of Art Companion Website Featured Project: An Architecture Scavenger Hunt This project requires the student to spend some time on campus finding as many examples of architectural details and "styles" as they possibly can. See A World of Art Companion Website for detailed instructions and illustrations. 2. The Wright House Ask students to imagine that money is no object. Have them design a floor plan for their dream house in the style of Frank Lloyd Wright. Consider the natural surroundings as integral to the plan. See Frank Lloyd Wright’s Falling Water (fig. 529). 3. Fresh Kills Commission Have students propose their own resolution for the redesign of the Fresh Kills Landfill with attention to the social production of public art and community spirit.

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RESOURCES A World of Art Companion Website: Remember to direct students to A World of Art companion website (www.prenhall.com/sayre) to help further their understanding of the materials discussed in this chapter with ideas for completing hands-on projects and exercises. Self-testing materials are also available and offer students the opportunity to evaluate their understanding of the chapter materials in a variety of formats. In addition, links to websites featuring contemporary artists, and museum and gallery exhibitions related to this chapter will enhance discussion and comprehension. Links for this chapter include: CONTEMPORARY ARTISTS: The Great Buildings Collection is a gateway to architecture from around the world and across history. The Great Buildings Online documents hundreds of buildings and leading architects with 3D models, photographic images and architectural drawings, plus commentaries, bibliographies, and web links, for famous designers and structures of all kinds. CONTEMPORARY ARTISTS: Frank O. Gehry's Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao links students to the home page of the Bilbao-Metropolis-30 site. In October 1997, the Basque administration of the City of Bilbao, Spain, and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation opened the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain. Designed by Frank O. Gehry, the museum is devoted to American and European art of the Twentieth century. It was envisioned as an international center of modern and contemporary art, and it extends the Guggenheim Museum's efforts to bring its collections and programming to audiences around the world. This site provides glimpses of one of the most structurally intriguing museums ever created. GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS: Norman Morin’s The Anasazi: The Ancient People site shows pictures taken by Norman Morin, and presented as part of a project for an Anthropology course at Quinebaug Valley Community-Technical College, Danielson, CT. GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS: The Tenement Museum in New York City is an actual museum with an exceptional website. Located at #97 Orchard Street, the tenement was boarded up in 1935, and remained sealed until 1987. In 1994, work to bring the first three floors into compliance with New York City's building codes was completed, and the Museum opened to the public, conducting "The Spirits of 97 Orchard" tours of the unrestored residential apartments. This site features interactive tours of artifacts, and downloadable QuickTime® tours. GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS: Token City. The New York subway is the subject for a multimedia installation by visual artist Muriel Magenta and composer Michael Udow. Their vision transforms an everyday commute into an experience of images and sounds that simulates reality. The viewer is immersed

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in a situation where emotions and thoughts associated with the subway are implied and heightened: anonymity of the individual within a crowd, anticipation of the unknown, the passing of time, and longing to keep going. This is an exceptional cyber tour through one part of New York's infrastructure. John D. Spiak at the Arizona State University Museum of Art curated the project. Other Suggested Websites: The Egyptian Pyramids and their construction is illustrated and explained at www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/ Engineering in the Roman World is a great site that illustrates “A Race of Builders” from excellent roads to aqueducts and more. http://myron.sjsu.edu/romeweb/ENGINEE Amiens Cathedral Project is a virtual tour presented by Columbia University. An exceptionally deep site, offering computer graphics, and construction information. www.mcah.columbia.edu/Mcahweb/index-frame.html The Eiffel Tower official site documents everything about the structure from the latest news to the recent past. http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/teiffel/uk/ Frank Lloyd Wright’s All-Wright Site includes details about the architect as well as photos from his famous building such as Fallingwater. www.geocities.com/SoHo/1469/flwbuild.html Mies van der Rohe’s greatest buildings online can be viewed at www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe.html Eero Saarinen biographical information and other architectural works can be viewed at www.nps.gov/jeff/ar-eero.htm

Suggested Videos: Videos and other resources are available for purchase through any of the distributors listed in the Resources section of this manual.

This Old Pyramid, 1992 Roman City, 2000

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Modern Marvels: Gothic Cathedrals, 1998 Skyscraper: The Vertical Masterpiece America’s Weirdest Homes, 1999 Artful Architecture: The Getty Center and the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao Frank Lloyd Wright - A Film by Ken Burns and Lynn Novick, 1998 What a Blast: Architecture in Motion, 1999 Philip Johnson: Looking Back

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