CHAPTER - 111

COMMUNICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF KERALA

Communication of Environmental Problems of Kerala Exposure to ecological dangers becomes possible only when people communicate about the problems like the pollutic,n of rivers or deforestation of the land etc.' The one permanent factor in communic:ation is commonality requiring a shared social relationship to facilitate social interaction.* When such a communication takes place, the dangers in the environment are addressed and resolved collectively. It is not merely the 'transfer' of information, but the social practice of knowledge. Therefore, ecological communication is designated as an independent** operation that combines knowledge and action into an emergent unity, with which the society resolves problems and generates further communication.^^ Effective communication is the selling of the concept of environmental conservation through social interaction to a variety of people from varied backgrounds. If the conlmunication process is faulty, then everything else can be affected? With this ideal in mind communicativeefforts around the environmental problems of Kerala have to be examined. This involves more than just the spoken word: the use of gimmicks, catchy slogans, attractive visuals and various other means, and even a nod, a smile or a movemr:nt can convey a myriad of feelings. As a major part of an awareness-raising campaign, the traditional methods of mass communication such as folk theatre, music and dance, puppetry, etc. as used by KSSP are more effective They are less expensive and very effective, than interpersonal and group comm~nication.~ for they reach out far and wide in a direct personal way. These methods have been traditionally responsible for social change. In the twentieth century, the word communication has transcended its original meaning. The rapid development of modem methods of mass communication including the print media, telegraph, telephone, * In this connection it may be noted that the word communication itself is derived from the Latin'communics', meaning common. Commonality of synibols and culture can alone create a receptive environment for communication.

* * N. Luhmann uses the term 'autopoietic' for this independent operation, which is extensively dealt with in chapter I I. Autopoiesis is the mode of reproduction ~ f a l the i elementary components out of which they arise by means of a network of these elements and in this way ilistinguish themselves from an environment.

photography, radio and television and more recently, the computer and internet, has changed attitudes and even cultural symbols, clubbed under the term 'mass media'. They are more effective, but limited in feetiback. Communicative Rationality about Environmental Problems of Kerala The total area of Kerala is 38,855 sq.km. of which the net area sown is 21,898 ~ q . k mThe . ~ population of the State is around 30 million, so much so, the per capita cultivated land is only about 0.08 ha. The average number ofdwellings per sq. km. is about 1 10. Compared to the national average, one unit of land in Kerala has to sustain 3.6 times population and as a result every unit of land has to produce 3.6 times more

food and biological mass6 These figures indicate the magnitude of the population problem and the pressure of the population on the land and other natural resources of the State, which manifests itself

~ I the I

nature of encroachment into the forests,

reclamation of wetlands for food prclduction, intensification of agricultural activities and the adoption of modem technology to increase productivity.' Increase in population coupled with rapid urbanization and industrialization and consumerism, without due regard to environmental considerations, have led to extensive pollution of air, water and land.8 The raw materials consumed during these activities has resulted in the dwindling of non-renewable resources and accumulation of wastes. These wastes are indiscriminately disposed of and as a consequence the water, air and land become more polluted. Added to these, the recurten? drought and water scarcity, sand mining resulting in the death of rivers and rivulets, change in land use pattern leading to severe soil erosion, depletion of biodiversity, increasing incidence of natural disasters like earth quakes, landslides and so on are undermining the once serene and splendid environment of this 'God's own land'. All these environmental problems have become the focus of much media and public attention in recent years? To list all these environmental problems would take pages to explain them all and detail their causes, significance, and ramifications of each would take volumes. Environmental organizations have found it easier to categorize the major problems into broad headings. The most commonly cited environmental problems of the State and those which are peculiar to certain areas, are presented through the reports of the Kerala State Legislative Assembly, media reports and scientific institutions and NGOr;. 119

Reports of the Kerala State Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment 111the context of escalating c:nvironmental problems, the Kerala Government State Assembly initiated its enviror~mentalactivities and formed an Environmental Committee to study the environmental problems of the State and suggest remedial measures. The rules for its formation came into effect on 241h July 1992 and the Committee was established on 27IhJuly 1992. The aims and objectives of the Committee are mainly to understand the nature of environmental issues such as water pollution, air pollution, sound pollution, industrial pollution, vehicular pollution and problems related to deforestation and hospital waste disposal etc. and to measure the extent of imbalance created by them in the environment so as to take action to prevent such problems and to regularly monitor the activities of the various departments of the state, boards and industries." The Committee will report to the State about the projects implemented, structural progress of departments, reduction in administrative expenditure, efficiency etc. as per the provisions by studying the activities of various departments and boards related to environment, the amount of money spent by them and the appreciation and achievement made by them. The Environmental Committee as part of its hnction also receives representations from people regarding environmental problems and after scrutinizing the same, sends them to related agencies and recommends to the government to take immediate action on such environmental problems.''

1) Report on the three fresh water lakes of Kerala Lakes are an important, but: often ignored component of river systems. There are 34 lakes in Kerala. Of these, the Legislative Environment Committee studied the environmental problems relating 1.0 the three fresh water lakes of Kerala namely Vellayani Kayal (Thiruvananthapu~am),Shasthamkotta Kayal (Kollam), and Pookkod Thadaka~n(Wayanad) and submitted their first report on Feb 2"* 1993.12The Committee found that these fresh water lakes face a number of adverse environmental impacts due to many factors such as draining the water from the lake, reclamation of low lying areas for agriculture, increasing the depth of the lakes due to siltation as a result of soil erosion, using the lake areas for building houses, construction of bunds in the lakes for pisciculture,

growth of algae in water, pollution th~oughfertilizers, chemicals from agriculNre and letting wastes in to the lakes. The report, prepared after examining all the available information and holding discussions with Government employees and public, included 37 recommendations to rectify tht: adverse environmental impacts. The major recommendations were, deepening the bottom areas by removing the silt, eviction of illegal settlers form the lake areas, entrusting the administrative control of the lakes to Irrigation Department and constituting a Committee consisting of the District Collector as the Chairman and members f?om Fisheries, Forests and Water Authority for integrating their works.13 The Committee also suggested taking measures to prevent waste from letting into the three lakes in order to maintain them free from pollution. 2) Report on Mining by a Public Sector Industry.

Mining and mining industry. put together, could cause irrevocable damage to environment. This has happened in Kerala in spite of its lower capital-intensive mineral based industries. There are several industrially important mineral deposits of different origin in abundance in the State. As a case study, we take apublic sector industry namely Kerala Clays and Ceramics Products Ltd. which makes use of the clay deposits. Eight MLA's under the Chairmanship of Sri. K.P. Noorudeen prepared this report, in response to a complaint received from a cettain Anamtham Nambiar, President of Madai Sri.Vadakunna Shivkshetra Committee about the environmental problems arising out of mining by the public sector company (Kerala Clays and Ceramic Product Ltd) situated at Madaiparampil in the Kannur district. The Committee visited the place and held discussions with the employees and the public and the report was presented to the Legislative Assembly on 3* March 1934. It contained 39 recomtnendation~.~~According to Metalliferous Mines Regulations, 1961, blasting shall be done in such a manner as approved by the Chief Inspector of M~nes,so that flying fragments from blasting should not project beyond a distance of 10 meters from the place of firing.15But the company management had held that the mines do not blast within the danger zone (300 meters from the firing of shots). However the Committee recommended that since the topsoil accumulated as a result of mining should be removed from the area as and when they are formed, as it will create environmental problems by flying fragments and dust to a

far distance. And the deep pits formed as a result of mining should be filled as and when they are formed. The Committee also recommended that since the dirty water from the mines pollute the nearby wells, urgent measures should be taken to stop this. Since there were no clear-cut instructions about the distance from the temple where mining should be done, an expert Committee should study and give recommendations to make sure that environmental problems of any sort are not created. However, there are still several such quarrying activities in the State whose environmental impacts of very serious nature remain unnoticed, or even if brought to notice, are often neglected.16 3) Report on Deforestation in Different Parts of Kerala

Kerala's forest resources are under the severest stress. It is diminishing so fast that within the next 50 years, the quantum of forest and related natural resources will reach a level much below the minimum required for sustaining life. According to the Forest Survey of India's report for 1993, the 'effective forest cover is 9,400 sq. km (including original forests and plantation forest) which comprise only about 24.2 per cent of the State's area.'' Experts, however, put the real figure at somewhere between five to twelve per cent. The total area under rain forests in the world comes to about

7 14 million hectares. Of that, Kerala's share is only 0.35 million hectares. The critical nature of the remaining forests is evident from this alone. Blame it on high population density, flawed State decisions in opening up for cultivation, artificial fires and corruption even among the law enforcing agencies in encouraging illegal encroachments, the deforestation has been relentles~.'~As forests are destroyed, the suitability of the habitat for their wild animals is also seriouslyjeopardized, with the result that a number of forest animals have become scarce if not extinct.I9 Moreover this has skewed the rainfall pattern, substantially reducing the water in its rivers, creating a drought condition even in traditionally water rich areas. Sustained development of the forest resources of Kerala would call for a rational and dynamic approach, which among other things should include management of existing natural forests for non destructive uses such as conservation of biodiversity, rehabilitation of degraded natural forests through protection and care, promotion of'agroforestry and social forestry for meeting local

needs and promotion of effective people's participation in all types of forest activities, particularly plantation fore~try.~" To maintain a balanced environment and optimum climate, the total area of forest should cover 30% of its land surface. Statistics reveal that in India this is only 19.7% at present. In Kerala althou: > .-2 r t- : Respirable s~rspendeciparticulate matter levels in 29 cities

(gl 2000

Low level

Moderate level

High level

Critical level

c i t ~ e sand which does show that in all the 69 cities, except Shillong, including Thiruvananthapuram and Cochin, air pollution was moderately or critically high.ltO Diseases, which we thought have been eradicated, are all coming back with renewed vigour and force. Malaria, cholera, typhoid, dengi fever, Japan fever all are returning. Pollution has created a congenial atmosphere for some new viruses, H.I.V., Buffalo fever, Ganjam, Rift Valley fever etc to multiply and grow, recently warned the Director ~ this connection, the Supreme of the Pune based National Institute of V i r ~ l o g y . " In Court's (SC) order to convert public buses in Delhi from diesel to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) mode has had a snowballing effect throughout India."' Citing Delhi as an example, civil society groups and concerned citizens are increasingly approaching their respective high courts demanding the right to clean air. The latest in this civil upsurge 1s an affidavit filed in the High Court of Kerala. It seeks measures to prevent the Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) from plying polluting buses. An alternative suggested is that Kerala should use Compressed Natural Gas as fuel for the vehicles to reduce pollution.* Pesticide Pollution Pesticides and fertilizers, used indiscriminately in Kerala to coax the land to produce more, have backfired with lethal environmental impacts: excessive mortality, reduced reproductive potential in organisms, changes in the diversity of species and organisms, particularly in Kuttanad areas and the development of pesticide resistance in target as well as non-target species. Through our crop fields, the poison has seeped in to our food chains, vegetables, fish, grains, meat and even in the breast milk. Studies have shown that less than 0.1 per cent of chemical pesticides in India reach the target pest. The remaining is absorbed by humans, livestock and the natural biota. Assuming 0. I per cent as the effective usage rate for chemical pesticides, pesticide pollution in India could be in the range of incredible 45,000- 50,000 tonnes per annum.li31thas been reported that the Vembanad estuary annually receives residues of about 25000 tones of fertilizers and 500 tones of highly toxic pesticide residues from Kuttanad region alone (Anon, 1989).' l 4 The presence of DDT in Pampa river (4000 ngll), lindane * 'The petitioner is Sathyavan Kottarakkara

from the Vidyabhasa Suraksha Samithi, , a forum for environmental

awareness and safety.

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in Thanneermukkam (6000 ng/l) and endosulphan in Vembanad lake (I 12 ngll) and Manimala river (1 I 14 ng/l) are also of serious concern. Two decades after the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring,more than half the world's countries do not have effective legislation to govern the use of pesticide^.^'^ Many governments have little idea even of the kinds of agricultural chemicals being imported and sprayed in their countries. When the United Nations F ood and Agriculture Organization polled member countries in the mid

- 1970s on the amounts and types of pesticides being applied,

more than forty were unable to provide any of the information sought. Problems associated with the aerial spraying of the pesticide endosulphan on cashew crops by the Plantation Corporation in Kerala is discussed separately. Aerial Spraying of Endosulfan Pesticide The reported envirorllnental iind health hazards caused by the aerial spraying of the pesticide endosulfan on cashew plantations by Plantation Corporation of Kerala (PCK) in the Padre area of Kasergode district has been creating much environmental concern among the people of Kerala since last three years. Many residents of the district are suffering from ailments such as cerebral palsy and epi1ep~y.I'~ Laboratory tests conducted by the Centre for Science and Environment, a Delhi based non-governmental organization, confirmed the presence of endosulfan in the samples taken kom the village. The Central Insecticide Board, which regulates aerial spraying across the country, alleges that PCK undertook the spraying without its permission. According to the activists of the Endosulfan Spray Protest Action Committee (ESPAC), the death of over 60 persons who fall prey to the environmental tragedy till 2002 marks the seriousness of the problem.'" Over 200 persons in the area are still suffering from various diseases such as cancer, skin diseases, breathing problems and disorders of the central nervous system. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health identified the reproductive system as a target organ of endosulfari poisoning. Moreover, the Hindustan Insecticides Limited, the conlpany from which the Plantation Corporation of Kerala (PGK) buys Endosulfan (Hildan) itself gives a precautionary message not to apply under meteorological conditions or from spraying equipment which could be expected to cause spray to drift into wetlands and l~aterbodies."~ Stating that the Banejee Committee

appointed by the Central Insecticides Bureau in 199 1 and later the Dr. R.B. Singh Committee in 1999 cautioned against the use of endosulfan near water bodies on the ground that the pesticide is extremely toxic to aquatic organisms.'19The ESPAC White Paper says that the KAU scientists appear to be unaware of this warning while recommending endosulfan in the State. The White Paper concludes by saying that similar health problems have been found in more than 10 Panchayats and all these panchayats have only one common factor - endosulfan. The Endosulfan Spray Protest Action Committee (ESPAC) has rejected the report of the Kerala Agricultural University as baseless, biased and unscientific. As a result of the agitation the aerie1 spraying of the endosulfan pesticide has been temporarily banned in many parts of the Kasaragod district of Kerala.'20 Even the National Human Rights Commission in response to the complaints filed by the villagers (NHRC) has asked the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) to serve notices to the Union Government, the Chief Secretaly of Kerala and the State's Ministries of Agriculture and Health. ICMR has also directed a team of doctors to conduct an in-depth study on the matter. The SEEK (Society for Environmental Education in Kerala) on the basis of scientific evidences has objected to the report of the Committee headed by the noted environmental activist Dr. Achuthan that endosulphan is not so dangerous and hence requested the Government not to lift the ban on the use of endosulphan in the area.12'

Noise Pollution Noise pollution is a serious threat to the quality of man's environment. According to a study of National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi on traffic noise in major cities of India, noise during the day in cities is intolerable, as high as 90 dB, and it was seldom below 60 dB and if the present trend continues most people living in major cities will be deaf by the year 2050'22.* Many people seem to claim that noise is an inevitable part of modern civilization and man must endure it if he is to enjoy the fruits of technological progress. Noise pollution has never been put on the agenda of legislators and planner:; of the State and least of all the people in general. The task of environmental communication is to disseminate the recognition of loud * Noise. by definition, is over-loud or disturbing sound. Sound levels are measured in decibels (dB). It is a unit for cxp!.cssing the relative intensity o f sound on a scale from 0 to 130.and noise beyond 75 Db will be injurious to physical and mental health.

noise as a pollutant and injurious to health. The body absorbs the sound and often reacts to it in terms of adverse physiologic;d and psychological responses. The techniques of noise control are well advanced, but economic factors and the lack of trainedpersonnel often prevent them from being competently applied.'21Noise control should be a cooperative venture between three agencies- the government, the society and the industry including the employers and employees.'24This concept of co-operation applies outside as well as inside industry or institutions. Unfortunately, or fortunately, depending on its effectiveness, good neighborliness is often the only method of mitigating effects of noise in society. However, this does not excuse the lack of adequate planning of urban environments. In addition to the creation of an extensive information system for the public for awareness and education, political forces in the country should be mobilized not only to strictly implement present laws and formulate new ones, but also to see that local pressures are systematically mounted against the noise menace. Environmental Problems of Tourism in Kerala Kerala is trying to supplement the 'industry starved' status of the State by tourism development because tourism is seen as one of the most important foreign exchange earners and as an instrument for economic growth and d e v e l ~ p m e n t .The '~~ State also anticipates that it would be able to supplement the diminishing repatriations from the Gulf through tourism development. Recently, the National Planning Commission had remarked that tourism is the only dynamic activity in the State in terms of private investment^.'^^ While it is generally believed that civil society has accepted that tourism is important, its ecological, economic and social costs have been worked out. Some critics say that tourism is a smokeless industry because the smoke is invisible. Deforestation, pollution of air, water and land, as well as visual and imbalance in the environment are direct results of tourism because tourist zones are ecologically sensitive areas like rain forests wetlands, mountain slopes, coastal tracts and san~tuaries.'~' The indigenous communities have always been immediate victims of unplanned tourism development

Iz8

Loss of their customs, values and traditions,

imposition of socio economic ordcr, global market economy, increase in drug traffic, trade ofwomen prostitution, loss of morals and values, commercialization of culture,

are all associated with tourism. Today, the term Eco tourism is being used to suggest, allnost subliminally, that the new 'avatars' will be free from the negative impacts of earlier nature tourism.'29 Protection of our back water-canal-river system which is a major tourist attraction from invasion by aquatic weeds and from pollution by industrial effluents, motor fuel oil, and sewage, development of tourism in all potential areas in harniony with the environmental iconditions and without affecting the life styles or cultural heritage of the local people; restriction of commercial tourism in protected areas, strategic centres and ecologically sensitive areas; and Environmental Impact Assessment of tourism through scientific monitoring systems. Ecotourism is a relatively new phenomenon.* Well-planned ecotourism has proved to be one of the most effective tools for long-term conservation of biodiversity. The United Nations Environment Programnie (UNEP) suggests three basic principles of ecotourism project. It conserves biodiversity, promotes sustainable resource use and shares the benefit with local communities. I3O In Kerala, Kovalam area, situated about 16kms east of the capital city is well known as an internationally famous beach paradise. It is a sheltered natural bay with coconut palms around. As and when tourism increases, the environmental problems also increase proportionately, due to various reasons like the construction of buildings that are not suitable to the environment, encroachment of the beach, unscientific waste disposal system, indiscriminate disposal ofplastics, problems associated with lack of electricity and water, un-jeepable roads, increasing number of street dogs and cows as well as increasing number of anti social elements. In the interest of maintaining a balanced environment of Kovalani beach, the LE Committee, in its report submitted on 29Ih Dec. 1999 recommended that buildings built contrary to coastal regulations imposed by the government in 19'33 should be removed by revenue department."' As a long-term solution to protect the beauty and balanced environment of Kovalam Beach, the Committee demands a scientific Master Plan for the area in cooperation with Trivandrum Development Authority and Tourism Promotion Council. The unlawful construction activities should be urgently stopped and future construction for the *

The International Eco-tourism Society defined the tern1 in 1991 as "responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains tlre well being o f local people".

162

development of Kovalam should be made only on the basis of a master plan. Urgent attention should be given for the sc~entifictreatment of solid, liquid and plastic waste from Kovalam and the waste pipe from the beach hostels should not be allowed to open directly into the water. Instead the polluted water should be deposited in deep pits in the soil. Stray dogs and cows in the area should be taken over by Panchayath authorities. The massage centers should be allowed to function as per rules. A medical centre should function in the beach areas at least during tourist seasons. As there are no proper parking places traffic is a frequent problem in the area. The Committee noted that the police departments should be more vigilant to deal with increasing anti- social elements and drug dealers in the beach area. The LEC also recommended that in order to control and plan the future deveiopment of Kovalam, a Coordination Committee should be created to protect the beach area.132 Increasing Incidence of Natural Ilisasters There are reports that after 1980 there are increasing incidences of earth quakes and land slides in Kerala.I3'The frequent earthquakes that struck different parts of the State on December 121hand June 11,2001 in Pala, Erattupetta at a richer scale of 3.5 created panic among the people. Earth quake produced cracks in buildings and downing of the well water. This should be viewed against the background of the severe earthquake that occurred in Gujarath on January 26" 2001 which led to the death of a lakh people.'" The LEC in its report dated 291hDecember 1999 recommended that a micro zonation map of the State should be immediately prepared to find out earthquake prone areas so that the building construction and city development could be done accordingly. The Centre for Earth Science Studies informed the government that there are five zones in India based upon possibility of Earthquake and Kerala lies is in the 3d zone, which is a relatively less earthquake prone area.13j Generally, destruction of buildings and other havoc have occurred only with intensity of earthquake beyond five or six on the richer scale. But the frequent earthquake rhat occurred in Kerala is a pointer to reconsider the rezonation of earthquake map. The environmental Committee suggested that a detailed expert study with the help of geologists should be made and building construction in the state should be strictly on the basis of national building code 163

regulations that can withstand the occurrence of earthquake in the State.lJ6In the last two decades, the construction of flats in Kerala has been phenomenal and rethinking should be made now. The Committee recommended that in the earthquake prone areas of the state, flats beyond three stories may be constructed only by using reinforced concrete and that the poor people should be helped in the construction of housees using timber and cane or bamboo. A National Scienceand Technology Committee should study the safety of the dams including Mullaperiyar dam in the wake of an earthquake, the Committee suggested to the government. People should be educated about the methods of safety at times of unexpected earthquakes with the help of resident associations and voluntary agencies. The State should also form a disaster management scheme as a precaution particularly in the areas where intensity of population is high.13' Unfortunately the post-earthquake activities and management of earthquake are not properly implemented138.* Inadequate Natural Disaster Management Natural disasters are geological or weather related events such as earth quakes, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, floods and forest fires with catastrophic effects on human lives and environment. Although devastating,natural disasters always have an educative value. For example, people now realize that earthquakes do not kill people, but manmade structures do. Human activities changing the natural balance of earth, interfering with the atmosphere, oceans, deforestation, mining, developmental projects and dams are responsible. India loses a large number of people through natural disasters every year. In the Tsunami disaster of December 26th 2004 about 1.5 lakh people have been killed. This is why 'risk minimization' must become a part of any programme on natural disaster management. The basic principle remains that resources should go where they are most effective in reducing the vulnerability of the p00r.l'~The strategy of disaster management, based on risk assessment and identification of risks, should be shifted from the existing method of relief ar~drestoration to prevention and mitigation. Success depends not on what was known, but what should be done before, during and after its *

It is quite possible that the entire seacoast of the State would be under four to five feet o f water in the next 25 years. For a city like Kochi, which is at sea-level and is interspersed with expansive water bodies, this development will have earnantian imolications." Savs Dr. Rashmi ~ a v u r . - ~ o e c i a~ ld v i s o rto the U.N. General ~ s s e m b l vfor the New . , Millennium.

-

164

occurrence. While tomorrow's extreme natural phenomena cannot be prevented from occurring, their consequences, unlike those in Orissa, can be less severe when more effective measure of disaster preparedness are implemented right now.I4OThe macrozonation divides the nation into five zones. Areas where quakes record a magnitude more than seven are placed in zone five and those with a minimum chance of quakes in zone one. Kerala falls in zone three and hence technically Kerala is safe from earthquakes. But the Orissa cyclone of 1999 and the Gujarath earthquake of January 26'" 2001 and the most recent Tsunami disaster of december 26th have created widespread awareness about the necessity of more effective disaster management in the sate. More than 50 million Indians are hit by natural disasters every year. The TV and media coverage given to these natural disasters have really created greater awareness for the protection of natural habitat particularly because most of these disasters are not natural but man made.* Mineral Water Poisoning

'Bottled mineral water' is emerging as a fast moving consumer product in Kerala, now available in every nook and comer of the country, in cups, bottles and bulky transparentjars. Ramanujam 1:2000) pointed out that the market of mineral water is growing at a rate 60-70% per anrium at present.14'It is estimated that by the end of 2004, the mineral water market will be equivalent to that of soft drink market.142But the results of the study conducted by the Delhi based Centre for Environment and Science on the quality of mineral water sold in India is quite alarming.I4' They found that even some popular brands like Bisleri, Aquafina, Kinley, McDowell, and Bailley except the imported Evian contain high dozes of pesticide residue such a Lindane or Y-HCH, Malathion, Chlorpyrifos and DDT. Scientists and experts of the Department of Science and Technology have soon confirmed the findings of the CSE about the high levels of pesticides in bottled drinking water after analyzing seven different brands commonly sold in areas that fall in the national capital region of Delhi. What is shocking is to see *

Are natural disasters truly natural? A theory that is becoming fashionable after the collapse ofbuildings in Gujarat is Ihat "earth quakes do not k i l l ~ e o ~but l e man made structures do". Recentlv Sri. K o f f i Annan in a messane given on lnc intsrnatt~nalDay for ~ i s a ; l c i ~ e d u c r l o(l:"Oc!obcr)declared n that u h;t used to bc called 'Natural'd;saitenare IIJ~ SO natural as they might appear Indeed the tommunlty ofprofess~onalsded~catrd to the reducuon ofdisasters has d r o l l ~ e dthe word "Natural" altoaether. That communities message is clear: the main cause of rising loss is human act/"-ity But this only half truth.-~venifbuilding codes are strict6 adhered to and earth quake resislant technology i s in use destruction would still happen. He~lcei t may be said that if not actually human made i t is 'human contributed'

.

that the contents of the pesticides were several folds higher than the stipulated levels, even in the case of popular brands whether national like Bisleri (from Parle group) or

multinational like Kinley (from Coca Cola).'44This is a matter of serious concern as it has great implications on the health of the people. Manufacturers are simply extracting cheap ground water from the plant site, bottle it and label it as 'pure' and 'clean' and 'safe' drinking water and selling obviously at a price more expensive than milk.* 'Chlorpyrifos, one of the deadliest chemicals, is known to be an agent that attacks a child's neurological development i r ~the womb. One sample showed chlorpyrifos levels to be 400 times more than the European standard for permissible amounts of pesticides.14' The blame has to be shared, not only by the corporate manufacturers but by the regulatory authorities as well. The bureaucracy of monitoring Indian industry is as contaminated as the bottled water we drink. Unfortunately our people and even the Government have a cold attitude towards these startling facts. What does all these mean? The current standards prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards for packed drinking water and natural mineral covered under the relevant provisions of Food Adulteration Act are obviously inadequate and not precise.""'

In the interest of

consumers, the Government shoul(l immediately declare more standard procedures to monitor the quality as well as fixing responsibility at different levels including packaging. Communication on the Quality of Mineral Water through the Reports of Legislative Environment Committee In the context of several complaints regarding the quality of mineral water available in the State, the members of the Kerala Legislative Committee on Environment visited several units that prepare mineral water, took evidences from them and made consultations with the authorities of Health dept, urban and rural development, Factories and Boilers Directorate, and Pollu~ionControl Board. The Committee found out that even some popular brands contain dangerous minerals and slats, pesticides and microorganisms particularly increased amount of coliform bacteria.I4' The admissible amounts of minerals in mineral wafer are only: nitrates 45 mg.per litter, calcium 75.mg * CSE remarks, "if we aspire to live our life according to advertisements, a lot o f pregnant mothers are jeopardizing their unborn children's future with pesticide cockt;~ils."

per liter and pH from 6.5 to 8.5 but the coliform bacteria should be nil as per PCB direction's i.e. it should be hundred per cent bacteria free.14Qut it was found that in several brands many dangerous and diseasecausing bacteria such as salmonella, coliform and E. coli were present beyond aclmissible limits. Ironically, the Committee found that, many bottlers do not have their own bottling plants orunits. In many cases they get their brands bottled in some one else's plants and market as their own products. The Committee records that strict action should be taken if prohibited brands are found in railway stations or bus stand or tourist

Giving license to start a unit should

be with the explicit knowledge and approval of related authorities such as Health Dept, Factories and Boilers and PCB. They must make sure that the company should have all the necessary equipments and other factors for purification of water before they start. If the brand name of any unit is rekited to a place then the water from that place only should be used. Mineral water coming from other States should be allowed to be sold only after confirming its quality by the relevant authorities and any unit which does not have the approval of Bureau of Indian Standards should be immediately closed down. The Committee also made it compul.so~ythat the date of filling the bottle and the expiry of the bottle should be clearly noted and the Pollution Control Board should see that the water for drinking came from unpolluted streams or rivers or tube wells. The Contamination of Soft Drinks: The Cococola- Plachimada issue As the environment becomes more polluted, so the risk of food contamination

increases. Contaminants from human activities pass into the air, into soil and water, and hence into fish, crops, and animals.lS0Once contaminants enter the food chain they can increase in concentration by up to 100-fold at each stage along it.* In this context, contamination of soft drinks, mineral water and milk in Kerala recently created a hue and cry, which directly and indirectly helped disseminate environmental communication and awareness even among environmentally illiterate people. The factory of Hindustan Coca-Cola Beverages Private Ltd , which has set up a monster bottling facility at Plachimada (Palakkad dist.) amidst a tribal and dalit village in Kerala, is charged with sucking ground water to the extent of 15,00,000 litres per day and depriving local * I:ood or drink is described as 'contaminated' when any chemical or toxic - or toxin-secreting - organisms in it reaches a level, which is potentially harmful to h u m a ~health. Symptoms range from temporary nausea and discomfort to permanent internal damage, or even death.

villagers of water for drinking and farming.'51The maximum quantity of effluent generation during production is 8,00.000 litres per day. The Company is also accused of polluting the ground water and passing off their toxic sludge, containing higher than normal levels of heavy metals such ;is cadmium, lead and chromium as fertilizers to farmers. It has been well established that excess cadmium exposure produces adverse people have set up a permanent health cffects mainly on ludneys, lungs and b~nes.'~~TribaI demonstration at Plachimada since April 2002 and have said they will end it only when coke leaves their village.15' Death of the rivers of Kerala Kerala, a narrow coastal strip, 650 lun in length and 60-65 km wide, is nourished by a large network of fourtyfour living rivers. The total discharge of all the 44 rivers in Kerala is only 7,79,000 cubic multimeter (Mm3), which is less than that of a single river as Godavari in Andrapradesh which has a catchment area of 3 12812 sq.krns, with a dischargeof 1,05,5000Mm3andthe Krishna has a dischargeof 67675 Mm3.I5'Humans have interfered with many rivers to such an extent that there are few large ones left in which flow is unregulated. Our rivers die due to a variety of reasons such as lack of rain, deforestation, and massive encroachment in the early 40's and settling as part of the "grow more food" campaign. IS50therreasons are: indiscriminate mining of sand leading to sudden death, encroachment of the banks, constructionof dams and barrages, indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides, pollution caused by the discharge of effluent from industries, civic bodies and domestic wastes, water extraction, salinity intrusion, soil erosion, siltation, varrous Government sponsored projects like acacia, eucalyptusand teak plantation and dam constructionhave hastened the destruction. (Fig.6) The death of river Varattar, a feeder river of Pampa and the main water resource of central Travancore is a typical example of how indiscriminating sand mining, deforestation, pollution and encroact~mentcan kill a river resulting into severe shortage of drinking water and drought condition throughout the State.* It is first time in the In the past Varattar had a glorious history of Kerala that a river disappears t0ta1ly.l~~ * Varattar starts from Vanchipottil Kadavu just below Arattupuzha Kadavu of Chengannur village and ends at Mangala Kadavu passing through places like Edanadu, Koipranl and Othera and on its second stage starting from Eraviperoor village (Puthukulangara Kadavu) of Thiruvalla Thaluk of Pathanamthitta District, finally ends at Manimala River.

168

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DEFORESTATION , ~a~escale deforestation due ".'.toencroachments and settle..&is in the upper reaches, '&ding to weak flows

SANDMINING River beds being dug relentkssly to supply sand for construction leading to depletion of water tables, sinkage of river beds and drying up of wells around the river

Fig. 6 How to kill a river

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POLLUTION

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past. The river was used even for water transportation, many fishermen lived on the fish wealth of Varattar and high water content of Panchavadi and Chennathu region supplied water for agriculture and nearby areas even during drought. As a result of the geographical nature of the river, s,tones, soil and decaying biological matter got deposited raising the flow of Varattar. Added to that, the unchecked and indiscriminate mining of sand was the final deathblow. Gradually the water flow got reduced and only during severe flood the water began to flow through Varattar. Encroachment for agriculture and unauthorized occupation finally killed Varattar forever. This has resulted in the lowering of ground water level in the nearby areas and stagnant water in some areas created a congenial atmosphert: for pests and animals for spreading diseases. The death of rivers is the most painful social tragedy of the State and therefore at any cost, we must return the life back to our rivers. And this is possible. Concerted action is the biggest social and political need of the State. Experiences have shown that such restoration efforts have improved tht: most polluted Rhine, Thames, St. Lawrence and Hud~on.'~' Clear waters are now runnlng through them. Many species of birds and fishes, threatened with extinction have come back to all those rivers. Such restoration efforts should include steps like increasing the capacity and efficiency of sewage disposal works, checking the flow of industrial toxins into the river, construction of sullage treatment plants for waste water disposal, taking legal action, imposing fines and punishment wherever necessary. The Committee that studied the methods of revival of the river involving members of Pollution Control Board, Soil Conservation and Revenue Department and CWRDM, recommended that encroachers should be evicted and strict measures should be taken to prevent sand mining.158Steps should also be taken to deepen its floor and a 60m wide bell mouth should be made in the beginning of Varattar. Salinity inclusion in to the rivers is another major reason for the death of rivers. The State of Kerala with an average width of 50 km has 4 1 west flowing rivers, originating from the Western Ghats and flowing to the Lakshasweep Sea. These short, fast flowing monsoon-fed rivers ofren encounter salinity intrusion into their lower stretches during the summer months.'59When the fresh water flow reduces, two major problems are encountered in these water bodies: (i) salinity propagates more into the

interior of the river, (ii) the flushing of the system becomes less effective. Both aspects have an impact on the irrigation, drinking and industrial water supply schemes situated in the down stream stretches.* It has been observed that over exploitation of ground water in certain coastal stretches has contributed to the entry of salinity into the coastal aquifers from the sea. Though this tendency is mainly observed during the summer months when recharge is practically nil, there is possibility for perpetuation of the problem due to increase in withdrawal rate to the requirements of dense coastal population. The present method for preventing salinity intrusion into intake points of drinking water supply schemes is by the construction of temporary barrages, which prevents the flow and creates ecological problems, especially concentration of pollutants up stream of the obstruction. Areas upstream of Thanneermukam barrage in the Vembanad and Pathalam barrage m Periyar are typical examples. (James 1996).I6OIt will be ideal if flows are maintained in summer by natural or artificial means to reduce this problem. If required, submerged barrages or barrages with gates can be adopted to control salinity intrusion problem. Necessary provision for flushing out the pollutants also may be incorporated right at the planning stage. Sand mining ill the rivers of Kerala The greatest single factor thal has contributed to the destruction of river ecology in Kerala is the excessive sand mining from rivers. All the 44 rivers of Kerala are facing a big crisis because of sand mining, pollution, deforestation and brick making. Removal of sand has resulted in lowering or sinking of the river beds which encourages the intrusion of saline water into fresh water, causing serious threats to drinking and irrigation. The sand holds water and fills the nearby ponds and lakes by raising the water level.'6' When the sand is removed from the river bed the hydraulic gradient increases dangerously. It has affected the availability of water in the wells and canals on the sides of the river. The riverine morphology gets changed and water equilibrium upset causing serious threats to the biodiversity of the river and riverbanks. Particularly the fish wealth gets depleted as it adversely affects their breeding process. Regarding * F'roblemsofsalinity intrusion in Periyar, Meenachil, Kuttiyadi have been studied in detail (lames 1985) wh~chin the case o f Beypore estuary propagates to a distance of 24Km. thereby creating problen~sto the water supply scheme to the Kozhikode Corporation area (lames and Sreedharan 1983).

171

the environmental degradation relating to such mining activities, Khoshoo (1 982) notes that 'mining, the temporary use of the land with no attempts to reclaim and rehabilitation has left behind unsightly scars due to a callous attitude towards its environmental impacts'.'62SOpeople are to be educated to conduct scientificstudy about the availability of sand in all the rivers and mining should be undertaken on the basis of such study. Sand mining has to be banned completely during the two monsoon seasons; mining ten metres within river shore should be prevented; sand mining bill rules should be strictly implemented, alternative materials instead of sand e.g., rock powder, deep-sea sand etc. should be found out and the use of such sand should be encouraged and the cooperation of local NGOs, individuals and people should be sought. Decreasing Rainfall Pattern and Increasing Drought One of the main reasons for the death of a river is the decreasing amount of rain. According to an assessment made by the Central Water Commission, scarcity conditions creep in when the per capita availability of water drops below 1,000cubic meters. The total annual availability of renewable fresh water in India is placed at 1,869 billion cubic meters, which ensured a total per capita availability of 2,213, and 2,000 cubic meters in 1991 and 1996 re~pectively.'~~ The growing population has reduced the availability to 201 8 cubic meters in 2000 and could come dangerously close scarcity conditions when it drops to 1,479 cubic meters in 201 8. The situation can be compared to that of Vypar, one of the main rivers in Tamil Nadu. (Tuticorin).'" It originates from the Western Ghats and flows through the Southern side of Kerala and reaches the Mannar gulf. But the most painful thing is that it will hold water only during 2 months of the years (September, October, which is the main raining season of Tamil Nadu). During other months, the river is hll of sand beds and thorny bushes. Ten years ago the river contained water upto 10 meters in height. Now, even during rainy season the water is not more than one meter. Lack of rain is the main reason for the death of these rivers. Twenty y e m ago, Vypar was full of water. Vypar is a warning to Kerala and other supposed to be 'water rich regions' of India. Kerala is heading towards Tamil Nadu, because since last two years rain has reduced in Kerala by nearly 27%. Kerala, which used to

get rain for six months, is now getting it for four months only.* Deforestation of Western Ghats, global warming may be the reason^.'^' Annual rainfall in different States of India shows that Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhrapradesh and Tamil Nadu get a lower rainfall than the national average 1.194 M. While Kerala, Kamataka and Bihar are above the national average. However, the surface run off and groundwater availability need not be related to rain fall pattern. For example, as shown in Fig. 7 & 8, compared to the national average, Kerala receives 2.78 more rainfall compared to Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. But Kerala has the lowest surface run off and groundwater recharge in comparison to her neighboring states. She also has lower fresh water availability than even the dry states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhyapradesh and Bihar. What is the reason for this paradoxical situation although Kerala has 4 4 rivers and 3000 m m of annualrainfall? The reason is that Kerala's steep and undulating topography is not suited for rainwater retention in comparison with Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan, thereby obviating the advantages of having high rainfall to a great

Deforestation and increasing population also contributes to dry

riverbeds and increasingly dry wells in the state. Secondly a river in Kerala is defined as a drainage channel which is more than 15 Km in length. With this definition Kerala has 44 rivers. This magic number of 44 will increase or decrease depending on the arbitrary definition of 15 Kms length as qualifying length of a river. This means Kerala does not have any major rivers (except Chaliyar, Bharathapuzha, Periyar and Pampa, which may be designated, as medium rivers). The amount of water available for use in India was estimated as 2100 billion cubic metres per year in the year 1990.16'About

86% of this is the surface run-off found in streams, rivers, lakes and ponds. In fact, these are the major sources of water in our country. Groundwater Quality Problems of Kerala Ground water contamination is a socio-economic problem that has received considerable attention in modem industrialized societies. In Kerala because of its far* Droughts look like becoming an annual future rn many states, more severe in Rajasthan, Gujarta,and Bihar. Even in Kerala, it is more severe and regular than monsoon showers, that this the legendary Parasurama reclaimed it forhuman habitation is a painful irony. It is ironical that in India both floods and droughts occur very regularly and alternately. According to the National Commission on Apricullure (1976). there are three types of drought: Meteorological drought caused by a marked decrease in rainfall, fTydrological drought caused by prolonged meteorological drought and its consequent effects on water source and Agricultural drought caused by insufficient rainfall to support crops.

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reaching impact on human health and aquatic life, a lot of information has been generated on various aspects of quality of surface and ground water. The ground water quality problems of Kerala are associated with mineralogical origin, human interference, industrial effluents, agricultural activates, municipal solid waste burial grounds etc.168 Generally, the ground water problems in Kerala in coastal areas are due to the presence of excess salinity, high fluoride, hardness, and coliforms, low pH, high iron content, high TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) and excess chloride concentration. The ground water problems due to high fluoride content are reported fiom Palakkad and Alapuzha districts of Kerala. Ground water contamination due to industrial pollution has been reported from places of Cochin, Palakkad some parts of Kollarn, Kozhikode and Kannur. An abstract of the findings is given as Appendix A. The municipal and industrial landfills operating in various parts of Kerala is causing great concern to the quality of ground water. The analysis of the samples collected near a municipal solid waste site in Kozhikode indicated that eighty per cent of the samples are bacteriologicaly In general, ground water contaminated with coliform densities as high as 11'105.169 contamination originates from soils or surface waters polluted by human activities. Experience has shown, time and again, that no amount of legislation can help in changing the ways of people at large in maintaining the water quality. Only intensive and extensive educational campaigns, suited to the different components of society and tailored to the needs of the message to be conveyed, would go a long way in ensuring the success of projects such as the cleaning of the Ganga - or for that matter, cleaning of waters for bettering the health of the nation. Problems related to ground water extraction structures India is estimated to have 3,700 mharn of groundwater, almost 10 times the annual rainfall.170Only 10% of the water is being made use of at present, but with lakhs of tube wells and other structures being sunk every year to meet the growing water shortage, the water table is declining rapidly. The common ground water extraction structures widely used are tube wells, open wells, bore wells, springs, pondsltanks, subsurface dukes /dams, and suranganls,(a traditional ground water harvesting structure where horizontal wells constructed for extraction of ground water which are prevalent in the Western Ghat area of Kerala and South Kanara).171However, tube wells have now 175

become India's single largest source of irrigation in virtually all areas. This is the consequence of a policy that seeks to blindly replicate the 'success' of Punjab, Haryana and other alluvial tracts in expanding tube well irrigation even in areas where the rate of !groundwater recharge is very low.'72In such hard rock areas, water takes a long time to accumulate below the ground. Kerala since early nineteen eighties have been resorting to tube well construction to take underground water even from 500 feet deep tube wells. Water that took over 10,000 years, to accumulate in underground aquifers has been mined dry like coal in the last 30 years with consequent environmentalproblems such as drying up of nearby wells, intrusion of salt water due to lowering of underground water level, and drying up of a large number of tube wells themselves. Over exploitation of ground water resources can be tackled through a process of intensive education on the adverse impacts and resorting to the merging practice of rain water harvesting. Appropriate ground water laws should be framed to regulate indiscriminate exploitation of the limited ground water availability in the state.

Communication for Water Management The lessons of history are so obvious that it would be ridiculous not to learn from them.'73 The sites of great civilizations such as those of Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley are today barren deserts, in spite of the fact that perennial rivers flew through them. Every child of history knows that a good or successful ruler is described as one who dug tanks for the storage ofwater, and planted trees. At the macro level, it is very necessary to dig tanks and canals, plant trees and collect rainwater. At themicro level, each individual should avoid water wastage through simple measures liketightening taps, maintaining delivery lines, using low HP pumps and motors and collecting and storing rainwater. A national campaign for water literacy is required to spread the message that water is a very precious natural resource, with a value system that makes water everybody's business.'74In this context, the role ofNGOs is to inspire people by disseminating information about suc:cessful water harvesting programmes practised in certain pockets of the country (such as Skhomajari village in Haryana, Pani-Panchayat in Western Maharashtra etc). At these localities, the people have practised water harvesting as a community effort and succeeded in overcoming the shortage of water.

According to R.N. Athavale (2003) these examples are marginal cases where water scarcity and poverty was the norm. Such social mobilization is a prerequisite for effective water management where the community is closely involved in the construction of water harvesting structures. The idea of re-cycling should also be considered since it is now realized that waste products are not things to be removed and dumped as quickly, hygienically and economically as possible, but are part of our scarce natural resources.'7s Successful management allows accounting for all wastewaters, devising remunerative methods of its reuse, reducing it where possible and ensuring that waste water is not wasted. To a certain extent, the quatity of waste is in fact indicative of the efficiency of production. Vanishing Mangrove Forests Evergreen mangroves known as 'tidal forests' constitute a fascinating ecosystem by the sea. For centuries, this ecosystem has been of great use and value to mankind. It helps in preventing soil erosion, floods and other natural calamities, provides food, fuel, fodder and a host of other useful products. Mangrove estuaries are the breeding ground for many estuarine species and nursery ground for many marine species.* Some fresh water fishes use the saline water of the estuaries for ~pawning."~ Marine fishes such as Hilsa ilisha and freshwater prawns, such as the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachiurn rosenbergii use the saline waters of the estuaries for spawning. Many birds also find their habitat in mangrove forests. Researches conducted by Hanoi Mangrove Research Organization and East Anglican Universities have revealed that Mangrove forests are natural walls created by Nature to defend our sea coasts against see erosion and cyclones.i77New Scientirt Magazine quoting coastal geographers from Cambridge University has reported that the violent effect of super cyclone caused in Orissa could have been avoided had its mangrove forest not been destroyed to develop shrimp farms.i78It also added considering the unbridled human activity along the Indian Coast that more Orissa's can be expected at greater frequency. Their ecological value is only now globally recognized, but they are still losing ground when it comes to making a decision on the use of coastal resources for industrial develop~nent.''~In the *

A good number of species, such as scianid fishes, ribbon fishes, marine prawns, etc which spawn in the open sea use ibese estuaries as the nursery ground.

beginning of the lastcentury, Kerala had 700 sq. kilometers of Mangrove forests. Today they are reduced to just 17 sq.kms. and restricted to isolated areas such as Veli and its suburbs in Thiruvananthapuram, Ayiramthengu and Ashram in Quilon, pathiramanal in Alleppy, Kumarakom in Malappurani and Mahi and Beppur coasts@ .' '

The reasons that

have contributed to its decline are encroachment due to high population density on the costs, commercial prawn farming ,oyster and fish farming, construction of salt fields and dumping of wastes. There is no dearth of proposals and projects forthe protection of mangroves and wet lands. The KSSP conducted a 'contact the people' programme in the Kuyyali areas of Kannur district, which still boasts of having the largest mangrove forest area in the state - 755 hectares of the total 1,671 ha in the State, to create awareness among the local residents about the importance of conserving the mangroverich wetlands in the area.lal(Fig: 9) The efforts for eco-restoration of mangroves are outdone by the ongoing process of converting the wetlands for construction of hospitals, hotels and houses. Conservation of wetlands consisting of lakes, river mouths, coastal areas, Mangrove forests, rivers, river belts, ponds, paddy fields are to be utmost importance

for the sustainable recharging of underground water.Ig2(Plate 2 & 3 ) Environmental activists continue to raise their concern that the wet lands and sensitive mangrove ecosystems will soon vanish if these fragileareas continue to be reclaimed unchecked in the name of 'devel~prnent'.'~' Reclamation-Paddy fields turning into Townships The area under paddy cultivation in Kerala continues to be reduced as a result of reclamation of land. As of now, Kerala is getting nearly 30 lakh tones ofrice, which comprise 75% of its annual rice needs from outside.la4In Palakkad district, known as the 'granary of Kerala', hundreds of acres of paddy fields, both under cultivation and barren in the Kanjikode-Walayar belt, have been converted for setting up industries. Illegal conversion of fields is taking place more in Emakulam District. If the sanctions given for conversion of paddy fields cover just 150 acres, the actual expanse filled could be well over 4,000 acres. The Kerala Land Utilization Order, 1967, enacted to prevent the abuse of paddy field, is honoured more in its breach.Ia5The black sheep among the real estate operators are on a rampage all over Kerala buying up paddy fields,

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z ~ $ g ~ ~ ~ e r c O E S E N Z * ' C m n * m " ~issibutionof major monprarc rpccier and ssoriatcs in Kenla (di~kl-wire).Parenlkris: Areal rprcld in kclarc*.

Fig. 9. Distribution o f mangrove species in Kerala Ref: The Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF Thimvananthapuram, Page. 156

Plate 2 6 3. The burrowers and protected shelter provided by the open roots make mangrove forests an ideal nursery ground for juvenile fishes (Ref: Science Reporter, Page 16, November 1990)

filling it up, selling it fragnlented or constructing luxury villas and multistoried apartmei~ts.Kuttanad, tlie rice bowl of the State, which contributes nearly 20% of the total paddy production, is also not free from the menace with fields being filled up increasingly. (Plate 4) What is the way out? An amendment of the Kerala Land Use order should be made in such a way that paddy fields could only be used for other crops and not for real estate or industrial purpose in the event of stopping paddy cultivation. Two ecological concerns that can be identified are the influence the paddy cultivation exercised on the recharge of the ground water regime, and the other its role as a temporary 'container of floodwaters'. Paddy fields help in recharging the ground water

reserves by holding r a i i ~ w a t e r . AS ' ~ ~more and lnore fields are filled, the quantum of rainwater pemeating d o w i ~is reduced in proportion. Water is held on the fields, not as much to meet the physiological requirements of the plant but to colitrol weeds.* The second ecological concern is that of the contribution of 'niloms' in mitigating floods

Plate 4.

A vanishing scene ... the rice bowls of Kerala are becoming empty.

(ReJ Hindu 23/8/1999) * In

Lhe '~~ilonis' when paddy is cultivated thc rail1 that falls in the tilled field is prevcnted from pcrcolation and, thereby, very little rechargc takcs place. On the other hand, if thc nylorns are put to dry land crops which obviously does not reili~irepudding and leveling, all Lhe water evcn from the last ~ ~ o ~ t h emonsoon ast rain is allowed to secp down and help rechal.ge the ground watcr over a longer period of time.

by serving as water holding containers. But in 90% of the geographic area (all lands other than the relatively flat coastal belt) the floodwater moves swiftly due to slope of the land through the natural drains. An ecological approach enriched with an aesthetic spirit is imperative for the protection, conservation and management of this fascinating biotope of our state. Multicoloured Rain Reports about the recent occurrence of coloured rains - red, yellow, green, and black rain- have come from Palakkad, Kottayam, Emakulam and Pathanamthitta districts since 200 1. Subsequently, multicoloured rains have been reported from about 50 other places in Kerala. This has sent a panic wave to the social psyche of the state

people. Those who collected red rainwater in vessels and samples from Changanassery in Kottayam district have been exanlined at the Centre for Earth Sciences. It is found to have some particulate matter, which settles down on standing for some time.* The reasons cited for the colour of the ramwater varies. Various chemicals have been found in the rainwater, some of which are thought to be of volcanic or meteoric origin.I8' There were reports of peculiar substances in the rain consisting of red iron ocher, line carbonate and unspecified organic matter. Swamps of butterflies and fungi are also said to cause the colour. Sulphur and chloride of cobalt are other chemicalsoften associated with yellow and red rain. Analysis of red rain has come even in reputed magazine such as Nature. But there had been no common explanation though red rain and its variants have occurred in all continents. When everybody accepts that these are all clear indications of certain geographical changes, the scientists are yet to explain the causative factors properly so as to alleviate the panic among the public. The issue attains much significance especially when some experts correlate the geographic changes with the mild tremors that had rocked many parts of the State a few years ago. The findings of the Centre for Earth Science Studies showing that the red rain is due to some fungus (pollen grains) and not due to volcanic dust, has only added to the

It is of

much significance that the official machinery should come out with certain convincing factors that led to such unusual phenomena immediately. According to Dr. N.J.K. Nair, * A search on the Internet for incidence of coloured rain shows that yellow, green, black and red rain are not very uncommon, though most o f the citations are from 19' or the early years of 21' century.

182

former Director of CESS, coloured rains are due to the presence of minute pollutants (aerosols) present in the air and according to Dr. P.S. Harikumar, they are due to the ' 189 presence of spores of lichens in the alr.

Landslides in Kerala as a subject for communication In addition to the frequent occurrence of earth quakes, in some hilly parts of Kerala people have begun to experience the severity of a relatively new phenomena of natural disaster, more commonly such as creep, debris flow, rock falls, landslides etc. The Amboori landslide which resulted in the death of 36 persons and destroyed four houses at Amboori in Neyyatinkara taluk in Nov. 200 1 has invited much concern and discussion on land slides that frequently occur in Kerala.190 The calamity occurred when a portion of a 700-metre-high hillside strewn with boulders got waterlogged in heavy rain and came tumbling down, sweepingaway houses that stood in its llan downhill path. Such landslides have become quite common in Idukki districts especially during rainy seasons due to the environmental degradation of the region, particularly deforestation and soil erosion. People are to be educated to prevent the impact of such landslides and conduct studies of land where land slides are possible and prepare a landslide zonation ac~ordingly.'~' Land use should be made possible on the basis of such directions and educate people not to build houses on mountain areas where land slopping is more than 16 degree and 150 meters long mountain bottoms. People in the area should also be educated for not diverting the natural flow of water. Reforestation should be implemented in the areas where deforestation has already taken place. Also, accommodation for the people of that area during heavy rains and evacuation of people from the area of landslide to safer.places has to be arranged. Mining and Environment Kerala's lush countryside is under threat due to unrestrained sand and clay mining, posing a serious environmental problem in Kerala. Any one going through the vicinity of Thrissur, will find the picture-post-card greenery pockmarked by large patches of stagnant water.192Here, clumps ofweed jostle for space with garbage dumps. These are abandoned clay mines, which until two decades ago were part of the region's prime

paddy land. But ever since the construction boom started in the early eighties, vast tracts of rice fields have been converted into clay mines to feed Kerala's almost insatiable demand for bricks and roof tiles. But the paddy fields of central Kerala aren't the only ones to be disfigured by these clay pits. Vast tracts of land in the northern districts of Malappuram, Kozhikode and Palakkad, as well as Emakulam and Kollam in the south have also had their insides dug out. Some parts of Kollam such as Adichinallor are worse off than Thrissur, so much so, that mining has been banned.19' Researchers estimate that the sharp decline of paddy cultivation in Kerala (from 1 million hectares a decade ago to about 600,000 hectares today) can be directly attributed to clay mining; the rest is now under rubber, coconut, vegetable and fruit cultivation, aquaculture, or has been lost to real estate development. Although no comprehensive assessment of the damage wrought has been made as yet, the people of Thrissur and other areas are certainly paying a heavy price for the clay mining operations, for clay mining has played havoc with the local irrigation systern. After a pit is abandoned, it turns into a receptacle for rainwater, leaving the neighbounng lands with little or no water for irrigation. These artificial ponds become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and dumping grounds for waste. More importantly,the growth of clay mining is also responsible for the shrinking forest cover in Kerala, thereby depleting the forests.* Environmental concerns about Black Sand Mining and Deep Sea Mining In view of Kerala's insatiable demand for sand, the Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS), Government of Kerala has recently proposed deep sea sand mining as an alternative for river sand mining. The proposal was to extract sand from the steep continental slopes of the sea. However environmentalists have come strongly against They feel that the proposal raising concerns about the fragile ecology of the seabed.194 the turbulence created by underwater mining in the tropical seas will affect the rich biodiversity of the coastal waters. Traditional fishermen fear that deep-sea mining will Aquaculture: The other optton before ihc goisrnmenr i r uslng the p~tsfor aquaculture. The fisheries department i s cvcn offerinc! a Ks25,OOO subs~dyner hectare to landowners to use the land loraauaculture later. The ~ovcrnmcnt's purpose 1s twofold lo e n ~ o u r a ~ e l o cto a lget ~ Into more lucrative fish farming and to prevenl land fromgo8ng fallow. Howevcr, thc aquaculture opttun IS merely ltke stepping from the env~ronmentalfrying pan into the fire Shrtmp farminn has already s~awneda host o f associared environmental ~roblemssuch as increasina salinitv in the adioinina areas. 30,it lo0k;lik'e a long fight ahead for :activists who want'to save Kerala from slipping into an enviro&nenta? abyss

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further deplete the fish stock. Geologists are concerned that removing sand from the continental slope may ultimately lead to mass sliding of the upper reaches of the shelf aggravating coastal er0sion.'9~ An equally controversial issue that invited strong resistance from environmentalists and local fishermen is Black Sand mining on the South West Coast of India. Mineral sand constitutes the most important natural resource in Kerala with common minerals such as ilmonite, magnetite, rutile, monazite, zircon, sallimanite, granite etc. The sources of these minerals are the crystalline rocks of Western Ghats, which disintegrate due to weathering and get transported by the rivers and streams, ultimately reaching the coastal en~ironment.l~~The champions of mining argue that the mineral sand in the Kerala coast is like the oil reserves in the gulf countries.L97 The manufacture of value-addedproducts through black sand will promote development worth five hundred crore rupees, the supporters argue. This will enrich foreign exchange input, strengthen economic fabric and will give direct employment to nearly 1000 people. The resistance to black sand mining is mainly organized in the name of labourers and environmentalists. According to them, lakhs of poor fishermen will be deprived of their traditional work, just to safeguard the interests of a few monopolies. Some areas proposed for mining will be just 50 meters away from the seashore, which may lead to severe soil erosion of the sea in future. It is also feared that Thrikkunnappuza-Arattuchirapanchayats themselves will disappear in course of time due to severe sea soil erosion. Refilling and resettlement following excavation have never been done justifiably any where. Because of such adverse impacts the proposal for black sand mining invites strong objections from environmentalists and other concerned people. However, heated debates over these issues through the media have created very effective communication awareness among the masses. Sinking of wells and diminishing water level This unusual phenomena has increasingly occurred since 2001 and it has created wide spread environmentalconcern among the people of Kerala. According to the Centre for Earth Science Studies, this phenomenon may be due to the geo technical properties of the earth surfaces, seismicity, jaulting, dilatancy etc.I9'I Other phenomena such as wave jumping (Thirayilakkam) in the surface level changes, breaking of buildings etc. are related to this phenomena. A team appointed by Malayala Manorama, including 185

Emeritus Scientist Dr. Janardhanan G. Nagi of the National Geological Research Institute Hyderabad and Prof. Arun Bappat of Seismology Dept. of Pune University have reported that along with the above said hydro geological changes atmospheric loading is also responsible for the downing of wells and related phenomena.r99They see the phenomena as a continuation of the earthquake that occurred in Kerala in the December and January month of 2001. But there is not much cause of alarm according to them. Frequent media coverage of the issue has created widespread environmental attention and awareness on the possible causes ofthe issue. Biopiracy by Multinational Agribusiness Companies Stealing of bioresources is biopiracy. It started, in fact, in the 15h century, when the Europeans mapped the continents and set sail as explorers in search of raw materials and resources. In the modem times piracy of biological resources has reached high proportions. Western pharmaceutical companies are essentially the culprits. The Third World countries with rich biodiversity are the worst affected. India is one among the 12 mega-diversity countries of the world. It harbours 8% of global plant genetic st'. ' resources with about 45,000 species of paln@

There are frequent reports of the

patenting of some Indian plant variety or the other by multinational agribusiness companies. First it was the patent on Neem and its several uses, and then came haldi (turmeric), followed by basmati, karela (bitter gourd), kalajira (blackumin seeds), brinjal and several others.20rIn addition to the Basmati rice, Neem, Turmeric etc the list of plants pirated out from India is very long. Coptis teeta (treatment of malaria), Nothatodytes foetida (treatment of cancer), Rauwalfia serpentina (treatment of blood pressure), Berberis aristaka (eye medicine), Coleus forskohlic (for cardiovascular diseases, abdominal colic and insornania etc.) Texas bacatta (as cancer medicine) are a few to mention. Many medicinal plants, flowers, herbs, branches of rare trees have been stolen from the forests of Kerala-Tamil Nadu border.202It is estimated that about 200 rare plants are taken away from the Western Ghats alone. Drosera, an insectivores

plant is secretly pirated to Germany. The flowers of Areocolon, a type of grass and branches of Rodentron are reported to be taken away from the Westem Ghats. The Kerala government is putting together an anti-biopiracy plan to protect its resources from the "onslaught of foreign firms". The Peechi-based Kerala Forest Research Institute

(KFFU), under the Western Ghats Biodiversity conservation programme, is building bioresource inventories in seven districts. The institute is also developing a biodiversity strategy and action plan for the entire state. The State Government is also on the verge of finalizing a biodiversity conservation order to introduce rules and methods to protect biodiversity and utilize them appropriately. Drought and Rainwater Harvesting The shortage of water even for drinking has become a hot issue in different States including Kerala. But experts feel that rain, a major source of water, if harvested properly, can solve the ongoing 'water war' among the States.* Rainwater harvesting implies nothing but conservation of rainwater,'''

For an average rainfall of 1000mm,

approximately 40 lakh litres of rainwater get collected in a year in one acre of land after evaporation. On the basis ot'this, Kerala, which has an annual rainfall of 3000 mm, the volume of rainwater that falls on a ground of one acre in a year is around 100 lakh litres. If such simple measures to "catch water where it falls" is taken by individuals, most of the water management problems in our State can be solved. With the highly growing demand for water; rainwater harvesting should become an integral part of every home, society, panchayat, village, municipality and city in Kerala.204An added benefit of rainwater harvesting is the prevention of seawater in coastal regions. It builds inland water tables, thus thwarting any attempt by the sea to push its salty water into coastal regions and damage fresh water aquifers. Another benefit of rainwater harvesting is an increase in soil moisture content making the soil fertile and conducive for agriculture.205 Due to the depletion of ground water table, many open wells, bore wells and hand pumps become dry. Instead of discarding these water extraction structures, they can be converted into favourable recharge structures. Roof water and run-off water can be diverted through these water extraction structures after filling them with pebbles and river sand. Environmentalists now call for greater awareness on rainwater harvesting among the people in Kerala to make them cent per cent water-literate. Unfortunately there is very little documentation of traditional water harvesting structures in Kerala.206 A pioneer in rain water harvesting, K.R. Gopinath, promoter, KRG Rainwater Harvesting Foundation, said that "catchine everv droo o f rainwater where it falls and makina it wrcolate into the earth to reach aquifers will make Kerala self-sufficient and even make it possible to support other states".

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Discussion with the local elders and well-designed researches are urgently needed. Some newspapers like Malayala Manorama has been propogating the concept through their 'F'alathully' column. Environmental Impacts of Dams Awareness is spreading that large-scale development projects such as dams and irrigation developments can, when carelessly planned, cause severe ecological backlashes, damages that offset many of the benefits of the investment^.^^' In Kerala, dams invited much public attention and precipitated environmental communication after the aborted attempt to build a hydroelectric project with an installed capacity of 240 MW over Kunthipuzha in Silent Valley in 1980s. Kerala Sastra SahityaParishat

(KSSP), environmental activists and scientists from different background have been

vociferously expressing their concern about the adverse impacts of such large storage dams which, together with other related issues have helped in creating widespread environmental awareness in Kerala. There are 13 hydroelectric projects completed and operating in Kerala. The main environmental impacts of dams are: impact due to existence of dam and reservoir such as upstream change from river valley to reservoir, change in down stream morphology of riverbed and banks, delta, estuary and coastline due to altered sediment load, change in downstream water quality, temperature, nutrients, turbidity, dissolved gases, heavy metals and minerals and reduction of biodiversity due to blocking of the movement of' organisms and because of above changes.208 Superimposed upon the above impacts may be: impacts due to pattern of dam operations such as change in down stream hydrology and morphology caused by altered flow pattern, change in downstream water quality and reduction in riverine/riparian/floodplain habitat diversity, especially because of elimination of floods. Deforestation and displacement of natives are other inevitable results of dam construction. It is also well established that large dams can t i g e r earthquakes, otherwise, calledReservoir - Induced Seismicity.209 The most widely accepted explanation of how darns cause earthquakes is related to the extra water pressure created in the micro cracks and fissures in the ground under and near reservoir. The opposition to major projects has turned the attention of the State to exploitation of micro (up to 100 KW), mini (101 to 1000 KW) and small (1000 to 10,000 KW)

Even though such schemes cannot be a replacement

for large and medium projects, it is prudent and advisable to take up and commission as many of these projects in view of the lesser opposition to such schemes by environmentalists. Dams and the Human Consequences Over the last six decades, the builders of dams have evicted from their homes and land many tens of millions of people. It is difficult to give a reasonably accurate estimate of the total number that has been evicted. Given their size, population densities and number of dams, India and China have displaced and are displacing more people than in any other nation. Researchers from the Indian Social Institute in New Delhi estimate 'conservatively' that reservoirs and associated imgation projects in postIndependent India have displaced more than 14 million people?" Not surprisingly, almost all of them are poor and politically powerless, a large portion of them form indigenous and other ethnic minorities. They are known as 'dam oustees' in India and in a great majority of cases, they are economically, culturally and emotionally devastated. In many cases the people have been flooded out with only minimal compensation - often none at all - and many once self sufficient farming families have thus been reduced to eking out a living as migrant laborers or slum dwellers. Millions more have lost land and homes to the canals, irrigation schemes, roads, power lines and industrial development which follow dams into ~alleys.2'~ Many more have not physically been displaced from their homes but have lost their access to clean water, fish game, grazing land, timber, he1 wood and wild fruits and vegetables in the dammed river and valley. Others downstream have been deprived of the annual flood, which once irrigated and fertilized their fields and recharged their wells. Millions too have suffered from the diseases, which dams and large irrigation projects in the tropics almost inevitably bring in their wake. These project affected people prove that dams ate no longer 'temples of modem India' as Jawaharlal Nehru thought, instead they may be designated as 'temples of doom'. Ecological Impacts of Monoculture Monoculture, consisting of only one type or species of vegetation is the most noticeable feature of the agricultural system of Kerala. On the other hand, in a natural

ccosysten~there are different species of plants and animals, which depend on one another. Monoculture invites several ecological problems. Many plant pests have very specific requirements for their food and so they attack only one variety of plants; (e.g. wheat). Traditional agriculture mixes varieties of plants and thus each field will have some resistant and some vulnerable or susceptible plants, thus supplementing the local needs with seeds, grains, roots, rhizome, leaves and fruits of different plants.'13 If the crops are attacked, only some of them will be affected. In modem agriculture

this type of mixed cropping is not being practised. Sometimes the entire district cultivates the same variety say for example, rubber or pepper or coca and now even with Vanilla, thus making all the crops in the district vulnerable to pests. In her book 'Monoculture of Mind' Vandana Shiva says that diversity disappears first from perception and consequently from the

The critical theme is that uniformity

and diversity are not just patterns of land use; they are ways of thinking and ways of living. According to her, a later study of Green Revolution in agriculture showed that it was primarily a recipe for the introduction of monoculture and destruction of diversity. Monoculture took over tree planting with 'social forestry'.215The experts decided that indigenous knowledge was worthless and 'unscientific' and pro2eeded to destroy the diversity of indigenous species by replacing them with eucalyptus, acacia, oil palm, and other fast growing species. Local species were replaced by imported seeds and expertise and together with this came the imports of loans and debts and the export of wood, soils and people. Saving biodiversity against homogeneity and uniformity of monoculture Every individual can make a small though significant effort in the race to save our planet and conserve biodiversity. One step ahead to save animal biodiversity is curbing the greed for products made out of animal parts like skin, fur, ivory, bones, nails, etc., to discourage wildlife traders and poachers and spare the remaining animals. For example, adopting vegetariamsm would require fewer animals for slaughtering and more plants grown for food. Plant trees wherever possible, as they are beneficial in supporting diversity, cleaning the atmosphere, improving the soil and in so many more ways. To protect small and microscopic organisms there should be effective

communication to avoid using insecticides, pesticides and inorganic fertilizers and to use natural plant based substitutes wherever possible. Biodiversity is an alternative to monoculture, homogeneity and uniformity and hence every effort should be made to make children aware of their surroundings and the need for biodiver~ityconservation.~~~ Traditional agricultural practices should be followed and organic farming should be encouraged. Biodiversity education should inculcate the knowledge that exotic and hybrid varieties of plants and chemicals used as insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, weedicides and rodenticides only exhaust the land and kill small animals and microorganisms as against natural farming practices, which are in accordance with

Nature. Conservationists have to educate the layman and decision makers that species once lost or ecosystem once decayed can never be created, that conservation of species is the only hope for human survival and that long-term benefits of conservation for human welfare have to take precedence over short-term benefits. Problems related to the disappearance of small animals.

A detrimental effect of monoculture, to which Kerala has fallen a victim, is that many small animals such as amphibians, insects, worms, centipedes, scorpions, millipedes, flies, moths and other arthropods are fast disappearing. The role of small animals and plants including microorganisms in the preservation of biodiversity and maintaining the ecological balance is to be propagated through proper communication. Many of them are indicators of Nature giving early warnings about a variety of changes that might take place in the environment starting with local changes in soil, water and air due to over use of chemical fertilizers and pe~ticides.~''It has been shown that amphibians can indicate widespread environmental changes that result from global warming and UV-B radiation. The important role that some insects play in Nature is exemplified by the fact that the value of honeybee in the pollination of crops is 15-20 times more than that of the honeybee wax it produces.218Some small organisms like mud wasps, grasshoppers,and birds are very valuable to man because they kill the insect pests feeding on the crops, thus protecting the crops. Many of them also function as weed killers, soil builders and sciivengers. Hence the disappearance of small animals as a consequence of monoculture, rapid urbanization and mechanized and chemical

agriculture, should no longer be a neglected subject in ecological communication in Kerala. Particularly important in awareness creation is that major part of life exists in the form of microscopic organisms.219 The soil we depend on.forour folk is acommunity of microorganisms who do not constantly recreate soil but feed trees of the forest, filter water and fix nitrogen from air. Both in terms of biomass and the individual numbers microscopic organisms outnumber life forms in the visible world. Four out of five animals on this planet are actually microscopic nematodes and this invisible world that disappears due to human impact needs better protection. Fast-disappearing sacred groves in Kerala. Sacred Groves, the unique Islands of biodiversity is fast disappearing in Kerala. In fact, Sacred Groves represent an ancient Indian way of in situ conservation tradition, protected by local people out of reverence and respect, fear and sentiment.220 The right interpretation of 'sacred' would be that which is held in great esteem and awe and hence sacred for the people and naturally their protection were considered an obligation on the part of the people.221They are the home of the local flora and fauna, a veritable gene pool and a mini biosphere reserve. Within these groves are locked ancient secrets of herbs and traditional medicine, primitive practices of sorcery and magic that are intertwined with the life and culture of people in Kerala. Many of the trees supposed to have been extinct are found in some sacred groves. And most of them are medicinal plants.* In addition to functioning as a cradle of biodiversity, sacred groves are responsible for water cycling, nutrient cycling and water conservation areas.z2*The upper soil of sacred groves containing decaying leaves and crores of microorganisms are responsible for slowing the flow of water and absorbing the water into the underground. People are prevented from entering into kavu and taking even a dried branch or leaf of tree and if one does so, it is believed that he will have the curse of Almighty. On a rough estimate, Kerala has about 1500 sacred Groves, the area ranging from one cent as in some nagaru kauvs to more than 20 hectares in Iringole K a v ~ . ~ ~ ' *

Conservation, both at the macro or the micrrs levels, is essential for our survival. The take over of forests by the various State Governments has not been very successful, as it has alienated the people who have conserved them for years. On the other hand, when local communities have preserved their natural resources by settinga systemofrules and taboos, i t has very effectively preserved the same resources. The sacred grove is one such example

Kunnathurpadikavu, Payyannur (I 8.21 ha) and Theyyottukavu ,Kannur dist. (16.187 ha) are two other large Kavus in Kerala. A complete inventory of the sacred groves of Kerala is not available. Once a common feature in Kerala, the remaining sacred groves Disappearance of the 'tharavadu system', are now being conserved by communities.224 human interferencethrough grazing, poaching and other antisocial activities and changing socio economic scenario are the major threats to the sacred groves of Kerala.* The Poet Vailoppaly SreedharaMenon has a very famous poem titled 'SarppaWcad written in 1952 in which he has questioned man's unwise interference in converting kavus into agricultural lands and developmental purposes in the name of industry and progress.225 The preservation of fast disappearing sacred groves of Kerala is as important as presewing the forests for protecting biodiversity and securing the underground water table. In this era of dwindling forest cover, creation of public awareness about the importance of this unique network of ecological systems and the necessity of their preservation through mass media is an inescapable task ofenvironmental communication in Kerala.

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Species invasion an emerging environmental problem of the current century.

Species invasion as an inevitable consequence of globalization is an emerging environmental problem of 2 1" century. Coastal and inland waters of Kerala are being increasingly infested with foreign species that proliferate because they lack predators that keep them in check at home. In the absence of natural enemies, these exotic species can multiply and cause extinction of native species, bring many diseases and disrupt the natural cycle. Often the newcomers are discharged in the ballast water of ships. Among the invasive species that have already caused ecological problems: are Ichornia that arrived from Brazil in 1902,and Salvinia that reached Kerala from South Africa in 1955.lZ6Eucalyptuses from Australia and Lantana from South America have extensively colonized in Kerala. The latest arrivals are Uppatorium oderatum (Cammunist paccha) which was not present in Kerala until about 25 years ago, and Parthenium, a weed that causes severe allergy in many people, are rapidly spreading in Kerala. Among the ornamental flowers, the latest arrival is Santidecia ethiopica, *

Althouah ofsacred arovcs in Kerala, the Bhagavati kavu, the Sawoakavu and the Satham Kavu. - thereare many. types . .. arc the must prominent Ayyappan kavu - the sacred groves dcdicate.1 to Lord Ayyappa were earlier the most conlmon in Kerals Sacred t!,ro\e, are ma~nlydedlcsled to snake nods - Sdrpa kavu in Nonll Kurala or to the Goddess Bhagavathi - Ammar. kavu or Bhagavathi kavu in the south.

otherwise known as 'kala lilly' from Africawhich belong to the same family ofAriaciae to which other species like Anthuriam, Kaledium and Filodendron also belongs to.'" Foreign flowers have become status :symbolsof the globalization infected post-modem Kerala culture. Among domesticated animals indigenous species are almost completely replaced by foreign species or their hybridized varieties. Hotspots of Corporate Excesses i n Kerala A typical example of corporate excesses in India is Dow Chemicals, which has taken over Union Carbide, the company responsible for the Bhopal gas leak, despite being warned of outstanding crirninal charges against Carbide. The Plantation Corporation of Kerala, Grasim Industries, Kozhikode and Eloor Industrial Estate in Cochi have in no way played a much lesser role.228As already seen, the aerial spraying of the highly dangerous pesticide endosulfan on cashew crops by the Plantation Corporation of Kerala has led to an abnormally high rate of deformities, cancers and diseases related to the central nervous system. Endosulfan,an organochlorine pesticide, is banned or restricted in many countries. The Grasim Industries, Kozhikode is another example. For nearly 30 years, forests in the Western Ghats were cut down to feed a rayon factory operated by the Birla Group's Grasim Industries. Effluentspolluted the Chaliyar River in Kerala, devastating local fisheries, even while air pollution made life unlivable in surrounding villages. Despite intense opposition, the management successfully played the workers against the community. Now the company is shut down leaving jobless workers, a devastated ecosystem and a broken, unhealthy community in its wake. There is much hue and cry against the Coca Cola factory, Plachimada, Kerala. It is now charged with sucking ground water and depriving local villagers of water to drink or

The company also stands accused of polluting the

groundwater, and of passing offtheir toxic sludge (high cadmium and other metals) as fertilizer to farmers. The Eloor Industrial Estate of Kerala is a typical local example to demonstrate the devastating effects of pollution. Increased rates of cancer, bronchitis, asthma, congenital and chroinosornal aberration, stomach ulcers and poisoning are recorded amongst the residents of Eloor Industrial Estate, caused by the release of toxic effluents into the Periyar river by over 247 chemical factories, including a DDT

factory that operate within the vicinity of residential areas in El00r.~'~ A riverside island in Kerala, Eloor has 40,000 residents of whom 10,000 are factory workers. Despite numerous protests, the government has yet to ensure medical rehabilitation of victims and zero discharge of toxic effluents. Although to a lesser extent, almost all the cities of Kerala are experiencing similar environmental problems due to corporate or local excesses. Increasing Environmental Refugees in Kerala In several parts of the world there is an emergent phenomenon o f 'environmental exodus". It is made up of people who are increasingly coming to be known as environmental refugees. They are people who can no longer gain a secure livelihood in their homelands because of drought, soil erosion, desertification, deforestation, industrialization and other environmental problems.231In their desperation, they feel they have no alternative but to seek sanctuary elsewhere, however hazardous the attempt. Not all of them have fled their countries; many are "internally displaced." But all have abandoned their homelands on a semi-permanent if not permanent basis, having little hope of a foreseeable return.* In addition, large numbers of peasant farmers have felt obliged in recent decades to abandon traditional farmlands and migrate into tropical forests, impelled by land degradation, water shortages, population pressures, poverty and landlessne~s.~'~ Their numbers are variously estimated to be between 200 million and 500 million. Not all of them, in fact probably only a moderate proportion (undeterminable), should count as environmental refugees in the strict sense since they are not all driven by destitution. Eloor, a riverside island in Kerala which is the State's largest industrial belt where 247 chemical factories operate within the vicinity of this residential area has become a standing monument of growing number of environmental refugees in Kerala. A health assessment done by Green Peace *

According to recent estimates (Kane, 1995; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 1993; United Nations Population Fund, 1993; U.S.Committee for Refugees, 1994), there were 22 million refugees o f recognized sort worldwide i n 1994. The phrase "of recognized sorf'means that they conformed to the ofiicial designation ofpersons fleeing frompolitical, ethnic or religious persecution, and they had crossed international borders. I n addition there were roughly 35 million unrecognized refuges, o f whom perhaps five million had crossed international borders and 30 million were displaced within their own countries. So the overall total o f refugees i n 1994, whether officially recognized or not, was some 57 million. A cisproportionate share of them was made up of women and children (Chant, 1992; Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 1993)

International with support from other agencies reveal that the residents of Eloor have 2.85 times higher risks of suffering from cancer, three times higher possibility of

contracting mental and behavioral problems, 3.8 times more chances of having children with birth defects and death incidences due to bronchitis and asthma in Eloor areaare 2.2 to 3.4 times more.211These illnesses are caused by the relentless release of toxic

effluentsinto the Periyar river by the chemical

Local people who have been

exposing instances of toxic pollution caused by these industries are now moving out as environmental refugees to safer places. The number of environmental refbges in Kerala will continue to increase due to the broad scale environmental degradation, severe population pressures, absolute poverty pollution and landlessness.* All these are important subjects for effective environmental communication in Kerala.

*

There have been several preliminary efforts to pin down the essential characteristics of environmental refugees. Essam El-Hinnawi of the United Nations Environment Programme (1985) bas offered an inclusive description: mrmanentlv. "Those people who have been forced to leave their traditional habitat, temporarily. or . .. because of a marked environmental disruption that has jeopardized their existence andlor seriously affected the quallty of their life." Jodi Jacobson ofthe World watch Institute (1988) has defined them as: 1)Those people temporarily displaced due to local environmental disruption; 2) thosl: who migrate because environmental degradation has undermined their livelihood or poses unacceptable risks to health; and 3) those who resettle because land degradation has resulted in desertification or because of other permanent changes in habitat.

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References: Niklas Luhmann, Ecological Communication, Cambridge, U.K., Polity Press, 1989, p. xiii. Ibid. p.x-xii. Parag Diwan, Communicatl'on Management, New Delhi, Deep & Deep Publications, 1997, p. 1. Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad, Three and a half decades experience, (Malayalam: Moonnu Pathittandu Kalathe Anubhavangal) Kochi, by KSSP, 2000, pp.30-41. A. Sreedhara Menon, K. Balachandran Thampi, N.M. Nayar, and C.S. Nayar,

Land and People in the Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997,p. 1. STEC, Govt of Kerala, Environmental Problems of Kerala (Malayalam), Thiruvananthapuram, 2002, p.3 1. Conservation Strategy aizd Policy Statement on Environment and Development - Kerala State (Draft) Government of Kerala, State Committee on Science, Technology and Environment, 1994, p. 1. C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Environmental Concerns ofIndia: An introduction, Chennai, Madras, 1996, p.61. Susan D. Lanier Graham, The Nature Directory: A guide to Environmental Organisation, New York, Walker and Company, 1991, p.1. Notes to the 1" meeting ofLegislative Environmental Committee (2001-2003) offer to 11th Legislative Assembly, Trivandrum 1992, p.2. Extract ofRule 261 D (I to VIII) of the rules of procedure and conduct of business in the Kerala Legislative Assembly. 1992-1994: l S t Report about fresh water lakes in the sate, submitted to the Govt. on 2/2/1993. Ibid. p.7,lO. 1993-1994: 2nd Report on the environmental problems created by a Private sector industry named Kerala Clays and Ceramic Product LTD, submitted to ~ o v ton . 3rd J U I ~I 994, p. 1. Ibid. p. 13. K.K.Ramachandran and D.Padmala1, Environments1 Impact Assessment (EIA) of Mineral Basest 1tzdustri~:sin The Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997, p.44.

WWF-INDIA quarterly, 25th Anniversary IssueIJuly - Dec. 1994,published by WWF India, pp. 33-34.

Article on 'Government silent on threat to rain forests' by Roy Mathew, The Hindu, 26* July 2001). J. Yanney Ewusie, Elements cf Tropical Ecology with Reference to the African, Asian, Paczjic and New Worid Tropics, USA, Heinemann Educational Books Inc., 1980, p.152. Chandrasekharan C., Forest as a resource-perspectives in The Natural Resources ofKerala, WWF,Thiruvananthapuram, 1997,pp. 422-423. l Z t h Report on the environmental issues created by deforestation in Kavilupara and Maruthome pimchayat in Calicut district, submittedon s t h ~ u g u s t 1998, p.3.

3rd Report on the environmental problems created by the deforestation of Jeerakappara - Achankovil area submitted on 2-8-94 p. I. Ibid. pp. 33,34. Introductory notes to the Kerala Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment, (2001- 2003), Eleventh Legislative Assembly, Thiruvananthapuram, 2003, p. 9. 7th Report of LEC on the destruction of forest in Nelliampathi and the resultant Environmental Problems, submitted on 2gth J U I ~1997, p. 9. l Z f h Report, The Report ofthe..., Op.cit., p. 18.

lStinterim report on Environmental pollution at Sabadmala and nearby places during the pilgrimage season, submitted on October 17th 2001 with the purpose of improving the environmental conditions of the areas. P 3-4 It contains 26 recommendations including 22 general proposals to be implemented urgently.

Znd report on Environmental pollution at Sabarimala and nearby places during the pilgrimage season, submitted on 8& July 2002 with the purpose of improving the environmental conditions of the areas. pp.3-7. Ibid. pp. 10-15.

Introductory notes, This is also ..., Op. cit., p. 4. 6th Report of Kerala Legislative environmental Committee on Rudravanam Project submitted on gth ~ u ~ u1995 s t p.8-28. Ibid. p.30.

4fh Report of the Legislative Environment Committee on the environmental problems caused by the cl.ematoriums in major cities of Kerala submitted on 1 !-8-1 994, p. 5 .

6th Report, Air pollution ..., (Ip. cit., p. 5. Ibid. pp. 5-6.

4th Report, The main..., Op. cit., p. 16-20. P.S.Harikumar, Drinking water quality problems of Kerala and remedial measures in Fresh Water Resources of Kerala, STEC, Govt. of Kerala, 2004, p. 66. Report of the LEC on the environmental problems related to the scarcity of drinking water in Alleppy town and Chertalla Taluksubmittedon 1-2-1995, p.2.

jth

Ibid. p. 10. 1995-1996 - 9lh Report of Kerala Legislative Assembly on the environmental ~ ~ issues related to the distribution of drinking water submitted on 1 9 March 1996, pp.2-33.

Ibid.p. 34. 71h Report of the LEC on the environmental pollution created by the crusher units in Kerala, pp. 3-4. Ibid. p.14-16.

M.I. Andrews and K.P.Joy, ficology, Evolution, Ethology and Zoogeography, Changanachery, St. Mary s Press& Book Depot, 2003, p. 219. 81h Report on the environmental problems created by Southern Refineries at Kuzhinjal vilayil in Parassah. Submitted on 18-3-1996 p. 1-4. Ibid. p.20. 1 oth Report on the peculiar environment of Chertalla area particularly related to the disease elephantiasis in Chertalla Taluk, submitted on 19-3-1996.

Ibid. p.11-13. Report of Leptspirosis Institute of Kerala, Project Background Paper, Manarcadu, 200 1. Ibid. p.2,

K.N.Ramani, Water borne diseases of Kerala in Fresh water Resources of Kerala, STEC, Thivananthapuram, 2004. 5lh Report on the typhoid infection at Mattancherry region of Ernakulum District, submitted on 23rd December 1999, under the Chairmanship of Sri. Babu Divakaran containing 12 recommendations. p.3-4.

Central Pollution Control Board, Pollution Control Acts, Rules and Notifications -Pollution Control Law Series, Chapter: Bio Medical Waste (Management and Handling I7,p. 5. Ibid. p. 6 . Sixth report on the environmental pollution problems on Alleppey - Kuttanadu Region, submitted on July 2gth 1997, pp. 5-7. Indian Express, lothMarch 2000, p. 3.

Kamalakshan Kokkal, Environmental Problems of Kerala. (Malayalam, Keralathile Paristhithi Prashnangal), Thiruvanathapuram, STEC, 2002, pp. 3 1-32. P.J. Joy, Ecology and Control of Salvinia - The molesting weed of Kerala, Mannuthy, Kerala Agricultural University, 1978, pp. 13-25. The Hindu , 9th March, 2000.

Report of the Kerala State Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment on the environmental problems of Alleppey - Kuttanad region, submitted to Government on 28.07.1997, pp. 9-1 1. Malayala Manorama Editorial dt. 2.12.1998 and 2.3.1999 entitled 'Waragainst the algae and integrated approach to weed control'.

T.V. Jayan, 'Weeding out a menace- Kerala plans to use water hyacinth to manufacture an important irtdustial enzyme' article in Down to Earth, dated July 15,2004,G. 38. gfh Report of LEC on the waste management problems in cities and Municipalities of the state, submitted on 9th Dec. 1997under the Chairmanship of A.V.Thamarakshan and eight other MLAs. Ibid. p.34.

9th Report of LEC on waste Management in Guruvayoor Township, submitted on 22nd. Dec. 1997 .under the Chairmanshipof A.V. Thamarakshan and 8 other MLA s. There are 15 recommendations in it. A great deal of awareness was created as a result of all these reports on various environmental issues in Kerala and remedial actions were taken in some areas. pp. 1-5. Ibid. p. 4. K. Balachandran Thampi, N.M. Nayar, C.S.Nair, The Natural Resources of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, WWF, Kerala Office, 1997, p. 127.

C.P.R.E.E.C., Environment~zlConcerns ofIndia -An introduction, Chennai, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, 1996, p.61. Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education ProgrammeEnvironmental Educational Series 4, Educational Module on Environmental Problems in cities, UNESCO Division of Science, Technical and Vocational Education. 1983 p. 136. Eco News, published by CPREEC, Chennai, Vol. 10.No I. April-June 2004, p. 22.

J. Yanney Ewusie, Communication also...,Op.cit., p. 3

T. R. Saranathan, Encology Monthly Magazine Devoted To Environment, Ecology & Energy Conservation, Bombay, Lavanya Prints Pvt. Ltd., Vol. 8, No.9 Febraury 1994. p.2 1.

Article on the report of Achuthan Committee in Soochimukhi Magazine. January 2002, pp. 32 - 42. Down to Earth, No. 15, p.54.

R.V.G.Menon, Alternative Resources of energy- the problems and Prospects, The Natural Resources ofKerala, WWF, Thiruvananthapm, Kerala ,1997, p ,556. Down to Earth - May 12,2003 p. 42.

loth Report on the environmental issues particularly water and air pollution created by Mavoor Gasim industries, submitted on 22nd April 1998, under the Chairmanship of A.V.Thamarakshan containing 10 recommendations, p. 18. Ibid. p. 13. 5th Report on environmentally related issues created by McDowell's company in Cherthala, submitted on July loth, 2003 with the purpose of improving the environmental conditions of the areas. It contains 16 recommendations, including 10 general proposals to be implemented urgently, p.2. Ibid. p. 11.

Report of the Kerala State Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment, submitted to Government on 19th July, 1999, Thiruvananthapuram, p. 1. Ibid. pp. 1-2. Tree India Environment Journal (February - 2003 December 2003), Vol. 161 27 February, p. 1 1.

Report of the Kerala State Legislative Environment Committee, 1999, The court..., Op.cit., pp- 2-3. 14'j Report on Vehicular Pollution (smoke and sound) in the state, submitted on lgth July 1999, p. 4.

C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Environmental Concerns ofIndia, Chennai, 1996, p. 10. UNEP- Earthscan, Global Environment Outlook-3 , Earthscan Publications Ltd, London- Sterling (USA), 2002, pp. 210-21 1. Eco City, Kottayarn - Kumarakom, ComprehensiveEnvironmental Management Plan for Kottayam-Kumarakom Ecocity Programme, Public Disclosure ofDraft

Comprehensive Environmental Management Plan, January 14 to 18, 2003, Ecosmart India Limited, p. 5. Schwela. D. WHO Agenda on Indoor Air Pollution. Presentation at Regional Workshop on Household Energy, Indoor Air Pollution and Health, New Delhi, 2002. UNEP, Urban Air Pollution, Op.cit p. 12. Bioenergy News, Vol. 8, No.2, April 2003. 3rd Report on Environmental Pollution of Philips Carbon Black Company, Karimukal, Emakulam submitted on July 3 1,2002, pp. 26-27. Ibid. pp. 4-5 Down to Earth, 3 1st August :!003, UNEP, Urban Air Pollution, Kenya, United Nations Environment Programme, 1991, p.20. Down to Earth, 15th Januray, 2000, p. 4. India Today, Report on Environment and Health, Oct. 21, No 5,1996. Down to Earth, May 31,2001. Role of Biopesticides in Envirorunental Safety,Science and Culture,May- June, 2000. R. Ajayakumar Varma, Er~vironmentalconstraints of small island water resource system in Fresh WaterResources of Kerala, STEC, Thiruvananthapuram,2004, p. 120.

Erik P. Eckholm, Down to Earth :Environment and Human Needs, foreword by Barbara Ward, New Delhi, Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd, 1991, p.109. Down to Earth, December 31,2003, p. 7. The Hindu Nov. 9,2001. The Hindu, July 22,2001. The Hindu, Special Correspondent, 'KAU Report on Endosulphan Biased' November 9,2000. Tree India Environment Journal, Vol. 16/15 February 2002. Article on the report of Achuthan Committee in SoochimuWliMagazine,January 2002 p. 32 - 42.

122. Rashtni Mayur, 'Noise: a Silent Killer', Science Express, May I. 1990, p.1 UNEP, Urban., The technics ..., Op.cit.,p.4. Michael Rodda, Noise and ,Society, London, Oliver and Boyd Ltd, 1967, pp. 94-95.

AN Letter, Equations Vol. '7, No. 1 November 2000 Bangalore, Equitable Tourism Options (EQUATIONS)p. I. Ibid. p.12.

Shubhendu Kaushik, 'AnIdeas and Lnventions paper Towards A Tourism Strategy', Bangalore, EQUATIONS, July 8-12,1993. M.I. Andrews, The indigenous..., Op.cit., pp. 233-234. K.G. Mohanlal, Ecotourism, (Articlein The Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF), Thiruvananthapurarn, 1997,pp. 565-566. TreeIndia Environment Journal, Vol. 18/38,January 2004.

Report of the Legislative Environment Committee submitted to Govt. of Kerala on 29fh Dec, 1999 ,pp 5-7. Ibid. p. 1 1. Malayala Manorama, Dec. 13,2000 & Jan.8,2001 The Hindu, 28th January, 200 1. 17Ih Report based on the siudy on the increasing incidence of earthquake in

different parts of the state on 12Ih Dec 2000 and 7th January 2001 particular1 in Pala, Erattupetta area of Kottayarn district, submitted to the Govt. on 2gt Feb 2001, pp.2-8

g

Ibid. p. 1.

Ibid.p.5. News Letter - Vasudha, Vol. 3, April 2001, No.2. Sri. S. Rangarajan, The Hindu Survey of the Environment, Chennai, Kasturi & Sons Ltd., 2001, p.11. The Hindu, November 29"' 2001.

Ramanujam, R. 2000, 'Mineral Water and Potable Water Quality and Health Safety', in Souvenir - Advanced National Seminar on Mineral Water and C-~naurner - . Righis, World Consumer Rights Day 2000, Launching Millennium

Policy, Centre of Indian Consumer Protection and Research, Thiruvananthapuram. 142

The Hindu, January 22,2004.

143. Down to Earth, Vol. 12, NO.6, August 15,2003, pp. 30-3 1. 144. Down to Earth Feb. 15 2003, p.28. 145. Down to Earth, Vol. 12,Op.cit., p.32. 146. George Chackacheny, 'Socio-economic aspects of drinking water supply in Kerala' in the book Fresh water Resources of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, STEC, 2004, pp 97-1 1 1. 147. lath ~ q o roft LEC, prepared on the production and quality control ofmineral water in the state, submitted on lSt arch 2001, under the Chairmanship of Sri. Anathalavattom Anandan. There are 2 1recommendations. p.2. 148. Ibid. p.2. 149. Ibid. pp.21-22. 150. UNEPJGEMS Environment Library No.5, The Contamination offood, Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, 1992,p.6. 151. Ecologist Asia, Vol. 11. No 4 p. 32,34. 152. Study Report, Presence of Heavy metals in sludge generated in the factory of Hindustan Cococola Beverages Pvt Limited, Palakkad, Kerala State Pollution Control Board, Sept.2003, pp.10-14. 153. A. Santhosh Mathew (Ed), /lcase study by Aby Mathew on 'Sofi Drinks and Hard Water' in Rio, Johannesburg and Beyond, Lead India, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 2002, p. 52-55. 154. STEC, WaterScenario ofKerala, Published by STEC, Govt. of Kerala, January, 1998. p.2. 155. Patrict McGully, Silenced Rivers, New Delhi, Orient Longman, 1998,pp. 4071)

156. 4"' ~ e p o r of t LEC on Death of Varattar river and related environmental problems, submitted on June26th ,2003 with the purpose of improving the environmental conditions of the area, pp. 1-3. 1 57. Centre for Environmental Education (CEE), Conserving our Water Resources, Ahamadabad, CEE, 1974,p. 60.

1 58. 4"' Report of LEC, 2003, Op.cit., p. 5.

E.J. James, 'Salinity Intrusion into Rivers and its impacts on Drinking Water Schemes' - Case Studies from South West India, Proc., 3rd National Water Congress, New Delhi, 1996.

E.J. James, Vembanad-Kole Wetland System in Relation to Drainage Basin Management- A case study, prepared for Asian Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, 1996.

M.I. Andrews & K. P. Joy, The sand ..., Op.cit., p. 2 16. Khoshoo, T.N., Ramanathan, N.L. and Mehta, R. (Eds), Environmental Management oJMining Operations, Department o fEnvironment, Government of India, New Delhi, 1982,p. V.

K. D. Namboothiripad, paper 'Surface Water Resources', TheNaturalResources ofKeraala, Thiruvananthapuram,WWF, Kerala State Office, pp. 52-53. Malayala Manorama, August 13,2003

K. D. Namboothiripad, Op.C:it.,p. 55. State Committee on Science Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, WaterScenario of Kerala , 1998, p. 2. CPREEC, Environmental Concerns oflndia - A n Introduction, Madras, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, 1996, p. 2 1. STEC, The ground water quality..., Op.cit., p. 66.

CPREEC, Environmental Concerns oflndia, India is..., Op.cit.,p. 21. M. Nazimuddin, Ground water extraction structures in Freshwater Resources of Kerala, State Council for Science, Technology and & Environment, Thiruvananthapurarn, 2004, p.77.

The Hindu, May 28th>2002 'Tube well - water policy blues' by Mihir Shah.

C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai,C.P.R.E.E.C, p.8.

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M.K.Prasad: 'Conservation of Water Resources- People s Initiatives', Kerala State Council for Science Technology & Environment, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004, pp. 34-39. C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, WaterResources ..., 0p.cit p.36 Science Reporter, Nov. 1990 p. 13

1 77. Prasadam, a monthly magazine published by John C. Jacob Trichur, Feb.97, p. 25.

178. CEERA News, Centre for Environmental Education, Research and Advocacy, National Law School of the Indian University, 2001, p. 2. 179. The Hindu, Sunday, June 11,2000, p.VII1. 180. Kumudranjn Nasikar, Ecoloa and Biodiversity of Indian Mangroves: Part I , Delhi, Daya Publishing House;1999, pp. 163-166. 18 1 .

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1 82. Kandal Samrakshana Samithy, Bulletin dated 1.10.96.

183. The Hindu, 171hJune, 1999. 184. The Hindu. August 23,1999. 185. Indian Express, 061hJuly, 1996. 186. Indian Express dt. lothAugust 1997 an article by K.N. Shyarnasundran Nair, a member of the state Planing Board. 187. The Hindu, 291hJuly, 2001. 188. Malayala Manorama, 5" August, 2000. 189. P.S. Harikumar, 'Multi Coloured Rains and the Environment in Kerala' of CWRDM, Calicut. Published in the magazine Environmental Problems of Kerala by STEC, Trivandrum. Page 98-99. 190. The Hindu, 11Ih November, 200 1 191. News Letter - Vasudha,Vol. 3, July 2001, No.3, prepared by the Task Group for Local Level Planning and Development Programmes. Published by the Director, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Akkulam. 1 92. Green Brigade, India Green File: A Selection of Clippings on the Environment September 1 to 30, 1995, No.93, p. 10.

193. M.I.Andrews&K.P. Joy, Op.cit., p.215-216. 194. Ibid. p. 217. 195. Ibid. p. 218. 196. Tree India Environment Journal, Vol 17/33, August 2003, p.3. 197. R. Ramachandran Pillai, Article on 'Mining in Troubled Sands', The Hindu, June 2 1,2003. 198. News Letter - Vasudha, Vol. 3 , Op. cit., p. 2.

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Patrick Macully, Researchersfrom the..., Op.cit., p. 14 Zbid. p. 15. Randhawa, M.S., A History ofAgriculture in Zndia, New Delhi, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 1989, pp. 98-99. Vandana Shiva, Monoculture of the Mind, Penang, Malaysia, Third World Networks, 1993, p. 5. Zbid pp. 29-30. C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Biodiversity, Chennai, The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation, 1998. p.60. Biodiversity oflndia, ISCB (Indian Society for Conservation Biology) News Letter, January 1996 - 1998.

C.P.R, The Need for Biodiversity - Role of Small Animals, Booklet, Chennai, CPR Environmental Education Centre, p. 10. ENN News Story hupllwww.enn.comJnews 2004-07-077S2435 1.asp

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M. Arnirthalingam, Sacred Groves o f ~amilnadu Environmental Education Centre, 1998, p.5.

Sarojini Menon. V., Sacred Groves, in Natural Resources of Kerala. WWF Kerala Office, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997, p. 159. E. Unnikrishnan, Utharakeralathile Vishudha Vanangal (Mal.), Pariyaram, Kannoor, Sumskruthi Publications, 1997, p. 254. Sarojini Menon, On a rough estimate..., Op.cit., p. 161. Sri. S. Rangarajan, The Hindu, 200 1 , Once a common..., Op.cit., p. 177. Viloppally Sreedhara Menon, Sarppakad, Kottayam, National Book stall, 1975. P.J.Joy, Ojten the newcomers..., Op.cit., Malayala Manorama, 61hAugust,2004, p. 1 1. The Ecologist Asia, Article on Hotspots of Corporate Excesses, Vol. 1 1 No.4 Oct-Dec.2003, Mumbai, pp.32-33. Ibid. p. 33 Down to Earth, Oct. 15,2003. Norman Meyers with Jennifer Kenl. EnvironmentalExodus :An Emergent Cnsk In The GlobalArena, Climate Institute Washington DC June 1995. p. 14. Ibid. p.16. Down to Earth, A health assessment..., Op.cit., p. 15. The Ecologist Asia,Vol. 1 1 .No. 4 Oct-Dec.2003, p.45.