Integrated Guide to the Text’s Resources (Instructor’s Resource Manual)
Chapter 15 - The Federal Bureaucracy Table of Contents I. Chapter Overview A. Learning Objectives B. Chapter Summary II. Student Assignments – Pre-Lecture III. Lecture Resources A. Lecture Slides B. Additional Lecture Suggestions IV. Student Assignments – Post-Lecture A. Class Discussion Questions B. Class Activities C. Research Assignments V. Quantitative Assessment VI. Resources for Further Study A. Books B. Articles C. Media D. Web Resources
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I. Chapter Overview A.
Learning Objectives
¾15.1 Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs ¾15.2 Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized ¾15.3 Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy ¾15.4 Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation ¾15.5 Assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government × Return to Chapter 15: Table of Contents B.
Chapter Summary
Once Congress, the president, or the Supreme Court makes a policy decision, it is most likely that bureaucrats must step in to implement those decisions. Since bureaucrats are typically less visible and are not elected to their positions, their actions and power are often subjects of considerable debate. The classic conception of bureaucracy was advanced by the German sociologist, Max Weber, who stressed that the bureaucracy was a “rational” way for a modern society to conduct its business. To Weber, a bureaucracy depends upon certain elements, including a hierarchical authority structure, task specialization, and extensive rules, which allow similar cases to be handled in similar ways.
The Bureaucrats Bureaucrats are typically much less visible than the president or members of Congress. Bureaucrat baiting is a popular American pastime, and spawns plenty of myths. The following are some of the most prevalent myths about bureaucracy and bureaucrats: Americans dislike bureaucrats; bureaucracies are growing bigger each year; most federal bureaucrats work in Washington, D.C.; and bureaucracies are ineffective, inefficient, and always mired in red tape. There are approximately 2.8 million civilian bureaucrats. Although Congress has ordered federal agencies to make special efforts to recruit and promote previously disadvantaged groups, women and nonwhites are still clustered in the lower ranks. As a whole, however, the permanent bureaucracy is more broadly representative of the American people than legislators, judges, or presidential appointees in the executive branch. Until approximately 100 years ago, a person got a job with the government through the patronage system (a hiring and promotion system based on knowing the right people). Under this “spoils system,” nineteenth-century presidents staffed the government with their friends and allies. Today, most federal agencies are covered by some sort of civil service system. The rationale for all civil service systems rests on the merit principle and the desire to create a nonpartisan government service. The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is in charge of hiring for most agencies of the federal government. Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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After serving a probationary period, civil servants are protected. It is difficult to fire a civil service employee after the probationary period: an employee can appeal his or her dismissal, which can consume weeks, months, or even years. Ensuring a nonpartisan civil service requires that workers have protection from dismissals that are politically motivated. At the very top of the civil service system are about 9,000 members of the Senior Executive Service. These executives earn high salaries and may be moved from one agency to another as leadership needs change. The other route to federal jobs involves recruiting from the plum book, which lists top federal jobs available for direct presidential appointment (often with Senate confirmation). Every incoming president launches a nationwide talent search to fill these positions (approximately 3,000 of them). Most will be “in-and-outers” who stay for a while and leave; they soon learn that senior civil servants know more, have been there longer, and will outlast them. How Bureaucracies are Organized In general, there are four types of bureaucracies: cabinet departments, regulatory agencies, government corporations, and independent executive agencies. Each of the 15 cabinet departments is headed by a secretary (except the Department of Justice, which is headed by the attorney general); all are chosen by the president and approved by the Senate. Beneath the secretary are undersecretaries, deputy undersecretaries, and assistant secretaries. Each department manages specific policy areas, and each has its own budget and staff. Each of the independent regulatory commissions has responsibility for some sector of the economy. Regulatory agencies make and enforce rules designed to protect the public interest; they also judge disputes over those rules. Government corporations provide a service that could be handled by the private sector. They typically charge for their services, though often at cheaper rates than the consumer would pay a private sector producer. The independent executive agencies are not part of the cabinet departments and generally do not have regulatory functions. They usually perform specialized functions. Bureaucracies as Implementors As policymakers, bureaucrats play three key roles: they are policy implementers; they administer public policy; and they are regulators. Policy implementation occurs when the bureaucracy carries out decisions of Congress, the president, and even the courts. Public policies are rarely self-executing: bureaucrats translate legislative policy goals into programs. Policy implementation does not always work well, and bureaucrats usually take the blame when it does not. Reasons why implementation may break down include faulty program design, lack of clarity in the laws bureaucrats administer, lack of resources, the following of standard operating procedures, administrative discretion, and dispersal of policy responsibility among several units of the bureaucracy (i.e., fragmentation). Administrative discretion is the authority of administrative actors to select among various responses to a given problem. Discretion is greatest when rules do not fit a case; but even in agencies with elaborate rules and regulations—especially when more than one rule fits—there is still room for discretion. Michael Lipsky coined the phrase street-level bureaucrats to refer to those bureaucrats who are in constant contact with the public and have considerable discretion (including police officers, welfare workers, and lower court judges). Fragmentation has resulted in the responsibility for a policy being dispersed among several units within the bureaucracy. Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Implementation can be effective if goals are clear and the means to achieve the goals are unambiguous. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 illustrates a program that was successfully implemented because its goal was clear: To register African Americans to vote in southern counties where their voting rights had been denied for years. The means to achieve the goals were also clear: The act singled out six states in the Deep South in which the number of AfricanAmerican registered voters was minuscule. The Justice Department was ordered to send federal registrars to each county in those states to register qualified voters. Implementation of this act helped bring the vote to some 300,000 African Americans in less than a year. Since the 1980s efforts have been made to decentralize authority and provide performance incentives through market competition and competitive public-versus-private bidding on government services. Although contracting for services is meant to result in better service and lower costs, there is no evidence that private contractors have provided services more efficiently at the federal level. Furthermore, contracting almost always leads to less public scrutiny. Bureaucracies as Regulators Government regulation is the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. This is the most controversial role of the bureaucracies, yet Congress gives them broad mandates to regulate activates as diverse as interest rates, the location of nuclear power plants, and food additives. Until 1887, the federal government made almost no regulatory policies. Even the minimum regulatory powers of state and local governments were disputed. In 1887, Congress created the first regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), charged with regulating the railroads, their prices, and their services to farmers. Most agencies charged with regulation first have to develop a set of rules (often called guidelines); guidelines are developed in consultation with (and sometimes with the agreement of) the people or industries being regulated. The agency must then apply and enforce its rules and guidelines, either in court or through its own administrative procedures. Almost every regulatory policy was created to achieve some desirable social goal. Charles L. Schultze (chairman of President Carter’s Council of Economic Advisors) is a critic of the current state of federal regulation, which he described as command-and-control policy: The government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks that these commands are followed, and punishes offenders. Schultze prefers an incentive system. Defenders of the command-andcontrol system of regulation compare it to preventive medicine; it is designed to minimize problems such as pollution or workplace accidents before they become too severe. Government regulation of the American economy and society has grown in recent decades. The budgets of regulatory agencies, their level of employment, and the number of rules they issue are all increasing. Opponents of government regulation contend that the rapid increase in the number and scope of environmental regulations during the past two decades has stifled economic growth. Supporters of government regulation argue that such regulations are essential to protect the nation’s air, land, and water (and the people who use it). The idea behind deregulation, the lifting of government restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities, is that the number and complexity of regulatory policies have made regulation too complicated and burdensome. To critics, the problem with regulation is that it raises prices, distorts market forces, and worst of all it does not work. Not everyone, however, believes that deregulation is in the nation’s best interest. Many regulations have proved Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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beneficial to Americans. As a result of government regulations, we breathe cleaner air, we have lower levels of lead in our blood, miners are safer at work, seacoasts have been preserved, and children are more likely to survive infancy. Understanding Bureaucracies In democratic theory, popular control of government depends on elections, but we could not possibly elect the, more than four million, federal civilian and military employees (or even the few thousand top men and women). However, the fact that voters do not elect civil servants does not mean that bureaucracies cannot respond to and represent the public’s interests. Much depends on whether bureaucracies are effectively controlled by the policymakers that citizens do elect—the president and Congress. Some presidential methods of exercising control over bureaucracies include: • Appointing the right people to head the agency. • Issuing executive orders. • Tinkering with an agency’s budget. • Reorganizing an agency. There are several measures Congress can take to oversee the bureaucracy: • Influencing the appointment of agency heads. • Tinkering with an agency’s budget. • Holding hearings. • Rewriting the legislation or making it more detailed. One crucial explanation for the difficulty presidents and Congress face in controlling bureaucracies relates to the role of iron triangles and issue networks. When agencies, groups, and committees all depend on one another and are in close, frequent contact, they form iron triangles (or sub-governments). Iron triangles have dominated some areas of domestic policymaking by combining internal consensus with a virtual monopoly on information in their area. Iron triangles are characterized by mutual dependency, in which each element provides key services, information, or policy for the others (illustrated by the tobacco triangle). These subgovernments can add a strong decentralizing and fragmenting element to the policymaking process. Hugh Heclo points out that the system of sub-governments is now overlaid with an amorphous system of issue networks, which means that there is more widespread participation in bureaucratic policymaking, and many of the participants have technical policy expertise and are drawn to issues because of intellectual or emotional commitments rather than material interests. This opening of the policymaking process complicates the calculations and decreases the predictability of those involved in the stable and relatively narrow relationships of subgovernments. Despite the fact that sub-governments often are able to dominate policymaking for decades, they are not indestructible; policies of the tobacco triangle, for one, have increasingly come under fire from health authorities. The federal bureaucracy has not grown over the past two generations. In fact, the bureaucracy has shrunk in size relative to the population it serves. Originally, the federal bureaucracy had a modest role, but as the economy and the society of the United States changed, additional demands were made on government. Considering the more active role the bureaucracy is expected to play in dealing with social and economic problems, a good case can be made that Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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the bureaucracy is actually too small for many of the tasks currently assigned to it (such as the control of illicit drugs or the protection of the environment). × Return to Chapter 15: Table of Contents
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II. Student Assignments – Pre-Lecture A. B.
Student required reading: Chapter 15 – The Federal Bureaucracy Administer Reading Comprehension Quiz (see Test Bank, Chapter 15)
× Return to Chapter 15: Table of Contents
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III. Lecture Resources A.
Lecture Slides
Slide 1
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Slide 2
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Slide 3
Brief Contents of Chapter 15: The Federal Bureaucracy
Chapter 15: The Federal Bureaucracy • • • • • •
The Bureaucrats How Bureaucracies Are Organized Bureaucracies as Implementors Bureaucracies as Regulators Understanding Bureaucracies Summary
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Slide 4
Lecture Tips and Suggestions for In-Class Activities For class discussion, have students debate the value of a professional bureaucracy. In particular, have them examine the costs and benefits of the patronage system as compared to those of the merit system in terms of responsibility and accountability to the people bureaucrats serve. Have each student select one of the independent regulatory agencies and write a brief essay on the history and powers of the agency. Ask students to focus on the “capture” theory and try to determine how well—or how poorly—the theory fits the agency the student selected.
Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives • The Bureaucrats • LO 15.1: Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs.
• How Bureaucracies Are Organized • LO 15.2: Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 5
Ask students to investigate the creation of the Department of Homeland Security in 2002. For a reading and writing connection, ask students to write an essay applying the principles of this chapter to this new department. How does this department (its mission and creation) illustrate fundamental issues regarding bureaucratic organization, efficiency, and effectiveness? What is the likely success of the agency in meeting its goals? Tell the students that almost all agencies, not merely the ones called independent regulatory commissions, issue regulations. These regulations pervade everyday life. Ask the students the following question. It is easy to complain about regulations, but would we really want to give them up?
Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives • Bureaucracies as Implementors • LO 15.3: Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy.
• Bureaucracies as Regulators • LO 15.4: Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation.
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Slide 6
Tell the students that because it is unelected, the federal bureaucracy is often criticized as undemocratic. Ask the students the following questions. How do the elected branches of government—Congress and the presidency—exert control over the federal bureaucracy? How might they exert more control over the bureaucracy so that the system will be more democratic?
Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives • Understanding Bureaucracies • LO 15.5: Assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government.
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Slide 7
The Bureaucrats LO 15.1: Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs.
• Bureaucracy (Max Weber) • • • • •
Has a hierarchical authority structure. Uses task specialization. Operates on the merit principle. Develops extensive rules. Behaves with impersonality.
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Slide 8
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities • Civil Servants • Political Appointees
The Bureaucrats The classic conception of bureaucracy was advanced by the German sociologist, Max Weber, who stressed that the bureaucracy was a “rational” way for a modern society to conduct its business. To Weber, a bureaucracy depends upon certain elements. It has a hierarchical authority structure, in which power flows from the top down and responsibility from the bottom up. It uses task specialization, so that experts instead of amateurs perform technical jobs. It develops extensive rules, which allow similar cases to be handled in similar ways. Bureaucrats work on the merit principle, in which entrance and promotion are on the basis of demonstrated abilities. Bureaucracies behave with impersonality so that all clients are treated impartially. The Bureaucrats Each bureaucratic agency is created by Congress, which sets its budget and writes the policies it administers. Most agencies are responsible to the president, whose administrative responsibilities are only vaguely hinted at in the constitutional obligation “to take care that the laws shall be faithfully executed.” How to manage and control bureaucracies is a central problem of democratic government.
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Slide 9
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities
Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities Americans dislike bureaucrats. Despite the rhetoric about bureaucracies, Americans are generally satisfied with bureaucrats and the treatment they get from them.
• Americans dislike bureaucrats. • Americans are generally satisfied with bureaucrats and the treatment they get from them.
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Slide 10
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities (cont.) • Bureaucracies are growing bigger each year. • All growth is state and local. • Employees – 20 million state and local and 2.8 million federal civilian (2% of workforce) and 1.4 million federal military. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 11
The Bureaucrats
LO 15.1
• Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities (cont.)
Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities Bureaucracies are growing bigger each year. Almost all the growth in the number of public employees has occurred in state and local governments. Today, the approximately 20 million state and local public employees far outnumber the approximately 2.8 million civilian (including postal) and 1.4 million military federal government employees. As a percentage of America’s total workforce, federal government civilian employment has been shrinking, not growing; it now accounts for about 2 percent of all civilian jobs. Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities Most federal bureaucrats work in Washington, D.C. Only about 12 percent of the 2.8 million federal civilian employees work in Washington.
• Most federal bureaucrats work in Washington, D.C. • About 12% of the 2.8 million federal civilian employees work in Washington.
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Slide 12
LO 15.1
LO 15.1 Image: Federal Civilian Employees
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Slide 13
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities (cont.) • Bureaucracies are ineffective, inefficient, and always mired in red tape. • Government bureaucracies are no more or less inefficient, ineffective, or mired in red tape than private bureaucracies.
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Slide 14
LO 15.1
Some Bureaucratic Myths and Realities Bureaucracies are ineffective, inefficient, and always mired in red tape. Bureaucracy is simply a way of organizing people to perform work. Bureaucracies may be inefficient at times, but no one has yet demonstrated that government bureaucracies are more or less inefficient, ineffective, or mired in red tape than private bureaucracies. The Department of Defense (DOD) employs about one-fourth of federal civilian workers in addition to the 1.4 million men and women in uniform. Altogether, the DOD makes up more than half of the federal bureaucracy. The Postal Service accounts for an additional 30 percent of federal civilian employees. The Department of Veterans Affairs (clearly related to national defense) has more than 223,000 employees; and all other functions of government are handled by the remaining 25 percent of federal employees. Table 15.1 Federal Civilian Employment
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Slide 15
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Civil Servants • Patronage – Jobs and promotions awarded for political reasons. • Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883 created a federal civil service so hiring and promotion would be based on merit. • Civil Service – Hiring and promotion based on the merit and nonpartisan government service. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Civil Servants As a whole, the permanent bureaucracy is more broadly representative of the American people than legislators, judges, or presidential appointees in the executive branch. The diversity of employees in bureaucratic jobs mirrors the diversity of private sector jobs. Until approximately 100 years ago, a person got a job with the government through the patronage system (a hiring and promotion system based on knowing the right people). Under this “spoils system,” nineteenth-century presidents staffed the government with their friends and allies. In a tragic irony of history, Charles Guiteau (a disappointed office seeker) actually helped end this system of federal appointments: frustrated because President James A. Garfield would not give him a job, Guiteau shot and killed the president. Vice President Chester A. Arthur (who then
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became president) surprised his critics by pushing for passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), which created the federal Civil Service. Today, most federal agencies are covered by some sort of civil service system. The rationale for all civil service systems rests on the idea of merit and the desire to create a nonpartisan government service. Slide 16
LO 15.1
Figure 15.1 Characteristics of Federal Nonpostal Civilian Employees
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Slide 17
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Civil Servants (cont.) • Merit Principle – Entrance exams and promotion ratings to get people with talent and skill. • Hatch Act (1939) – Government employees can not participate in partisan politics while on duty. • Office of Personnel Management created in 1978 to hire for most federal agencies using rules. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Civil Servants The merit principle (using examinations and promotion ratings) is intended to produce administration by people with talent and skill. Creating a nonpartisan civil service means insulating government workers from the risk of being fired when a new party comes to power. The Hatch Act (1939, amended 1993) also prohibits those employees from active participation in partisan politics. The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is in charge of hiring for most agencies of the federal government. For each position that is open, the OPM will send three names to the agency (known as the rule of three).
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Slide 18
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Civil Servants (cont.) • GS (General Schedule) rating – A schedule for federal employees, ranging from GS 1 to GS 18, by which salaries can be keyed to rating and experience. • Senior Executive Service – 9,000 federal government managers that provide leadership at the top of the civil service system. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 19
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Political Appointees • Plum Book – A listing of the top federal jobs available for direct presidential appointment, often with Senate confirmation. • 500 top policymaking posts (mostly cabinet secretaries, undersecretaries, assistant secretaries, and bureau chiefs) and 2,500 lesser positions.
Civil Servants Once hired, a person is assigned a GS (General Schedule) rating, ranging from GS 1 to GS 18. After a probationary period, civil servants are protected; it is difficult to fire a civil service employee after the probationary period. An employee can appeal his or her dismissal, which can consume weeks, months, or even years. (The right of appeal must be exhausted before one’s paycheck stops.) Ensuring a nonpartisan civil service requires that workers have protection from dismissals that are politically motivated. Protecting all workers against political firings may also protect a few from dismissal for good cause. At the very top of the civil service system are about 9,000 members of the Senior Executive Service. These executives earn high salaries and may be moved from one agency to another as leadership needs change. Political Appointees Congress publishes the plum book, which lists top federal jobs available for direct presidential appointment (often with Senate confirmation). Every incoming president launches a nationwide talent search to fill these positions (approximately 3,000 of them).
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Slide 20
LO 15.1
The Bureaucrats
• Political Appointees (cont.) • Incoming presidents seek people who combine executive talent, political skills, and policy positions similar to the administration. • Incoming presidents try to ensure diversity and balance in terms of gender, ethnicity, region, and party interests. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Political Appointees Presidents look for individuals who combine executive talent, political skills, and policy views similar to those of the president. Some positions—especially ambassadorships—go to large campaign contributors. Most will be political appointees, “in-and-outers,” who stay for a while and then leave; they soon learn that senior civil servants know more, have been there longer, and will outlast them. Most find it difficult to exercise real control over much of what their subordinates do: the security of the civil servants’ jobs combined with the transience (and even ignorance) of their superiors contribute to the bureaucracy’s resistance to change.
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Slide 21
In general, there are four types of bureaucracies: cabinet departments, regulatory agencies, government corporations, and independent executive agencies.
How Bureaucracies Are Organized LO 15.2: Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized.
• Cabinet Departments • Independent Regulatory Commissions • Government Corporations • The Independent Executive Agencies
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Slide 22
LO 15.2
Figure 15.2 Organization of the Executive Branch
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Slide 23
LO 15.2
How Bureaucracies Are Organized
• Cabinet Departments • Each department manages specific policy areas, and each has its own budget and its own staff. • Each department has a mission and is organized differently. • Bureaus (sometimes they are called administration, service, or office) divide the work into more specialized areas. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Cabinet Departments Each of the 15 cabinet departments is headed by a secretary (except the Department of Justice, which is headed by the attorney general); all are chosen by the president and approved by the Senate. Beneath the secretary are undersecretaries, deputy undersecretaries, and assistant secretaries. Each department manages specific policy areas, and each has its own budget and staff. The real work of a department is done in the bureaus (sometimes designated by other names such as service, office, or administration). From the 1970s until 1995, the Department of Health and Human Services was the largest federal department in dollars spent (although the Department of Defense still had more employees). The Social Security Administration became an independent agency in 1995, spending one-third of the federal budget on the massive programs of Social Security and Medicare.
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Slide 24
LO 15.2
Figure 15.3 Organization of the Department of the Interior
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Slide 25
LO 15.2
How Bureaucracies Are Organized
• Independent Regulatory Commissions • Government agency responsible for making (legislative) and enforcing (executive) rules to protect the public interest in some sector of the economy and for judging (judicial) disputes over these rules. • Example – Federal Reserve Board To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 26
LO 15.2
Independent Regulatory Commissions Each of the independent regulatory agencies has responsibility for some sector of the economy, making and enforcing rules designed to protect the public interest; they also judge disputes over those rules. They are sometimes called the “alphabet soup” of American government because most such agencies are known by their initials: ICC (Interstate Commission), FRB (Federal Reserve Board), NLRB (National Labor Relations Board), FCC (Federal Communications Commission), FTC (Federal Trade Commission), SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission). Each of the agencies is governed by a small commission, appointed by the president for fixed terms of office and confirmed by the Senate; regulatory commission members cannot be fired by the president. Critics claim that the close connection between the regulators and the industries they regulate has meant that the agencies have become the “captives” of industry. LO 15.2 Image: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an important independent agency, overseeing the administration of all environmental legislation.
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Slide 27
LO 15.2
How Bureaucracies Are Organized
• Government Corporations • Government organization provides a service that could be provided by private sector and typically charges for its services. • You can not buy stock and you can not collect dividends like with private corporations. • Example – U.S. Postal Service
Government Corporations Government corporations provide a service that could be handled by the private sector. They typically charge for their services, though often at cheaper rates than the consumer would pay a private sector producer. Examples include the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), Amtrak, and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC); the U.S. Postal Service is the largest of the government corporations.
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Slide 28
LO 15.2
How Bureaucracies Are Organized
• The Independent Executive Agencies • The government agencies not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory commissions, and government corporations. • Example – Social Security Administration
The Independent Executive Agencies The independent executive agencies are not part of the cabinet departments and generally do not have regulatory functions; they usually perform specialized functions. Their administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at his pleasure. Examples include the General Services Administration (GSA), National Science Foundation (NSF), and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
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Slide 29
It is so important to identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy.
Bureaucracies as Implementors LO 15.3: Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy.
• What Implementation Means • Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test • A Case Study of Successful Implementation: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 • Privatization To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 30
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• What Implementation Means • Policy Implementation – The stage of policymaking between the establishment of a policy and the consequences of the policy for the people affected. • Implementation involves translating the goals and objectives of a policy into an operating, ongoing program.
What Implementation Means Policy implementation occurs when the bureaucracy carries out decisions of Congress, the president, and even the courts. Public policies are rarely self-executing: bureaucrats translate legislative policy goals into programs. Congress typically announces the goals of a policy in broad terms, sets up an administrative apparatus, and leaves the bureaucracy the task of working out the details of the program.
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Slide 31
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• What Implementation Means (cont.) • 3 elements of implementation: • Create new agency or assign new responsibility to an old agency. • Translate policy goals into operational rules and develop guidelines for the program. • Coordination of resources and personnel to achieve the goals. To Learning Objectives
What Implementation Means Three Elements of Implementation Creation of a new agency or assignment of responsibility to an old one; Translation of policy goals into operational rules of thumb and development of guidelines; Coordination of resources and personnel to achieve the intended goals. Translation of policy goals into operational rules of thumb and development of guidelines; Coordination of resources and personnel to achieve the intended goals.
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Slide 32
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test • Program Design – It’s impossible to implement a policy or program that is defective in its basic theoretical conception.
Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test Reasons why implementation may break down (policy implementation does not always work well, and bureaucrats usually take the blame when it does not): Faulty program design - a policy or program may be defective in its basic theoretical conception.
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Slide 33
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test (cont.) • Lack of Clarity – Bureaucracies are often asked to implement unclear laws and Congress can thus escape the messy details. • Example – Title IX of Education Act of 1972 was unclear, making implementation very complex. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 34
LO 15.3
Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test Reasons why implementation may break down (policy implementation does not always work well, and bureaucrats usually take the blame when it does not): Lack of clarity - bureaucracies are often asked to implement unclear laws; members of Congress can thus escape the messy details, and blame for the implementation decisions can be placed elsewhere. Title IX of the Education Act of 1972 is a good example of how implementation becomes complex if the original legislation is unclear. LO 15.3 Image: Bureaucracies are often asked to implement unclear laws.
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Slide 35
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test (cont.) • Lack of Resources – Bureaucracy can lack the staff, necessary training, funding, supplies, equipment, and/or authority to carry out the tasks it has been assigned to do.
To Learning Objectives
Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test Reasons why implementation may break down (policy implementation does not always work well, and bureaucrats usually take the blame when it does not): Lack of resources - as big as bureaucracy may appear, it frequently lacks the staff (along with the necessary training, funding, supplies, and equipment) to carry out the tasks it has been assigned to do; agencies may also lack the authority to meet their responsibilities.
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Slide 36
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test (cont.) • Administrative Routine – SOPs bring efficiency and uniformity to everyday decision making. • Routines become frustrating “red tape” or potentially dangerous obstacles to action when not appropriate to a situation. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 37
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test (cont.) • Administrators’ Dispositions – A bureaucrat uses administrative discretion to select from many responses to a given problem. • Street-level bureaucrats are in constant contact with public and have considerable discretion. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test Reasons why implementation may break down (policy implementation does not always work well, and bureaucrats usually take the blame when it does not): Administrative routine - much of administration involves a routine in which bureaucrats follow standard operating procedures (SOPs) to help them make numerous everyday decisions. SOPs bring uniformity to complex organizations. Justice is better served if rules are applied uniformly. Uniformity also makes personnel interchangeable. Routines are essential to bureaucracy (but they also become frustrating to citizens, who term them “red tape” when they do not appear to appropriately address a situation, and may become obstacles to action). Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test Administrators’ dispositions - paradoxically, bureaucrats operate not only within the confines of routines but often with considerable discretion to behave independently. Administrative discretion is the authority of administrative actors to select among various responses to a given problem. Discretion is greatest when rules do not fit a case; but even in agencies with elaborate rules and regulations—especially when more than one rule fits—there is still room for discretion. Michael Lipsky coined the phrase street-level bureaucrats to refer to those bureaucrats who are in constant contact with the public and have considerable discretion (including police officers, welfare workers, and lower court judges). How bureaucrats exercise discretion depends on their dispositions about the policies and rules they administer; although bureaucrats may be indifferent to the implementation of many policies,
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19
others will be in conflict with their policy views or personal or organizational interests. Controlling the exercise of discretion is a difficult task: it is not easy to fire bureaucrats in the Civil Service, and removing appointed officials may be politically embarrassing to the president. Slide 38
LO 15.3
LO 15.3 Image: Bureaucrats typically apply thousands of pages of rules in the performance of routine tasks, but many bureaucrats—especially street-level bureaucrats—must use administrative discretion as well.
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Slide 39
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test (cont.) • Fragmentation – Responsibility for a policy is dispersed among many units within bureaucracy. • Makes coordination of policies time consuming and difficult. • Produces contradictory signals among the agencies involved. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 40
LO 15.3
Why the Best-Laid Plans Sometimes Flunk the Implementation Test Fragmentation - responsibility for a policy is sometimes dispersed among several units within the bureaucracy. This diffusion of responsibility makes the coordination of policies both time consuming and difficult. Sometimes those who are supposed to administer a law receive contradictory signals from different agencies. President George W. Bush’s creation of the Office of Homeland Security in 2001 involved directing the counterterrorism efforts of 46 federal agencies, encompassing much of the federal government. Hyperpluralism and the decentralization of power make it difficult to reorganize government. Table 15.2 Departments and Agencies with Responsibility for Border Security in 2002
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Slide 41
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• A Case Study of Successful Implementation: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 • Goal was clear – To register large numbers of African American voters. • Implementation was straightforward – Sending out people to register them.
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Slide 42
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• A Case Study of Successful Implementation: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 (cont.) • Authority of the implementors was clear – They had the support of the attorney general and even U.S. marshals. • Authority concentrated in the Justice Department disposed to implementing the law vigorously.
A Case Study of Successful Implementation: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 Implementation can be effective if goals are clear and the means to achieve the goals are unambiguous. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was successfully implemented because its goal was clear: to register African Americans to vote in southern counties where their voting rights had been denied for years. Congress outlawed literacy tests and other tests previously used to discriminate against AfricanAmerican registrants. The act singled out six states in the Deep South in which the number of African-American registered voters was minuscule. Its implementation was straightforward (sending out people to register them). The Justice Department was ordered to send federal registrars to each county in those states to register qualified voters. Implementation of this act helped bring the vote to some 300,000 African Americans in less than a year. A Case Study of Successful Implementation: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 The authority of the implementors was clear (they had the support of the attorney general and even U.S. marshals) Concentrated in the Justice Department, which was disposed to implementing the law vigorously.
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Slide 43
LO 15.3
Bureaucracies as Implementors
• Privatization • Private contractors have become a 4th branch of government. • Contracting for services – The theory is that private sector competition will result in better service at lower costs, but no evidence has proved this. • Contracting leads to less public scrutiny as programs are hidden. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Privatization Private contractors have become a virtual fourth branch of government. Everyone seems to agree that the government cannot operate without contractors, which provide the surge capacity to handle crises without expanding the permanent bureaucracy. Moreover, contractors may provide specialized skills that the government lacks. The theory behind contracting for services is that competition in the private sector will result in better service at lower costs, although there is no evidence to prove this. Contracting also leads to less public scrutiny, as government programs are hidden behind closed corporate doors.
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Slide 44
Bureaucracies as Regulators LO 15.4: Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation.
• Regulation • Use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. • Congress gives bureaucrats broad mandates to regulate activities as diverse as interest rates, the location of nuclear power plants, and food additives.
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Slide 45
LO 15.4
Bureaucracies as Regulators Government regulation is the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. This is the most controversial role of the bureaucracies, yet Congress gives them broad mandates to regulate activities as diverse as interest rates, the location of nuclear power plants, and food additives. Everyday life itself is the subject of bureaucratic regulation; almost all bureaucratic agencies—not merely the ones called independent regulatory agencies—are in the regulatory business. Most government regulation is clearly in the public interest. For example, the U.S. Department of Agriculture is charged with regulating the quality of meat products. LO 15.4 Image: Trends in Regulation
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Slide 46
LO 15.4
Bureaucracies as Regulators
• Regulation in the Economy and in Everyday Life • Munn v. Illinois (1877) – Right of government to regulate the business operations of a firm. • Interstate Commerce Commission (1887) was the 1st regulatory agency and it regulated the railroads, their prices, and their services to farmers. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Regulation in the Economy and in Everyday Life From the beginnings of the American republic until 1887, the federal government made almost no regulatory policies. The little regulation that was produced originated with state and local authorities, and opponents disputed even the minimal regulatory powers of state and local governments. In 1877, the Supreme Court upheld the right of government to regulate the business operations of a firm. The case, Munn v. Illinois, involved the right of the state of Illinois to regulate the charges and services of a Chicago warehouse. In 1887—a decade after Munn—Congress created the first regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), and charged it with regulating the railroads, their prices, and their services to farmers; the ICC thus set the precedent for regulatory policymaking.
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Slide 47
LO 15.4
Bureaucracies as Regulators
• Regulation in the Economy and in Everyday Life (cont.) • Command-and-control policy – The government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks that these commands are followed, and punishes offenders. • Incentive system – Market like strategies such as rewards are used to manage public policy. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 48
LO 15.4
Bureaucracies as Regulators
• Regulation in the Economy and in Everyday Life (cont.) • 3 elements of regulation: • A grant of power and set of directions from Congress. • A set of rules and guidelines by the regulatory agency itself. • Some means of enforcing compliance with congressional goals and agency regulations. To Learning Objectives
Regulation in the Economy and in Everyday Life Most agencies charged with regulation first have to develop a set of rules (often called guidelines); guidelines are developed in consultation with (and sometimes with the agreement of) the people or industries being regulated. The agency must then apply and enforce its rules and guidelines, either in court or through its own administrative procedures. Sometimes it waits for complaints to come to it (as the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission does). Sometimes it sends inspectors into the field (as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration does). Sometimes it requires applicants for a permit or license to demonstrate performance consistent with congressional goals and agency rules (as the Federal Communications Commission does). Command-and-control policy is the typical system of regulation whereby government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks that these commands are followed, and punishes offenders. Incentive system is an alternative to commandand-control, with market like strategies such as rewards used to manage public policy. Regulation in the Economy and in Everyday Life Three Elements of Regulation A grant of power and set of directions from Congress; A set of rules and guidelines by the regulatory agency itself; Some means of enforcing compliance with congressional goals and agency regulations.
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Slide 49
LO 15.4
Bureaucracies as Regulators
• Deregulation • The lifting of government restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities. • Regulation critics – Regulation distorts market forces, raises prices, hurts America’s competitive position abroad, and fails to work well.
Deregulation The idea behind deregulation is that the number and complexity of regulatory policies have made regulation too complex and burdensome. Critics of regulation have a number of accusations against the regulatory system. It raises prices. It hurts America’s competitive position abroad. It does not always work well.
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Slide 50
LO 15.4
Bureaucracies as Regulators
• Deregulation (cont.) • Deregulation critics – Point out that deregulation does not protect the public against severe environmental damage and power shortages, failures in the savings and loan industry, and bursts in real estate market.
Deregulation Critics of deregulation Critics of deregulation point to severe environmental damage resulting from lax enforcement of environmental protection standards during the Reagan administration. Many observers attribute at least a substantial portion of the blame for the enormously expensive bailout of the savings and loan industry to the deregulation of it in the 1980s.
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Slide 51
It is so very important to assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government.
Understanding Bureaucracies LO 15.5: Assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government.
• Bureaucracy and Democracy • Bureaucracy and the Scope of Government
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Slide 52
LO 15.5
Understanding Bureaucracies
• Bureaucracy and Democracy • Popular control of government depends on elections, but we do not elect the 4.2 million federal employees. • The fact that voters do not elect civil servants does not mean that bureaucracies cannot respond to and represent the public’s interests. To Learning Objectives
Bureaucracy and Democracy In democratic theory, popular control of government depends on elections, but we could not possibly elect the 4.2 million federal civilian and military employees (or even the few thousand top men and women). The fact that voters do not elect civil servants does not mean that bureaucracies cannot respond to and represent the public’s interests. Much depends on whether bureaucracies are effectively controlled by the policymakers that citizens do elect—the president and Congress.
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Slide 53
LO 15.5
Understanding Bureaucracies
• Bureaucracy and Democracy (cont.) • Presidents – Methods to control the bureaucracy are (1) appoint the right people to head the agency; (2) issue executive orders; (3) alter an agency’s budget; and (4) reorganize an agency.
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Slide 54
LO 15.5
Understanding Bureaucracies
• Bureaucracy and Democracy (cont.) • Congress – Methods to control the bureaucracy are (1) influence the appointment of agency heads; (2) alter an agency’s budget; (3) hold hearings; and (4) rewrite the legislation or make it more detailed.
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Bureaucracy and Democracy Presidents try to impose their policy preferences on agencies, using some of the following methods: Appoint the right people to head the agency: putting their people in charge is one good way for presidents to influence agency policy. Issue orders: Presidents can issue executive orders to agencies; or presidential aides can pass the word that “the president was wondering if . . .” Tinker with an agency’s budget: the Office of Management and Budget is the president’s own final authority on any agency’s budget (but each agency has its own constituents within and outside of Congress, and it is Congress that appropriates funds). Reorganize an agency: although President Reagan promised to abolish the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, he never succeeded—largely because each was in the hands of an entrenched bureaucracy, backed by elements in Congress and strong constituent groups. Bureaucracy and Democracy Measures Congress can take to oversee the bureaucracy: Influence the appointment of agency heads: even when senatorial approval of a presidential appointment is not required, members of Congress may be influential. Tinker with an agency’s budget: the congressional power of the purse is a powerful weapon for controlling bureaucratic behavior. Hold hearings: committees and subcommittees can hold periodic hearings as part of their oversight job. Rewrite the legislation or make it more detailed: Congress can write new or more detailed legislation to limit bureaucratic discretion and make its instructions clearer.
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Slide 55
LO 15.5
Understanding Bureaucracies
• Bureaucracy and Democracy (cont.) • Iron Triangles – Subgovernments; a mutually dependent and advantageous relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. • Iron triangles dominate some areas of domestic policymaking. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 56
LO 15.5
Bureaucracy and Democracy Iron triangles is one other crucial explanation for the difficulty presidents and Congress face in controlling bureaucracies. When agencies, groups, and committees all depend on one another and are in close, frequent contact, they form iron triangles (or subgovernments). Iron triangles have dominated some areas of domestic policymaking by combining internal consensus with a virtual monopoly on information in their area. Iron triangles are characterized by mutual dependency, in which each element provides key services, information, or policy for the others (illustrated by the tobacco triangle). These subgovernments can add a strong decentralizing and fragmenting element to the policymaking process. Figure 15.4 Iron Triangles: One Example
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Slide 57
LO 15.5
Understanding Bureaucracies
• Bureaucracy and Democracy (cont.) • Issue Networks – Have led to more widespread participation in bureaucratic policymaking. • They include many participants who have technical policy expertise and are drawn to issues because of intellectual or emotional commitments rather than material interests. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Bureaucracy and Democracy Issue networks is one other crucial explanation for the difficulty presidents and Congress face in controlling bureaucracies. Heclo points out that the system of subgovernments is now overlaid with a system of issue networks, with more widespread participation in bureaucratic policymaking, and many of the participants have technical policy expertise and are drawn to issues because of intellectual or emotional commitments rather than material interests. This opening of the policymaking process decreases the predictability of those involved in the stable and relatively narrow relationships of subgovernments. Despite the fact that subgovernments often are able to dominate policymaking for decades, they are not indestructible; policies of the tobacco triangle, for one, have increasingly come under fire from health authorities.
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Slide 58
LO 15.5
Understanding Bureaucracies
• Bureaucracy and the Scope of Government • Size of federal bureaucracy has shrunk compared to labor force. • Agencies need more resources to do what they are expected to do. • Bureaucracy carry out policies, but Congress and the president decide what government does. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 59
Bureaucracy and the Scope of Government The federal bureaucracy has not grown over the past two generations; in fact, the bureaucracy has shrunk in size relative to the population it serves. Originally, the federal bureaucracy had a modest role; but as the economy and the society of the United States changed, additional demands were made on government. Considering the more active role the bureaucracy is expected to play in dealing with social and economic problems, a good case can be made that the bureaucracy is actually too small for many of the tasks currently assigned to it (such as the control of illicit drugs or the protection of the environment). LO 15.1: Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs.
LO 15.1 Summary • The Bureaucrats • Bureaucrats perform vital services the federal government provides, although their number has not grown, even as the population has increased and the public has made additional demands on government. • Bureaucrats shape policy as administrators, as implementors, and as regulators.
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Slide 60
LO 15.1: Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs.
LO 15.1 Summary • The Bureaucrats (cont.) • Most federal bureaucrats get their jobs through the civil service system; as a group, these civil servants are broadly representative of the American people. • The top policymaking posts, however, are filled through presidential appointments, often with Senate confirmation.
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Slide 61
LO 15.1
The civil service system was designed to
The civil service system was designed to ______. D. all of the above. (LO 15.1)
A. hire and promote bureaucrats on the basis of merit. B. produce an administration with talent and skill. C. protect workers from politically motivated firings. D. all of the above. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 62
LO 15.1
The civil service system was designed to
The civil service system was designed to ______. D. all of the above. (LO 15.1)
A. hire and promote bureaucrats on the basis of merit. B. produce an administration with talent and skill. C. protect workers from politically motivated firings. D. all of the above. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 63
LO 15.2: Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized.
LO 15.2 Summary • How Bureaucracies Are Organized • The organization of the federal bureaucracy categorizes agencies into four types: cabinet departments, independent regulatory commissions, government corporations, and independent executive agencies. • The 15 cabinet departments each manage a specific policy area.
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Slide 64
LO 15.2: Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized.
LO 15.2 Summary • How Bureaucracies Are Organize (cont.) • Independent regulatory commissions make and enforce rules in a particular sector of the economy. • Government corporations provide services and charge for services. • Independent executive agencies account for most of the rest of the federal bureaucracy. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
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Slide 65
LO 15.2
Which of the following is NOT one of the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized?
Which of the following is NOT one of the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized? D. Independent Legislative Agencies (LO 15.2)
A. Cabinet Departments B. Independent Regulatory Commissions C. Government Corporations D. Independent Legislative Agencies To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 66
LO 15.2
Which of the following is NOT one of the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized?
Which of the following is NOT one of the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized? D. Independent Legislative Agencies (LO 15.2)
A. Cabinet Departments B. Independent Regulatory Commissions C. Government Corporations D. Independent Legislative Agencies To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 67
LO 15.3: Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy.
LO 15.3 Summary • Bureaucracies as Implementors • As policy implementors, bureaucrats translate legislative policy goals into programs. • The policy or program design and the clarity of the legislation or regulations being implemented influence the effectiveness of policy implementation.
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Slide 68
LO 15.3: Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy.
LO 15.3 Summary • Bureaucracies as Implementors (cont.) • The resources available for implementation; the ability of administrators to depart from SOPs when necessary; and the disposition of administrators toward the policy they implement influence the effectiveness of policy implementation.
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Slide 69
LO 15.3: Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy.
LO 15.3 Summary • Bureaucracies as Implementors • The extent to which responsibility for policy implementation is concentrated rather than dispersed across agencies influence the effectiveness of policy implementation.
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Slide 70
Which of the following is NOT one of the three main factors that make policy implementation difficult?
A. B. C. D.
LO 15.3
Which of the following is NOT one of the three main factors that make policy implementation difficult? D. clear goals (LO 15.3)
faulty program design unclear laws lack of resources clear goals
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Slide 71
Which of the following is NOT one of the three main factors that make policy implementation difficult?
A. B. C. D.
LO 15.3
Which of the following is NOT one of the three main factors that make policy implementation difficult? D. clear goals (LO 15.3)
faulty program design unclear laws lack of resources clear goals
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Slide 72
LO 15.4: Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation.
LO 15.4 Summary • Bureaucracies as Regulators • Congress increasingly delegates large amounts of power to bureaucratic agencies to develop rules regulating practices in the private sector. • Agencies apply and enforce their rules, in court or through administrative procedures.
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Slide 73
LO 15.4: Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation.
LO 15.4 Summary • Bureaucracies as Regulators (cont.) • Regulation affects most areas of American society, and criticism that regulations are overly complicated and burdensome has led to a movement to deregulate. • However, many regulations have proved beneficial, and deregulation has itself resulted in policy failures.
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Slide 74
LO 15.4
Government is the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector.
A. B. C. D.
Government is the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. A. regulation (LO 15.4)
regulation command-and-control policy incentive system deregulation To Learning Objectives
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Slide 75
LO 15.4
Government is the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector.
A. B. C. D.
Government is the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. A. regulation (LO 15.4)
regulation command-and-control policy incentive system deregulation To Learning Objectives
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Slide 76
LO 15.5: Assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government.
LO 15.5 Summary • Understanding Bureaucracies • Bureaucrats are not elected, but they are competent and reasonably representative of Americans. • The president and Congress try to control the bureaucracies, but iron triangles challenge their control. • The role of government and hence the size of the bureaucracy depends more on voters than on bureaucrats. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
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Slide 77
The development of subgovernments to include a system of issue networks ensures more
LO 15.5
The development of subgovernments to include a system of issue networks ensures more ______. D. widespread participation in the policy process. (LO 15.5)
A. presidents are now involved in all policy areas. B. subgovernments are virtually impossible to dismantle. C. policymaking is stable and predictable. D. widespread participation in the policy process. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 78
The development of subgovernments to include a system of issue networks ensures more
LO 15.5
The development of subgovernments to include a system of issue networks ensures more ______. D. widespread participation in the policy process. (LO 15.5)
A. presidents are now involved in all policy areas. B. subgovernments are virtually impossible to dismantle. C. policymaking is stable and predictable. D. widespread participation in the policy process. To Learning Objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 79
Text Credits •
•
• •
•
U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2010 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2010),Table 486. Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2011: Analytical Perspectives (W ashington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2010),Tables 23-1 and 23-2. United States Office of Personnel Management, Profile of Federal Civilian Non-Postal Employees, September 30, 2008. Federal Register, Office of the Federal Register, United States Government Manual 2009-2010 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2010), 21. Office of the Federal Register, United States Government Manual 2009–2010 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2010), 240.
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Slide 80
Photo Credits • • • • • • •
434: AP Photos 443T: Jim West/The Image Works 433TC: Chuck Nacke/Woodfin Camp 433TB: Brian Pohorylo/Corbis 433B: Jack Kurtz/The Image Works 440: “Lot #1” 444: Jim West/the Image Works
• • • • • •
443: Chuck Nacke/Woodfin Camp 444: Brian Pohoryllo/Corbis 454: Joe Heller 449: Jack Kurtz/The Image Works 451: Bettmann/Corbis 448: Frank Cotham/The New Yorker Collection/www.cartoonbank.com
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B.
Additional Lecture Suggestions
¾15.1 Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs • • • • • • • •
Bureaucratic organizations exist in many institutions, such as colleges and businesses, as well as government. All have a hierarchy for leadership and organization, and a specified designation of responsibility for each level. Bureaucracies are by nature resistant to change, and civil service protections make it difficult to motivate bureaucratic employees. With a base in Washington, D.C. and agency offices spread across the country, federal agencies find it difficult to supervise local offices. List the kinds and functions that federal bureaucrats perform. Name four functions or jobs that bureaucrats perform. Name four agencies that bureaucrats work with or for. Explain the spoils system utilized by federal bureaucrats and why it didn’t work. Name three characteristics of the civil service system. Trace the struggle to replace the spoils system with a merit system and explain how this led to problems to responsiveness and productivity.
¾15.2 Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized •
•
• •
•
The federal bureaucracy has evolved to respond to growing demands for government involvement in social and economic issues. Today the bureaucracy includes four types of organizational entities: departments, independent agencies, independent regulatory commissions, and government corporations. While the bureaucratic departments and agencies are not enumerated in the Constitution, Articles I and II both refer to their creation in order to implement the laws. The creation and growth of specific departments resulted from the need to address specific policy issues, such as taxation, defense, commerce, and issues of industrialization and the economy. Some bureaucratic organizations are created as cabinet-level departments, while other agencies may rise to that status as the related policy area is seen as being worthy of such a designation. Explain the differences between departments, independent agencies, independent regulatory commissions, and government corporations. Today there are 15 cabinet-level departments or agencies, ranging in size from under 4500 employees to over 3 million in the Department of Defense. The president takes several factors into account when nominating department heads: political and party loyalty, public image, and diversity among them. Experience and expertise in the policy area plays a role in some cases, but is not always a factor. Senate approval of the president’s nominees is generally automatic, although some appointees have received greater scrutiny and some have been denied the appointment by the Senate. Independent agencies, independent regulatory commissions, and government corporations cover a diverse group of bureaucratic agencies. Some have responsibility for a specific government facility or program, or for administering grants. Others are regulatory agencies, generally headed by a commission with members representing both major parties. Government corporations provide services that might be handled instead by private corporations. Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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•
• • •
Bureaucracy evolves in response to the need to implement policy effectively and accountably. Advantages of bureaucracy include enhancing standardization, expertise and competence, accountability, and coordination in policymaking. The beginning of the civil service system in 1883 (with the Pendleton Act) helped to professionalize and depoliticize the bureaucracy to some extent, replacing the spoils (or patronage) system that existed previously. Suggested reforms for making bureaucracy more effective include decentralization and privatization. Explain three advantages of using a bureaucratic system to implement laws and public policy. List and describe some government corporations.
¾15.3 Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy • • •
Cite an example of “red-tape”. Bureaucratic officials at the upper levels of federal agencies can impact policy by formulating rules that specify how broad statutes should be implemented. Lower-level officials can affect the implementation of policy through their routine actions. Americans generally have a negative image of the bureaucracy, perceiving most agencies to have uncaring and inefficient employees who use “red tape” and complicated rules to create obstacles for citizens seeking help. Federal agencies are seen as distant from the people and slow to respond to citizens’ needs.
¾15.4 Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation •
Agencies hold various types of hearings to examine information and issue decisions that interpret statutes and regulations. These adjudicative processes may be used to determine whether laws or regulations have been violated, or whether citizens have received their due benefits. They may also adjudicate disputes between parties over compliance with regulations.
¾15.5 Assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government •
•
The concept of iron triangles refers to the relationships between interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies that share interest in a policy area. The iron triangles framework as an explanation of policy outcomes has been replaced by the idea of issue networks (or policy committees), reflecting a broader group of actors focused on an issue and the interactions that take place among them, including lobbying and other influence-making activities. Issue networks also include the “revolving door” experience that accompanied iron triangles. Within the boundaries established by congressional legislation, agency-made regulations fill in the details for implementing policy. Interest groups often lobby the agencies to adopt Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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•
• • • • • •
regulations that favor their interests. Presidents also influence bureaucratic regulations through their appointments and influence over bureaucrats. All three branches of government exercise some control over the bureaucracy. The president wields power through political appointments. Congress engages in oversight through hearings about policy issues and bureaucratic actions, by passing legislation to direct bureaucratic action, and by control over the budget. The courts have a say when lawsuits involving agencies are brought into court and through appeals of administrative decisions to higher levels. Describe the manner in which Congress exercises oversight of the bureaucracy. Differentiate the different approaches to overseeing, and in some instances, reforming the bureaucracy. Name two ways Congress and the president exercise control through appointments. Trace the size and scope of the federal bureaucracy. Discuss the limited power of the president to control the bureaucracy. List methods by which the president can control the bureaucracy.
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IV. Student Assignments – Post-Lecture A.
Class Discussion Questions
¾15.1 Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs • • • • •
How are positions in the federal bureaucracy filled? What role do political leaders play in staffing the federal bureaucracy? What is a bureaucracy? Think about any personal experiences you have had with federal agencies. How helpful and responsive were the agencies you dealt with? Did you encounter obstacles to getting your problems resolved? Almost 25 percent of the civilian federal government employees work for the Army, the Navy, or the Air Force. Should Congress cut some of these positions, or do decisions like that have to be left to the military?
¾15.2 Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized • • • •
How is the federal bureaucracy organized? Why are certain bureaucratic organizations deemed important enough to be cabinet departments while others are not? What are the advantages and disadvantages of government corporations such as Amtrak or the U.S. Post Office? Why was the Office of Homeland Security established? To date, has the office made a positive difference in homeland security? Do you feel safer knowing that this office is operating? What should the role of the Department of Homeland Security be? How might the role of this department differ from the role the military has always played in domestic issues?
¾15.3 Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy •
Private alternatives to the U.S. Postal System have expanded tremendously in recent years. Do you think other government services could be provided more efficiently through private means? Are there privately provided services that would be better handled through government agencies, perhaps to provide more equitable access to all citizens?
¾15.4 Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation • • • •
How do agencies create rules? Why are rules sometimes referred to as “quasi-legislation”? Do bureaucrats have a judicial function? How can deregulation backfire?
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¾15.5 Assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government • • •
Maximizing democratic accountability in the bureaucracy may conflict with other things we care about. Are there ways in which decreasing the scope of bureaucratic discretion could also have the effect of reducing the efficiency and effectiveness of bureaucratic institutions? How much control does the president have over the organization and operation of the federal bureaucracy? How much control does each branch of government have over the bureaucracy? Describe the tools that each branch can use to keep the bureaucracy in check.
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B.
Class Activities
¾15.1 Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs •
•
One way to help your students understand civil service rules and merit systems is through personal examples. Ask your students if any of them have relatives or friends who work in the state or federal bureaucracy (undoubtedly some do).When they volunteer, query them on what that person does, and how they got their job. Have students debate a return to the spoils system as a way of strengthening political parties and increasing the president’s control over the bureaucracy.
¾15.2 Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized • •
• •
Have students outline a plan to create a new bureaucratic agency to address a social problem that is not currently being met by government. Be sure to think about where the agency would reside, how many employees it would need, and what budget would be necessary. Have students act as a committee of presidential advisors to discuss the formation of the Department of Homeland Security. See http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/history/editorial_0133.shtm to see which former agencies became part of the department and how they are now organized, and http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/DHS_OrgChart.pdf for an organizational chart of the department. Take a look at the map of offices for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the Department of Labor at http://www.osha.gov/html/RAmap.html Click through the map and links to see the locations of the many OSHA offices. Have students do a brief report on the current heads of the cabinet departments.
¾15.3 Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy •
Divide your class into several small groups. Have each group identify an agency of the federal government that is located in your community and arrange to interview an employee of that agency. Students should review the functions and purposes of the agency and should be prepared with questions to ask before they appear for the interview. For example, they might ask the person they interview to describe his or her job, how candidates are selected for that particular position, what potential there is for promotion within the federal bureaucracy, and what effects he or she thinks the agency has on the local community.
¾15.4 Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation •
Ask your students to keep a log of their activities for a couple of days with the purpose of seeing the impact of government regulation on their lives. This could lead to a lively class discussion. Here is an example of what might be found and if you include state and local regulations, the list becomes nearly endless. Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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•
• • •
• •
• •
Student wakes up to the radio alarm clock for an 8:00 am class. The radio stations are regulated by the Federal Communications Commission which helps insure that the student will get a clear signal leaving them one less excuse for why they were late for class. Student makes bed. The material used for their blanket, mattress, or both may be resistant to fire due to government regulations. Student gets in car to drive to campus. Lots of regulations here, most local, but some, like the speed limit, may have been “urged” by the states. The car probably has a catalytic converter as required by the government. Student goes to Taco Bell for a chicken or beef soft taco. The meat would have to have been inspected by the government and meet certain specifications. Years ago U.S. News and World Report found tens of thousands of government regulations that covered meat and other animal products sold at a fast food establishment. Student gets to class. Again, the suggestions for regulations are almost endless, from EXIT signs in the classroom buildings (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) to affirmative action (1964 Civil Rights Act and amendments). Student picks up mail and finds they have been sent a book that they did not order. The government, just to mention one postal regulation, does not require people to pay for unsolicited merchandise if certain procedures are followed. There are, of course, many other government regulations concerning the postal system. Student goes swimming in the afternoon. The government requires public swimming pools to periodically check the water for impurities and proper levels of chlorine. Student goes to bed after lots of studying. There is probably a tag on the pillow required by the government that states, “Do not remove under penalty of law.” This is to guarantee that the materials placed inside the pillow were sanitary when the pillow was sewn together.
¾15.5 Assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government •
How has the federal government changed over the past ten years? Has it grown larger or smaller, strengthened or weakened, become more centralized or less centralized, etc.?
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C.
Research Assignments
¾15.1 Describe the federal bureaucrats and the ways in which they obtain their jobs • •
•
•
Read about the provisions of the Pendleton Act (http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/28.htm) and the Hatch Act. How did these pieces of legislation overcome the patronage system? For a reading and writing connection, have students conduct interviews with civil service employees at three different local bureaucratic agencies, preferably at the same levels. Have the student design a set of survey questions about the qualifications of the job and what kind of preparation a person would need to secure that kind of job. Encourage students to explore the popular myths about bureaucrats. In addition, have students ask questions about how much discretion each respondent has and how much interest groups and political appointees place on them. Then have students write an essay comparing and contrasting the respondents’ answers with the material in the text as well as with each other. Have students investigate the qualifications for a job in a federal agency of their choice using the government documents section of the library or government agency Web sites. Starting with the top appointed position to the street-level civil service positions, have them detail the qualifications stated in the government literature. Then have them examine, from biographical resources, who fills those positions now. Have students write an essay comparing the standards set with the qualifications of those in office. In particular, ask them whether they think merit standards have been met, at least in the civil service positions. Research the appointments made by President Barack Obama and identify individuals who occupy positions that are political “plums.”
¾15.2 Differentiate the four types of agencies into which the federal bureaucracy is organized •
•
•
The Postal Service has changed its relationship with the government over time. Students should research the history of the Postal Service, its past and present ties to the government, its effectiveness, and reputation. Many of us complain incessantly about the mail. Are we justified? How are rate increases determined? If we are truly unhappy, what avenues of complaint are open? Give your class an assignment to look up in the United States Government Manual. For example, have students locate information on a variety of federal agencies such as the Congressional Budget Office, the White House Office, Department of Justice, Federal Emergency Management Agency, and the Smithsonian Institution. Students should determine how each of these organizations is classified. This is a valuable reference source. Ask your students to learn what kind of information can be located in the Manual. Access the Web site http://www.whitehouse.gov, click on “Your Government,” and then click on the “Cabinet.” Have students choose a cabinet department in which they are particularly interested (perhaps related to their major or occupation) and, using last fiscal year’s budget, identify the budget for this department.
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¾15.3 Identify the factors that influence the effectiveness of bureaucratic implementation of public policy •
•
• •
Locate individuals at your institution who has participated in an internship with a government entity. Ask them about their specific duties. Discuss with them the challenges of working in a bureaucratic agency. See if they have an example of red tape. Discuss with them a specific public policy issue that they worked on. Students can interview “street level bureaucrats” (such as teachers and firefighters) or federal bureaucrats in your community about their jobs. Compare their responses to stereotypes and preconceptions about bureaucracy. What values predominantly guide decision making in these agencies or organizations: accountability, efficiency, equity, or technical expertise? How do these jobs embody the advantages and practical problems of having a bureaucracy? What issue networks exist in connection with these agencies? Search online for articles and information about the privatization of federal prisons in the United States. Outline the potential advantages and disadvantages of privatizing portions of the federal criminal justice system. Ask students to investigate the creation of the Department of Homeland Security in 2002. For a reading and writing connection, ask students to write an essay applying the principles of this chapter to this new department. How does this department (its mission and creation) illustrate fundamental issues regarding bureaucratic organization, efficiency, and effectiveness? What is the likely success of the agency in meeting its goals?
¾15.4 Describe how bureaucracies regulate, and assess deregulation and alternative approaches to regulation •
•
Ask your students to go to the Web site of the Food and Drug Administration (or another regulatory agency of your choice) and ask them to provide an example of how this agency regulates products to protect consumers. (This information can often easily be pulled from the headlines of a current newspaper.) Have each student select one of the independent regulatory agencies and write a brief essay on the history and powers of the agency. Ask students to focus on the “capture” theory and try to determine how well—or how poorly—the theory fits the agency the student selected.
¾15.5 Assess means of controlling unelected bureaucrats in American democracy and the impact of the bureaucracy on the scope of government •
One of the oldest bureaucratic departments is the Department of State. Have students do some research to determine how they have reorganized over the years to cope with new challenges and directives. How large is the DOS? What functions does it perform? What is its budget? How effective is it in carrying out its goals?
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V. Quantitative Assessment Administer Chapter Exam (see Test Bank, Chapter 15) × Return to Chapter 15: Table of Contents
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VI. Resources for Further Study A.
Books
1. Aberbach, J. D. (1990). Keeping a watchful eye: The politics of Congressional oversight. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 2. Arnold, P. (1998). Making the managerial presidency: Comprehensive reorganization planning, 1905–1996 (2nd ed.). Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. 3. Beetham, D. (1996). Bureaucracy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 4. Behn, R. D. (2001). Rethinking democratic accountability. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 5. Derthick, M., & Quirk, P. J. (1985). The politics of deregulation. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 6. DiIulio, J. J., Jr., Garvey, G., & Kettl, D. F. (1993). Improving government performance: An owner’s manual. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 7. Downs, A. (1967). Inside bureaucracy. Boston: Little, Brown. 8. Fesler, J. W., & Kettl, D. F. (1991). The politics of the administrative process. London: Chatham House Publishers. 9. Fritschler, A. L., & Rudder, C. (2006). Smoking and politics: bureaucracy centered policymaking. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. 10. Goodsell, C. T. (2003). The case for bureaucracy: A public administration polemic. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press. 11. Gore, A. (1993). Creating a government that works better and costs less: The report of the national performance review. New York: Plume-Penguin. 12. Gormley, W. T., Jr., & Balla, S. J. (2007). Bureaucracy and democracy: Accountability and performance (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press. 13. Kaufman, H. (2006). The forest ranger: A study in administrative behavior. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future. 14. Kerwin, C. M. (1999). Rulemaking: How government agencies write law and make policy (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press. 15. Kingdon, J. W. (1995). Agendas, alternatives, and public policies (2nd ed.). New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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16. Krause, G. A., & Meier, K. J. (Eds.). (2003). Politics, policy, and organizations: Frontiers in the scientific study of bureaucracy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 17. Light, P. C. (1995). Thickening government: Federal hierarchy and the diffusion of accountability. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 18. Light, P. C. (1999). The new public service. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 19. Lipsky, M. (1983). Street level bureaucracy. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications. 20. Lubbers, J. (2006). A guide to federal agency rule making. Chicago: American Bar Association. 21. Makenzie, G. C., & Hafkin, M. (2002). Scandal proof: Do ethics laws make government ethical? Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 22. Maxwell, B. (1999). How to access the federal government on the internet. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press. 23. Meier, K. J., & Bohte, J. (2006). Politics and the bureaucracy: Policymaking in the fourth branch of government. Belmont: Wadsworth. 24. Meier, K. J., & O'Toole, L. J. (2006). Bureaucracy in a democratic State: A governance perspective. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 25. Niskanen, W., Jr. (2007). Bureaucracy and representative government. Chicago: Aldine Transaction. 26. Obermeyer, N. J. (1989). Bureaucrats, clients, and geography: How clients influence the geography of public policy outcomes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 27. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. United States Government Manual. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office (published annually). 28. Osborne, D., & Plastrik, P. (1998). Banishing bureaucracy: The five strategies for reinventing government. Boulder: Perseus Press. 29. Osborne, D., & Gaebler, T. (1992). Reinventing government: How the entrepreneurial spirit is transforming the public sector. Reading: Addison-Wesley. 30. Page, E., & Jenkins, B. (2005). Policy bureaucracy: Government with a cast of thousands. New York: Oxford University Press.
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31. Page, E. (1985). Political authority and bureaucratic power: A comparative analysis. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. 32. Peters, B. G. (2001). The politics of bureaucracy. New York: Routledge. 33. Pinchot, G. (1993). The end of bureaucracy and the rise of the intelligent organization. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. 34. Pressman, J., & Wildavsky, A. (1984). Implementation (3rd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. 35. Reich, R. B. (1998). Locked in the cabinet. New York: Vintage. 36. Salamon, L. M. (1989). Beyond privatization: The tools of government action. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press. 37. Savas, E. S. (1987). Privatization: The key to better government. London: Chatham House Publishers. 38. Schwartz, B., Corranda, R. L., Brown, J. R. (2006). Administrative law: A casebook. New York: Aspen Law & Business. 39. Selden, S. C. (1997). The promise of representative bureaucracy. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. 40. Stillman, R. J., II. (2003). American bureaucracy. Belmont and London: Wadsworth. 41. Terry, L. D. (2003). Leadership of public bureaucracies: The administrator as conservator. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. 42. Weaver, K., & Rockman, B. (Eds.). (1993). Do institutions matter? Government capabilities at home and abroad. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. 43. Weber, M. (1968). Economy and society. (G. Roth & C. Wittich, Trans. and Eds.). New York: Bedminster Press. 44. Wilson, J. Q. (2000). Bureaucracy: What government agencies do and why they do it. New York: Basic Books. 45. Wood, B. D., & Waterman, R. W. (1994). Bureaucratic dynamics: The role of bureaucracy in a democracy. Boulder: Westview Press. × Return to Chapter 15: Table of Contents B.
Articles
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1. Aberbach, J. D., & Rockman, B. A. (1988, March–April).Mandates or mandarins? Control and discretion in the modern administrative state. Public Administration Review, 48, 606– 612. 2. Calvert, R. L., McCubbins, M., & Weingast, B. R. (1989, August). A theory of political control and agency discretion. American Journal of Political Science, 33(3), 588–611. 3. Christensen, T., & Lægreid, P. (Eds.). (2007). The whole-of-government approach to public sector reform [in the US]. Public Administration Review, 67(6), 549–559. 4. Cooper, J., & West, W. F. (1988, November). Presidential power and republican government: The theory and practice of OMB review of agency rules. Journal of Politics, 50(4), 864– 895. 5. Durant, R. F. (1993, November–December). Hazardous waste, regulatory reform and the Reagan revolution: The ironies of an activist approach to deactivating bureaucracy. Public Administration Review, 53(6), 550–560. 6. Kelman, S. (1985, Winter). The grace commission: How much waste in government? The Public Interest, 62–82. 7. Lee, S-H. (2001, April). Does performance-base pay motivate? P.A. Times. 8. Lewis, G. B. (1988, May–June). Progress toward racial and sexual equality in the federal civil service? Public Administration Review, 48(3), 700–707. 9. Moe, R. C. (1994, March–April).The re-inventing government’ exercise: misinterpreting the problem, misjudging the consequences. Public Administration Review, 54(2), 111–122. 10. Peters, B. G. (2008, December). Debate: The two futures of public administration. Public Money & Management, 28(6), 323–326. 11. Posner, B. Z., & Schmidt, W. A. (1994, January–February). An updated look at the values and expectations of federal government executives. Public Administration Review, 54(1), 20–24. × Return to Chapter 15: Table of Contents C.
Media
1. 13 Days. (film–2001). Account of the Kennedy administration’s handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis. 2. Bureaucracy of Government. (1988). Films for the Humanities and Sciences. A video examining the liberal and conservative commentary concerning the value and problems of bureaucracy. Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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× Return to Chapter 15: Table of Contents D.
Web Resources
1. The American Society for Public Administration. http://www.aspanet.org/scriptcontent/index_patimes.cfm 2. Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management. http://www.appam.org/home.asp 3. The Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/ 4. Department of Agriculture. http://www.usda.gov/ 5. Department of Commerce. http://www.commerce.gov/ 6. Department of Defense. http://www.defenselink.mil/ 7. Department of Education. http://www.ed.gov/ 8. Department of Energy. http://www.energy.gov/ 9. Department of Health and Human Services. http://www.os.dhhs.gov/ 10. Department of Homeland Security. http://www.dhs.gov/ 11. Department of Housing and Urban Development. http://www.hud.gov/ 12. Department of Interior. http://www.doi.gov/ 13. Department of Justice. http://www.usdoj.gov/ 14. Department of Labor. http://www.dol.gov/ 15. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/ 16. Department of Transportation. http://www.dot.gov/ 17. Department of Treasury. http://www.ustreas.gov/ 18. Department of Veteran's Affairs. http://www.va.gov/ 19. The Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/ 20. Executive Branch. http://www.whitehouse.gov/government/exec.html
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21. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). http://www.fema.gov/ 22. The Federal Register. http://www.gpoaccess.gov/fr/ 23. FedWorld is a comprehensive index of federal government agencies, searchable by keyword. Access to thousands of U.S. government Web sites, more than a 1/2 million U.S. government documents, databases, and other information products with links to the FedWorld File Libraries and other sources. http://www.fedworld.gov/ 24. Government Executive. http://www.govexec.com/ 25. Government Made Easy. http://www.usa.gov/ 26. National Journal. http://www.nationaljournal.com/njonline/ 27. The Office of Management and Budget. http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/ 28. The Office of Personnel Management. http://www.opm.gov/ 29. The President’s Cabinet. http://www.whitehouse.gov/government/cabinet.html 30. USA Services. http://info.gov/ 31. Washington Monthly. http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/ 32. The White House has a section on President Barack Obama’s Cabinet complete with pictures and biographies. http://www.whitehouse.gov/government/cabinet.html × Return to Chapter 15: Table of Contents
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