Chapter 12

Human Development

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Exploring Human Development „ What is Development? „

The pattern of change in human capabilities that begins at conception and d continues ti th throughout h t th the lif life span

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Biological, Cognitive and Socioemotional Processes

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Three Critical Questions in Development Psychology… 1. How much of development is influenced by genetics and how much is influenced by the environment?

Nature versus Nurture debate!

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Nature versus Nurture Argument Nature „ We are born with innate skills, abilities, and

perceptions. „

Maturation: developmental changes brought about by genetic signals „ „

Genes send signals Æ reproductive changes Blueprint that guides our physical and emotional development (crawl-walk-run / coo-babble-talk)

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Reference: Robert S. Feldman, Understanding Psychology, 5th Ed.

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Cont…

Nurture „ We are a clean slate—tabula rasa—at birth and

the environment we live in determines who and what we become. 7

Cont… Interactionist Perspective „ Both nature and nurture play equal roles in

our development.

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Researching Nature vs. Nurture „ Determining the relative influence of nature and nurture video „

Study of identical twins twins, including twins separated at birth.

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Three Critical Questions in Developmental Psychology… 2. Is development a gradual continuum or is it a sequence of separate stages?

It Depends… 10

Cont. „ Researchers who emphasize experience

believe it is a continuous process.

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Cont. „ Researchers who emphasize biological

maturation see it as a predetermined set of stages/steps.

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Three Critical Questions in Development Psychology… 3. Do our traits persist throughout our lives or do we change as we age? AGAIN…It Depends…

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Cont. „ Some psychologists researchers (Humanists and

Gerontologists especially) view human development as a life-long process.

„ Others believe that basic temperament/personality

develops early and remains constant throughout our lifetime (Freud, for instance).

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Exploring Human Development „ Do Early Experiences Rule Us for Life? „

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The “early experience” doctrine proposes that after early development, we become relatively fixed and permanent in our makeup. makeup The “later experience” advocates propose that children are malleable, and caregiving is important across the life span. Most developmentalists believe that both early and later experience make important contributions to development. 15

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Researching Stability and Change… „ Cross-Sectional Research „ Compare groups at one time „ „ „

Get information quickly Less expensive (compared to longitudinal work) Disadvantage: Cohort effect

„ Longitudinal Research „

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Follow individuals for a long period of time Eliminates cohort effect Disadvantage: Expensive, attrition, takes a long time to see results.

„ Sequential Research „ A combination

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Infant & Childhood Development

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Exploring Human Development Genotype and Phenotype „ Genotype is the individual’s genetic heritage. „ Phenotype Ph t i th is the way th the genotype t iis expressed in observable, measurable characteristics

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Child Development „ Prenatal Development and Birth „

The Course of Prenatal Development „

Three Prenatal Periods ƒ The germinal period is the time from conception until til the th zygote t attaches tt h to t the th uterine t i ƒ The embryonic period is the time period from 3 to 8 weeks after conception. ƒ The fetal period begins two months after conception and lasts, on average, 7 months.

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Teratogens ƒ any nongenetic agent that causes a birth defect, including heroin and alcohol. 19

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Child Development „ Physical Development „ Reflexes „ „

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Motor and Perceptual Skills „

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The infant enters the world equipped with a variety of reflexes. Many reflexes weaken or disappear around 6 months of age, gg grasping, p g sucking, g stepping, pp g and startle reflexes. including Physical development in the first two years is dramatic: by 12 months, infants can sit, stand, climb, and walk.

The Brain „

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Synaptic connections dramatically increase as dendrites branch out. If dendrites and synapses are not being stimulated by new experiences, children’s brains are less likely to develop normally. 21

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Synaptic Density: Infancy to Adulthood

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Physical and Motor Development „ Physical Development „ „

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Development during the first 2 years is phenomenal! We do not experience such a spurt of development at any other time in our lives. „ By age 2, brain is 75% adult size and weight „ By age 5, brain is 90% adult size and weight We are born with a finite number of brain cells! The human nervous system (brain, spinal cord, neural networks) is only beginning to form. These connections enable us to walk, talk, and remember. 23

Cont. „ Learning at this stage is

an interaction between experience and nervous system development— each hh helps l th the other. th

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Cont. „ Sensory and perceptual development

NEWBORNS „

Can distinguish between different odors, ttastes, t and d they th have h a wellll d developed l d sense of pain!

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Cont. NEWBORNS „

Vision „ Newborns: 20/200-600 „ By 6 months: 20/100 „ By 2 yrs: almost 20/20

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Sound „ Hear sounds: last few months in the womb

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Language Development „ The Pre-Linguistic Stage: „ Nonverbal (facial expressions, body gestures, eye contact) „ Crying (hunger, pain, anger) „ Cooing (2 months – aah, ooh, eee) „ Babbling B bbli (6 months th – can produce d almost all human sounds) „ Linguistic Stage: „ 1 year – sound related to meaning „ One word utterances (e.g., mama, dada, etc.) „ Between 1 and 2, string words (e.g., want candy)

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Cont. NEWBORNS

Love and Need Tactile Stimulation! „

Touch Therapy „

Infant mortality rates in the 3rd world, & during war.

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Cont. Rosenzweig Study (1984) Differences in rats’ brain size as a result of noncommunal vs. communal environment.

Group 2

Group 1 30

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Cont. Rosenzweig Finding…

Group 1: developed a thinner layer of the cortex (a layer of gray matter over the brain), and smaller nerve cell bodies.

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Cont.

Touch Therapy Premature babies who receive Touch Therapy gain weight and grow faster than their counterparts.

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Social-Emotional Development Attachment: Harry Harlow „ Showed that infants bond by attachment and

NOT nourishment as previously thought.

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Cont. „ Levels of attachment between infant and

caregiver… „

Secure Attachment: Infants explore their environment more readily. Look to caregiver for support, but tries out a lot on their own own.

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Insecure Attachment: Infants more fearful of their environment, will not seek it out as much. More clingy. ƒ Avoidant ƒ Ambivalent ƒ Disorganized-disoriented 36

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Cont. „ Does secure attachment mean

more sociable behaviors later? …Maybe „

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One long-term study followed securely and insecurely attached infants until about the 3rd grade. “Securely attached” infants later showed higher selfesteem, performed better in school, and were more social with peers and teachers. 37

Cont.: Parenting Styles „ AUTHORITARIAN: „

Value is placed on obedience - (“Because I said so”!)

„ Uninvolved/Indifferent: „

Provide little in terms of attention, interest or emotional support - (“Do what you want.”)

„ Permissive/Indulgent: „ Very involved, but child is in charge - Tantrums rule! „ Authoritative: „ Foster responsibility while setting limits. (“You can buy this toy today, but that means you will not buy one the next time.”) 38

Jean Piaget (1896-1980): Cognitive Development Theory „ Was the first to demonstrate that the intellect

of a child is fundamentally different from that of an adult.

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Some Basics! „ Schema: „ A way of looking at the world, a mind set. Schema’s help organize past experiences and provide a framework or blueprint for understanding future experience. „ Assimilation: „ Responding to new situations in the same manner we have responded to other similar situations. „ We assimilate, and incorporate new experiences into our existing schema’s. „ Accommodation: „ When we adjust the schema’s to fit the particulars or individuality of new experiences. 40

Cont.

“What What we know is not always reality but simply our construction of it.” --Piaget

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Child Development „ Socioemotional Development „

Erikson's Theory „

Erikson's Eight Stages of Development

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Ages

Basic Conflict

Important Event Feeding

Summary

Birth to 12 to 18 months

Trust vs. Mistrust

The infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver, or develop a sense of mistrust.

18 months to 3years

Autonomy vs. Toilet Shame/Doubt training

3 to 6 years

Initiative vs. Guilt

Independence The child continues to become more assertive and to take more initiative, but may be too forceful, leading to guilt feelings.

6 to 12 years

Industry vs. Inferiority

School

The child's energies are directed toward the development of physical skills, including walking, grasping, and rectal sphincter control. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well.

The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure and incompetence.

Child Development „

Evaluating Erikson's Theory „

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Erikson was the first to recognize that development is a lifelong process. Critics argue that Erikson’s theory has not been well researched. researched Erikson’s use of a “single concept” to characterize each stage may leave out other important developmental concepts.

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Moral Reasoning „ “The way people think about and try to

solve moral dilemmas.” „ 3 levels-6 stages „ „ „

Preconventional Level Conventional Level Postconventional Level 46

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning „ Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning „ Devised stories „ Answer questions „ Was it right or wrong „ Would a good husband do it „ Why „ Etc „ Internalization „ The developmental change from behavior that is externally controlled to behavior that is controlled by internal, self-generated standards and principles. 47

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning „

The preconventional level „

Lowest level ƒ No internalization of moral values ƒ Stage 1 ƒ Moral thinking is based on punishments ƒ Stage 2 ƒ Based on rewards

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning „

Conventional Level „

Intermediate level of internalization, the individual abides by certain internal standards ƒ Stage 3 ƒ but they are the standards of others (external (external, i.e. parents) ƒ Stage 4 ƒ Laws of society

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning „

Postconventional Level „

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Morality is completely internalized and not based on the standards of others Recognition of alternate moral courses E l Explores th the options ti and d d develops l a personall moral code ƒ Stage 5 ƒ The code is among the principles generally accepted by the community ƒ Stage 6 ƒ Is more individualized 50

Adolescence „ Positive Psychology and Adolescence „ Freud described adolescents as sexually driven and conflicted. „ Too often adolescents have been stereotyped as abnormal and deviant deviant. „ Acting out and boundary testing are normal events in adolescent development. „ Adolescents enthusiastically try on new identities. „ Adolescence is a time of evaluation, decision making, and commitment. „ Worldwide, about three out of four adolescents have a healthy self-image. 51

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Adolescence „ Physical Development „ Puberty is a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation. „ Increases in concentrations of testosterone lead to the development de e op e of o genitals, ge a s, increased c eased height, e g , and a d voice o ce changes for males. „ Increases in estradiol (estrogen) lead to breast, uterine, and skeletal development, for females. „ Social factors are as important as or more important than hormones in determining adolescent behavior.

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Adolescence „ Cognitive Development „

Piaget's Formal Operational Stage „

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Adolescents enter into the stage of formal operations and thinking is characterized by abstraction, b t ti id idealism, li and d hypothetical-deductive h th ti l d d ti reasoning.

Egocentrism „

Adolescent egocentrism involves the belief that others are preoccupied with the adolescent, that the adolescent is unique, and that the adolescent is indestructible. 53

Adolescence „ Socioemotional Development „ „ „

Erikson's Theory and Identity Development Identity Status Ethnic Identity

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Ages

Basic Conflict

Important Event

Summary

12 to 18 years

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Peer relationships

The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex roles, politics, and religion.

19 to 40 years

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Love relationships

The young adult must develop intimate relationships or suffer feelings of isolation.

40 to 65 years

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Parenting

Each adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation.

65 to death

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Reflection on and acceptance of one's life

The culmination is a sense of oneself as one is and of feeling fulfilled.

Adult Development and Aging „ Physical Development „

Early Adulthood „

Physical Changes ƒ We reach peak performance and are healthiest in early adulthood. ƒ Young adults often increase their number of unhealthy habits and fail to recognize the effects on health.

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Adult Development and Aging „ Physical Development „ Middle Adulthood „ Physical Changes „ In middle adulthood, people generally become concerned with health and health habits habits. „ Signs of aging become more noticeable and people generally become less fit. „ Menopause ƒ The average age for menopause is 52. ƒ Hormone replacement therapy is helpful for some women for managing symptoms and reducing the effects of osteoporosis; however, the risk of breast cancer, coronary heart disease, and stroke might also increase. The risk associated with estrogen-only therapy is uncertain. 57

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Adult Development and Aging „ Physical Development „ Late Adulthood and Aging „ Life Span and Life Expectancy ƒ Human beings have a potential life span of 120 years, but the average life expectancy is 73 for men and 80 for women. „

Biological Theories of Aging ƒ The cellular-clock theory is Hayflick’s view that cells can divide only about 100 times. ƒ The shortening of telomeres with each cell division may be the biological clock. ƒ Free-radical theory states the people age because unstable oxygen molecules (free radicals) accumulate and damage DNA and other cell structures.

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Physical Changes and Health 58

Human Life Expectancy

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Adult Development and Aging „ Cognitive Development „

Early Adulthood „

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Piaget felt no changes occur in thinking during adulthood, although overall knowledge increases. Other psychologists argue that adults use less idealism.

Middle Adulthood „

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Crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge) increases in middle adulthood, and fluid intelligence (abstract reasoning) begins to decline. Life events, rather than stages, may determine the changes we experience as adults. Cohorts, or groups of individuals born in the same year or time period, experience different social expectations than other cohorts. Social clocks, the expectations of a culture about which tasks should be accomplished when, can act as guides in adult development. 60

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Adult Development and Aging „

Late Adulthood and Aging „

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Older adults experience a decline in speed of processing and some plasticity. Wisdom is expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life: This area may improve with age. age With education and training, older adults experience little decline.

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Adjusting to Death „ Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’s Five Stages „ „ „ „ „

Denial Anger Bargaining a ga g Depression Acceptance

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