Changing Urban Environments What you should know and links to revision material… 

CUE 1: You need to be able to explain what urbanisation is and the factors which cause it (push & pull). You need to be able to explain why urbanisation is more rapid in LEDCs.

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CUE2: You need to be able to define an urban zone and identify the characteristics of different urban zones: CBD; inner City; Suburbs; Urban-Rural Fringe.

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CUE3: You need to know how housing demand in MEDCs is being met.

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CUE4: You need to know the history of an Inner City area in the UK and be able to explain Government initiatives which have led to its regeneration. CASE STUDY: London Docklands

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CUE5: You need to be able to explain the impact of traffic on an MEDC CBD and solutions aimed to reduce traffic impact.

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CUE6: You need to know the issues present in a UK CBD and how such an area has been revitalised. CASE STUDY: Manchester, the Triangle.

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CUE7: You need to be able to describe factors which cause ethnic segregation in MEDC settlements and strategies aimed at supporting multicultural communities.

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CUE8: You need to be able to explain how rapid urbanisation in LEDCs has created squatter settlements and the characteristics of these settlements.

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CUE9: You need to be able to describe & explain the social, economic and environmental nature of squatter settlements.

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CUE10: You need to be able to explain attempts made by inhabitants of squatter settlements to improve their own living conditions. CASE STUDY: Mahila Milan Women (Women Together)

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CUE11: You need to be able to explain other schemes to improve squatter settlements and a case study of a squatter settlement redevelopment. CASE STUDY: Kibera Shanty Redevelopment

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CUE12: You need to be able to explain the impact of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation on LEDCs. CASE STUDY: Bhopal, India

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CUE13: You need to be able to describe the difficulties faced by LEDCs in disposing of waste. You also need to be able to explain the effects and management of air and water pollution.

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CUE14: You need to be able to describe the features of a Sustainable City, including public transport, waste disposal; provision of open space and local voice. CASE STUDY: Curitiba, Brazil.

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CUE15: You need to be able to explain how cities can be sustainable…Use of Brownfield Sites; Conserving Historic & Natural environments.

CUE1: You need to be able to explain what urbanisation is and the factors which cause it (push & pull). You need to be able to explain why urbanisation is more rapid in LEDCs. Urbanisation is the movement of the population to urban areas and the growth of these urban areas. This process of growth is due to two main reasons… 1. Migration from Rural (Countryside) areas to Urban areas (Towns & Cities). 2. Natural Increase. Increased birth rate as more people live in urban areas. In the UK 90% of our population live in urban areas, this is due to historical migration from rural areas to urban ones. Traditionally in the UK rural areas provided many jobs in agriculture, however due to the Green Revolution & Mechanisation many of these jobs were lost and unemployment in rural areas occurred. At the same time the Industrial Revolution in urban areas created many jobs in manufacturing and other industries. The push pull effect caused people to leave rural areas and migrate to urban areas. Green Revolution: Advances in farming such as new crop varieties and improved technology (Example= combine harvesters) Push Factor: a reason to leave a place. Example= unemployment Pull Factor: a reason to move to a place. Example= employment In Less Developed Countries (LDC) the process of the industrial revolution in the UK had less impact; therefore today many LDC populations have a high percentage of people living in rural areas. The movement of these people in rural communities to urban areas today however is rapid and the growth of these urban areas today is rapid. Figure 1: Look at the table below showing Mega Cities of the past & present. Mega Cities in 1970 Mega Cities in 2010 New York (16.5 million) Tokyo (28.7 million) Tokyo (13.4 million) Mumbai (24.3 million) London (10.5 million) Shanghai (21.5 million) Shanghai (10 million) Lagos (20.8 million) Mexico City (8.6 million) Sao Paulo (20.1 million) The rate of urbanisation in LDC countries is rapid due to a variety of Push & Pull factors. In rural communities residents are often subsistence farmers and grow food for themselves

and their families, this life style however is increasingly fragile and the following events may cause them to be pushed away from their rural village… LDC Rural Push Factors… 1. Natural Disaster such as a flood or drought. 2. Crop failure due to a Natural Disaster or disease. 3. Desertification due to over farming. 4. Displacement due to commercial activities (Plantation) 5. Lack of amenities (Education or Medical) Whilst urban areas in LDCs will provide opportunities as where there are people there are opportunities, either formal or informal. However migrants from rural LDC areas tend to be poorly educated and have a limited skill base, hence they often find themselves living in Shanty Areas. Practise Questions… 1. What is urbanisation? (1 mark) 2. Why is urbanisation rapid in less developed countries? (4 marks) 3. Explain how the Green Revolution helped urbanisation in the UK? (4 marks)

CUE2: You need to be able to define an urban zone and identify the characteristics of different urban zones: CBD; inner City; Suburbs; Urban-Rural Fringe. An URBAN ZONE is a zone with the same characteristics throughout. Therefore anywhere you travel within a certain urban zone you will find similar features and characteristics. Below is the Burgess Model (Figure 2), it is a model created to show what the typical features and urban zones of a city are.

Figure 4 is a table showing the features of these different urban zones. Urban Zone Features & Reasons Problems CBD Tall Building: Lack of space and high land Competition with price leads to building upwards. Rural-Urban Fringe Banks & Branded Shops: These services and shops are the only ones able to afford to Crime locate in this area. Commercial Land use: land prices means Congestion more commercial land use than residential. Transport Centre: Bus & Train stations to provide access. Historical Buildings: Oldest part of a settlement. Inner City Factories: traditionally a manufacturing Unemployment zone. Derelict Land: global competition leading to Ethnic Segregation & decline in manufacturing. Racial Tension Terraced Houses: traditionally provided homes for workers in manufacturing. They Poor education and would live close to work and walk there. housing. Regeneration Projects: developments such as the Olympic Park. Suburbs Detached Houses: land price is reduced so Unsustainable larger plots. Developments. New Developments: Newest part of the settlement. Lack of affordable Limited Amenities: Residents drive to shops housing. and services. Rural-Urban Fringe Transport Links: developments tend to be Urban Sprawl near roads for access. Retail Parks: reduced land prices mean large Loss of Greenfield plots and free parking for customers. Sites. Recreational Facilities: from Football Stadiums (Reebok) to Leisure Parks (Cinema & Bowling) sites take advantage of accessibility, cheaper land and space to expand. Practise Questions… 1. What is an urban zone? (1 mark) 2. Describe and explain the features of the CBD? (6 marks) 3. Explain how the characteristics of the inner city and suburbs differ? (4 marks)

CUE3: You need to know how housing demand in MEDCs is being met.

People are living longer in the UK and are marrying later; these factors along with others mean that each year more homes are needed to accommodate UK residents. The main decision about development is whether it should be on Brownfield or Greenfield sites. The Government aims to ensure that 60% of developments are on Brownfield sites as this is more sustainable, encourages urban regeneration and limits the effect of urban sprawl. In each Urban Zone different strategies are used to meet the housing demand… CBD: In the CBD large existing building are often subdivided to increase the number of living spaces and residents. Unused areas above shops have been converted into residential spaces. Inner city: Renovating and updating outdated terraced housing and installing basic amenities like central heating and indoor toilets and modern bathrooms. Demolishing old tenements & outdated properties and replacing with modern town housing. Derelict and run down industrial buildings have been converted into modern apartments; such developments are aimed at young professionals working in the CBD. Suburbs: New housing developments in these areas, though increasing Government initiatives require building firms to provide a range of housing options including affordable housing. Practise Questions… 1. Why is demand for housing increasing in the UK? (4 mark) 2. Explain strategies used to meet the housing demand in the UK. (4 marks)

CUE4: You need to know the history of an Inner City area in the UK and be able to explain Government initiatives which have led to its regeneration. CASE STUDY: London Docklands

Historically the London Docklands was a very successful are in the Inner City of London. However by the 1950s the area had fallen into a spiral of decline. Due to Globalisation and Containerisation there was increased competition from abroad and ship sizes increased meaning that container ports were located closer to the mouth of the Thames. The area became run down economically, socially and environmentally.

1.Industry declined as ships were too large for the docks and manufacturing moved abroad.

2.As industry declined areas became derelict and dangerous.

3. As industry decline so did the population, people moved away in search of work.

4.Shops closed as the number of people living in the area declined.

5.Many of those who remained lived in poverty in sub-standard social & environmental conditions.

In the 1980’s the Government set up the London Docklands Development Committee (LDDC) to regenerate this deprived area. The LDDC had 3 main goals. 1. To improve the local economy & reduce unemployment. 2. To improve the environment and create recreational opportunities. 3. To improve the living conditions for those people living in the area. The problems faced by the LDDC were that the Docklands inner city area had poor access and that access to the area was via a narrow road system. Therefore an improved transport system was also part of their agenda. Today Canary Wharf (See Figure 5 below) stands on the redeveloped site.

Transport Improvements: The area is now accessible via a light railway; it is home to the City Airport and is also linked via the Tube (London’s Underground Rail Network). Environmental Improvements: A number of green recreational spaces have been created; previously derelict and dangerous areas have been developed and conservation areas are linked via pedestrian and cycle paths. Economic Improvements: Unemployment has been more than halved in the area and a number of Banks and Transnational Corporations have offices in the Canary Wharf Development. As employment increases so does secondary employment as the number of cafes, shops & restaurants increases to meet demand. Social Improvements: Over £100 million was spent on developing education and training facilities and initiatives. Over 22, 000 new homes were created and deprived areas were refurbished and regenerated.

Whilst improvements cannot be denied some critics of the LDDC feel that the improvements do not benefit the traditional residents. Practise Questions… 1. Describe the social & economic decline of an inner city area you have studied (6 marks) 2. Explain how an inner city area you have studied has been regenerated. (8 marks) +3SPG marks CUE5: You need to be able to explain the impact of traffic on an MEDC CBD and solutions aimed to reduce traffic impact. The centres of UK cities are older than the invention and arrival of the car, therefore cities struggle to cope with the increasing number of people trying to access the CBD by car. Cars cause a number of problems in the CBD: 1. Air Pollution: The tall buildings of the CBD trap car emissions leading to poor air quality of those people living in, working in or visiting the CBD. Idling time of cars also increases the volume of pollution as emissions from stationary traffic are high. 2. Congestion (traffic jams). As the number of cars becomes too great for the road system to handle, gridlock can occur. This can cause delays in travel time and stress for travellers. Different Cities have tried to cope and reduce traffic problems in a number of ways. There are two main strategies, carrot and stick strategies. CARROT STRATEGY: Give commuters wishing to travel by car a better option. STICK STRATEGY: Punish commuters who continue to travel by car. Figure 6: Table showing strategies to reduce traffic impact in MEDC CBDs. City & Strategy Outline of Strategy London: Congestion Charge STICK: this strategy requires motorists travelling into the centre of London to pay a toll. Within the city there are certain congestion zones and it a motorist wishes to enter this zone they must pay the congestion charge. Newcastle: Metro Rail Network CARROT: this strategy provides those people wish to travel into Newcastle city centre with an efficient public transport alternative. The Metro system runs regularly and services the surrounding area of Newcastle and routes have even been extended to Sunderland. Concessions are available for younger and older travellers. Practise Questions… 1. What is congestion? (1 mark) 2. What impact apart from congestion does traffic have on a city? (4 marks)

3. Using an example(s) you have studied explain how the impact of traffic on a city can be reduced. (6 marks) CUE6: You need to know the issues present in a UK CBD and how such an area has been revitalised. CASE STUDY: Manchester, the Triangle. In Manchester the Trafford Centre was built in the rural-urban fringe in 1998, the site of the Trafford Centre mean that land was less expensive than land in the city centre. This meant that the development could be large and include free parking. The site was also accessible and meant that shoppers did not have to travel into the city centre. The development therefore had a negative impact on the city centre. In 1996 Manchester Centre was bombed by the IRA and was subsequently regenerated. The regeneration program aimed to create a pedestrianized and covered shopping area as well as including urban furniture and artwork. The developed area was called ‘The Triangle’ and was opened in 2000. Today it is where the Manchester Eye can be found and also where the Christmas Markets are held. Figure 7: Table comparing urban zones in Manchester. The Trafford Centre The Triangle Urban Zone: Rural-Urban Fringe Urban Zone: CBD

Practise Questions… 1. What problems are found in a city centre other than traffic? (4 mark) 2. How can problems in city centre areas be reduced? (4 marks) CUE7: You need to be able to describe factors which cause ethnic segregation in MEDC settlements and strategies aimed at supporting multicultural communities. Factors which lead to ethnic segregation are… 1. Prejudice: which leads to minorities grouping together for safety. 2. Language: first generation migrants may not speak English, so locate in areas where they can communicate in their first language. 3. Economic Factors: a lack of education and qualifications can mean that people in these groups can only afford to live in certain areas, often the more deprived areas.

4. Cultural, Religious & Lifestyle Factors: ethnic groups may locate together as a means of accessing certain amenities such as a religious building (e.g Mosque) or a food store (Halal Butcher). This segregation can often lead to increased prejudice and a lack of understanding of different groups within society. To overcome this segregation and prejudice barriers need to be broken down between groups in a community and minority groups need to be encourage to mix in different aspects of communities and society. How? Providing English classes – people who can speak and write in English are more likely to get a job. Encouraging an ethnic mix – The more people of all cultures and ethnic group live together there is less likely to be racial tension. Housing initiatives can encourage mixing. Encouraging people to open their own businesses – the more the immigrants are able to enjoy a better standard of living from profits from their own businesses the less likelihood of discrimination. Community Programs- centres and activities which encourage people from different parts of the community to meet and to work together. Practise Questions… 1. What is ethnic segregation/ (2 marks) 2. What are the causes of ethnic segregation in UK cities? (4 marks) CUE8: You need to be able to explain how rapid urbanisation in LEDCs has created squatter settlements and the characteristics of these settlements. In Less Developed Countries the process of urbanisation is rapid. This is because there are larger and larger number of people moving from rural areas to urban areas in these countries. Less developed countries traditional have larger rural communities, which often rely on agriculture for survival. However there are a number of PUSH factors forcing people to leave these rural communities. PUSH Factors (Reasons to leave Rural areas in LEDCs) 1. Natural Disaster 2. Crop Failure due to a natural event such as a flood or drought. 3. Crop Failure due to a crop disease or pest. 4. Debt, investment in technology leading farming into debt and forcing them to sell land. 5. Desertification (Soil Erosion). Over farming leading to infertile land. The PULL effect of an urban area and the perceived ability of a city to offer a better way of life encourage people to migrant to urban areas. In addition as these urban areas grow through migration they also grow via natural increase (higher birth rates).

These migrants from rural areas are poorly educated and poorly qualified and are unable to find a well-paid job, so they find themselves living in Shanty areas and working in the informal economy of the Shanty area. Figure 8: Characteristics of Squatter Developments The housing is makeshift and often constructed by residents. It is therefore not stable & reliable.

These are areas of squatter housing often on dangerous and undesireable land.

Housing and populations are dense. Streets are very narrow and there is no room for transport.

Power, Water & Sewerage systems are basic and unreliable. Open sewers and pit toilets are likely.

Practise Questions… 1. What is a squatter settlement? (2 marks) 2. Describe the features of a squatter settlement. (4 marks) CUE9: You need to be able to describe & explain the social, economic and environmental nature of squatter settlements. ECONOMIC NATURE: Within the squatter settlement or shanty there will be an informal economy. Residents will make money by making and selling items or selling services. The system will operate on cash in hand basis, there will be no formal contracts and no sales will mean no income. Younger residents often make money by collecting scrap and selling this to a scrap dealer. Some residents may work in factories (sweat shops) constructed due to globalisation. SOCIAL NATURE: The squatter settlements often lead to families remaining close and several generations of a family living in the same or nearby dwellings. Increasingly education is seen as a means of progression and children may be encouraged to go to school, though education is likely to be sacrificed if money it to be made elsewhere. ENVIRONMENTAL NATURE: The land selected for squatter settlements is often less desirable and housing is dense. In the event of a disaster such as an earthquake it is likely that

housing will collapse easily and that there will be a high death toll in this area. There is poor sanitation and disease can spread easily due to the dense population. The removal of waste is difficult as the streets are narrow. Practise Questions… 1. What is the social & economic nature of a squatter settlement? (6 marks) CUE10: You need to be able to explain attempts made by inhabitants of squatter settlements to improve their own living conditions. CASE STUDY: Mahila Milan Women (Women Together) The Mihila Milan Women lived in Dharavi the slum area of Mumbai. The women worked together as part of a self-help scheme to improve their own living conditions. They worked together to… 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Save money for new housing. Design the new houses that they would build and live in. Complete paperwork for an area of land to be released to them. To prepare a site for building. To provide labour for the building project. The scheme allowed the women to pool their skills and supports each other.

The scheme was low cost but took lots of time. However the women had time, but not money.

The scheme gave the women a say in their future and therefore allowed them to take pride in their project and new home.

Figure 9 (above): Mihila Milan Women Practise Questions… 1. Explain the advantages of a self-help scheme compared to other shanty improvement schemes you have studied. (8 marks) +3SPG

CUE11: You need to be able to explain other schemes to improve squatter settlements and a case study of a squatter settlement redevelopment. CASE STUDY: Kibera Shanty Redevelopment. Kibera is the Shanty Town attached to Nairobi, the Capital City of Kenya. Kenya is in Africa. Figure 10: Schemes aimed at improving living conditions in Squatter Settlements. Government Initiative in Kibera. Tower Blocks The government clearer areas of the slum and replaced shanty housing with more substantial tower blocks. The tower blocks provided increased security for residents as well as water and sanitation facilities. The residents had to pay a small rent, which allowed the government to re-invest in future projects.

Charity Initiative in Kibera. Practical Action The charity provided money for a shower block to be set up in the shanty area. The scheme meant that residents had improved hygiene and that diseases were not transmitted is readily. The scheme was paid for by donations received in MDCs.

New Tower Blocks

Older Shanty Area

Practise Questions… 1. Explain how the lives of residents living in a shanty area have been improved by a scheme(s) you have studied. (8 marks) +3SPG

CUE12: You need to be able to explain the impact of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation on LEDCs. CASE STUDY: Bhopal, India. As urban areas in LEDCs grow it means there are large numbers of people keen to work and make money; this can lead to industries taking advantage of this willing labour force and setting up factories and industries in these urban areas. This process is globalisation and it is fuelled by a desire to make profit; businesses produce products cheaply in LEDCs and transport the products around the world to sell.

In Bhopal in India a pesticide plant close to the shanty area. The aim of the plant was to produce and sell pesticides in India to increase crop yields and thus to provide food for the growing population. However a toxic cloud escaped from the factories and engulfed the shanty area of Bhopal killing hundreds and leaving many more with long term illnesses. If urbanisation and industrialisation occur too quickly in LEDCs problems such as increased waste and in the worst instances disaster will occur. Practise Questions… 1. What is globalisation? (1 mark) 2. Why is industrialisation & globalisation an increasing issue in less developed countries? (6 marks)

CUE13: You need to be able to describe the difficulties faced by LEDCs in disposing of waste. You also need to be able to explain the effects and management of air and water pollution. In LEDCs the populations and in particular urban populations are growing rapidly. As population grow it creates problems such as…. 1. More people means more houses required. 2. More people means more water and food required. 3. More people means more waste food, water and packaging. Improved waste disposal required. 4. More people means more human waste and improved sewerage required. 5. More people means more amenities & services required. The two main contributors to waste are industrial contributors and domestic contributors The three main types of pollution are physical, air and water. -

To combat air pollution, public transport systems are created to reduce the amount of congestion in the city centre. To combat domestic water pollution sewerage systems are developed and improved to reduce the amount of domestic waste going straight into rivers. To combat industrial water pollution, laws, incentives and sanctions are created to encourage industries to handle any waste created in a responsible manner. To reduce physical pollution recycling programs are set up, this reduces the need for landfill or incineration.

Practise Questions… 1. Why is waste disposal an increasing issue in less developed countries? (3 marks) 2. Explain strategies used to reduce the problem of waste created by rapidly expanding urban areas. (6 marks)

CUE14: You need to be able to describe the features of a Sustainable City, including public transport, waste disposal; provision of open space and local voice. CASE STUDY: Curitiba, Brazil. Scheme Green Exchange

Overview This scheme encourages residents in deprived areas to collect together waste rubbish and then exchanges this waste for food. The food is surplus food produced in the local green belt. This means that roads do not need to be widened as shanty areas are narrow; it means that food does not go to waste; and it means that residents have an improved diet and a healthier environment in which to live. Recycling Program This scheme encourages residents in Curitiba to recycle. An extensive recycling scheme and plant have been developed. The scheme means that there is a cleaner environment and that jobs have been created. Bi-Articulated This system operates bi-articulated buses in designated bus lanes and Buses uses tubular bus stops to enable passengers to pay before entering the bus. These features mean that the bus system in Curitiba is fast and efficient; therefore residents are willing to use the system and leave their cars at home, this reduces congestion and air pollution. Green Parks The green parks were set up as a way of limiting the growth of shanty areas and providing green recreational space for the residents of Curitiba. Businesses and developers were permitted to build taller sky scrapers if they helped to fund green parks and affordable housing schemes. The impact is more affordable housing and areas of the city which are green for the residents to enjoy and socialise in. Practise Questions… 1. Describe how the social and economic sides of a city have been enhanced via sustainable solutions in a city you have studied. (8 marks) +3SPG

CUE15: You need to be able to explain how cities can be sustainable…Use of Brownfield Sites; Conserving Historic & Natural environments. What is Sustainability? Sustainability is a process of making responsible choices that will not reduce choices in the future or have a negative impact on people or the environment. European Capital of Culture: within the EU each year two cities are selected to be Capitals of Culture. In 2008 Liverpool was selected to be a Capital of Culture. The benefits of this are… 1. The city has an increased international profile. 2. Its increased profile increases tourism and has a domino effect on the economy. 3. Funding is provided for regeneration projects, especially heritage projects and schemes aimed at conserving historical landmarks. 4. Investment in cultural and art projects.

Brownfield Developments: The Government wants 60% of new developments on Brownfield sites; this is to regenerate these sites and to reduce urban sprawl. It is often more difficult and expensive to regenerate a Brownfield site as remnants of old land uses must be removed; land may be contaminated and city areas are more difficult to access with large vehicles. Therefore government incentives such as those which helped to make the London Dockland regeneration a success are important. It also needs that green spaces are protected; the introduction of greenbelt land limits Greenfield developments and forces development back into the city centre.

Practise Questions… 1. What is a Brownfield site? (1 mark) 2. Explain why Brownfield developments are more sustainable that Greenfield developments. (6 marks) 3. Explain the features of sustainable development. (8 marks) +3SPG