DANCE The sculptures of yore are silent evidence of the antiquity of the Indian classical dance tradition. Sacred texts show the close association of religion with dance. Indian dance, like other Indian arts, has always been conscious of the relationship between the human being and God. The divine concept of the cosmos and the philosophy of Indian thought pervade and form a backdrop to the4ance techniques. Dance was a ritual form of worship in temples. The much denigrated devadasis in the temples, in their rituals of worship, kept alive the art form, till a cultural revival brought the dances out of the temples into the theatres of the present. The principles of Indian classical dance whatever the style—derive from the Natyashastra (c. 2nd century AD) by Bharatamuni. Natya includes dance, music and drama. Bharatamuni traces the origin of the art form to Brahma. It was Brahma who, on perceiving the growing desire, greed, jealousy anger, and misery in the world, went into meditation and created a fifth Veda, viz., the Natyaveda, representing the essence of the existent four Vedas. The intellectual content of the Rigveda, the music of the Samaveda, abhinaya or mime from the Yajurveda and the rasa from the Atharvaveda have been brought together in the Natyaveda to embody moral and spiritual truths. Thus the art form is meant not just to entertain but also to instruct and inspire discipline and righteousness. The dancing Shiva, Nataraja, represents in his art creation, preservation, destruction, release from bondage and the cycle of life and death. Parvati, learning the art from Shiva, in turn taught it to the people of the earth. Whatever the origin, dance is often considered to be a „complete art‟, at least a composite art enfolding in its range other fine arts—music, of course, besides elements of sculpture, poetry and drama.

BASIC ASPECTS OF DANCE There are two basic aspects to Indian classical dance, namely, tandava and lasya. If the former denotes movement and rhythm, the latter denotes grace, bhava and rasa, and abhinaya. Nritta consists of dance movements in their basic form; nritya is expressional, enacting the sentiments of a particular theme. These are 1

expressed through mudras or gestures and poses. The hasta is a hand gesture representing a word or even an idea. There are 108 karana or fundamental poses. A famous treatise on dance is Nandikeswara‟s Abhinaya Darpana. Later works include Maheshwar Mahapatra‟s Abhinaya Chandrika and Jadunath Singh‟s Abhinaya Prakash. Bharata and other writers have emphasised that learning can only come through gurus. The traditions—the sampradaayas have been taught by gurus to their sishyas through the centuries. The nayaka-nayaki bhava, symbolic of the human soul surrendering itself as the beloved (nayaki) of the One Lover (nayaka) of the universe, i.e., Divinity, is a common theme of Indian dance. Apparently erotic songs, too, can be interpreted on this higher plane. There are nine rasas: love, heroism, pathos, humour, anger, fear, disgust, wonder and peace.

CLASSICAL DANCE FORMS Classical dance comes in many forms in India. Each region has evolved its distinct style with its special nuances, though the roots are the same. Bharatanatyam According to some scholars, the name derives from Bharata‟s Natyashastra. Some ascribe it to Bha, Ra and Ta standing for Bhava, Raga and Tala. Whatever the significance of the name, this ancient dance form has been nurtured in Tamil Nadu and most probably derived from the sadir—the solo dance performances by the devadasis, the temple dancers. Over the years, the devadasis fell into disrepute, and with their decadence the art form too languished. It was in the early twentieth century that E. Krishna Iyer, a freedom fighter and art connoisseur, took up the cause of Bharatanatyam. Fighting against prejudice and propaganda, he was quite successful in reviving interest in the dance form. Another name associated with the revitalisation of the form is that of Rukmini Devi Arundale. In Austria, Rukmini Devi Arundale learned Russian ballets from Anna Paviova, who was the one to advise her to learn Indian classical dance. Rukmini Devi met Pandanallur Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai and took lessons from him. She brought about a great revolution in Bharatanatyam. She was keen to design costumes that were artistic 2

and design exquisite jewellery and ornaments. She stressed on the selection of madams and the spiritual aspects of the themes enacted. She founded the Kalakshetra for training students in the art of Bharatanatyam. Kalakshetra laid emphasis on correct movements and thorough training. The art of nattuvangam is taught here. It has therefore gained reputation as an international dance centre. — The two famous styles of Bharatanatyam are the Pandanallur and the Thanjavur styles. Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai was a famous exponent of Bharatanatyam. He had a style known as the Pandanallur school of Bharatanatyam. It is known for its broad sweeping movements, exquisite framing of teeramanams with beautiful adavus. The repertory of the Bharatanatyam of today is considered to have been codified by four famous dance teachers (nattuvanar) of Thanjavur—Chinniah, Ponniah, Shivanandam and Vadivelu—who flourished in the reign of Maharaja Sarfoji, in the early nineteenth century. A Bharatanatyam recital usually begins with alarippu, an invocatory piece consisting of simple rhythmic syllables and basic positions of the dance. The jatiswaram is pure dance, creating forms of beauty through poses and rhythmic movements. The shabdam is abhinaya to a song in praise of the glory of God (or a royal patron). The varnam, a complex item, combines nritta and nritya, rhythm and expressional items, synchronising bhava, tala and raga. This is perhaps the most challenging item in Bharatanatyam. In padam the dancer may reveal mastery over abhinaya. Practically all padams deal with the theme of love. Jawalis are shorter love- lyrics in a faster tempo. Thillana usually concludes the performance. It is again pure dance with intricate rhythmic variations and exuberant movement. Some of the famous names associated with Bharatanatyam are given below. T. Balasarsawati was known for her enchanting, inimitable and exquisite sandharibhavas in abhinaya. She has won international acclaim f6r her dance portrayal. A rare combination of a flawless dancer, choreographer, music composer, singer, research scholar, teacher and author, Padma Subramanyam was the first dancer to introduce Pushpanjali as a dance piece. She has written many articles that have been compiled as Legacy of a Legend. She has also composed a Bengali 3

varnam, the first of its kind whose lyrics have been penned by Salil Chaudhry. Padma researched on kara‟nas in Indian dance and sculpture and has desighed the sculptures of the karanas of Lord Shiva with his consort Parvati that are kept in the Nataraja Temple at Satara, located in Maharashtra. She is the director of Nrityodaya, a dance school founded by her father in 1942. Alarmel Valli holds the distinction of being the leading proponent of the Pandanallur tradition in Bharatanatyam. People have applauded her for bringing depth, passion and spontaneity into her work. She has performed in almost all the major festivals in India and has also displayed her talent in most of the cultural capitals of the world. She is responsible for creating an international awareness about Bharatanatyam. Alarmel Valli founded „Dipashikha‟, a Centre for Performing Arts, in 1984. The centre was set up with the aim of imparting training to promising new artists. Alarmel Valli has involved herself in research work on classical Tamil anthologies of Sangam poetry. She has, tried to use dance performances for bringing the beauty of the poem in front of the people. Her own distinct style, which emerged as a result of her practice as well as research, has enriched the domain of Bharatanatyam. Alarmel has brought a contemporary interpretation to the traditional framework‟ of classical Indian dance. Through her, alluring dance performances, Yamini Krishnamurthy popularised Bharatanatyam and Kuchipudi all Over the world. Her initial training in Bharatanatyam took place at Rukmini Devi Arundale‟s Kalakshetra. After acquiring an impeccable structural base at Kalakshetra, she went on to higher studies under renowned masters. Mrinalini Sarabhai is a noted exponent of Bharatanatyam. A student of Kalakshetra, she founded: her own dance academy called Darpana for imparting training in Bharatanatyam and other allied arts. She is also a well known choreographer of several dance dramas. Mrinalini has attempted contemporary interpretations of mythological themes. She has been recognised for her creative experiments with choreography. Anita Ratnam is one of the most talented dancers of the Indian subcontinent. She has been trained in Bharatanatyam, Mohiniattam and Kathakali and is counted amongst the best choreographers of the South. She has written the 4

Natya Brahmam, a book, and served as the editor and publisher of Narthaki, a directory of Indian dance. She is the founder-director of Arangham, an organisation based in Chennai that is involved in the promotion of performing arts. Anita is one of the main persons responsible for the initiation of „The Other Festival‟, held in Chennai every December for promotion of contemporary Indian dance. Mallika Sarabhai is a famous dancer in Bharatanatyam as well as Kuchipudi style. She along with her mother, Mrinalini, manages the Darpana Academy of Performing Arts. It is a centre for performing arts where talent is encouraged and is given a platform to be showcased. Kuchipudi The dance is named after the village of its birth, Kuchelapuram or Kuseelavapuri in Andhra Pradesh. The Kuseelavas (or Kuchigallu) were groups of actors going from village to village. Kuchipudi is the colloquial form of the Sanskrit term „Kuseelavapuri‟. Kuchipudi dance form may be traced to the dance-dramas enacted by brahmins in temples. It was traditionally a male preserve. Under the impact of Vaishnavism, the themes began to be based on the Bhagavat Purana. It was Siddhendra Yogi who, in the fourteenth/fifteenth centuries, inspired the revival of Kuchipudi which had faded into obscurity. He composed the Bhama Kalapam which has now become a part and parcel of the Kuchipudi repertoire. He prevailed upon young brahmin boys to dedicate themselves to devotional dances that would lead them to salvation, and they were known as „Bhagavatulu‟. The Vijayanagara kings patronised the dance form as did the Golconda rulers after them. Some of the leading families of Kuchipudi dancers were given land shares in the village. Gurus of these families have preserved and handed the art traditions down the generations. Two famous names are Vedantam and Vempati. Kuchipudi, however, remained confined to remote village temples of Andhra Pradesh till the early twentieth century when Balasaraswathi and Esther Sherman (Ragini Devi) helped to bring it out of obscurity. Indrani Rehman played a 5

pioneering role in popularising the dance form. The strictly male preserve was brought to the people by famous female dancers—Yamini Krishnamurthi, Swapnasundari and Shobha Naidu. Vempati Chinna Satyam and Vedantam Satyanarayana became great gurus as well as dancers. Kuchipudi combined lasya and tandava elements, folk and classical shades. Prescribed costumes and ornaments are strictly followed. Besides dance dramas, there are solo items such as Manduka shabadarn (story of the frog maiden), Balagopala Taranga (involving dancing with the feet on the edges of a brass plate) and Tala chitra nritya in which dancers draw pictures on the floor with their dancing toes. A discussion of some famous Kuchipudi dancers follows. Vempati Chinna Satyam established the Kuchipudi Arts Academy in Chennai for training in the dance form. He renewed and restored a diluted and cruder form of the dance, evolving a personal and pure style. This has helped Kuchipudi achieve a privileged position among classical dance forms. Yamini Krishnamurthy played an important part in popularising Kuchipudi at a time when it was emerging as a solo dance form. The world-renowned dancing duos, Raja and Radha Reddy, are known for their flawless technique. They have propagated Kuchipudi dance form all over the world. They have codified the entire range of basic movements and mudras of the art form. Parampara „Natyam‟, Ananya and Life Tree are among the important productions of the duo. Their academy, „Natya Tarangini‟, is their endless attempt to strengthen the place of Kuchipudi in the global cultural scene. Swapnasundari is a popular name in the dance form; she is one 9f the first dancers who specially emphasised the aspect of presentation as well as musical and academic aspect of the dance form. She is the founder-director of the Kuchipudi Dance Centre, New Delhi where she trains young people in the art. She has produced a number of ballets.

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Daughter of Raja and Radha Reddy, Yamini Reddy is known for her ability to hold different moves and balance the poses along with possessing a good sense of rhythm. She has performed at various international festivals. Chinta Krishnamurthy is a well-known performer and guru of the dance; he has trained a generation of Kuchipudi actor-dancers. He organised the Venkatarama Natya Mandali on a sound footing. He, along with Banda Kanakalingeswara Rao, established the Shri Siddhendra Kalakshetram that imparts traditional training. Vijaya Prasad, who has practised and taught Kuchipudi for half-a-century, is best known for her own unique elegant and mellifluous style of the dance. Divya Yeluri, Lakshmi Babu, Swathi Gundapuneedi and Anuradha Nehru are among the other famous Kuchipudi dancers. Odissi Odisha, according to cultural historians, presents the earliest evidence of dance in India; in the caves of Udaigiri and Khandagiri there are carved panels of music and dance. The dancing of maharis (devadasis) was an indispensable part of religious rituals in temples. Odissi probably derives its name from Odra nritya which is mentioned in the Natyashastra. After the twelfth century AD, Odissi was greatly influenced by Vaishnavism and the bhakti cult. Jayadeva‟s Ashtapadi became a compulsory item in its repertoire. The mahari system soon fell prey to decadence. The ascetic followers of Vaishnavism, disapproving of the immoralities of the devadasi system, introduced the practice of getting young boys to dance the ritual dances in the temples. These boy dancers were known as Gotipuas; they dressed up as females and danced like the maharis, but after the age of eighteen they stopped performing and took to teaching. Thanks to the practice, Odissi has had some famous gurus—Mohan Mohapatra, Kelucharan Mohapatra, Pankaj Charan Das, Hare Krishna Behra, Mayadhar Raut, to name just a few. Odissi, however, came into popularity in the mid-twentieth century when the dance critic Charles Fabri wrote on the style and Indrani Rehman took the trouble of learning it and brought it to prominence on stage. 7

Odissi has been, appropriately enough, termed as „mobile sculpture‟—it is a graceful, sensuous, lyrical dance style. The tribhanga (three bends) posture—so well expressed in Indian sculpture—is innate to it. Beyond the physical limits of the poses, these bends and movements symbolise the means of escape from the limitations of the body. The repertoire of Odissi usually consists of Mangalacharan; Batunritya (pure dance); Pallavi, in which song is elaborated through graceful movements and facial expressions and interspersed with pure dance and poses; Tharijham, again pure nritta (like the Thillana of Bharatanatyam or Tarana of Kathak); and Moksha, the concluding item, which is the dance of liberation through joyous movements. The Trikhanda Majura is another way of concluding, indicating a leave-taking from the gods, the audience and the stage. Among the famous Odissi dancers, the earliest was Guru Pankaj Charan Das. He started his career by acting in jatras and used to do comic roles. He achieved fame by choreographing dance numbers Shiva and Laxmipriya with Kelucharan Mohapatra. Pankaj Charan bas was a celebrity Odissi dancer who combined dance and theatre for entertainment. Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra is considered to be the most famous Odissi dancer-guru. He was a pioneering dancer from India who popularised the concept and modernisation of Odissi dance culture. Kelucharan Mohapatra taught Odissi dance to some of the well-known Odissi dancers of future generations. Sanjukta Panigrahi started dancing from the young age of four and won the first prize in International Children Dance Festival in 1952. Though she got a scholarship to learn Kathak dance in Mumbai, she became a specialist in Odissi dance. She, in fact, was a pioneer in popularising the dance form. Sonal Mansingh is one of the finest Odissi exponents. She has danced to several of her own choreographic works and has been responsible for a large number of group productions. This body of work is unique in range and scope in the history of Indian dance, and covers several themes, both of traditional and contemporary interest. She was the youngest recipient of the Padma Bhushan, when she was given the award in 1992. In 2003, Sonal Mansingh became the first Indian woman dancer to be awarded Padma Vibhushan. She brings her own vision 8

and creativity to Indian mythological stories as well as to contemporary issues, with her subtle control and mastery over both form and content. Her work has also veered towards issues concerning women, environment, prison reforms and reinterpretation of ancient myths. Among the celebrated Odissi dancers of foreign origin, Illeana Citaristi deserves the most respect. Though an Italian by birth, she settled in Odisha in 1979. She learned Odissi dance from Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra. She has performed in many Indian festivals in Holland, France and Germany. She has written a book on the life, of her guru Kelucharan Mohapatra. She heads an institution of Odissi dance named as Art Vision. Giving recognition to her immense contribution to Odissi dance, the Government of India conferred upon her the honour of Padma Shri in the year 2006. She has also written about Odissi dance and culture in many foreign language publications in Europe and USA. Among the modem celebrity Odissi dancers, the name of Nilanjana Banerjee needs to be mentioned. She learnt her dancing techniques from Guru Mayadhar Raut of Delhi. She has popularised Odissi dance in the West, not only among the Indian conmunity there, but also among the foreign nationals. She has performed in many festivals held in USA and Europe. Other famous dancers of Odissi include Kiran Sehgal, Rani Karna and Madhavi Mudgal, besides Sharon Lowen of USA and Myrta Barvie of Argentina. Kathakali Born in the temples of Kerala, the main sources of Kathakali (katha = story; kali = drama) were Kudiattam and Krishnattam, folk drama traditions. It is said that Raja Balaveera Keralan created the Ramanattam as a rival to Manadeva‟s Krishnattam. Gradually, the dance drama repertory was expanded with episodes from the Mahabharata and Shiva Purana. The Ramanattam evolved into the Kathakali. Fostered in the temples, the dance-drama was soon taken out to the popular stage. But with the breakdown of the old feudal set-up, it began to decline due to lack of patronage. It was Vallathol Narayana Menon, the great Malayalam poet, who made it his mission to revive the ancient dance form and give it a lasting institutional 9

support. Helped by Mukunda Raja, he founded the Kalamandalam in 1930. Gurus like Kunju Kurup, and Koppan Nair began to teach there. In 1936, the Kerala Kala Mandalam was begun at a new site. Ragini Devi was a pioneering woman, to learn the dance form and perform it. Following her came Shanta Rao, Mrinalini Sarabhai, Kanak Rele and Rita Ganguly. The famous gurus who have taught at the Kalamandalam include V. Kunju Nair, Krishnan Nair, Gopinathan and Karunakaran Nair. Kathakali is best-suited to an open air stage against the lush greenery of Kerala‟s scenery. It generally requires no props, as the dancers use their gestures and expressions to suggest the scene. The dance calls for strenuous training and an elaborate make-up. It is worth noting that colour is made use of to indicate mental stages and character; e.g., green facial make-up indicates nobility, divinity, virtue, while red patches beside the nose and blobs on the nose point to characters combining royalty and evil and wicked females have black face make-up. The dance form shows remarkable use of eye movements and expressions. In the repertory of Kathakali, an interesting item is the Thiranottam in which an aggressive fierce character, standing close behind a curtain held up by two boys, shakes and pulls at the curtain‟ giving glimpses of his headgear, elaborately madeup face and expressive‟ eyes. The dance episode gives an epic grandeur even to evil characters. Kathakali draws its themes from the epics and the Puranas, and it presents the eternal conflict between good and evil in a grand manner. A discussion.of some famous Kathakali gurus and dancers follows. Guru Kunchu Kurup was the first Kathakali artist to get the national award for Kathakali. He gained popularity for his performance as certain characters: Nala, Hamsam, Rugmangada, Arjun and Lord Krishna. He has excelled in the performance of minukku veshams such as Kuchelan, Brahmanan and Suridara Brahmanan. Kavungal Chathunni Panicker belonged to the Kavungal family of six generations of Kathakali artistes. He emphasised the sense of rhythm and innovated a variety of kalasams or decorative movements. He joined Darpana 10

Academy in 1947 as Kathakali instructor and toured as a leader with Mrinalini Sarabhai‟s company for a Long time. Other notable Kathakali dancers are Kudamaloor Karunakaran Nair, Gopi Nath, Mampuzha Madhava Panicker, Kalamandalam Vasu Pisharody, Oyoor Kochugoru Pillai, Chengannur Raman Pillai, Mankonpu Sivasankara Pillai, Kalamandalam Rajeev and others. Mohiniattam The origin of this dance of Kerala is not clear. It is generally held that it was created in the reign of Maharaja Swati Thirunal of Travancore in the early 19th century. Most of the songs in its repertoire are, indeed, composed by Swati Thirunal. The dance of an enchantress, Mohiniattam has elements of Bharatanatyam as well as Kathakali—the grace and elegance of the former and the vigour of the latter. Danced solo by girls, it is more erotic, lyrical and delicate than the other two. The costume and make-up are distinctive and refined. The dance form had sunk into obscurity when Vallathol Narayana Menon made efforts to revive it. With difficulty he was able to get Kalyani Amma, one of the few existing exponents, to teach the dance. It was popularised by artistes like Vyayanthimala, Shanta Rao, Roshan Vajifdar, Bharati Shivaji, Kanak Rele and Hema Malini. A leading exponent of Mohiniattam, Sunanda Nair has emerged as one of the few practising luminaries of this style of classical Indian dancing. Sunanda has prepared for her vocation both as a professional dancer and a teacher of dance, through rich and multifaceted experiences in higher academics, stage performances, classroom instruction and choreography. She is the founder director of Srutilaya Institute of Fine Arts, Mumbai where she imparts intensive training. Jayaprabha Menon is one of the most accomplished dancers of the form. Even as she is rooted in tradition, her themes are contemporary and interpretation is bold and novel. She blends in her dance a refreshing originality with traditional discipline.

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Pallavi Krishnan is known for her efforts to promote and preserve this style of Indian classical dance as a living tradition. Her skilful choreography has enriched her repertoire and inspired many young dancers to take up the form. In 1995, Pallavi Krishnan founded the Lasya Academy of Mohiniyattam, based in Thrissur, Kerala. Gopika Varma started learning Mohiniyattam at the age of ten. Love for this graceful and gentle dance of soft rhythm has enabled Gopika to transmit through movements and expressions, that at times sigh with nostalgia, purity and sanctity, her own personal worship of the divine. Vijayalakshmi was born into a family with a long lineage of traditional performing arts. From an early age, Vijayalakshmi has had the opportunity to perform in several prestigious national and international festivals, opagating this exquisite and rare dance form around the glob‟for over 20 years. She has performed at prestigious national dance festivals. She coauthored a book aloitg with Guru Bharati Shivaji entitled Mohiniyattam. Manipuri Rather different from the other classical dance forms of India, the Manipuri style emphasises bhakti and not the sensuous aspect. Manipuri too traces its origin to mythology. It flourished especially with the advent of Vaishnavism. The drum—pung—is the very soul of this dance. There are several choloms or dances in Manipuri —the Pung Cholom, Kartal (cymbal) Cholom, Dhol Cholom and so on. The Raasleela is almost inseparable from this dance form. In the choloms, Manipuri presents both the tandava and the lasya aspects. There are several varieties of Raasleela which exude devotional love. The songs in Bengali, Maithili, Bhrajbhasha and Sanskrit are usually compositions of Jayadeva and Chandidas. After a period of obscurity in the nineteenth century, it was the poet Rabindranath Tagore who introduced Manipuri in Shantiniketan and helped it to gain prominence in the 1920s.

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Characterised by lyrical grace and soft undulating movements and serene expressions, the Manipuri dance style is well known for its typically gorgeous costumes. It has a limited use of mudras and the dancer wears no ankle bells. The striking name associated with the dance is that of the Jhaveri sisters— Nayana, Suverna, Ranjana and Darshana who played an important role in popularising the dance form. Besides them, Charu Mathur and Sadhone Bose have excelled at this dance form. Some other famous Manipuri dancers are as follows. Guru Bipin Singha is recognised as a pioneer in Manipuri dance. He is best known for innovating dance compositions and choreography, emphasising each classical element in a creative way in the performances. He introduced solo dance performances in traditional Manipuri style. With his well known disciples, the Jhaveri sisters and Kalavati Devi, he founded the Manipuri Nartanalaya in Mumbai, Kolkata and Jaipur. Guru Nileshwar Mukharjee is a prominent name in Manipuri dance. He popularised the dance all over the world. Rajkumar Singhajit Singh and his dance troupe have travelled extensively to several countries. He established the Manipuri Nrityashram, a dance school, in New Delhi. He was awarded the Padma Shri in 1986. An accomplished dancer, Poushali Chatterjee has choreographed a number of dance dramas: Krishna Leela, Rabindranath Tagore‟s Kalmrigaya and Maharshi Bhagyachandra. In 1996, she opened her own institution, Nandanik Manipuri Dance Academy. Known for her solo performances, Sohini Ray has succeeded in cultivating her own distinct Manipuri style that involves aspects of dance styles like the ballet and Japanese dance styles. Kathak Born in the land of Uttar Pradesh, Kathak most probably had its origin in the Raasleela of Brajbhoomi. Influenced by Vaishnavism, with the central concept of Krishna as the divine dancer and Radha as his partner, the dance was originally 13

associated with temples, and accompanied by keertans. It derived its name from kathika or story-tellers who recited verses from the epics with gestures, and music. Gradually, it assumed an elaborate style involving nrifta and nritya. Under the Mughal rulers, it was influenced by Persian costumes and styles of dancing; Kathak thus branched off into the courtly stream. The dance form, however, degenerated into lascivious styles and became what is derogatively known as „nautch‟. The revival of the classical style came in the twentieth century through the efforts of Lady Leela Sokhey (Menaka). Any discussion of Kathak would be incomplete without mentioning the gharanas—the most famous being Lucknow, Jaipur, Varanasi and Raigarh. Kathak achieved a peak in the reign of Nawab Wajid Au Khan in Lucknow who learnt the dance himself from Thakur Prasad. Thakur Prasad‟s sons, Bindadin Maharaj and Kalka Prasad, greatly enriched the form, both in the abinaya and the nritta aspects. The sons of Kalka Prasad, Achchan Maharaj, Lachchu Prasad and Shambhu Maharaj did much to popularise the dance. The Jaipur Gharana, launched by Bhanuji, emphasises fluency, speed and long rhythmic patterns. The Lucknow Gharana pays more attention to expressiveness and grace. The gharana of Varanasi is said to have evolved in Rajasthan, and it developed a style of its own characterised by moderate tempo, grace and precision. The Raigarh Gharana, not so well-known, is said to have developed under the patronage of Raja Chakradhar Singh who authored the books Ragaratna Manjusha and Martan Sarwaswa. The typical characteristics of Kathak are its intricate footwork and pirouttes. It may be noted that the knees are not bent or flexed. Both Indian and Persian costumes are used. The themes range from dhrupads to taranas, thumris and ghazals. A solo recital begins with Ganesh Vandana or a Salaami (Mughal style). Anand is the item through which a dancer enters upon the stage; then comes the thaat comprising soft and varied movements. Items of pure rhythmic beauty— todas, tukdas—follow. Gat-nikaas give brief outlines of mythological episodes. An interesting aspect of Kathak is the mime performed to the accompaniment of musical compositions in which just a single line is interpreted in a variety of ways through subtle variations in facial expressions and hastas. A special feature of Kathak is padhant—in which the dancer recites complicated bols and demonstrates them. The concluding item is kramalya or takar which concentrates on intricate and 14

fast footwork. Solo items apart, several ballets are being choreographed in the Kathak style by artistes like Kumudini Lakhia and Birju Maharaj. A discussion of some famous Kathak dancers follows. Kartik Ram and Kalyan Das were born in Mhanwarmal village in Bilaspur in 1910. Initially they were trained by Pandit Shivnarayan but later, by Shri Jaipal, Lachchhu Maharaj and Shambhu Maharaj. Kartik Ram and Kalyan Das were expert in folk dances, which also made their Kathak dance more creative. The most eminent Kathak dancer of recent times is Birju Maharaj, the only son and disciple of Achchan Maharaj and a descendant of Ishwari Prasad who is credited to be the first known Kathak teacher. An inheritor of the Lucknow Gharana of the famous family, Ka1ka-Bindadin Gharana of Lucknow, which has been serving the art of Kathak for long, he has given a new dimension to Kathak by experimenting with its application in dance-dramas. He is known for his choreography. His bold and intellectual compositions in traditional themes are brilliant. Birju Maharaj has contributed to the music of films such as Shatranj ke Khiladi, and choreographed dances for Gadar and Devadas (Sanjay Leela Bhansali‟s version). Sitara Devi has combined the traditions of Banaras and Lucknow in her performance of Kathak. An exhaustive treatment of the entire gamut of nritta, sometimes in different talas, interspersed with lyrical beauty and compositions of dramatic intensity followed by moving renditions of thumris and bhajans constitute her long performances which show electrifying energy. Damayanti Joshi was a pioneer in bringing Kathak out of its court ambience and restoring to it dignity and respectability. The traditional court dancer used to wear churidhar pyjamas with an angarkha and a cap. Damayanti wore such a costume occasionally but she mostly wore saris and ghagras and the sari became her main costume later. The ghagras she wore were similar to the ones worn by women in miniature paintings which allowed easy circling movements. Damayanti learnt from all the three brothers, Achchan Maharaj, Lachchu Maharaj and Shambu Maharaj of the Lucknow Gharana. She also learnt from Gauri Shankar, a Jaipur Gharana guru who had been with the Menaka Indian Ballet. She evolved a Kathak style of her own. Damayanti was famous for both her layakari or the rhythmic 15

aspect and bhav, or exposition of moods. Damayanti could reproduce complicated patterns played on the tabla in her footwork and translate them into the idiom of dance. She could dance with ease in the pancha jati tal or five different rhythmic combinations. She was famous for her compositions Sur Sundari and Ashta Nayika. Uma Sharma was initiated in Kathak by Guru Hiralaiji and Girvar Dayal of the Jaipur Gharana, and was later a student of Pandit Sunder Prasad, Shambhu Maharaj and Birju Maharaj. She has performed extensively at home and abroad, and has striven to sustain the tradition of bhava in Kathak. She has also enriched Kathak with elements of the traditional Rasleela of Brindaban and broadened its textual content using contemporary Hindi-Urdu poetry. Collaborating with musicians and composers like Naina Devi, Pannalal Kathak and Shiva Prasad who had a deep understanding of Kathak, she has created a large number of delectable compositions enriching the repertoire of Kathak. Uma Sharma is the founder of Bharatiya SangeetSadan, Delhi, a classical dance and music school. Shovana Narayan has re-defined the ethos and vocabulary of Kathak, enriching it with a deeper and wider canvas of expression and dimensions. A consummate artiste and choreographer, she combines artistry with keen observation and humanism. Malabika Mitra is a performer of notable accomplishment with a fine grasp of the technical intricacies of Kathak. Her performances show an assimilation of the features of the different schools of Kathak in which she has gained training. Kumudini Lakhiya started her career when Kathak was losing its reputation and interest among public. She performed at the Edinburgh festival (1956) with Ram Gopal. There they performed the dance-story of Taj Mahal. She has worked with Pandit Birju. Maharaj among other artistes. She is known for putting in an element of creative thinking in her performances. She started the Kadamb Institute in Ahmedabad. Manisha Gulyani is a versatile Kathak dancer of the Jaipur Gharana. She has performed in numerous dance shows in India and has also choreographed for a Chinese movie. She is good at performing many folk and tribal dances of India.

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Other well-known names in Kathak are Damayanti Joshi, Rani Karna, Saswati Son, Durgalal and Devilal, Roshankumari, Alka Nupur, and Gopikrishna. Chchau The Chchau dance is ancient but its origin is obscure. The term may have derived from chchaya; and thus it indicates „shadow‟ or „mask‟. Another interpretation associates Chchau with certain Oriyan colloquial terms to indicate a war dance rather than a masked dance. This accords well with the basic stance and postures of the dance that resemble those of combatants in a traditional fight. There are three streams of the Chchau nritya—Seraikela (Bihar though originally from Odisha), Mayurbhanj (Odisha) and Purulia (West Bengal, though originally from Bihar). Masks are only used in Seraikela and Purulia Chchau. Chchau has traditonally been a male preserve, though lately women have started learning and performing the dance. The masks of Seraikela and the movements of Chchau bear resemblance to dance styles of Japan, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. Probably, there were close cultural ties between these regions in the ancient times. All the three Chchau modes are characterised by vigorous, even martial, styles. Chchau dances are ceremonially performed during the annual Sun festival or Spring Festival at which Shiva and Parvati are the presiding deities. The themes are drawn not only from the epics and the Puranas but also from Nature. A very popular item in Seraikela is Chandrabhaga based on a legend of the Moon Princess who plunges into the sea to escape from the Sun God. Peacock dance, Ocean dance and Spring dance draw on nature for their themes. It may be recalled that Raja Bijay Pratap Singh was instrumental in giving Chchau the form of a classical dance. Mayurbhanj Chchau has very stylised movements of the body. It requires stamina, flexibility as well as swiftness. Purulia Chchau is also marked by martial grandeur. In Chchau, vocal music hardly exists, musical accompaniment being provided by a variety of drums, the mahuri and flutes.

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FOLK DANCES India has a wealth of folklore, legends and myths, which combine with songs and dances into a composite art. Folk art forms are spontaneous, sometimes crude, and were performed for the masses; however they are not inferior to classical forms beside which they continue to flourish. Their simplicity has an inherent beauty which appeals to the common people. Folk art is the common possession of a group of people or a particular locality. The identity of the originators is forgotten, but the style is preserved down the ages. Initially religionoriented, folk art forms gradually became popular media entertainment. Each region in India has developed its own folk dances. Jammu and Kashmir In the far north, in Jammu and Kashmir, there are several folk dances. Darnali is a vigorous temple dance performed by men. Rou is danced by women in autumn and during the month of Ramadan. The songs are taken from folk literature. The Hikit is the dance of maidens. Poets have composed special songs for this dance. Dumhal is a dance performed by the men folk of the Wattal tribe of Kashmir on specific occasions. The performers wear long colourful robes and tall conical caps that are studded with beads and shells. The party moves in a procession carrying a banner in a very ceremonial fashion. The banner is dug into the ground and the men begin to dance, forming a circle. The musical accompaniment comprises drum. Kud is a folk dance of Jammu, held when the sowing operations of hilly areas are done and people are at leisure. Dandi nach is performed by youngsters round an artistic peacock structure of bamboo sticks called chajja. Ladakh is famous for the devil dance which is performed by lhapas (god men) and mani-pas (prayer men). It is performed in the premises of a gompa. The Spaw dance of Ladakh is a martial form of dance with a brilliant display of courage, stamina and skill. This dance is performed to commemorate the powerful warriors of Ladakh, who once defended the freedom and territorial integrity of the land.

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Haryana Haryana has a variety of folk songs and dances. Most of the dances are connected with the spring season and Holi. Dhamal is popular among the Ahirs of Gurgaon and Mahendergarh. It is performed during harvest time. Khoria is performed by women at the house of the bridegroom after the marriage party has left for the bride‟s house. Ghumar and Phag are some dances performed by women. Daf and Chaurayya are performed by men. Gujarat Gujarat has some famous folk dances, the most popular being the Garba and Raas. Garba festival is held at the time of Navaratra in September-October. Garba actually refers to an earthen pot with holes in which a lamp is lit and around which the women dance. The dance involves circular patterns of movement and rhythmic clapping. The word garba comes from garbha deep which is translated as either light in the inner sanctum of the temple or lamp inside the perforated earthen pot (which is used in the dance). Garbi is similar but with different footwork and it is meant for males, Zeriyun and Kudaniyun are vigorous dances and like the Garbi, danced by farmer women. The songs are generally about Krishna. Barsingh Mehta, Dayanand and Premanand have composed several Garbi songs. Dhamal is a typical Raas dance done with sticks used as in sword-play. The Goph is a stick dance in which strips of colourful cloth tied to a pole in the centre are woven into a rope by the movements of the dance. Gheraiya Raas is a dance in which dancers hold a wand in one hand and a bunch of peacock feathers in the other, and strike the wand against that of the partner as they move in a zigzag pattern. Padhar is performed by a rural community that lives around Nal Lake. In it, performers simulate the rhythmic movements of roving mariners and the undulating sea waves. The Bhil tribes, who live close to border tracts, and the Adivasis of Dangs district, have particularly lively folk dances. Raas is an energetic, vibrant dance, often called the „stick dance‟ because it uses polished sticks or dandiya. It represents a mock-fight between Durga and Mahishasura, the mighty demon-king. It is also nicknamed the Sword Dance because the dandiya represents the sword of Durga and the dandiyas are hit together. The combination of Garba and Raas has become very popular in recent times. Fire and Maryland Masti among Tippani dance has originated from the Chorwad region of Saurashtra. 19

Goa In Goa the multi-hued Tarangamel dance is all energy and youthfulness. On the occasions of Dussehra and Holi, girls and boys swarm the streets in colourful groups, waving flags and streamers (tarang). They shout „Ho! Ho!‟ to the beats of rormut, dhol and tasha. The rainbow-like costumes of the dancers and the multicoloured flags and streamers make Tarangamel a visually appealing affair. The Koli dance derives its name from the Koli fisherfolk of Goa. The dances incorporate elements relating to the sea and their occupation of fishing. The dance is performed by both men and women. The theme is romantic: the fisherwoman making advances to the fishermen. The dance involves a looped movement which depicts the rowing of a fishing boat on undulating waves. Dekhni is the traditional dance of the Christians. The Fugdi is performed by women in honour of Lord Ganesha. There is continuous swirling in the dance. Shigmo is performed in the spring season and symbolises regeneration of nature. But it is also performed when soldiers return victorious from battles. Ghode Modni depicts the brave deeds of warriors. Dancers perform armed with swords. The other dances of the state are the Kunbi dance, Samayi nrutya, Jagar, Ranmale, Gonph and Tonnya mell. Maharashtra Going to Maharashtra, we find the well-known Tamasha, a folk theatre. But its roots lay in the gathas, which depict rural love scenes with a naughty flavour in couplet form. Tamasha was initially a song and dance show, and assumed theatrical importance under the patronage of the Peshwas and other Maratha chiefs. The Gathas were also the inspiration for the famous Lawani, songs and dances of a decidedly provocative kind. Several Lawani songs for performance in Tamasha were composed by shahirs in the 18th and 19th centuries. Other famous folk dances of Maharashtra are the energetic Lezim and the acrobatic Dahikala. Pavri Nach or Tarpha Nach is performed in the hilly regions of the northwest. It is also called the Kokna tribal dance. It is done to the accompaniment of the tarpha or pavri, a wind instrument made of dried gourd. The performers hold each other by the waist and dance in close formation. Men also dance separately, and their dance includes feats of skill, like forming a pyramid or rapidly revolving a dancer round a stout pole. The other dances of the state are Dhangari, Gaja, Povadas, Koli, Dindi, Kala and Dangi. 20

Rajasthan The folk dances of Rajasthan are vibrant and lively. The Ghoomar or Gangore is a traditional women‟s folk dance which was developed by the Bhil tribe and was adopted by other communities. It is performed by groups of women in swirling robes accompanied by men and women singing together. This folk dance gets its name from ghoomna, the pirouetting which displays the spectacular colours of the flowing ghaghara, the long skirt of the Rajasthani women. There is an amazing grace as the skirt flairs slowly while the women twirl in circles, their faces covered with the veil. They dance in measured steps and graceful inclinations of the body, beating palms or snapping fingers at particular cadences, while singing some lilting songs. Other dances are the Suisini, Jhulan Leela and Gopika Leela. Kalbella is one the most sensuous form of the dances of Rajasthan performed by the women of the Kalhelia community. The main occupation of the community is catching snakes and trading snake venom. Hence, the dance movements and the costumes bear resemblance to those of serpents. Dancers attired in traditional black swirling skirts sway sinuously to the plaintive notes of the been—the wooden instrument of the snake charmers. Male participants use different instruments like the pungi, dufli, been, khanjari, morchang, khuralio and dholak to create the rhythm. The dancers, mainly females, spin in a circle, with their bodies swaying acrobatically. Bhavai is another important dance form that originated in Rajasthan. Bhavai is partly entertainment and partly a ritual offering to Goddess Amba. In the courtyard of the Ambaji temple near Mount Abu, the Navratri festival is celebrated with bhavai performances. Bhavai, according to some scholars, is made up of two words bhava means universe and aai is mother; together, it means mother of the universe, that is, Amba. Subtle social criticism laced with pungent humour is the speciality of bhavai. The pompous and incongruous behaviour of the high caste people is scoffed at in bhavai. Probably the anger over injustice suffered by the originator of bhavai, Asaita Thakar, permeated the art of bhavai. Some of the bhavai plays present a scathing review of the caste- ridden social structure. People belonging to all levels of social strata are portrayed in bhavai.

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Terah Taali is performed by the Kamar (or Kamada) tribe. It is an elaborate ritual with many elements of dance. It is generally performed by two or three women who sit on the ground. Man jiras, or smajl metal cymbals, are tied to different parts of the body, mostly the legs, and with a cymbal in either hand the dancer strikes these in rhythm. The head is covered with a veil, and at times a small sword is clenched between the teeth and an ornamental pot balanced on the head. The story of Ramdev Baba and poems of Kabir and Mirabai generally form the themes of the dance and song. Ger dance of Mewar and Barmer is based on the Raslila as well as stories of valour. It is performed by men on festive occasions. The dancers carry small coloured sticks that are struck against one another in rhythmic patterns. Himachal Pradesh In Himachal Pradesh festivals like the Dussehra have special dances. The Gaddi shepherdesses dance the Charba. Dances of various festivities and spring season are Mahasu Thali, Jadda and Jhainta. The beauty of hilly Himachal finds an expression in the languid and elegant movements that form a part of the Nati dance. The dance matches the gentleness of the hilly breeze and the rhythmic swaying of trees. The dance is mainly a mime but also incorporates some abstract but languid sequences. The Namagen dance is performed in September to celebrate the autumnal hues. Woollen costumes and richly studded ornaments of silver are worn by women. Punjab Punjab is the home of the energetic Bhangra with its infectious beats and catchy tone. It catches the happy mood of a harvest well rapead. Bhangra is done with classic style Punjabi dresses, and with instruments including a dhol, chimta and tabla. It was originally danced during the harvest season, but now it is a popular form of celebration at any time such as weddings and festivals. The counterpart to the male bhangra is the giddha which is a female folk dance. It is an energetic dance derived from ancient ring dancing that highlights feminine grace and elasticity. It is often accompanied by singing folk couplets known as boliyan. The other folk dances of Punjab are the Malwai Giddha, Jhoomer, Dhamalan, Dankre, Sammi, Dandass, Ludi and Jindua. 22

Uttar Pradesh Folk dances of Uttar Pradesh show the rich cultural heritage of the state. The major folk dances of the state are Raslila, Ramlila, Khayal, Nautanki, Naqaal, Swang, Dadra and the Charkula dance. The Raslila, known as the Braj Raslila, is based on the story revolving around Lord Krishna‟s childhood adolescence and its relationship with his consort Radha. Dadra is a popular dance form of Uttar Pradesh in which the singers give support to the dancers on the stage. The Kajri dance is performed during the rainy season. Girls and women commence their Kajri songs and dances which have the theme of love and romance. The Ahir dance is a virile, vigorous and martial dance performed in the Ahir community on the occasions of birth and marriage. The dance is always accompanied by song and instrumental music of dholak (drum) and kansi (cymbals). The dancers wear a band of small brass bells around the lower waist which accentuate the complicated footwork by underlining the time-patterns of the dance movements. The themes of the songs are of a good variety. The dances of the Chamar community are simple performances consisting of a few pure dance sequences punctuated with jest and slapstick humour. The theme revolves round religious myths and legends with an undercurrent of humour, wit and repartee. The Jagar dances are connected with exorcist ritualistic practices. These are performed to drive away evil spirits and to invoke the spirit of certain local deities. The recitation of ballads is accompanied by exotic beats of the hurkas and the thalis (brass plates) followed by a dance by the medium involving a lot of fanatic leaping, jumping and shouting. The ritual ends with the bidding of farewell to the invoked spirit by the singer. The dance Charkula is performed in the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh, the land of Krishna and his consort, Radha. Veiled women balancing large multi-tiered circular wooden pyramids on their heads, alight with 108 oil lamps, dance to the strains of rasiya songs of Krishna. Charkuhz is especially performed on the third day after Holi, the day when Radha was born. According to legend, Radha‟s grandmother ran out àf the house with the charkula on her head to announce the birth of Radha. Charkula is a popular dance form performed during various festivities. The other dances performed in the state include the Thora and Kajri.

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Uttarakhand The folk dances of Uttarakhand are many and varied. Langvir Nritya is an acrobatic dance of the Tehri Garhwal region in which a male dancer-acrobat rotates at the top of a bamboo pole. Barada Nati is a folk dance of the Jaunsar Bhawar region (Chakrata Tehsil, Dehradun). It is performed by boys and girls prior to religious events or on social occasions. Pandva Nritya takes place in Chamoli district and Pauri Garwal on Dussehra and Diwali. It relates the Mahabharata story. Shotiya of the Garhwal region includes tribal dances like Dhurang and Dhuring which are linked with death rituals. Chapeli is a duet dance that delineates the joys of romance. It involves graceful movements of the waist by the female dancer as the male plays a hudukka on his left shoulder accompanied by others playing the flute, manzira and hurka. It is performed in the Kumaon region. Chholiya is an ancient Rajput traditional dance. Belonging to the Kumaon region (Champawat and Almora), it is performed as part of the marriage procession. Dancers flash swords and shields, giving the impression of a group advancing to attack. Chancheri is a group dance of Danpur Patti (Bageshwardistrict, Kumaon). It has men and women dancing in a semicircle at a slowly increasing pace. Jhora is a kind of community dance which is performed by men and women in the villages, and it is a dance in which the higher and lower castes perform together. It is danced at fairs. This kind of dance is generally performed during the morning or evening, at the coming of spring. It is performed by a minimum of six people to well over 200 at times. Madhya Pradesh In Madhya Pradesh, the Jawara is performed in the Bundelkhand area. A harvest dance, it reflects the gaiety and pleasure of the peasants who have reaped a good harvest. The dance is performed by men and women together. The costumes and jewellery worn by the women are colourful. The women carry baskets full of jawar on their heads and, although the dance is very vigorous, they are able to balance these baskets very skilfully on their heads. The accompaniment includes a rich variety of percussion, stringed and wind instruments. On wedding occasions, the countryside women of Malwa perform the Matki dance with an earthen pot balanced on the head. The Malki is mostly danced solo. 24

Sometimes just for merriment a couple of women join the main dancer who usually dances with a veil on her face. The two other variations of the Matki are the Aada and Khada Nach. The Phulpati is exclusively for unmarried girls. It is a dance of the semirural womenfolk. During the Holi festival the revellers cannot restrain themselves from coming out with some sort of dance movements to the uneven manipulation of drums. The Grida Dance is performed when the rabi crops sway in the fields in full bloom. It continues from morning till evening. The host village of one year returns the visit next year by going to the village of their guests of the preceding year. The dance has three distinct phases: sela in which the feet movements are slow and comparatively rigid; selalarki in which the feet movements become brisker and faster; and selabhadoni in which, with the acceleration of the tempo, every limb of the body begins to sway in a mood of exaltation. Maanch is a lyrical folk drama and a form of operatic ballet popular in the Malwa region. Maanch means the stage or place of performance. The presentation style and technique of the Maanch, its various thematic elements, and suitable music and gaudy costumes all make it a unique dance. It is generally performed by men from the artisan classes in an open space with the barest of theatrical equipment. Chhattisgarh In Chhattisgarh, Gaur Maria dance is one of the important dances of Bison Horn Marias of Abhujmaria plateau of Bastar and it symbolises the hunting spirit. The dance imitates the movements of bisons. A joyful dance, it is basically performed by men-and women together as an invocation on the occasion of marriages. The folk dance of the Satnami community is the Panthi which bears religious overtones. Performed on Magh Purnima, the birth anniversary of their Guru Ghasidas, the dance is evolving still to include a variety of steps and patterns. The dancers dance around a jaitkhamb set up for the occasion, to songs eulogising their spiritual head. The songs also reflect the Nirvana philosophy, conveying the spirit of renunciation of their guru and the teachings of saint poets like Kabir, Ramdas and Dadu. As the rhythm quickens, dancers with bent torsos and swinging arms indulge in acrobatics and even form human pyramids. 25

Raut Nacha is a traditional folk dance usually performed by Yadavs/Yaduvanshis (a caste which considers itself as descendants of Krishna) as symbol of worship to Krishna. It is done at the time of dev udhni ekadashi (time of awakening of gods after brief rest), according to Hindu panchang (calendar). The dance has close resemblance to Krishna‟s raas leela with gopis. Pandwani, as the name denotes, is the story of the Pandavas. It expresses in a lively and elementary language, the stories of the Mahabharata, retold in the Chhattisgarhi folk ballad style. There are two styles of narration in Pandwani, Vedamati and Kapalik. In the Vedamati style the lead artist narrates in a simple manner by sitting on the floor throughout the performance. The Kapalik style is livelier, where the narrator actually enacts the scenes and characters. Teejan Bai, Paudwani performer from Ganiyari Village of Durg district, has contributed immensely to popularising the Kapalik form in India and abroad. Bharthari Chai-it is a traditional folk ballad adopted from the book named Bharthari Chant which deals with the various stages of Raja Bharthahari‟s life—birth, marriage, renunciation and his tragedies. (This form is prevalent in Bihar and Rajasthan also.) Chandaini is another form of traditional folk ballad prevalent in Chhattisgarh. It is similar to bharthahari singing. A folk version sung by the Ahirs became the source of the Lorik Chanda legend. Gujarat The famous Dandiya dance of Gujarat is believed to have evolved from Dandani, the basic difference between the two is that in Dandari the artists use antlers of deer instead of sticks. While Gendi is the only dance form in India that uses stilts, Sela is performed with wooden sticks or poles. The dances are performed to the tunes of love songs in company of musical instruments like .the labia, thali (plates) and bansuri (flute). The participants wear colourful costumes, ornaments and bright headgear. Karma is famous dance of Chhattisgarh, performed by both the Baigas and the Gonds. Other vibrant tribal dances of Chhattisgarh include Bhagoniya (performed during the festival of Bhagoriya when the lord of dance is worshipped), Phag (a sword dance) and Lola (a dance from in which women dance with a pot full of water on their heads). 26

West Bengal In West Bengal the Kathi dance with sticks is famous. The wandering minstrels enchant the people with Baul dances. The folk dance of Gambhira originated in the Maldah in West Bengal. After the Partition of India, Chapaai Nawabganj in Rajshahi became the main centre of Gambhira. With time, this dance has undergone many changes in terms of theme and style of its presentation. Muslims also became the custodians of the dance, and thereby it has become an integral part of their culture. Gambhira comprises a few characters with dialogues in an atmosphere of music. Its themes are contemporary social problems, fakeness and selfishness of people and so on. Kalikapatadi has been performed for about 500 years now. The main story of this Bengali dance form revolves around how Shiva calmed down angry Kali after killing Asura. The dance is performed before the coronation of Shiva on Neelpuja Day (Chaitra Sankranti). The green leaves of water hyacinth are used to make the hair of Kali and the black ash of ganja is used to decorate the body. Clay mask is used for Mahadeva. Palm leaves reddened with alta is used as the tongue of Kali. Participants go on fast for the whole day. Nacni is done by female performers who sing and dance professionally in rural areas. The dance is accompanied by male dhulki and nagara drummers. Alkap is a rural performance, popularin many places of West Bengal, especially in Rajshahi, Maldah and Murshidabad districts (as well as the Rajmahal Hills in the state of Jharkhand). This is associated with the Gajan festival of Shiva around the middle of April. The beginning of this form was in the late nineteenth century. It has no written script, but has scenarios based on popular love stories, which the actors elaborate with extreme dialogues breaking up for songs, dances and comic or satirical sketches called kap. It is a composite performance comprising acting, dancing, singing and recitation. Each Alkap group consists of ten to twelve dancers, under the leadership of a sorkar or guru. The group includes two or three chhokras (supporting characters), and one or two, lead singers called gayen or gayok. Also, there remain dohars, the chorus called gayokdol and instrumentalists called bajnadars. Alkap performances take place at night on an open stage. Domni belongs to Maldah in West Bengal. The mool hayen (lead 27

character/protagonist and chhokras) offer devotional prayers. The dance performances of the chhokras are called Nachari or Lachari. The main characters are the roles of husbands, wives, mothers, greedy moneylenders and peasant-girls. The plays are based on extracts from small events of everyday life and are presented in a satirical manner. The musical instruments that accompany the dancer are harmonium, dholak, kartal, flute and so on. With changes in social life and popular taste/culture, this folk form is becoming extinct. Bihar In Bihar the rainy season is celebrated by women dancing the Jata latin. Bidesia is the most popular folk dance of Bihar people. The dance is said to have originated in the 20th century. It is a folk theatre form that is prevalent in the Bhojpuri-speaking regions of Bihar. Bhikari Thakur is believed to be the father of this dance style. He raised conflicting issues prevailing in society. Conflicting trends between rich and poor, upper class and lower class, upper caste and lower caste, and urban and poor dwellers were his themes. He used dance as a form to put his views among people. Biraha songs combined with dance become an effective medium. Bidesia is & dance version of Biraha songs. Biraha songs are portrayal of pain of the women who are left alone behind by their men, away from home. Males play the roles of female in Bidesiya dance and for the purpose; they wear artificial long hair and dhoti. Despite the fact that many new modes of entertainment have come up, Bidesia still has its charm amongst Biharis. Another popular dance form of Bihar is Paika. The dance reminds us of infantry and its agility; courage, and excitement. The dance is popular particularly in the Mayurbhanj region. A flat ground is essential for its, performance. This dance displays the skills and the ability of the dancers to handle these weapons. The dance reaches its climax with the fast beats produced by Mandal. Performers wear colourful turbans and tight dhotis and stand in two rows. Holding the wooden swords and shields in their hands, warriors engage in a fierce mock combat. Jhijhian dance is another dance style popular in Bihar. This is a ritualistic dance performed when the rains do not come and it aims at making the god of rain happy. The dance accompanied by a song which is full of prayers to Lord Indra, 28

the rain god. The participants of the dance include a lead singer, harmonium player, a flute player, and a dholak player. The dance is performed by women. Kajari songs are basically sung during the monsoon season. The dance form called Kajari accompanies .these songs. The dance starts in the month of „Shravan‟ or the starting of the monsoon season every year and lasts for the entire duration of rain. These songs describe how wonderful the earth has become due to rain and how happy and pleasant people are. These songs, combined with dance, showcase the rich culture and tradition of Bihar. Jat-Jatin is the most popular folk dance of North Bihar, especially in Mithila and Koshi region. Jat-Jatin is performed by emigrant husband, who goes to a faroff place to earn a livelihood, and his spouse. Apart from poverty and sorrow, this dance reflects a rainbow of the sweet and tender quarrel as well as some complaints between husband and wife. The folk mocks to comfort the hurdles of life with a smile. Jumari dance of Bihar is similar to “Garva of Gujarat”. Specialised to the married women, it is a folk dance of Mithilanchal of Bihar. After the month of Ashwin (September-October) comes Kartik. The sky is crystal clear; there is no cloud; it is a full moon spreading milky rays all over. Maids in love go on dancing, singing and celebrating the turns of the season. Domkach of the Mithila region is performed by women on the occasion of weddings. The Karama by the Kols and Magha by Hos tribals are the other famous folk dances of Bihar. Jharkhand In Jharkhand, there is the Alkap dance performed in the Rajmahal Hills. There is also the traditional Karma Munda dance which gets its name from the Karma tree which stands for fortune and good luck. The ceremony starts with the planting of the trees. Dancers, both men and women, form circles around it and dance with their arms around each other‟s waists. As the drum beats get quicker and louder, the dancers gain momentum and generally end in an uproarious tumult. The Agni dance is a religious dance usually performed on the occasion of Bipu or Manda worship in Jharkhand. Jhumar is performed at the time of the harvest season. It shows a live demonstration of the happiness of the tribal people. Janani Ihumar is a popular dance performed by mainly the women of the region; it again marks the harvest season. The dance is accompanied by song and music. The 29

musical instruments used include mandar, dhol, kartal, bansuri and sarangi. Mardana Jhumar celebrates the harvest season. It is a major attraction at many fairs and festivals. It is performed mainly by men, wielding swords while dancing. The overall dance movements and the music have a martial flavor. The main stress is on portraying the valour of a man. The music for the Mardana Jhumar dance is provided by loud instruments like the shehnai, dhol, nagara, jhanjh and kartal. Paika is a dance form where martial art is mixed with local dance steps. This dance form is only performed by the male members. Dancers are dressed with safety chest plates and head gears for their protection Bells are tied on their ankles which accompany other musical instruments. This dance is accompanied by the melodious music of narsingha, shahnai, bheir, dhak and nagara drums. The performers reach the climax with the fast beat of the mandar. This folk dance is also performed for welcoming guests during various functions. Phagua is a dance mostly performed by men during the time of Holi. The dancers perform a series of joyous dance movements and throw colored water and powder around as they dance. The dance is accompanied by a loud recital of folk song, which is called phag. The music is produced by huge drums (dhal). The Hunting dance of the Santhals who live in the hilly plateaus of the Chotanagpur region of the Santhal Parganas of Jharkhand is called the Hunta Dance. This powerful dance requires a lot of strength and vigour and is performed only by men. The dance depicts the act of preparing for the hunt with bows and arrows, stalking the animal and killing it. Mime, slow strong stepping and measured movements is the distinctive features of this dance. The Mundari dance is a popular dance of the Mundaris. This dance is generally performed to celebrate the newlyweds. Munda songs are often mixed with songs in other tribal languages. The similarity between Munda songs and dances and those of other constituent tribal groups in the culture of Jharkhand, lies in this form of group dancing, performed with the swinging of the dancers‟ bodies with especially expressive mudras or gestural language. The movements of the dance are very repetitive. The Oraon community of the state, which is mainly concentrated in the Hazaribagh-Goomla area, performs the Sarhul and Barao dances. Both men and 30

women participate in the community dance. There are different songs and. dances for different occasions and seasons. The Barao dance is held during April-May. The community offers prayers to Mother Earth for a plentiful monsoon, so that a good harvest season may follow. A rich variety of songs are sung for the dance. Both men and - women perform the Jhitka and Danga dances that celebrate different feudal traditions. They are spontaneous expressions of joy and happiness and combine elements of reality and fantasy. The costume and headgear worn by the dancers is similar to those worn by the Polka dancers. The Lahasuya songs and dances accompanied by rhythmic beats of the madol, are performed as a call for rain, if there a drought. Both men and women participate in the dance. The Domkach is a distinctive folk dance of the Chotonagpur area of Jharkhand. The women of the bridegroom‟s family perform this ceremonial dance after his baraat leaves for the bride‟s house. Through this dance, they keep themselves awake and entertained. Moving in circles, they poke fun at each other and crack jokes through satiric songs. Ghora Naach is performed during wedding ceremonies. Men wear loose horse puppets around their waists and dance to the rhythms of indigenous folk instruments. Odisha In Odisha there are numerous dances. The Danda Nato (the Danda Jatra), is one of the most ancient forms of histrionic arts of the state. Associated with ritualistic services, Danda Nato forms an institution of dance, music and dramatics blended with religion, social reformation and an association of universal brotherhood. Amounting to mainly worship of Lord Shiva, this theatrical form brings into its fold a harmonious feeling of co-existence between followers of different philosophical doctrines, between political principles and sets of opinions. Ghoomra is a dance performed to the accompaniment of the ghoomra which is a typical drum plad with both hands. It produces a peculiar sound quite different from other varieties of drums. The dance begins fifteen days earlier to Gamha Purnima (full moon in September) and culminates on that night in a ceremonial 31

performance. Young men of various communities fix a ghoomra each on the chest with string and simultaneously dance and play. After a brief dance sequence in different rhythmic patterns all the dancers move in a concentric circle and then stand erect in a line. Then enters the singer who first sings in praise of Saraswati and other gods and godesses and then sings Chhanda, Chaupadi and other literary folk-songs. The Karma or Karain pastoral dance is performed during the worship of the god or goddess of fate. It begins from Bhadra Shukia Ekadasi (eleventh day of the bright moon of the month of Bhadra) and lasts for several days. This is popular among the Scheduled Tribes (e.g., the Binjhal, feet long. They dance in different forms by striking the sticks according to the rhythms of the song. The leader sings first and others follow him. The main theme of the song is derived from the love story of Radha and Krishna. Animal mask dances are prevalent in villages of south Odisha especially in the district of Ganjam. Particularly during Thankurani Yatra, when the idols are taken out on the streets, the animal mask dancers dance before the procession. During the marriage ceremonies also, they lead the bridegroom‟s procession all the way to the bride‟s house. The three animal mask dances typical of the area are the tiger, bull and horse dances. Andaman and Nicobar Islands In Andaman and Nicobar Islands the dance of the Nicobarese is performed during the Ossuary Feast or the Pig Festival. Dedicated to the departed head of the family, the occasion observed with night-long dancing in the full moonlight under the swaying palms. The dancers dressed in coconut fronds step gracefully in time to traditional songs. Feasting and good food followed by a pig fight in the morning are other highlights of the celebration. Assam In Assam, the Bihu dance is a joyous dance performed by both young men and women. It is characterised by brisk dance steps, and rapid hand movement. Dancers wear traditionally colourful Assamese clothing. Dhol (drum), pepa (horn) and gagana are the musical instruments used in this dance. The Jhumur Nach of tea garden workers is performed by girls and boys together, sometimes by the girls alone, with accuracy of footwork while clasping tightly each other‟s waist. This dance is performed to the music of a beating drum-like instrument called madal. 32

The Bagurumba of the Bodo community is generally a formation dance with slow steps and outstretched hands. This dance is performed by girls alone in traditional colourful Bodo attire. This dance uses the Bodo traditional musical instruments. This dance can be seen in the Bodo land areas of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Naihari, Darrang and Sonitpur districts. The Ali Ai Ligang of the Mishing community is a dance for making an offering to the deities. This dance can be seen in the north-eastern part of Assam. Assam has its graceful Khel Gopal dance and the Tabal Chongbi danced at Holi. The Bhor Tol Nritya representing the Sankari culture has six-to-ten dancers equipped with cymbals performing to a fast-paced rhythm. It is performed during festive occasions. Deodhani is performed in honour of the snake goddess. Manasa dancers rotate their heads in a circular fashion to imitate the motion of the snake. Women perform the dance. The kham or drum and the Ciphung or flute is played in accompaniment. Arunachal Pradesh The dances performed by the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh can be divided into four types: ritual dances, festive dances, recreational dances, and pantomimes and dance-dramas. The Buiya dance is performed with the object of ensuring prosperity and health of .the dancers and their households. Chalo dance of the Nocte tribe in central ArunachaI Pradesh is part of the three-day Chalo Boku festival. Wancho dance of the Wancho tribe is performed on the occasion of festivals and ceremonies. Men and young unmarried women, including married women who have not joined their husbands‟ families, participate, adorning themselves with decorative, items. The men have baskets hung behind them. Pasi Kongki is performed by the Adi tribes. Ponung is a dance of the Adi tribe. Ponung is part of the festival celebrated before the harvest. But it is performed on other auspicious occasions as well. The dance performed by women is led by a Miri, a man adept in mythical songs about the origin of paddy and other crops. The Miri, sings in the centre, holding aloft and shaking a sword like music instrument called Yoksha. The Popir dance is performed in the festival called Mopin. Similar to the Ponung and performed by the Galos and others, the dance is performed by young 33

girls who wear white dresses and elaborate headgears. Rice wine or apong is served. Bardo Chham is a folk dance of Sherdukpens, a small community of West Karneng district. Bardo Chham depicts the victory of good over evil. The dance has an interesting background. According to the local beliefs, both good and evil forces rule mankind. The folks believe that in one year, twelve different types of stupid things, representing evil forces, appear each month and get together. The Sherdukpens mask themselves representing the different animals and dance to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals as an act of fighting the evil forces. Manipur In Manipur, Thang Ta is the art form exclusive to the state. Thang means „sword‟ and Ta means „spear‟. In this amazing display of the traditional art of warfare, performers leap and attack each other and defend themselves. Encouraged by the kings of the earlier times, Thang Ta is an ingenious display of skill and creativity. The art has a ritualistic aspect with some movements of sword intended to ward off evil spirits, while other postures indicate protection. All the dance forms of Meiti people are believed to have originated from Thang Ta. The Dol Cholam is a drum dance. The drum, by itself, enjoys a privilege in the dances of Manipur. There are several kinds of drums, each intended for a particular occasion. The festival of Holi, in spring, is the real time for drum dances. Lai Haraoba dance is a major folk dance of Manipur. The performers are the Maibis and Maibas said to have been chosen by the gods. In this ritualistic dance to unfold the story of creation, the dancers make use of certain stylised hand gestures and body movements, but the face remains blank. Pung Cholom is a dance that demands acrobatic abilities and stamina. The dancers themselves play the mridanga (pung) while executing the performance. Khamba Thaibi is performed in honour of the sylvan deity, Thangjing. The dance is performed either as part of Lai haoraoba or as an independent performance. The male performers pick up their partners from the girls decked up with colourful dresses along with flowers in their hands. This dance is a duet performance describing the story of a poor and brave lad of the Khunian clan of Khamba, who fell in love with Thaibi, a princess of Moirang. The Nupa dance, Kartal Cholom or Cymbal dance, is performed in a group, by men. Soft, gentle and serene movements are performed initially but it gradually gathers momentum. Generally, 34

the Nupa dance acts as a prologie or an introductory dance to the Raslila dances, however, it can also be performed in connection with religious rites. The men wear white pheijom (dhoti) and snow-white ball shaped large turbans on their head while performing this dance. Khubak Ishel is performed during the Rathayatra. The song of Dashavatar is sung. Lhou Sha is a war dance performed at confrontations between villages. It is a tradition of the Maring community. Though traditionally performed by men, it is now performed by women also. Meghalaya In Meghalaya, dances are an integral part of the culture. Ku Shad Suh Mynsiem is an annual spring dance that celebrates the harvesting and sowing seasons. Young unniairied girls and boys wear colourful clothes and jewellery and perform the dance with good cheer. The Nongkrem dance is part of the religious festival, Ka Pom-Blang Nongkrem. Unmarried girls decked well, with gold and silver ornaments, and yellow flowers, dance forward and backward forming a circle. Men dance in a wide circle with a sword and a white hair whisk in their hands. Ka-Shad Shyngwiang-Thangiap is a ceremonial affair that starts on the day of the death of a person and concludes on the day when the last rites are conducted. The female dancers are supported by men who play music on flute, bamboo pole and drum. Laho dance, a part of the Behdienkhlam festival, is performed by men and women dressed in colourful garments. A girl linking arms with two boys on either side perform this active dance. There are no musical instruments used; a man recites couplets during the dance performances. Mizoram In Mizoram, the dances are performed during festivals. Drum and gong are the main instruments used. Cheraw dance is a combination of rhythm and skill. Four people hold two pairs of long bamboos across one another on the ground. As the bamboo sticks are clapped together, the main dancers in traditional attires weave patterns through them in time to the rhythm. Cheraw is a major attraction during all festive occasions in Mizoram. It is believed to have a foreign origin as similar dances are popular in the Far East and the Philippines. Khuallam or the „dance of the guests‟ is performed by, a group of males at the Khuangchawl Ceremony. The Chailam is performed by men and women 35

standing in circles during the Chapchar Kut festival that continues for a week or more. The musicians are in the centre of the circle. Sawlakin is a Lakher dance that has been adopted by the Mizos. A warrior begins the dance and he has to be one who has hunted a man or an animal. The Pawi groups perform the Chawnglaizawn during festivals and to celebrate trophies brought home by successful .hunters. Husbands, mourning the death of their wives, also perform the dance. The Zangtalam, the dance of the Paihte group, involves a lot of drum beats. Par Lam is performed by girls dressed colourfully with flowers in their hair; boys play the music for the dance. Sarlamkai/Solakia, a dance originating from the Pawi and Mara communities in southern Mizoram, is part of a ceremony associated with tribal wars in the past. The ceremony was observed to ensure the vanquished soul remained a slave to the victor even after death. The warrior dance itself, commemorating victory in war, involves sounding of gongs, cymbals and drums, with their being no actual singing of songs. Tianglam is one of the most popular dances of the state, performed by both men and women. Nagaland In Nagaland, the tribal dances of the Nagas include war dances of distinctive tribes. The Rangma and the bamboo dance are performed by the Nagas. Colourful costumes and jewellery are worn by the performers who perform mock war motions. The Zeliang dance is performed by men and women in a circle. It is an artistic dance. There is stamping of feet to work the tempo, interspersed with clapping and chanting. The spear, duo or shield is swung to the rhythm of the dance. The Zemis of the North Cochar Hills district perform a variety of dances. The Nsuirolians (cock dance) is performed by men. It resembles the traits of a cock. There are also the Gethinglim (cricket dance) in which hands are moved to and fro, resembling movement of the cricket; the Temangnetin (fly dance) and Hetaleulee (bear dance) performed by men to celebrate defeating of enemies. Chang Lo or Sua Lua of the Chang tribe of Nagaland used to be performed to celebrate victory over enemies earlier times. Now, it forms a part of all the community celebrations, such as Poanglem, a three-day festival preceding the harvest season. There are dramatic costumes of traditional Naga warrior and finery of womenfolk.

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Tripura In Tripura, Hojagiri is a reflection of the age-old culture and the unique style of dance of the Reang community. Only lower half of the body is moved to create rhythmic movements. Dancers performing amazing acrobatic feats is the main highlight of the dance. Reang girls twist and turn and dance in time to the compelling rhythm, sometimes dancing on earthen pitcher or balancing a bottle on the head with a lighted lamp on top of it. Sikkim In Sikkim, the Singhi Chham is a masked dance that depicts the snow lion which is the cultural symbol of the state and is a representation of the world‟s third highest mountain Kanchenjunga or Khang-Chen Dzong Pa in Sikkim. The natives perform the dance dressed in furry costumes. The Chu Faat dance performed by the people of the Lepcha community reveres Mt. Kanchenjunga along with four of its associate peaks namely Mt. Pandim, Mt. Kabru, Mt. Simbrum and Mt. Narshing. Believed to be the warehouse of five hidden treasures like salt, medicine, minerals, sacred books and food grains, these snowy peaks are honoured by the dancers carrying butter lamps and green bamboo leaves. Performed on the fifteenth day of the seventh month of the Northern Buddhist calendar, this ritualistic annual feature is accompanied by devotional songs. Another famous dance of the community is the Sikmari dance in which the youth celebrate love and the natural scenery of the region. The Bhutia community of Sikkim performs Singhi Chaam or the Snow Lion Dance, which again pays homage to the sacred Mount Kanchenjunga and its four associate peaks. Yak Chaam performed by the Bhutias honors the yak, an animal they are dependent upon for survival. This dance projects the simple life style of the herdsman in the mountains. Denzong Gnenha is another popular dance form of the Bhutias that depicts their astute faith in their gods and gurus along with the peaceful and joyous nature of the community. Bhutia invoke good fortune and prosperity to themselves and their land by performing the Tashi Yangku dance. Nepalis of Sikkim perform the Khukuri Naach, a warrior dance that gives a religious touch to the sending off of the soldiers going to the battle. These warriors are given a khukri to be carried with them as it signifies victory Chutkey Naach is 37

very popular. Young Nepali boys and girls usually perform this dance in the open air during harvest, local fairs and festivals. Maruni dance is the oldest and the most popular dance of the Nepalis in Sikkim. Though associated with the Tihar festival, it has now come to be performed on other occasions like marriage. Commemorating the victory of good over evil, the dancers in this dance are dressed in colourful costumes and magnificent ornaments. Accompanied by the „Dhatu Waray‟ (clown), the dancers visit the nearby houses. A nine-instrument orchestra known as „Naumati Baja‟ also accompanies them at times. Tamil Nadu In Tamil Nadu, Kamandi or Kaman Pandigai is celebrated to commemorate the Puranic event when Manmada, the god of love, was burnt to ashes by Shiva in anger. The villagers separate themselves into two parties as Erintha katchi and Eriyatha katchi and a heated debate ensues. Kaman and Rathi, his consort, are the main characters in this dance. Devarattam or „the dance of the gods‟ is the dance of the Kambala Naikar community of Tamil Nadu. Fast and fluent movements to the rhythmic sound of deva thunthubi—a drum-shaped percussion instrument—make this dance truly enjoyable. The dance is performed during festivals, marriages and other social occasions. The womenfolk of Tamil Nadu have three closely related dances, which can be performed at any time but are seen at their best during festivities. The simplest of these is the Kummi, in which the dancers gather in a circle and clap their hands rhythmically as they dance. As an extension to this is the Kolattam, where instead of clapping, the participants hold small wooden rods in their hands and strike these in rhythm as they dance. The Pinnal Kollattam is a dance round a maypole in which intricate patterns are woven by the dancers who move in a circle clapping each other‟s hands. The temples are the setting for the Karagam dance in which beautifully decorated kalashas are balanced on the head while dancing. Kavadi is another religious dance. In Karagattam or Karagam the villagers praise the goddess Man Amman. In this dance, the performers balance the water pot on their head very beautifully. Traditionally, this dance is performed in two ways. Aatta Karagam is c danced with decorated pots on the head and symbolises joy and happiness, while the Sakthi Karagarn is performed only in temples and is mainly danced for entertainment. In the Karagam dance intricate steps and body arm 38

movements decide the skill of performer. This dance can be performed individually or in pairs, by both men and women. Some of the steps that are widely used are similar to the circus acts: dancing on a rolling block of wood, or up and down a ladder, threading a needle while bending backwards and many more. Mayil Attam or Peacock dance is done by girls dressed as peacocks, resplendent with peacock feathers and a glittering head-dress complete with a beak. This beak can be opened and closed with the help of a thread tied to it, and manipulated from inside the dress. Other similar dances are Kaalai Attam (dressed as a bull), Karadi Attain (dressed as a bear) and Aali Aattam (dressed as a demon) which are performed in the villages during village get-togethers. Vedala Aattam is performed wearing a mask- depicting demons. Paampu Attain or snake dance is yet another typical speciality of the southern region. It is usually danced by young girls dressed in a tight-fighting costume designed like the snake-skin. The dancer simulates the movements of the snake, writhing and creeping, at times making quick biting movements with head and hands. The raised hands held together look like the hood of a snake. Oyilattam, meaning „dance of grace‟, was traditionally a dance where a few men would stand in a row and perform rhythmic steps to the musical accompaniment, with the number of dancers increasing; over the past ten years women have also started performing this dance. Typically, the musical accompaniment is the thavil (drum) and the performers have coloured handkerchiefs tied to their fingers and wear ankle bells. Puli Attam is a folk dance of early Tamil country. This dance forms „a play of the tigers‟. Normally the performers make movements of the majestic tigers: Their bodies are painted by local artists in vibrant yellow and black to resemble a tiger. The music instruments used are tharai, thappu or thappattai. It is performed during temple festivals on the village streets. Poikal Attam refers to the dance of „false legs‟. Here dancers are attached to a dummy horse at the waist. Instead of 4 legs of a horse, only 2 legs of the person with the prop on his body is present: The image is similar to a rider on a horse. The themes often relate to „Raja Desingu‟——a once- popular Rajput ruler called Tej Singh who invaded areas all the way upto Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh In Andhra Pradesh, the Thapetta Gullu is the dance form of the Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. In this dance, more than ten dancers participate, singing 39

songs in praise of the local goddess. The drums are hung around the necks of the dancers to produce varied rhythms. There are tinkling bells around the waist of the performer which form the distinctive part of the dancers‟ costumes. Popular in Srikakulam and Vijayanagaram districts, this is a devotional dance which invokes the rain god with its vigour, rhythm and tempo. Butta Bommalu is a typical folk dance popular in West Godavari district. Butta Bommalu literally means basket toys which are made of wood husk, dry grass and cow dung. The dancers wear masks of different characters and entertain people with their delicate movements accompanied by nor.- verbal music. Dappu is a lively dance form that started in the Nizamabad district. In it, a tambourine-like drum is beaten with sticks creating a rhythm that is softened only by the ankle bells that the dancers wear. The dancers wear colorful dresses and, dance to the musical tunes of cymbals, tabla and harmonium. The themes of the songs are usually based on the mythological stories. Chindu Bhugavatham is a lively dance of the Nizamabad district in which performers in colourful make-up and even costumes dance to musical patterns set by cymbals, tabla and harmonium. The Lambadi dance, performed by the Banjaras, a semi- nomadic tribe, is associated with daily tasks like harvesting, planting, sowing etc. The folk festival of Bonalu in the Telangana region brings with it celebrations which have colourfully dressed female dancers balancing pots (bonalu), dancing to rhythmic beats in obeisance to the village deity Mahankali. Dhimsa tribal dance is generally performed in local fairs and festivals of Araku Valley in Vishakhapatanam district. Women form a chain and dance attired in typical tribal dresses and ornaments. They dance to the beat of instruments like mori, thudurn and dappu played by the men. Burrakatha, earlier called Jangam Katha, is a folk dance in which the main artist narrates a story. The co-artists beat drums and speak to him, enriching certain events in the story that is narrated. Perini Thandavam is a dance of warriors. Performed by men in front of Lord Shiva, it is accompanied by drum beating. Bonalu is a special dance wherein the female dancers step to the rhythmic beats and balance pots on their heads. This dance is performed to praise Mahankali, the village deity Potharajus, the male dancers, precede the female 40

dancers to the temple. Kolattam (or Kolainnalu or Kolkolannalu) is the stick dance, which is quite similar to the Dandia dance of Gujarat. It is usually performed when festivals are celebrated in the village. Kolattam observes a great combination of rhythmic movements, songs and music. Kerala Kerala is the home of the Kaikottikali which is performed by girls and women at Onam. Airukali and Tattamakali are performed by men at temples. Padayani, or Padeni, in colloquial speech, is one of the most colourful and spectacular folk arts associated with the festivals of certain temples in southern Kerala in Aleppey, Quilon, Pathanamthitta, and Kottayam. The word padayani literally means military formations or rows of army, but in this folk art we have mainly a series of divine and semidivine impersonations wearing huge masks or kolams of different shapes, colours and designs painted on the stalks of areca nut fronds. The most important of the kolams usually presented in a Padayani performance are Bhairavi (Kali), Kalan (god of death), Yakshi (fairy) and Pakshi (bird). The kolam consists primarily of a huge headgear with many projections and devices with a mask for the face or a chest piece to cover the breast and abdomen of the performer. The whole performance, consisting of the dancers or actors who wear the kolams, the singers who recite a different poem for each kolam, and the instrumentalists who evoke wild and loud rhythm on their simple drum called thappu and cymbals, takes the form of a procession of Kali and the killing of the asura chief Darika. Elelakkaradi is a highly heroic group-dance in which almost the whole community participates. The dance is very common with the tribals called Irular of Attappadi in Palakkad district. The dance represents the fight of the people against the wild bears which very often attack their hamlets. Here the dancers move in rhythmic steps, with vociferous shouts and war crimes, and keep time to the beatings of the primitive drums. The Kaadar Nritham is the dance of the women of the Kaadar tribes of the forests of Kochi area. The performers arrange themselves in a semicircle. They hold the tip of their clothes in their hands to the level of the waist and wave it to various rhythms of the dance. It is an elegant tribal dance in slow steps. 41

The Kurumbar Nritham of the Wayanad district is a dance of different types of hill tribes of which the Kurumbar and the Kattunayakar are the most prominent. They perform a special type of dance which is staged in connection with marriages. Before marriage, the members of the families of both the bride and bridegroom and after marriage the newly- wedded couple perform this dance. After the return of the bridegroom with his bride to his family, air the members of his household and the newly-wedded again repeat the-dance. The Kaanikkar Nritham is a group dance of the Kanikkar tribes. The dance is performed as a ritual offering. The steps of the dancers perfectly synchronise with the waving of the hands and the beating of the drums. Paniyar Kali dance of the Paniyars inhabiting the hilly forests of Wayanad district is a dance performed only by men. Here the dancers dance in a circle with hands linked together. They move around with rhythmic flexions of the body and while moving stomp the ground in perfect rhythm to the loud beat of the primitive percussion instruments (karu, para, udukku). The dancers utter peculiar cries which gradually mount to a high pitch. Mankali is a tribal dance performed to the rhythm of wild percussion instruments. It involves enactment of either the Ramayana episode in which Sita is enchanted by Maricha in the guise of a golden deer or a scene in which one man takes the role of a deer while another, that of a hunter. Koorankali, like Mankali, is a tribal dance in which a man takes the role of a wild bear with another enacting the role of a hunting dog. The movements are perfectly timed to the rhythmic beats of primitive drums. Parvallikali is a mixed dance of the aboriginals of the dense forest of the Travancore area. Men and women dance holding arms together, or shoulder to shoulder, linked in a back-lock posture. The dance develops into a variety of pleasing patterns, in which the dancers change their positions with speed while moving in a swift rhythm in a circle. Mudiyattom, or Neelilyattom, is a tribal dance performed by women. Standing on small wooden blocks, they make slow and simple movements which culminate in graceful movements of the head. The instruments used in the dance are karu, maram, para and kokkaro. Thavalakali is a „tribal dance performed by 42

usually boys who jump one above the other in succession, imitating the leaps of the frog. Edaya Nritham is the dance of the tribal shepherds that involves imitating the special sounds of shepherds driving their sheep. The dance consists of persons trying to imitate the wild animals that try to attack the sheep and the thief who tries to rob them while the other dancers bring out the terror on the faces of the lambs and their mournful wailings. Naikkar Kali is popular among the tribes in Wayanad and Malappuram districts. It is ritualistic as it is performed as pooja to deities and during marriages. Instruments like thappu and kuzhal are used. The Naikars begin their performance, dancing round in clock-wise and anticlockwise movements to the accompaniment of the instruments. Gadhika, performed during Mithunam which falls in June-July, is a ritual dance performed by Adiya tribes of Wayanad district. The art form is meant to cure ailments and ensure a safe delivery of the child. Lord Shiva is invoked. The prayers are in a strange dialect—with a pronounced Kannada diction. Dancers dressed in colourful costumes include men dressed as women whose function is to welcome the gods and goddesses arriving in response to the summons from Siva. The participants go to houses from where they have received invitations, conduct rituals, collect the oblations and offer them to gods. Lakshadweep The dances in Lakshadweep resemble those of Kerala due to its historical past. A renowned folk dance form is Lava dance. A riot of colors and a highly charged dance, it is particularly performed in the Minicoy Island of Lakshadweep. The costumes of Lava dance performance are multi-hued. The dancers carry a drum and dance to the rhythmic beats of drums and accompanying songs. The Kolkali dance (or the stick dance) is performed with kols or sticks. The performers comprise only of men. Kolkali is danced in pairs and the pairs move in circles to the rhythmic beat of sticks. The performers hold these special sticks in their hand and use them as props while dancing. The dance begins with a slow

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pace but slowly as the time passes the rhythm becomes fast and ultimately reaches the height of frenzy. The dancers dance in a variety of alignments. The Parichakali dance is a popular dance form. This „shield dance‟ (paricha referring to a shield) involves use of swords and shields. These are, however, made of very soft wood. A martial art form, the dance resembles fighting. Brave warriors and freedom struggle are common themes. The dance usually involves dual combats and bravery is honoured in this Lakshadweep dance form. The performance is accompanied by songs. What slowly begins as a slow dance increases to culminate into a highly energetic dance. Karnataka In Karnataka, the Bhootha Aradhane dance is widely performed in the coastal areas. The Bhootha Aradhane or devil worship includes a procession of idols depicting devils. This procession is characterized by the beating of drums and bursting of firecrackers. After the end of the procession, the idols are placed on a plinth. Then, a dancer personifying a devil dances around the plinth with sword and jingling bells. The dancer dances vigorously at one point of time and then slows down, signifying that he has become now a possessed person. The ritualistic dance form of Ragamandala performed between December and April belongs to the people of south Karnataka. It is performed to tranquilise the serpent spirit. It is an extravagant affair held throughout the night. The dancers, „Vaidyas‟, are dressed as nagakannika and they dance around a huge figure, drawn on the sacred ground with natural colours, in a pandal specially erected in front of the shrine. Dollu Kunitha is a folk-dance performed by men and women of the Kuruba community of Northern Karnataka (particularly Shimoga and Chitradurga). It is performed to welcome the harvest season. However, it can also be arranged to commemorate a wedding, the birth of a child or even a burial or funeral. Traditionally performed at the temples of Bireshwar, the themes were religious and were known as the „Halumatha Purana‟ or the „Kuruba Purana‟. However, it has been used to propagate government schemes and programmes including adult education and literacy programmes in recent times. The performance is a mode of entertainment intended towards the spiritual well-being of the performers and the 44

spectators. It is performed by men and women either in separate groups or together. It makes use of the dollu, a specialised drum that is struck with fingers and produces a loud sound like a thunder when struck (hence the name for the dance). There are stylised dances accompanying the sonorous beating of the drums. The dancers form a semi-circle and involve in extremely swift and sinuous movements. Puja Kunitha is a popular ritualistic folk dance of Karnataka performed to worship the cult of the Shakti around Bengaluru and Mandya districts in particular. Despite the distinct religious overtones of the performance, the dance enjoys wide appreciation because of its grace and colourfulness. It is distinctive in its use of bamboo pole which are decorated with colours and clothes of different hues and rhythmically swayed in time with the music. Elaborate wooden structures are placed on the heads of the dancers which carry the deities to whom the dances are dedicated. The characteristic gentle swaying rhythm of the dance is performed to the accompaniment of traditional music produced by various musical instruments. It is extremely colourful and visually delightful. Visual splendour is emphasised at the expense of elaborate oral narration. The dance is performed profusely in religious processions, fairs and festivals. With its pomp and elegance, it creates an aura of high spirituality among the performers and the spectators. Pata Kunitha in Karnataka is a popular folk-dance form extremely popular among the inhabitants of the Mysore region. Its original significance is primarily religious. It is an extremely colourful dance form and provides great visual delight. The emphasis is on the rhythm and the skill of the dancers. It is preformed mainly by men. It employs the use of the pata, which are primarily long bamboo poles decorated with colour ribbons. A silver or brass umbrella usually crown the poles. The dancers are extremely skilled in manoeuvring the long bamboo poles. The dancers manipulate the poles with great dexterity and to the accompaniment of a largely rhythmic music. It is widely performed in the rural religious gatherings in the villages of the state. Along with Beesu Kamsale, it is the most popular folk dance form in the Mysore region of the state. Beesu Kamsale is a vigorous dance form that employs a great blend of aesthetic sublimity and martial dexterity. It is mainly performed in the districts of Mysore, Nanjagud, Kollegal and Bengaluru. The dance narrates the glory of Lord 45

Mahadeswara Shiva and the performers are vowed to a lifelong allegiance to the god. The name kamsale is derived from the musical instrument used in the performance. The Kamsale is hit in rhythm with the songs which typically are taken from the Mahadeswara epic exalting the glory of lord Mahadeswara. Usually Kamsale is performed by a group of three-to-five dancers, although the number can go up to twelve. The tribesmen of the Kuruba clan who perform these dances are primarily martial. Therefore, the sheer artistic value of the dance is mixed with intense martial manoeuvrs. The Kamsale is often skillfully manipulated to represent intricate offensive and defensive manoeuvrs. Gorava Kunitha is a unique form of ritualistic folk dance in Karnataka. It is revered among the Shaivite cults of Karnataka. It is typically performed by groups of ten-to-eleven men. They, usually belong to the singing tribe of the Goravas. The Gorava fairs are usually venues for the performance of Gorava Kunitha at Karnataka. In this dance, dancers clad in rug dresses of black with white patches, with damaru in hand, get into a procession intoning mystic song. The songs are sung to the accompaniment of small bronze bells and flute-like blowing instruments. The dance usually involves trance-like movements, hi its northern variant, the dancers smear their heads with yellow pastes. MODERN DANCE When we talk of modern dance, we imply a movement trying to seek new forms,, liberating itself from strict classical norms, synthesizing different styles, choreographing socially relevant themes and using the sound and light effects made available by technology Perhaps the name of Uday Shankar is irrevocably associated with the modern dance style of India. He drew from classical as well as folk idioms of India besides Western stage techniques to evolve a style uniquely his own. His Culture Centre in Almora, Uttarkhand drew numerous disciples. Shanti Bardhan, Sachin Shankar and Amala Shankar carried on experimentation in modern dance. Ananda Shankar, son of Uday and Amala Shankar, has experimented with combining Eastern and Western music and freeing natural movements in dance forms. One cannot ignore Anna Pavlova when one considers „modern dance‟ in India. It was she and Uday Shankar who drew attention to Indian dance and costumes through the duet Radha Krishna and Ajanta Frescoes.

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