A word from the Mayors What is it that makes living in urban New Zealand so great? Quite simply it is the quality of life that city living offers. With around 46% of New Zealand’s population choosing to live in its eight largest cities it is clear that the uniqueness of city life appeals to a vast number of us. Great job opportunities, a celebration of diversity, a multitude of things to see and do and above all a certain quality of life make North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin exciting places to live, work and play. However this uniqueness will not be sustainable if we fail to monitor and act to ensure that they remain in great condition for future generations. This Quality of Life report allows us to see the links between social, economic, environmental and cultural wellbeing and how all of this impacts on people’s quality of life. It provides us with a snapshot of life in urban New Zealand. In acknowledging that these cities provide a great quality of life for the majority of the people who live within them, we also need to acknowledge the gaps between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’. This report identifies these and other issues, and allows us to pinpoint and address them in a bid to improve the quality of life for all of our residents. The first Quality of Life report was published in 2001. At that time we took the bold step of working together to assemble in one place, information that helped us gauge the quality of life in six of the largest cities of New Zealand. This report builds on that work and provides an opportunity to work to common outcomes that will benefit all of our cities and, as a result, all of New Zealand. The report aims to raise the profile of urban policy issues. We want to work with each other, with government, and with communities to address these issues now and for the future. One way we will do this is to continue to use the information contained in this report in our own planning and to influence and inform policy decisions about urban issues and life in our cities.

George Wood

Bob Harvey

John Banks

Sir Barry Curtis

Mayor of North Shore

Mayor of Waitakere

Mayor of Auckland

Mayor of Manukau

David Braithwaite

Kerry Prendergast

Garry Moore

Sukhi Turner

Mayor of Hamilton

Mayor of Wellington

Mayor of Christchurch

Mayor of Dunedin

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

1

Acknowledgements

The Quality of Life Team - people with a belief in what might be achieved - have put a great deal of time and energy into this report over the past two years. They have also put their hearts and heads into working together to produce a document that reflects key issues in the largest cities. The people of particular mention are those below. The co-operative approach taken in this project has enabled us to develop a report that would not be possible if just one local authority or individual were to have done it alone. Thank you to the following people in particular for bringing the project through to this stage: Alison Reid

- North Shore City Council

Janelle Anthony

- Waitakere City Council

Freya Scott

- Auckland City Council

Regan Solomon

- Manukau City Council

Mark Brougham and Sandra Des Forges

- Hamilton City Council

Mehaka Rountree

- Wellington City Council

Kath Jamieson

- Christchurch City Council

Graham Spargo and Mike Roesler

- Dunedin City Council

Raymond Horan and Mike Reid

- Local Government New Zealand

Some people who led various stages of the project deserve a special mention, specifically Kath Jamieson, who led a team to identify indicators and data requirements - the foundation work. Alison Reid and Kath played leading roles in developing our Quality of Life residents’ satisfaction survey – no mean feat when running it across eight cities. Freya Scott played a lead role in the consultation phase and website work, and Regan Solomon headed up work on the design of this report. Thank you to Alex Woodley who had the unenviable task of gathering and organising the data, Mary Richardson (Christchurch City Council), Andrew Gawith (Infometrics) and Guy Salmon (Ecologic Foundation) for assistance on some crunchy problems, and Yvette Bell (Manukau City Council) our editor. Many data sources were used, including government departments, council records and Census data - the assistance of the many people involved is genuinely appreciated. Statistics New Zealand in particular was very responsive to our ongoing requests for detailed information at a city level. The project team is also indebted to the many people who gave feedback on, and peer reviewed our drafts - often providing substantial comment that has improved the quality of the final report. A list of these folks and organisations consulted is included later in this report. Finally, I would like to thank the Metro Sector CEO Forum for their continued support and our sponsor, Colin Dale, City Manager, Manukau City Council. The Forum appreciated the enormity of the task and the involvement of their respective staff has been greatly appreciated. Colin has provided us with the necessary leadership and motivation which is always vital in progressing projects like this which involve a significant number of participants.

Leigh Gatt, Wellington City Council Project Director

page

2

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

5

INTRODUCTION

7

KEY RESULTS

11

1.

PEOPLE

15

2.

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

30

3.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

39

4.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

49

5.

HOUSING

61

6.

HEALTH

78

7.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

99

8.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

113

9.

SAFETY

126

10. SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

139

11. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

149

CONCLUSIONS

161

DATA COLLECTION

163

CONSULTATION

165

DEFINITIONS

166

INDEX OF TABLES AND GRAPHS

167

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

3

page

4

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Executive Summary OVERVIEW

This report presents a picture of the quality of life in the eight largest cities of New Zealand. The cities are North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. Almost half of the total population of New Zealand lives in these cities and the city councils are concerned about the impacts of growth and urbanisation and the effects of this on the wellbeing of residents. All are committed to ensuring their cities remain vibrant urban centres. The first report on quality of life in the largest cities was published in March 2001. Since that time much activity has taken place to progress the matters raised in that report. For example, the Mayors of the largest cities have used the information in their discussions with central government; the report raised the profile of urban issues in New Zealand; it has provided a framework for further monitoring at the local level and contributed to national monitoring reports. It has also contributed to the debate on indicator work, outcome measurement and sustainability.

The report has been developed over two years and consists of three stages. The first stage saw the identification of indicators which were applied to monitor social, economic, environmental and cultural conditions in the largest cities. The collection of data for this stage was not without its difficulties. Those difficulties had a major influence on the final indicator set used in stage two to produce this report. The third stage is an advocacy programme focusing on the issues raised in this report, based on the following points for action.

POINTS FOR ACTION

The key results show some improvement in a few areas and gaps in others. Conclusions are that: Quality of life in cities is improving for some. However… Our cities may not be sustainable. Co - ordinated and focused action is required on: • Planning for long-term growth in cities • Managing and minimising waste streams

Wellbeing and sustainability are key planks of the Local Government Act 2002. The Act expects local government to:

• Preserving biodiversity, air and water quality

• enable democratic local decision-making and action by, and on behalf of, communities; and

• Promoting business development that creates sustainable employment

• promote the social, economic, environmental, and cultural well being of communities, in the present and for the future.

• Growing work and work skills to match employer needs

• Increasing the use of alternatives to the private motor vehicle

• Encouraging youth participation in education and training

Sustainable development is a process that aims to provide for the wellbeing and quality of life of both current and future generations. This report uses indicators that help assess sustainable quality of life. It also helps define areas for improvement, and provides pointers to the city councils when working with their communities to define community outcomes.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

5

Executive Summary Continued...

Community safety has improved in some areas, but further work is required on: • Improving child safety including intentional and unintentional injury • Reducing offending among children and young people • Reducing graffiti and anti-social behaviour • Increasing safety in city and town centres (especially at night) • Reducing the incidence of violent and sexual offences Managing diversity is a key challenge. We need to think ahead and: • Plan for the relevant ages of city populations (urban planning and planning of services) • Manage immigration policy and its effects • Develop settlement strategies • Act to curb population-based health issues such as meningococcal disease, tuberculosis and Type 2 diabetes • Facilitate activities that stimulate a sense of inclusion for ethnic communities and older people Connectedness is still an issue. Areas where city councils can play a role are in: • The co-ordination and integration of transport infrastructure and services (roads, rail, ferries, cycleways, footpaths and walkways) • Ensuring programmes include immigrants in city activities • Encouraging innovative technology to link people, places and programmes Socio - economic disadvantage is still impacting on quality of life. Continuing action is required: • Across socio- economic groups particularly in health, education and employment • To invest in children • On housing affordability and crowding (particularly across the Auckland region) People want to be more involved in decision-making. City councils can facilitate: • Community information and engagement • Ongoing improvement in the way they involve Maori in decision-making • Improved voter turnout Ongoing monitoring is important. A collective effort is required to ensure: • The availability of data to support comparable monitoring and decision-making • Alignment of social, economic, environmental and cultural indicators Working together is essential The next steps in the Quality of Life project include working together with Government, partner organisations, and other city councils on the above points for action. The creation of the ministerial portfolio of Urban Affairs signals the Government’s intention to build an understanding of urban issues within Government. Working on the points for action and other matters in this report, will help shape strategies for quality of life and sustainable cities to strengthen the development of urban centres in New Zealand.

page

6

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Introduction This is the second report on quality of life in large cities of New Zealand. The report has been developed by the councils of North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. The agenda in preparing this report is to advocate for quality of life and sustainable development in the largest metropolitan centres of New Zealand. Matters for advocacy are determined through monitoring social, cultural, environmental and economic conditions. The work has 3 key stages: Stage 1 – Monitor conditions. This included: refining current indicators and defining new indicators to monitor trends in the participating cities; purchasing data relevant to the indicators; and applying the indicators to monitor conditions. The indicators have been applied as a tool to: • quantify and monitor changing social, economic and environmental conditions • emphasise an outcomes-based approach • develop holistic responses to emerging issues • promote collaboration in monitoring and improving city outcomes. Stage 2 - Report on findings. This second stage included an analysis of the data, the writing of this report, and the identification of issues raised as a result of monitoring. The report is not aimed at making comparisons between cities, but at identifying issues common to the largest cities compared to the rest of New Zealand.

BACKGROUND

The first report on quality of life in large cities of New Zealand was published in March 2001 (see www.bigcities.govt.nz). The report included key urban issues and findings from monitoring quality of life in Auckland, Christchurch, Manukau, North Shore, Waitakere and Wellington – the cities of New Zealand with a population size of over 150,000. Prompting the first report was concern about the growing pressures on city communities, the impacts of urbanisation, and the effects of this on the wellbeing of residents. Now, two years down the track, those concerns remain and this report has been prepared to assess the current situation. SINCE THE 2001 REPORT

Some significant events have taken place since 2001 that affect this second report. These include work on issues raised in the first report, a new Census, a new role for local government, and production of other monitoring reports. Progress on issues Following publication of the March 2001 report, the six original cities have worked more closely with Local Government New Zealand (LGNZ) and contributed to a policy programme on urban/ metropolitan issues. Those six cities comprise the large city component of the LGNZ Metro Sector Forum working under the chairmanship of Mayor Garry Moore of Christchurch, with support from the Chief Executives of the largest cities chaired by Colin Dale, Chief Executive of Manukau City Council. Through this forum, and the collective approach of the Mayors, the first report has:

Stage 3 - Advocate for improvement. This stage includes identifying policy responses (for central and local government) to address issues identified in the report, and advocating for change where necessary.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

7

Introduction Continued...

• Stimulated the debate on urban issues in New Zealand • Contributed to the central government reports “Measuring Progress Toward a Sustainable NZ” and “The Social Report” • Contributed to the debate on sustainability • Facilitated discussion on a joint approach to monitoring with the Ministry of Social Development and Ministry for the Environment • Contributed to local authority planning and outcome measurement in many of the larger cities • Helped improve the alignment of indicators across all participating councils • Provided a framework for consistent monitoring of quality of life outcomes • Contributed to the direction of the Local Government Act 2002 through the identification and measurement of outcomes, collaborative work approaches and partnership development • Raised quality of life and monitoring issues and awareness in many other local authorities across New Zealand • Provided a credible source of information for use in other documents ranging from Ministerial speeches through to magazine articles. The 2001 Census This was carried out after the March 2001 Quality of Life report. Analysis indicates significant change in the population demographics particularly impacting on larger cities. In addition to this, Statistics NZ has worked closely with the Quality of Life team on data issues and new information is now available in key demographic areas. Local Government Act 2002 The amended Local Government Act was passed in December 2002. The Act expects local authorities to promote social, economic, environmental, and cultural wellbeing of communities, now and for the future, to facilitate sustainability. A new and critical area that will impact on local government across New Zealand is a requirement for councils to develop a ‘Long Term Council Community Plan’. It requires local authorities to focus on the community as a whole and the actions that central and local government, the private sector and community groups can collectively achieve. This will stimulate a need for councils to have a greater awareness of their communities and local conditions and issues, and call for increased activity by councils around the use of indicators and outcome measurement outlined in this report. Monitoring Reports In recent years, the range of indicator monitoring reports has increased, providing a reasonably comprehensive view of social, economic, environmental and cultural conditions in New Zealand. From central government - a broad whole-of- country view across all four conditions is provided in the report ‘Monitoring Progress Toward a Sustainable New Zealand’ (Statistics New Zealand 2002); while an in-depth view of specific conditions is reported by the ministries of Social Development, Economic Development, Environment, Maori Development and Pacific Island Affairs. From local government - an urban perspective across all four conditions is provided in some depth in this Quality of Life report; while councils in some of the larger cities provide an in-depth view of local conditions in their state of the city/ wellbeing reports. The diagram on the opposite page attempts to show the the depth and breadth of these monitoring reports and the relationship between them.

page

8

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Introduction Continued...

Monitoring Progress Toward a Sustainable New Zealand Statistics New Zealand

Ministry of Economic Development

The Social Report

New Zealand Economy Reports

Ministry for the Environment State of the Environment Report

Central Government

Ministry of Social Development

Ministry of Maori Development & Pacific Island Affairs Reports

QUALITY OF LIFE IN NEW ZEALAND’S EIGHT LARGEST CITIES

State of city report

State of city report

State of city report

State of city report

State of city report

State of city report

Local Government

State of city report

State of city report

ISSUES AND CHANGES

The development of this report was based on a common set of issues and concerns across the participating cities. These include a concern for the people who live in our large cities. The chapter called ‘People’ records demographic information on the basic makeup of the city populations. It sets the scene for analysis in the rest of the report. The chapters on knowledge and skills (called Education in the 2001 report), housing and health focus on accessibility, affordability and appropriateness of education, training, health and housing matters, and the disparities between certain sections of the community regarding these key areas. Economic development of the cities and the economic standard of living of people residing in the cities is assessed (in the 2001 report these were in one chapter called Employment and Economy). Economic concerns are based on the need for economic growth to sustain city development, and the cost of living in cities. Population growth and economic development puts pressure on the sustainability of the environment. While the built environment is an important contributor to the way people feel about where they live, it also has a huge impact on sustainability of the natural environment. The built and natural environment are reported here in two chapters, whereas in the 2001 report they were covered in one chapter called Urban Environment. A sense of security is fundamental to quality of life and safety features highly in people’s view of their living environment. Social connectedness (called Community Cohesion in the 2001 report), either through where people live or through being with like-minded people in groups elsewhere, is an important ingredient to quality of life and a sense of security. People’s power to exercise their civil and political rights (called Democracy in the 2001 report), is a key factor in developing strong communities and improving quality of life. The participation of community members in the governance and decision-making of their community is one way of exercising these rights.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

9

Introduction Continued...

QUALITY OF LIFE INDICATORS 2003

The report includes 56 key quality of life indicators and their associated measures. Many indicators include more than one measure (for example, the Housing Costs and Affordability indicator has six measures, such as residential dwelling sales, median rent levels and Accommodation Supplement recipients). Data breakdowns are provided in the following order where possible and/or appropriate - total New Zealand trends; differences between the eight cities total (combined total for the eight largest cities) and the rest of New Zealand (New Zealand total minus the eight cities); and individual eight cities trends. Many indicators incorporate time series data back to 1991. Where possible and/or appropriate, indicators are broken down by ethnicity, age and sex. The report has been prepared in consultation with people who work in the areas shown below, and/or who work with indicators and data. They therefore have a keen understanding of the issues and the data available to provide a story on those issues. Feedback from consultation and peer review was critical to ensuring a report that fulfils its role as a tool for advocacy and change toward a sustainable quality of life for residents of New Zealand’s largest cities.

QUALITY OF LIFE INDICATORS

People

Knowledge and Skills

Economic Standard of Living

Economic Development

• Population Growth

• Early Childhood Education

• Income

• Economic Growth

• Ethnicity

• School Decile Ratings

• Costs

• Employment

• Age

• Suspension and

• Household Expenditure

• Growth in the Number

• Families and Households

Stand - downs

• Social Deprivation

of Businesses

• Qualification Levels

• Retail Sales

• Community Education

• Building Consents • Tourism

Housing

Health

Natural Environment

Built Environment

• Household Tenure

• Life Expectancy

• Waste Management

• Look and Feel of the City

• Housing Costs and

• Low Birth Weights

Affordability

and Recycling

• City Green Space

• Infant Mortality

• Biodiversity

• Graffiti

• Household Crowding

• Teenage Parents

• Air Quality

• Noise Pollution

• Government Housing

• Diseases

• Beach and Stream /Lake

• Traffic and Transport

Provision • Urban Housing Intensification

• Access to GPs • Mental Health and

Water Quality

• Public Transport

• Drinking Water Quality

Emotional Wellbeing • Health Status • Modifiable Risk Factors

Safety

Social Connectedness

Civil and Political Rights

• Perceptions of Safety

• Quality of Life

• Treaty of Waitangi

• Child Safety

• Diversity

• Involvement in Decision

• Road Casualties

• Community Strength

• Crime Levels

and Spirit • Electronic Communication

page

10

Making • Voter Turnout • Representation

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Key Results This chapter contains key results arising from analysis of the indicators and measures in this report. It provides a summary of the quality of life in New Zealands eight largest cities. Reference to ‘survey respondents’ or ‘residents’ ratings’ or ‘perceptions’ relate to the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 outlined on page 164. PEOPLE

• City populations make up 45.9% of New Zealand’s population and have grown at a fast pace, especially in the Auckland region. Migration inflows have been a strong driver of this growth. • City populations are very mobile with over 40% of residents shifting address in the last five years. • Our cities are growing in ethnic diversity, with higher proportions of Pacific Islands (11.3%) and Asian (10%) peoples in the eight cities compared to the rest of New Zealand (at 2.1%.and 2.8%). • Te reo Maori is spoken by fewer people in our eight cities than in the rest of New Zealand, with the exception of Manukau where almost 30% of residents speak te reo. • Despite gradual population ageing, the median age in six of our largest cities remains slightly younger than the national median. Manukau (41.9%) and Hamilton (40.9%) have the largest proportion of people under 25 years of age. • Around two thirds of all households in most of the eight cities contain one family. • The number of households in Waitakere and Manukau grew by 10% more than the whole of New Zealand from 1991 to 2001. • Manukau’s rate of households with two families was more than four times that of the rest of New Zealand in 2001. KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

• Early childhood participation levels throughout most of the eight cities have shown an upward trend, but participation levels in Manukau and Waitakere remain significantly lower than all other cities.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

• North Shore and Wellington continue to have a much larger proportion of students in high decile schools, whereas Manukau and Waitakere continue to have a much larger proportion of students in lower decile schools. • Maori and Pacific Islands students continue to be over-represented in suspensions and stand downs across all eight cities. • The eight cities combined have more students leaving school with qualifications than the rest of New Zealand, and the number of people with qualifications has increased across all eight cities. • There are significant differences in the level of post- school attainment between the eight cities. • Participation in community education varies extensively across all eight cities, although all achieve higher rates than the rest of New Zealand. ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

• Overall, incomes in the eight cities are higher than in the rest of New Zealand. In 2001, Wellington reported the highest median household income ($59,410), with North Shore and Auckland also reporting incomes of over $50,000 per annum. • The gap between the top and bottom income earners is closing but the proportion of people at the lower end of scale outweighs the proportion of people at the upper end. • Incomes were offset by costs of living - for the years 1998 to 2002, prices rose annually across all Consumers Price Index (CPI) regions in New Zealand. • The Wellington region experienced the greatest increase in CPI while the Hamilton region has seen the greatest increase in the Food Price Index (March 1997 to 2002). • Households in the eight cities accounted for 48% of New Zealand’s total household expenditure in 2002. • On average, a quarter of household expenditure in the eight cities was on housing. • Wellington and North Shore are the least disadvantaged cities, while Manukau has a marked proportion of its population living in areas of socio - economic disadvantage.

page

11

Key Results Continued...

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

• Estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the eight cities grew by 3.4% per annum on average over the four years to March 2002, compared to the rest of New Zealand at 2.3%. • The eight cities have generally experienced faster population growth than the rest of New Zealand, therefore the difference in per capita income growth will be much smaller. • The eight cities account for between 55% and 60% of all economic output in New Zealand. • Just under 40,000 additional jobs were generated across the eight cities over the two years ended February 2002. Since March 1998, unemployment rates have generally dropped across the eight cities with the greatest decrease being in Manukau (down to 4.9% from 10.7%). • From 1998 to 2002, the overall growth rate of businesses among the eight cities was 20.3% - similar to the rate for the rest of New Zealand at 21.4%. Among the eight cites, the overall growth rate in the number of business enterprises since 1998 has been highest in North Shore at 29.3%. • In the year ended March 2002, the eight cities contributed $24.1 billion to New Zealand’s total of $47.1 billion in retail expenditure (51%). The highest proportion of retail spending occurs in Auckland. • New residential buildings across the eight cities represent half of all consents issued in New Zealand. Since 1998, Auckland, Manukau and Christchurch have consistently had the highest numbers of residential consents issued. • Tourism activity in the cities has grown at 8% per annum between 1998 and 2003, compared to 5% per annum in the rest of New Zealand. HOUSING

• Rates of home ownership in the eight largest cities and nationally are declining, with corresponding rises in rented dwellings. • Combined, the eight cities account for 14.1% of the total proportion of people living in temporary dwellings in New Zealand. • Low income households have lower levels of home ownership, particularly in the eight cities. • Rent prices in most of the eight largest cities are higher than the rest of New Zealand. The highest house sale prices are in Auckland, Wellington and North Shore. • The most affordable cities to live in terms of mortgage affordability and weekly rents are Dunedin and Christchurch. • The proportion of weekly household spending on housing costs has increased considerably from 1998 to 2001 in some of the eight cities. • Overall, the numbers of people receiving the Accommodation Supplement is slowly decreasing across all eight cities. • Waitakere, Auckland and Manukau all show rates of household crowding in excess of the national average. • Government housing provision is highest in cities within the Auckland region, particularly Manukau and Waitakere, where indicators of deprivation are strongest. • Auckland has consistently had the highest proportion of urban housing growth and intensification, with over half (53.3%) of all new housing developments in 2002 being new apartments. HEALTH

• Residents of North Shore appear to have a relatively higher life expectancy than residents of other cities. • There was a nine -year difference in life expectancy at birth for males between the least deprived and the most deprived areas of New Zealand society. For women this difference was smaller, but still over six and a half years. • Between 1997 and 1999, the rate of low birth weight babies in the eight largest cities was 62.8 per 1,000 live births which is similar to the rest of New Zealand. Overall, the rate of low birth weight babies appears to have declined since the early 1990s. • In the period 1997 to 1999, there was a total of 461 infant mortalities in the eight cities, representing a rate of 5.8 per 1,000 live births. • In 2001, the rate of births to females aged between 13 and 17 years in the eight cities (combined) was 7.5 per 1,000, which is lower than the rest of New Zealand. The rates were highest in Manukau and Hamilton. Teenaged parents are significantly more likely than other parents to be on low incomes. • The rate of meningococcal disease among children is higher in the eight largest cities of New Zealand than for the rest of New Zealand. The rate is especially high in Manukau. • Rates of tuberculosis are higher in urban areas and among people of ‘other’ ethnicity.

page

12

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Key Results Continued...

• An epidemic of Type 2 diabetes is occurring in the eight cities and across New Zealand. • Between 1997 and 2000, Waitakere and Manukau consistently showed the lowest rate of GPs per head of population amongst all eight cities, with average rates of 63 and 70 per 100,000 population respectively. Survey results suggest that cost is an important factor for non - presentation at a GP. • Recent data show a substantial reduction in youth suicide numbers in the last two and a half years. In 1999, over one third of all 120 deaths by suicide among people aged 15 to 24 years were in the eight cities. • Rates of hospitalisations for attempted suicide across the eight cities tend to be lower than for the rest of New Zealand. • Survey results suggest that many residents in the eight cities suffer from the stresses of raising families and living on lower incomes. • Across all eight cities, the majority of respondents stated that their health was good or extremely good overall. Females, people living on low incomes, and people living on their own were more likely than others to state that their health was poor. • The majority of residents responding to a survey stated that they undertake physical activity at least two to four times a week. Females, people aged 65 years and over, and people living on low incomes were more likely than others to state that they never do any physical exercise. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

• Environmental management of landfills in the eight cities is generally of a higher standard than in New Zealand as a whole. • All eight cities have kerbside recycling services recovering a good range of emission -intensive materials from the waste stream. None of the city councils currently offer a kitchen waste, biosolids, or construction and demolition waste recycling service. • Good progress has been made in most cities in surveying and mapping sites important for land - based biodiversity. Waitakere and Christchurch have adopted the most comprehensive policies and programmes. • Marine and freshwater biodiversity is not well protected in most cities. • Christchurch had the highest rate of PM10 exceedences between 1997 and 2001 (58 days were exceeded in 2002). Christchurch and Auckland recorded the highest annual average levels of PM10 and the highest carbon monoxide levels in relation to the other cities. Auckland also recorded the highest levels of nitrogen dioxide in relation to other cities that monitored such levels. • Residents of Auckland and Christchurch were more likely to state that air pollution was a problem in their city than residents of the other large cities. • In general, the risk to public health is relatively low at the majority of marine water sites (beaches and harbours) sampled across the eight cities. • Waitakere, Christchurch, Dunedin and Hamilton are the only cities of the eight that currently monitor freshwater bathing quality at selected streams and lakes. • North Shore, Auckland, Manukau and Hamilton residents rated water pollution as more of a problem in their city than people in other cities. • Waitakere and Hamilton have excellent grades for drinking water quality. BUILT ENVIRONMENT

• The majority of city residents feel a sense of pride in their city (ranging from 51% in Manukau to 87% in Wellington). • All of the eight cities have more than five hectares of council- managed green space for every 1,000 people. Wellington, Dunedin and Christchurch have over 18 hectares for every 1,000 people. • Graffiti is perceived as problematic in five out of the eight cities – Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau, Hamilton and Christchurch. • Residents in Manukau (34%) and Auckland (31%) stated that noise pollution was a problem or a big problem in their neighbourhood. In the remaining cities noise pollution is not a major issue. • The percentage of residents who used a private motor vehicle to get to work (as a proportion of all transport modes) appears to have decreased across all eight cities between 1991 and 2001. However, the private motor vehicle is still the most common means of transport to work. • Motor vehicle ownership increased between 1991 and 2001 across the eight cities, with the average number per household ranging from 1.4 in Wellington to 1.7 in North Shore in 2001. • Residents of Wellington (42%) and Auckland (24%) were the highest users of public transport in 2001/02. • In most cities, more than half of the residents surveyed stated that public transport was safe, convenient and affordable.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

13

Key Results Continued...

SAFETY

• Feeling safe in their neighbourhood was ranked highly by residents in most cities. Resident perceptions of safety are highest in Dunedin and Wellington. • While North Shore, Wellington and Dunedin residents were more confident about safety in their city centres at night, in general all city centres across the eight cities were considered unsafe after dark. • Across all eight cities, dangerous driving (including drink driving, speeding and ‘hoons’) was highlighted as the major city safety issue. • Dunedin and North Shore had the largest proportion of residents stating that their local neighbourhoods were safe or very safe for unsupervised children. • Falls were the leading cause of hospitalisation among city children. • Most cities have experienced a decline in the number of road fatalities. • Males under the age of 25 are more likely than females in the same age group to be injured or killed in motor vehicle crashes. • Burglary levels continue to decrease across most cities, but the rate of recorded burglaries in the combined eight cities is higher than for the rest of New Zealand. • There is an upward trend in recorded sexual offences and recorded violent offences. The rate of recorded violent offences in the combined eight cities is higher than for the rest of New Zealand. SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

• The vast majority of residents surveyed across the eight cities stated that their overall quality of life was either good or extremely good. • 75% of new immigrants attend citizenship ceremonies in the eight cities. Each city has a distinct immigrant population. • Across all eight cities, an average of 60% of survey respondents stated that increased diversity made the city a better or much better place to live. • On average, 80% of respondents across all cities said that they belonged to some social group or network. • Over three quarters felt that a sense of community was important and that they had positive interactions with their neighbours. • Ethnicity and age are key variables in terms of the location of social groups and networks. • On average, 43% of residents across all cities use email and the Internet daily, and all usage rates in all cities are lower than the national average. • Socio - economic differences in the population are reflected in patterns of email and Internet use. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

• All councils recognise the Treaty of Waitangi as an important document and actively work with Tangata Whenua to incorporate Maori perspectives into policy and consultation processes. • Approximately 75% of residents in the eight largest cities are satisfied with the level of public involvement in council decision–making and they feel the public has some influence on this. Around half of those surveyed said they understood how councils made decisions and that they would like more of a say. • Voter participation in national elections tends to be higher than local elections, with over 70% turnout to national elections in most cities. • Overall, voter turnout in local authority elections has slightly declined across all cities since 1992. • A lack of information is perceived as the biggest barrier to voter turnout by Quality of Life Survey respondents. • There are significant ethnic and gender differences in the composition of councils and school boards across the eight cities.

page

14

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?

• • • •

Population growth Ethnicity Age Families and households

KEY POINTS

The largest cities, North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin, collectively make up 45.9% of New Zealand’s population. The populations within these cities are expected to continue to grow. It is projected that almost 75% of New Zealand’s total population growth in the next 20 years will take place in the eight cities, with around 60% of this being in the four cities in the Auckland region.1 There are vast differences in the socio - demographic makeup of these cities, but all share the common factors of being large urbanised areas with diverse populations, and with inherent impacts on the physical environment and social infrastructure. 2

Ethnic diversity can have implications for the way in which services are provided. For example, European health practices may not be acceptable or appropriate for some members of the population, and traditional house designs may not meet the needs of some communities. The age structure within cities is a key determinant of the future supply of the workforce which, linked with qualification rates and industry structures, gives an insight into future training needs and the match between employment needs and the likely local labour force. Changing patterns of families and household composition (e.g. more than two families living in a household) have implications for health outcomes and housing needs.

1 North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau. 2 Social Infrastructure: “a system of social services, networks and facilities that support people and communities.” Social Infrastructure: Impacts of Urban Growth;

Auckland Regional Growth Forum; (not dated). page 4.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

HOUSING

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Population growth can impact on the adequacy and availability of community services and social infrastructure. It will also impact on the physical infrastructure as older systems reach capacity and room for expansion and redevelopment becomes difficult to find. Our expanding communities will also place increased pressures on the natural environment as demand for public space grows and natural biodiversity is threatened. Economic vitality will be affected through the demand for goods and services.

page

HEALTH

LINKS

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Information about the people in New Zealand’s eight largest cities helps us to understand the nature of urban communities and how they are changing. It can help decision makers anticipate potential pressures on the wider social and physical environments. Factors such as age, ethnicity, language and migration are often key determinants of conditions across a whole range of issues affecting quality of life.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

Our cities are growing in ethnic diversity, with higher proportions of Pacific Islands and Asian peoples in the eight cities compared to the rest of New Zealand. Despite gradual population ageing, the median age in six of our largest cities remains slightly younger than the national median, largely due to younger Maori and Pacific Islands populations in those cities. Around two thirds of all households in the largest cities contain one family.

SAFETY

This chapter describes the differences and disparities between population groups within and between the eight largest cities and the rest of New Zealand. The pace of change within the cities and the diversity of their people impacts on outcomes in all chapters of this report.

City populations are very mobile with over 40% of residents shifting address in the last five years. This is also shown in migration inflows which have been a strong driver of growth.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

INTRODUCTION

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

1

People

15

Population growth

•

City populations make up 45.9% of New Zealand’s population.

•

City populations have grown at a fast pace, especially in the Auckland region. Migration inflows have been a strong driver of this growth.

•

City populations are very mobile with over 40% of residents shifting address in the last five years.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Significant increases or declines in population have major effects on infrastructure, the economy and the nature of the city, such as future resource use and demand for goods and services. Tracking population growth in our largest cities ensures that funding, services and facilities are provided to meet the needs of fast growing communities. Population growth patterns also provide background information for other demographic trends. This indicator covers the annual percentage population growth in cities using Census data. Measures for this indicator include: • Population growth • Internal migration • Net external migration. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Population growth Between 1996 and June 2001 population growth in New Zealand averaged around 3.3%, while growth in the eight largest cities averaged 5.3%. One of the main contributors to population growth in the largest cities is inward migration of people looking for employment and other economic opportunities. This is especially the case in the Auckland region where cities are growing at a greater rate than the rest of New Zealand. Manukau experienced the highest population growth rate (11.4%) of the eight cities between 1996 and 2001, due to a combination of higher rates of natural increase than other cities and inward migration.

PROJECTED POPULATION GROWTH (2001 TO 2021) Data source: Statistics New Zealand.

60

38.0

44.7

44.3

40

40.5

PERCENTAGE GROWTH

50

30.5

30

20.6 8.8

10

13.5

18.0

20

0 North Shore

page

16

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total NZ

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Population growth in all cities and in the rest of New Zealand was lower over the 1996 -2001 period than over the 1991-1996 period. This was in large part due to higher migration outflows between 1996 and 2001 and declining rates of natural increase. There is now evidence that the tide is turning, with strong population inflows to New Zealand of returning expatriate residents and of new migrants seeking security in a time of world instability. It is estimated that since 2001, a further 123,381 people have made New Zealand’s eight largest cities their home (over 60% of the nation’s growth since 2001). CENSUS POPULATION, ESTIMATED POPULATION 3 AND PROJECTED POPULATION4 (2001, 2002, 2006, 2011, 2016, 2021)

2002 (June est.)

2006 (projection)

North Shore

184,821

Waitakere

168,753

194,200

198,900

216,000

176,200

180,700

195,600

Auckland Manukau

367,734

388,800

401,500

437,900

283,200

298,200

307,100

333,400

Hamilton

114,921

119,500

122,000

129,200

Wellington

163,824

171,100

174,600

Christchurch

316,224

327,200

332,100

Dunedin

114,342

119,300

120,300

Rest of NZ

2,023,461

2,086,000

2,101,600

Total NZ

3,737,277

3,880,500

3,938,800

2011 (projection)

2016 (projection)

2021 (projection)

229,200

242,200

255,100

209,600

223,300

237,100

468,400

499,400

530,600

358,800

383,900

409,700

136,100

142,900

150,000

180,300

184,900

189,100

193,300

339,900

346,900

352,900

358,800

122,200

123,000

123,700

124,400

4,248,300

4,378,600

4,505,900

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

2001 (June est.)

HOUSING

2001 (March Census)

Not calculated 4,109,300

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Population growth

Manukau is projected to become New Zealand’s second largest city by around 2011 (currently Christchurch). This is in large part due to higher rates of natural increase among the Pacific Islands and Maori populations. Christchurch has a predominantly European population, an ethnic group that is trending toward lower birth rates throughout the country. Internal migration Internal migration is the movement of population within the national boundaries of a country, resulting from changes of usual residence. It is a significant contributor to population growth and decline in various locations. Internal migration is categorised as people usually resident in New Zealand aged five years or more in the 2001 Census who were not living in the same area five years prior to the Census.5

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

It is projected that 74.3% of New Zealand’s total population growth in the next 19 years will take place in the eight largest cities, with the four cities in the Auckland region accounting for 60% of that growth.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

Data source: Statistics New Zealand - totals rounded.

3 The resident population estimates were obtained by updating Census usually resident population counts at 6 March 2001, for births, deaths and net migration of

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

residents during the period 7 March 2001 to 30 June 2001. The base population has also been adjusted for the number of residents undercounted by the Census, as measured by the 2001 Post- enumeration Survey, and for the estimated number of residents temporarily overseas. 4 Medium scenario. These projections have as a base the estimated resident population of each area at 30 June 2001. Note that figures are rounded and therefore totals might not agree. 5 The following groups of people were excluded: people who did not specify a usual New Zealand address for Census night 2001 or five years earlier (1996) and were classified as having ‘no fixed abode’, or had an ‘overseas’ or ‘New Zealand not further defined’ address. Definition taken from Statistics New Zealand website 27 February 2003. 6 Statistics New Zealand.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Of the eight cities, Auckland, Christchurch and Manukau have experienced greater levels of internal migration, with overall inflows of 120,000 to 160,000 individuals between 1996 and 2001. Most cities experienced inflows of people that represented 40% to 45% of the total population of the city. Hamilton gained over half of its population increase (52.6%) between Census periods through internal migration, a greater percentage than any of the other largest cities.

SAFETY

At any given time there are a large number of New Zealanders who are changing address. The 2001 Census found that more than half (52.1%) of people aged five years and over had lived at their current address for less than five years, and almost one in four had lived there for less than a year. 6

17

Population growth Continued...

Generally speaking, much of the internal migration flow takes place within the main urban areas. This is largely a factor of the proportion of New Zealand’s population who live in our largest cities (45.9%). Of the 1.7 million New Zealanders who changed their usual address within New Zealand between 1996 and 2001, 71.8% were living in main urban areas.7 INTERNAL MIGRATION (1996 TO 2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand

180,000

122,190

100,000

Waitakere

77,361

North Shore

40,000

51,564

60,426

60,000

75,429

80,000 76,098

NUMBER OF PEOPLE

140,000 120,000

146,772

162,117

160,000

20,000 0 Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Net external migration Net external migration is the number of overseas arrivals into each city less the number of overseas departures. This measure highlights the number of New Zealand nationals and migrants arriving and leaving our large cities. Net external migration is a key component of population growth and in New Zealand cities is one of the key drivers of variations in the rate of growth. While external migration data is useful in determing the number of arrivals from overseas it should be considered alongside ethnicity data which is perhaps a better reflection of where external migrants choose to settle.8 All of the eight cities saw a peak in external migration around 1996, which was followed by a period of decline for most of the late 1990s. External migration picked up again in 2001, with all cities seeing large increases in external migration in 2001 and 2002. This trend is consistent with national external migration over the same time period.

NET EXTERNAL MIGRATION (1992 TO 2002) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, INFOS time series

North Shore 14,000

Waitakere

NUMBER OF PEOPLE

12,000

Auckland

10,000 8,000

Manukau

6,000 Hamilton

4,000 2,000

Wellington

0 -2,000 - 4,000

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

YEAR

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Christchurch Dunedin

7 Statistics New Zealand. 8 External migration data should be treated with some caution: While Auckland appears to be well above the other large cities in terms of net migration, this may be partly

due to the fact that when filling out the Customs arrival card, people often do not discern the difference between Auckland city and other cities in the Auckland region. As well as this, Auckland may also be the first stop for many migrants who are unsure where they intend to live on a permanent basis.

page

18

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

•

PEOPLE

Ethnicity

Our cities are growing in ethnic diversity, with higher proportions of Pacific Islands (11.3%) and Asian (10.0%) peoples in the eight cities compared to the rest of New Zealand (at 2.1%.and 2.8%).

•

Te reo Maori is spoken by fewer people in our eight cities than in the rest of New Zealand, with the exception of

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Manukau where almost 30% of residents speak te reo.9

The ethnic composition of the eight largest cities is varied. Christchurch and Dunedin cities have larger proportions of Europeans than any of the eight cities or the rest of New Zealand. Other cities, such as Manukau and Auckland, are more ethnically diverse. In 2001, Auckland was home to the highest proportion of Asian residents in New Zealand and experienced growth of almost 40,000 (159.7%) people in this ethnic category over the ten years from 1991. While all but Wellington and Dunedin cities experienced greater percentage increases than this between 1991 and 2001 (North Shore having the highest increase of 324%), numerically it is Auckland that has seen the greatest growth. Manukau has the highest proportion of Pacific Islands residents (25.6%) of any New Zealand city, many of whom are either direct migrants from the islands or who are second generation settlers. Many Pacific Islands people have larger families (more children) than other ethnic groups, which has helped swell their numbers in cities. The percentage of growth in Manukau is slightly lower than in Hamilton, North Shore and Waitakere. However it has higher actual growth (24,210) than any of the large cities and the rest of New Zealand.

9

The Maori language.

10 This report uses non - prioritised ethnicity data. As individuals can identify with more than one ethnic group, figures may not sum to the total population for each city and

may add to more than 100 percent. 11 Definition of ethnicity taken from Statistics New Zealand website 4 february 2002.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

19

HOUSING HEALTH NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Ethnic composition

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

WHAT DID WE FIND?

SAFETY

This indicator outlines proportions of the main “umbrella” ethnic groupings within each city and the rest of New Zealand. Within each of these broad ethnic groups there are many smaller ethnic populations, each with its own age structure, customs, and settlement history in New Zealand. At the 2001 Census there were more than 200 separate ethnic identities recorded nationally. Measures for this indicator include: • Ethnic composition • Languages spoken • Maori speakers in the Maori population.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Ethnicity is the ethnic group or groups that people identify with or feel they belong to. Thus, ethnicity is self- defined and people can belong to more than one ethnic group.10 Ethnicity is a measure of cultural affiliation, as opposed to race, ancestry, nationality or citizenship. An ethnic group is a social group whose members have the following four characteristics: • share a sense of common origins • claim a common and distinctive history and destiny • possess one or more dimensions of collective cultural individuality • feel a sense of unique collective solidarity.11

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Changes in the proportion of residents who identify with a particular ethnic group provide an indication of ethnic diversity in cities. Ethnic diversity has an impact on the social and cultural infrastructure of our cities, including the range of services that need to be provided and the way they are provided.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Ethnicity Continued...

Hamilton has the highest proportion of Maori residents of any New Zealand city. Of the eight largest cities, Manukau has the highest actual number of Maori residents (44,274). Numerically, growth in the Maori population between 1991 and 2001 has been greatest in Manukau (6,978), only marginally above that of Hamilton (6,744) which had the greatest percentage growth in the same period (46.2%). ETHNIC COMPOSITION (2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001. Note: People could choose more than one ethnicity so percentages will not add to 100.

Not elsewhere included 3.1

5.3 1.6

1.0

5.5

6.5

3.2

1.5

10.4

12.3

2.9

5.0

1.1

14.4

7.0 3.4

1.1

17.7

13.8

18.6 25.6

12.9

12.7

4.1 10.3 5.1 7.3

2.5

2.8 1.6

5.5 6.9

0.6 2.4

0.6 2.0

3.9 5.7

3.9

0.3 2.2

3.0 17.7

4.0 6.4 6.2

Other

0.7

Asian

14.1 Pacific Islands

PERCENT

7.9

Maori 15.6

79.2

76.3 68.1

78.3

European

90.3

87.0

81.5

76.8

62.2 49.0

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

It is important to note that the European ethnic group in New Zealand’s largest cities is itself diverse in makeup. It includes people who have migrated to New Zealand from countries such as Australia, Britain, other countries in Europe and South Africa. GROWTH IN ETHNICITY (1991 TO 2001)

European

Maori

Pacific Islands

Number

%

Number

8,094

5.9

3,519

41.6

2,253

61.7

17,367

Waitakere

5,970

5.5

5,916

38.2

8,826

61.2

Auckland

7,323

3.3

1,908

7.0

5,487

13.0

Manukau

327

0.2

6,978

18.7

24,210

50.3

Hamilton

4,395

5.3

6,744

46.2

1,902

97.1

Wellington

6,606

5.4

2,118

21.7

987

North Shore

Christchurch

%

Number

%

Asian Number

Other %

Number

%

324.0

2,421

527.5

12,054

220.9

1,287

373.0

39,912

159.7

4,149

312.9

27,312

204.1

2,550

410.6

5,028

166.1

1,041

418.1

13.5

4,959

41.5

1,728

187.0

8,508

3.2

6,606

43.0

2,364

45.0

11,499

190.5

1,518

287.5

Dunedin

- 4,062

-3.8

1,926

41.8

333

17.1

2,022

81.3

441

153.1

Rest of NZ

50,211

3.1

55,728

18.4

18,366

43.5

19,398

74.8

3,108

155.1

Total NZ

87,378

3.1

91,434

21.0

64,725

38.7

139,551

141.5

18,246

270.4

Data source: Statistics New Zealand - totals rounded.

Languages spoken12 The languages spoken by a city’s residents are also a measure of diversity. As our cities have become more ethnically diverse, there has been a corresponding increase in the numbers of people speaking languages other than English. In 2001, 15% of New Zealanders spoke two or more languages, up from 13% at the 1996 Census. Over half (61%) of the people who speak more than one language lived in New Zealand’s eight largest cities in 2001, up from 52% in 1996.

12 The 2001 Census asked individuals the following question about languages, ‘In which language(s) could you have a conversation about a lot of everyday things?’

page

20

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Ethnicity

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

Manukau and Auckland are the most multilingual of our larger cities, with 28% (80,064) of Manukau residents and 25% (93,615) of Auckland residents speaking two or more languages. These cities are also among the most ethnically diverse in New Zealand.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

The types of languages, other than English, spoken by residents vary across the eight cities depending in part on where immigrant groups are concentrated. However, all include Maori and most include Pacific Islands and Asian languages. FIVE MOST COMMON LANGUAGES SPOKEN (OTHER THAN ENGLISH) (2001)

Hamilton Wellington Christchurch Dunedin Rest of NZ Total NZ

Korean

French (3,624)

(3,480)

(3,264)

(3,060)

Maori

Samoan

Maori

Yue

Hindi

Sinitic nfd15

(9,024)

(5,346)

(2,592)

(2,073)

(1,752)

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Northern Chinese

5th 14

Samoan

Yue

Maori

Northern Chinese

Tongan

(14,226)

(9,990)

(8,799)

(8,466)

(8,217)

Samoan

Maori

Yue

Tongan

Northern Chinese

(27,834)

(12,672)

(8,436)

(8,436)

(5,508)

Maori

French

Sinitic nfd

Dutch

NZ Sign Language

(6,990)

(1,416)

(1,023)

(984)

(978)

French

Maori

Samoan

German

Yue

(5,430)

(4,083)

(3,891)

(2,997)

(2,778)

Maori

French

Samoan

German

Japanese

(6,459)

(4,851)

(3,738)

(3,396)

(2,934)

Maori

French

German

NZ Sign Language

Japanese

(2,514)

(2,100)

(1,431)

(879)

(813)

Maori

French

Samoan

German

NZ Sign Language

(110,607)

(20,274)

(19,203)

(15,450)

(15,336)

Maori

Samoan

French

Yue

German

(160,527)

(81,036)

(49,722)

(37,140)

(33,981)

HOUSING

Manukau

Yue

4th

(5,019)

13

HEALTH

Auckland

3rd

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Waitakere

2nd

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

North Shore

1st

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

Percentage of Maori speakers in the Maori population16

Maori is an oral culture. Therefore the level at which te reo Maori is spoken within the community provides a proxy measure for assessing the cultural wellbeing of New Zealand’s indigenous population.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Manukau has the highest proportion of Maori speakers among its Maori population (29.2%), while North Shore has the lowest proportion (18.4%). With the exception of Manukau, all of our eight largest cities have levels of te reo which are below the rest of New Zealand and New Zealand as a whole (25.5%). 13 Yue is often more commonly referred to as Cantonese. 14 Northern Chinese is often more commonly referred to as Mandarin. 15 Sinitic nfd refers to groupings of other Chinese languages which have not been further defined. 16 The term ‘Maori population’ in this context refers to all individuals who identified themselves as Maori in the ethnicity question of the 2001 Census. This includes

individuals who also identified with other ethnic groups as well as Maori.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

The survival of te reo Maori (the Maori language) as a living language has been under threat since the movement of the Maori population to urban communities in the 1950s. The Government has directed the Ministry of Maori Development to revise the National Maori Language Strategy, in order to support the revitalisation of te reo Maori. The revised strategy seeks to ensure a more co - ordinated approach by Government to its Maori language activities, and to ensure these activities are undertaken in partnership with Maori.

21

Age

•

Despite gradual population ageing, the median age in six of our largest cities remains slightly younger than the national median.

•

Manukau (41.9%) and Hamilton (40.9%) have the largest proportion of people under 25 years of age.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

The age structure of a community is one of its fundamental characteristics. It impacts on the range of services, facilities and opportunities that need to be planned for and provided at a local level. This indicator uses Census data to show the proportion of the population in certain age bands in each city. Measures for this indicator include: • Age structure • Current and projected age. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Age structure Large cities are key hubs of employment growth and economic opportunities in New Zealand. Because of this the largest cities tend to contain higher proportions of people in the key working age groups than the rest of New Zealand. Cities attract people in search of work, income and educational opportunities and tend to be the home of New Zealand’s main tertiary and learning institutions. Wellington and Auckland cities in particular have an especially high proportion of the population in the 15 - 44 year age group (52.5% and 49.2% of their populations respectively), compared to the rest of New Zealand (39.8%). AGE STRUCTURE (2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

10.9 9.1

8.8 7.8 12.2

14.3 16.7

PERCENT

16.4 15.9 14.4

14.2

14.3

13.9

16.4

10.3

8.3

7.8

7.9

12.5

16.5

12.0

15.2

14.7 18.0 14.9 15.3

12.8

17.9

10.0 7.5 12.0

14.2

15.4

8.6

65 years and over 13.7

13.3

13.3

12.1

8.7

8.5

9.7

9.0

13.1

12.8

15.1

14.6

7.7 12.6

13.4

45-54 years 13.1 35- 44 years

16.9

19.3

18.3

55- 64 years

15.0

12.8

16.4

15.0

19.6

12.0

13.1

12.7

6.5

6.3

15.4

15.6 25-34 years

12.5

14.1

11.8

13.5

16.4

15.4

15-24 years 5-14 years 0 - 4 years

15.0

6.4

8.4

6.9

9.1

7.6

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

5.7

7.3

7.2

Dunedin

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

The European population of the eight cities has a much more pronounced ageing than that of the Maori, Pacific Islands and Asian populations. The concentration of individuals in the Maori and Pacific Islands populations occurs in the 0 - 44 years age group (85.5%), while in the Asian population it occurs slightly later in the 5 -54 years age group (83.1%). The most notable difference between the ethnic groups appears in the 5 -14 years age group. For Pacific Islands people this age group makes up 24.1% of the population, for Maori it is 22.8%, Asian 15.5%, and for Europeans 13.2%.

page

22

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Age

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

The Pacific Islands and Maori populations have the youngest age structures of any ethnic group, due in large part to higher fertility rates and larger family sizes.

EUROPEAN AGE STRUCTURE (2001)

15-24

5-14

5

0

25-34 15-24

22.8

15

20

25

30

Total 8 cities

17.9 17.8

15-24

24.1

26.6

0

5

10

15

15.4 16.0

25-34

18.5 15.5

0-4 20

25

30

7.4

0

5

22.2

17.7

9.1

10

15

20

30

25

PERCENT

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

PERCENT

17.5 17.9

35- 44

5-14

15.0 13.8

Rest of NZ

11.2 11.5

15-24

5-14

0-4

30

6.1 5.5

45-54

11.9 12.6 14.3 15.8

25-34

25

4.4 4.0

55- 64

7.5 7.9

35- 44

Total 8 cities

Data source: Statistics New Zealand

YEARS

YEARS

Rest of NZ

65 and Over

45-54

20

ASIAN AGE STRUCTURE (2001)

2.8 3.5 4.1 4.5

55- 64

25.3

PERCENT

PACIFIC ISLANDS AGE STRUCTURE (2001)

65 and Over

15

10

5

0

PERCENT

Data source: Statistics New Zealand

19.4

12.8 12.8

0-4

10

17.2 16.5

5-14

6.9 6.6

0-4

13.6 13.3 14.1

35- 44

HEALTH

25-34

8.7 8.0

45-54

YEARS

35- 44

3.8 5.2 4.1

55- 64

13.8 13.4 15.4 15.5 12.0 15.5 11.0 14.2 15.8 13.2

45-54

2.3

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

65 and Over

Rest of NZ

HOUSING

14.8

10.3 9.0

55- 64

Total 8 cities

Data source: Statistics New Zealand

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

12.7

Rest of NZ

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

65 and Over

YEARS

MAORI AGE STRUCTURE (2001) Total 8 cities

Data source: Statistics New Zealand

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Comparing the age structures for the eight cities and the rest of New Zealand, lower proportions of people aged under 14 years and over 55 years live in the eight cities, compared to the rest of New Zealand (with the exception of the Pacific Islands ethnic group).

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

23

Age Continued...

Current and projected age New Zealand is following similar patterns to other developed countries with an ageing of its population. Nationally, the median age has increased from 30 years in 1991 to 34 years in 2001. This trend of population ageing is projected to continue, with the median age for New Zealand reaching 40 years by 2021.17 The trend toward population ageing is also occurring in our largest cities. The median age in Christchurch and North Shore (both at 35 years in 2001) is above the national median of 34 years, and is projected to remain higher than the median age for the other large cities well into this century. Both Christchurch and North Shore have relatively large European populations, which tend to have lower fertility rates and smaller family sizes than other ethnic groups. Christchurch currently has 13.7% of its population aged 65 years or older. Dunedin also has a higher proportion of older people aged 65 years or more, again possibly reflecting its largely European population. Despite gradual population ageing, the median age in six of our largest cities remains slightly younger than the national median. For example, the Manukau and Hamilton median age in 2001 was 30 years compared to 36 for the rest of New Zealand. Cities such as Manukau, Hamilton and Waitakere have relatively young populations, 41.9% (98,772) of Manukau’s population, 40.9% (36,078) of Hamilton’s population and 38.7% (53,868) of Waitakere’s population is under 25 years. These cities have higher proportions than other cities of Maori and/or Pacific Islands people in their populations; ethnic groups that are associated with higher fertility rates and larger family sizes. CURRENT AND PROJECTED MEDIAN AGE (2001, 2011, 2021)

2001

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total NZ

35.0

32.0

33.0

30.0

30.0

32.0

35.0

34.0

34.0

2011

37.3

34.5

34.4

32.7

31.9

34.9

38.4

35.3

38.0

2021

39.5

36.6

36.6

34.8

33.4

36.5

40.6

37.3

40.0

Data source: Statistics New Zealand

17 Medium scenario projections with a base of 30 June 2001.

page

24

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

Around two thirds of all households in most of the eight cities contain one family.

•

The number of households in Waitakere and Manukau grew by 10% more than the whole of New Zealand from

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Families and households

1991 to 2001. Manukau’s rate of households with two families was more than four times that of the rest of New Zealand in 2001.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

•

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

HEALTH

This section includes a number of Census derived measures that reflect the living arrangements within New Zealand’s eight largest cities. Measures for this indicator include: • Number of households • Household composition • Average household size (occupancy rates) • Family type. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Number of households

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The number of households increased in the majority of our largest cities between 1991 and 2001, most at a greater rate than either the rest of New Zealand or the whole of New Zealand. The exceptions were Dunedin, Wellington and Christchurch. Over that same period Waitakere experienced the greatest percentage growth (24.2%) in households, (which was 10% higher than the whole of New Zealand), followed closely by Manukau (23.7%) and North Shore (21.3%).

Change 1991 - 1996 Number

%

Change 1996 - 2001 Number

%

Change 1991 - 2001 Number

%

North Shore

54,411

60,327

66,015

5,916

10.9

5,688

9.4

11,604

21.3

Waitakere

44,826

50,049

55,653

5,223

11.7

5,604

11.2

10,827

24.2

Auckland

112,071

121,023

130,527

8,952

8.0

9,504

7.9

18,456

16.5

Manukau

67,140

74,157

83,019

7,017

10.5

8,862

12.0

15,879

23.7

Hamilton

34,737

37,515

40,962

2,778

8.0

3,447

9.2

6,225

17.9

Christchurch Dunedin Rest of NZ Total NZ

55,482

58,713

61,809

3,231

5.8

3,096

5.3

6,327

11.4

107,223

115,803

121,830

8,580

8.0

6,027

5.2

14,607

13.6

41,145

42,864

43,290

1,719

4.2

426

1.0

2,145

5.2

660,627

707,640

741,156

47,013

7.1

33,516

4.7

80,529

12.2

1,177,665

1,268,094

1,344,267

90,429

7.7

76,173

6.0

166,602

14.1

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Wellington

SAFETY

2001

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

1996

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

TOTAL HOUSEHOLDS IN PRIVATE OCCUPIED DWELLINGS (1991, 1996, 2001)

1991

HOUSING

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Household composition can reflect the impact of changing social trends (e.g. later marriages, lower fertility rates and independent living), economic pressures (such as housing costs, tertiary education fees and incomes) and cultural preferences (e.g. extended family and intergenerational living). Changes in the number of households and people’s living arrangements can have major implications for urban communities and their environments. These issues can directly impact on the appropriateness of existing housing stock, the types of dwellings people choose to live in, the amount of residential land used, the location of housing, and growth in associated social and physical infrastructure. Changing household composition can also have an impact on the demand for housing.

Data source: Statistics New Zealand - totals rounded.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

25

Families and households Continued...

Household composition Household living arrangements in our big cities are becoming a lot more complex, with greater variations in the types of households and the length of time these households remain together. This measure looks at the different combinations of family and non -family households living in our cities. One -family households remain the most common type of household both in our larger cities and in the rest of New Zealand. Around two thirds of all households in most of the eight cities contain one family. The proportion of one -family households is slightly lower in Auckland and Wellington, where there are higher proportions of one person and other multi- person households. Wellington, Dunedin, Auckland, Christchurch and Hamilton all contain tertiary institutions and all have consistently higher proportions of non -family households than the rest of New Zealand. In 2001, Manukau’s rate of households with two families was 6.2%. This was more than four times that of the rest of New Zealand at 1.5%. HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION (2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

1.7 19.8 5.1 2.0

3.4

3.3

17.9

0.1

4.5 3.6

1.6

3.7 14.5

22.3

24.1 3.8 6.2

0.2

1.2

0.9

25.1

26.2

26.6

9.8

7.0

8.8

1.9 23.3

2.1

8.4 2.0

0.1 1.4

3.8 0.0 1.2

0.0 0.8

0.1 1.5

5.2 2.0

Other multi-person 0.1

PERCENT

0.2

0.1

Unidentifiable One-person

22.9

0.6

8.9 2.8

2.2

Three - or more family Two -family One-family

71.3

71.2

70.4

65.6

60.7

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

69.4 61.4

64.4

Wellington Christchurch

67.6

62.8

Dunedin

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

Average household size The average household size in the eight cities remained largely static in the ten years to 2001 compared to the rest of New Zealand. Due to the generally larger number of one - person households in the largest cities compared to the rest of New Zealand, the trend of declining household size may be to some extent being masked.

page

26

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Families and households

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS WITH TWO OR MORE FAMILIES RESIDENT (1991, 1996, 2001) 1991

1996

2001

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 1991, 1996, 2001

8 7.2 6.8

7 6

3.5

2.5 2.1

1.7

2.0 1.6

1.5

0.9 1.1 0.9

1.6 1.2

0.9

1.2

1.6

1

1.8 1.5

2.5 2.1

3.0

1.6

2.1

2.7

2.5 2.1

3 2

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

4.4

4.5

4

3.9

PERCENT

5

0 Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

Some of the reasons why households are getting smaller include: the general ageing of the population, meaning more older people living alone after partners have died; more women choosing not to marry and have children; smaller family sizes because of changed aspirations and the rising cost of raising children; delayed relationship formation; and delayed parenting by young people due to debt.

HEALTH

It is anticipated that this long -term trend will continue in the future as families get smaller and city populations progressively age.

HOUSING

North Shore

AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD SIZE (1991,1996, 2001)

2001

North Shore

2.8

2.8

2.8

Waitakere

3.1

3.1

3.0

Auckland

2.7

2.8

2.8

Manukau

3.4

3.4

3.4

Hamilton

2.9

2.9

2.8

Wellington

2.7

2.7

2.6

Christchurch

2.7

2.7

2.6

Dunedin

2.8

2.7

2.6

Total 8 cities

2.8

2.9

2.8

Rest of NZ

3.3

3.3

2.7

Total NZ

2.9

2.8

2.7

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

1996

SAFETY

1991

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Average number of household members

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 1991, 1996, 2001

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

27

Families and households Continued...

FAMILY TYPE18

Like household composition patterns generally, family living arrangements are becoming a lot more complex in our cities, with greater variations in the types of families now occurring. These trends mirror national patterns, but tend to be more exaggerated in bigger cities. Census data shows that there have been marked changes in the composition of one -family households in our large cities. While the traditional family, comprising two parents and at least one child, is still the dominant family type, it now accounts for a smaller share of total families than it did ten years ago. The decline in two parent families in larger cities is similar to national trends. Dunedin has seen the greatest decline in this category (18.2%) followed by Christchurch (8.0%) and Hamilton (6.3%). Figures for the rest of New Zealand (12.6%) and total New Zealand (7.6%) show that this is a trend throughout the nation. Manukau, Waitakere and North Shore have a higher proportion of couple with children families than other large cities, the rest of New Zealand and New Zealand as a whole. An increase in the number of couples without children, and in one - parent families has had a big influence on this pattern.

FAMILY TYPE AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL HOUSEHOLDS IN PRIVATE OCCUPIED DWELLINGS (2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

One parent with child(ren) 8.9

9.6 10.8

10.4 10.6

7.1

9.7

9.4

9.4

Couple only

8.2 26.9

PERCENT

30.9 30.1 23.6

23.7

North Shore

Couple with children

31.3

20.0

19.8

18.2

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

24.4

25.4

21.9

22.4

Hamilton

24.3

24.2

24.1

24.5

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

26.7

26.9

24.6

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

A relatively recent phenomenon is the rise in the number of blended family living arrangements, including step children and half siblings. Another family group,which differs in makeup in our large cities compared to the rest of New Zealand, are couple - only families. There are two distinct groups within this family category; first, couples whose children have become independent adults and left home; and second, those who have chosen not to have children, are unable to do so or who have not yet begun childbearing. The number of couple - only families is rising in the largest cities. Hamilton saw the greatest percentage increase in this category between 1991 and 2001 (18.1% or 1,374 people), followed by Manukau and Wellington with 16.7% (2,160 people) and 14.7% (2,007 people) respectively. The one - parent family is an important category to track as it is often reflected in other indicators of disadvantage - a large number of one - parent families are reliant on welfare or have low incomes. This impacts on their ability to meet basic needs and participate in their communities.

18 The concept of ‘family’ explored in the Census is fairly ethnocentric and is still based around predominantly European definitions of nuclear family structures. As our

cities are becoming more diverse ethnically and socially it may be beneficial to broaden definitions of family in order to explore the more complex notions of households.

page

28

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Families and households

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

Couple only

14.7

12.5

10.9

16.7

18.1

14.5

13.8

12.2

21.8

18.5

Couple only with others

77.7

76.1

77.0

63.6

92.9

52.4

77.6

67.8

63.6

68.6

Couple with children

7.1

-1.1

10.3

3.1

- 6.3

- 0.9

- 8.0

-18.2

-12.6

-7.6

Couple with children and others

94.0

51.1

50.0

43.1

44.1

11.1

40.8

2.2

16.0

30.7

One parent family

32.9

27.5

2.2

17.4

18.7

12.7

16.9

11.7

18.0

17.0

One parent family with others

62.6

60.2

22.2

43.9

53.5

24.6

29.5

22.4

28.6

32.5

Two family households

55.2

81.0

61.4

86.9

60.3

44.9

48.8

5.3

20.0

43.1

Three or more families

40.0

104.5

73.5

117.3

50.0

20.0

75.0

-20.0

4.7

51.8

Total

21.9

24.6

17.5

24.3

18.7

12.2

14.1

5.8

13.6

15.2

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

North Shore

HOUSING

PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN FAMILY TYPE (1991 TO 2001)

HEALTH

The number of one - parent families as a proportion of all family types has continued to rise over the last decade. The increases have been steady but not large. A range of factors can influence these trends, including increased divorce and separation, and falling marriage rates as couples delay or avoid formal marriage ties.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 1991, 1996, 2001

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

29

2

Knowledge and Skills

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an overview of the state of educational participation and achievement in New Zealand’s eight largest cities. Understanding the state of education provides an insight into the knowledge and skills of city residents as they apply these to improve their quality of life. WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

Educational achievement is essential for effective participation in society. City societies are becoming increasingly knowledge - based and city economies require innovative solutions to meet market demands. Peoples’ ability to re - skill and up - skill during their working lives is important if they are to keep pace with today’s rapidly changing work environment. The nature of jobs has changed to the extent that workers have come to expect many job changes and they must be prepared to apply a portfolio of skills to many different situations. This is particularly the case in cities which attract increasing numbers of people seeking work.

The underlying socio - economic status of communities is reflected in the levels of educational achievement across the eight largest cities. For example, Manukau and Waitakere continue to have the largest proportion of their students attending low decile schools. Correspondingly, both cities have low levels of early childhood participation and low proportions of their students attaining educational qualifications. There may be a connection between school suspension and stand - down rates and juvenile offending rates. For example, Christchurch which continues to have the highest level of suspensions/ stand-downs of the eight cities, also has high levels of juvenile offending. Maori and Pacific Islands students continue to be over-represented in suspension and stand - down rates across all eight cities. Participation in community education varies extensively across all eight cities, although rates overall are higher than the rest of New Zealand. LINKS

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?

• • • • •

Participation in early childhood education School decile ratings School suspensions and stand - downs Qualification levels Participation in community education

KEY POINTS

Throughout the eight cities there has been considerable growth in the percentage of people who hold an educational qualification. A higher percentage of people in the eight cities have some form of educational qualification (degree, vocational, or school) than those in the rest of New Zealand. However, a significant percentage of young people are still leaving school without qualifications.

page

30

There are strong linkages between socio - economic status and levels of educational participation and achievement. Over the long term, poor educational performance at school will tend to make it harder for individuals to achieve good levels of income, with all the implications this has for health, housing quality, participation in community life, and eventually the educational achievement of their own children. Within New Zealand’s ageing population, Maori and Pacific Islands people will comprise a growing proportion of young New Zealanders. Cities will see a reduced working -age population, with proportionately more young Maori and Pacific Islands people supporting an older, mainly European population. Improving education levels for both Maori and Pacific Islands populations is critical to ensuring a sustainable society in New Zealand cities.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Participation levels in Manukau and Waitakere remain significantly lower than all other cities.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

The stimulation of learning at an early age has an important bearing on future educational achievement. Social and academic development within early childhood programmes is likely to make the transition to formal education easier. Early childhood education can help reduce the achievement gap separating low income children and more advantaged children. Disadvantage tends to be cumulative, so attaining strong foundations early is important.19 This indicator illustrates early childhood education ‘apparent’ participation rates. 20 It reflects the number of children under 5 years old enrolled in early childhood education centres or home - based education programmes as a proportion of all children aged under 5 years. 21

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Early childhood participation levels throughout most of the eight cities have shown an upward trend.

•

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Participation in early childhood education

Early childhood education participation levels throughout most of the eight cities have shown a marked upward trend from 2000 to 2002.

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

HEALTH

Dunedin’s participation levels were the highest of all eight cities. Wellington saw the largest growth in early childhood participation, increasing from 61.3% in 2000 to 74.2% in 2002. Other cities that saw significant growth were Hamilton and North Shore.

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED UNDER 5 YEARS WHO ATTEND STATE FUNDED PRE-SCHOOL (2000 TO 2002) 2000

2001

2002

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Data source: Ministry of Education. Percentages calculated using 2001 Census data

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

63.6 62.2 63.9

40

59.8 61.6 63.4

43.4 44.6 45.3

66.8 63.5 64.4

79.7 78.5 78.7

62.7

71.8 73.0 73.1

72.3 74.2 Wellington

61.3

Hamilton

53.9 51.8 54.5

50

PERCENT

61.2 61.0 63.6

65.2 65.6

60

72.4

70

72.3 71.7

80

30 20 10

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

North Shore

SAFETY

0

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

19 Ministry of Education. Briefing for the Incoming Minister of Education, August 2002. 20 It is possible for children to be enrolled at more than one education service, therefore an ‘apparent’ participation measure is used. Figures may over estimate the true

level of participation in early childhood education. Information collected from schools in July 2001 indicated that around 91% of new entrants had attended early childhood education. (Ministry of Education. July 2001 Early Childhood Statistics) www.minedu.govt.nz 21 Includes all licensed: Playcentres, Kindergartens, Education and Care Centres, Homebased Services, Te Kohanga Reo, Correspondence School; and licensed - exempt: Te Kohanga Reo and Early Childhood Development funded Playgroups, Pacific Islands Language Groups and Playcentres. A small percentage of children attend private pre - schools that receive no Government assistance. Children in these schools are not legally required to attend school.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

31

Participation in early childhood education Continued...

Participation levels in Manukau and Waitakere remain significantly lower than all other cities, although both saw an increase over the period reviewed. These two cities also continue to have the largest populations of under 5 year olds (comparing 1996 and 2001 Census data) of the eight cities, and the largest proportion of students in low decile schools. There are varying levels of participation amongst ethnic groups in our largest cities. In 2001, most (94%) European Year One students had attended an early childhood education centre compared with 82% of Maori, 73% of Pacific Islands, and 85% of Asian Year One students. 22 Manukau and Waitakere, with relatively large Maori and Pacific Islands populations, correspondingly have the lowest levels of early childhood participation.

22 Ministry of Education. Early Childhood Attendance by Year One Students by Ethnic Group, 2001. wwwminedu.govt.nz

page

32

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Manukau and Waitakere continue to have a larger proportion of students in lower decile schools.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Comparing the percentage of students within each of the school deciles illustrates the socio - economic disparities within a city and between cities. 23 Deciles are used to provide funding to state and state integrated schools, to enable them to overcome the barriers to learning faced by students from low socio - economic communities. The lower the school’s decile rating, the more funding they receive. This indicator shows the percentage of pupils within school deciles in 2002. It is used to illustrate the extent to which a school (including primary, intermediate, secondary and special schools) draws its students from low or high socio - economic communities.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

North Shore and Wellington continue to have a larger proportion of students in high decile schools.

•

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

School decile ratings

WHAT DID WE FIND? HOUSING

North Shore and Wellington had the major proportion of their students attending schools within the top two deciles at 72.0% and 62.3% respectively. This is high when compared to the average of 34.5% across the eight cities. Manukau (66.5%) and Waitakere (57.3%) continue to have a much larger proportion of students in lower decile schools. This compares to an average of 31.2% across the eight cities.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The Ministry of Education reports that on average, almost half (46.5%) the parents in decile 1 communities across New Zealand are without educational qualifications, with 36% employed in unskilled manual work compared to 10% and 6% respectively in decile 10 communities.24

HEALTH

The eight cities combined had nearly half (49.3%) of all students in higher decile schools (deciles 7 to 10), and just over one third (36.0%) attend lower decile schools (deciles 1 to 4).

Correlations may exist between cities with low socio - economic status, such as Manukau and Waitakere, and lower participation levels in early childhood education, and higher levels of school leavers with no qualifications. PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS WITHIN SCHOOL DECILE (2002) Decile 3 and 4

Decile 5 and 6

Decile 7 and 8

Decile 9 and 10

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Decile 1 and 2

Data source: Ministry of Education

0.8 8.8

North Shore (n=33,647)

16.5

72.0

1.9 6.7

50.6 20.9

Auckland (n= 67,524)

19.7

22.9

18.6

50.5

Manukau (n=59,845) 8.7

Hamilton (n=24,086)

9.7 16.0

29.2

14.2

16.3

2.8

8.9

27.9 5.8

25.0

27.7

SAFETY

Waitakere (n=30,307)

18.1

2.2

Christchurch (n=54,219) Dunedin (n=18,290) Total 8 cities (n=313,650)

4.8

12.7

6.9 3.4

18.0

15.5 8.4 17.1

62.3 21.0

19.3

25.6 18.9

37.3 37.9

14.8

15.5

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Wellington (n=25,732)

24.7 33.8

23 The decile rating for a school is used by the Ministry of Education to determine funding to schools and is indirectly comparable with the socio- economic status of an area. Decile

1 schools are the 10% of schools with the highest proportion of students from low socio- economic communities, whereas decile 10 schools are the 10% of schools with the lowest proportion of these students. It is possible that the decile rating system for schools is more divisive than the decile ratings of a local community. The rating is based on families with school aged children and includes household income, occupation, household crowding, educational qualifications, income support and ethnicity. Some “cross boundary” issues may exist, such as boarding schools in main centres with children resident in the area, and (particularly in Auckland) children from one city attending a school in another. 24 Ministry of Education. Frequently asked questions about deciles. www.minedu.govt.nz

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

33

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

PERCENT

School suspensions and stand-downs

•

Maori and Pacific Islands students continue to be over-represented in suspensions and stand-downs across all eight cities.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

School suspension and stand - down rates tend to highlight serious behavioural problems experienced by students at school. 25 The cause of such behavioural problems at school is complex and, in many cases, is likely to be related to other problems within a student’s personal life. These problems will have an impact on the student’s capacity to learn. This indicator illustrates the combined number of suspensions and stand - downs, by ethnicity for the school year to 31 December 2001 and applies to the student population aged 5 to 15 years. 26 WHAT DID WE FIND?

The lowest number and rate of suspensions/stand - downs in 2001 was in Wellington. The rate per 1,000 of student population shows Christchurch (33.3), Hamilton (31.8) and Waitakere (30.9) having the highest rates. Across the eight cities Maori and Pacific Islands students were over-represented in suspensions/stand- downs. Male students across the eight cities make up the greater proportion of students who have been stood - down or suspended (73% of all stand - downs/suspensions). Nationally the most common reasons for suspensions/stand - downs were for drugs (including substance abuse), physical assault on other students and continual disobedience. NUMBER OF SUSPENSIONS/STAND - DOWNS, BY ETHNICITY (2001)

European

Maori

Pacific Islands

Asian

Other

Total

Rate per 1,000 Students

North Shore

311

116

50

18

11

506

17.6

Waitakere

357

327

143

11

7

845

30.9

Auckland

417

358

556

28

26

1,385

26.0

Manukau

247

419

454

32

21

1,173

22.2

Hamilton

282

271

32

7

27

619

31.8

Wellington

161

89

38

7

13

308

14.9

Christchurch

950

385

96

23

15

1,469

33.3

Dunedin

306

48

7

6

3

370

23.2

Data source: Ministry of Education

The process of ensuring that a student is able to continue his/her education in a school only stops once the student is 16 years of age or over. Suspensions and stand - downs are part of a broad range of ways in which student behaviour is managed and may represent one of a number of interventions. There is no apparent relationship between the socio - economic status of a city and rates of suspension and stand - downs. However, there maybe a connection between high suspension and stand - downs rates and juvenile offending rates. For example, Christchurch, which continues to have the highest level of suspensions/stand - downs of the eight cities, also has high levels of juvenile offending.

25 It should be noted that there maybe substantial differences between the application of stand - down/suspension procedures between schools. Both are subject to guidelines

issued by the Ministry of Education but are strongly influenced by the policies set by a school board of trustees e.g. “zero tolerance” to issues such as bullying or drugs. 26 Stand - downs of a student can total no more than 5 school days in any one term, or ten days in a school year. Suspension is the formal removal of a student from school

until the board of trustees decides the outcome at a suspension meeting. Following a suspension the board may decide to either lift the suspension with or without conditions, to extend the suspension, or in the most serious cases to either exclude or expel the student from the school. Students can be suspended or stood - down more than once. Nationally for 1999/2000, 16% of all stand - downs were stood - down more than once, and 9% of all suspensions were suspended more than once.

page

34

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

The eight cities combined have more students leaving school with qualifications than the rest of New Zealand.

•

The number of people with qualifications has increased across all eight cities.

•

There are significant differences in the level of post-school attainment between the eight cities.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Qualification levels

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Individual and community levels of education have a strong positive association with a range of economic and social benefits.27 Measuring the qualification levels of a city’s population aged 15 years and over helps to identify the job readiness of the future labour force. An educated population adds to the vibrancy and creativity of a city and is needed to remain competitive in the global economy. Measures used to assess this are: • School leavers without qualifications • Highest level of qualification gained.

This measure shows the number of school leavers without qualifications as a percentage of all school leavers. In 2001 across the eight cities combined, the percentage of school leavers without a qualification was lower than the rest of New Zealand (13.9% and 19.5% respectively). North Shore, Wellington, Dunedin, and Auckland had the lowest proportion of school leavers with no qualifications between 1998 and 2001. Waitakere and Manukau had the highest percentages of school leavers with no qualifications over this period. Although Manukau has shown some improvement, the percentage of students leaving school without qualifications in Waitakere has continued to increase.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

In 2001, 17% of all school leavers across New Zealand left school without qualifications. Maori and Pacific Islands students were over-represented amongst this group - 33% of all Maori school leavers and 25% of Pacific Islands school leavers left without qualifications. PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL LEAVERS WITH NO QUALIFICATIONS (1998 TO 2001) 1999

2000

2001

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

1998

Data source: Ministry of Education. Percentages calculated using 2001 Census data

14.1 13.5 13.6 13.9

18.1 17.2 16.5 17.0

21.2 20.2 18.9 19.5 13.7 16.0 15.4 14.0

16.2

SAFETY

9.3 8.3 7.7 9.0

16.2 15.2

15.0

17.8

20.1

21.4 20.1

23.6 17.4

10.5 11.1 12.8 11.4

11.1 10.3 9.5 10.8

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

5

10.4 7.6 7.4 7.9

PERCENT

15

10

23.8 24.5

25

20

0 Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

North Shore

27 The Treasury (2001) Human Capital and The Inclusive Economy. Wellington. page 24.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

HEALTH

School leavers without qualifications

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

page

35

Qualification levels Continued...

In Manukau in 2001, 41.3% of Maori school leavers left school without a qualification. In Waitakere this percentage was 39.9%. For Pacific Islands students the percentages were 29.3% in Manukau and 29.9% in Waitakere. The attainment of school leavers can be correlated to the decile ranking of a school. Across New Zealand in 2001, 42% of high decile (deciles 8-10) school leavers left with at least Entrance to University qualifications compared to 10.2% in low decile schools (deciles 1-3). Conversely, only 7.4% of students from high decile schools left school with no formal qualification or less than 12 credits at level one on the National Qualifications Framework, compared to 30.1% of students from low decile schools. 28 North Shore and Wellington (which have a lower proportion of the population in low decile schools) continue to have lower levels of school leavers without qualifications, while Waitakere and Manukau (with a higher proportion of students in low decile schools) have a higher percentage of school leavers without qualifications. There is a lack of information regarding those who leave school without a qualification and simply ‘fall through the cracks’. This group includes young people who might not enrol in training or further education, or qualify for any welfare benefits, or register as unemployed. Highest level of qualification gained This measure shows the highest level of qualification gained within the population aged 15 years and over. Highest qualification refers to school qualifications, post- school qualifications (degree and vocational) and no qualification (including still at school). 29 PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER WITHIN HIGHEST QUALIFICATION CATEGORIES (1996, 2001) 30

No Qualification 1996

School

Vocational

2001

1996

2001

1996

Degree

Not Incl.Elsewhere

2001

1996

2001

1996

2001

North Shore

22.4

14.7

30.6

41.6

20.4

19.3

11.1

14.6

15.5

9.9

Waitakere

31.6

22.6

27.8

37.9

17.7

16.5

5.9

8.1

17.1

14.9

Auckland

23.1

14.7

25.9

35.7

16.4

15.8

15.4

19.5

19.2

14.3

Manukau

35.0

24.4

25.9

36.6

15.3

15.1

5.5

7.4

18.4

16.5

Hamilton

28.3

21.8

29.2

35.5

18.5

18.7

10.2

12.5

13.9

11.4

Wellington

17.3

11.6

28.0

34.8

18.0

17.4

23.2

26.7

13.5

9.6

Christchurch

30.1

22.9

28.7

36.1

18.0

17.7

9.2

11.1

14.1

12.1

Dunedin

28.8

21.5

30.1

36.1

17.2

17.5

11.0

13.2

12.9

11.8

Total 8 cities

27.1

19.1

27.9

36.7

17.4

17.0

11.5

14.3

16.1

13.0

Rest of NZ

36.5

27.8

25.3

32.5

17.9

18.1

5.1

6.5

15.1

15.1

Total NZ

32.2

23.7

26.5

34.5

17.7

17.6

8.0

10.1

15.5

14.1

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 1996, 2001

28 Ministry of Education, 2001. www.minedu.govt.nz 29 Highest post- school qualification is the highest qualification gained, apart from school qualifications, and is collected for people aged 15 years and over. Included are

qualifications awarded by training and educational institutions as well as on the job training. A qualification is a formally recognised award for attainment resulting from a full- time (20 hours per week) learning course of at least three months, or from part- time study for an equivalent period of time or from on the job training. Levels of qualification; Degree - Higher and Bachelor degree; Vocational - Advanced Vocational, Intermediate Vocation, Skilled Vocational, Basic Vocational Qualifications; School - Higher school, Sixth form, Fifth form; None - No Qualification (including still at school), and Not Elsewhere Included. 30 The categories of qualification were updated between the 1996 and 2001 Censuses. They have been grouped into similar qualification types to allow clearer reporting. For 1996, Not Elsewhere Included category includes Post- school Qualification Not Applicable, Post- school Qualification Unidentifiable, Post- school Qualification Not Specified, School Qualification Not Applicable, School Qualification Unidentifiable, School Qualification Not Specified and Not Specified. For 2001, Not Elsewhere Included category includes Highest Qualification Unidentifiable and Not Stated.

page

36

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Nationally, due to a large increase in enrolment figures between 1996 and 2001, Maori are now participating in formal post- school education and training at a higher rate than non -Maori. However, 78% of those Maori students enrolled in post- school education are enrolled in sub - degree level study (certificates and diplomas). The growth in Maori participation is mainly concentrated in private providers and ‘wananga’, part-time and extramural study, and certificate programmes. 31, 32

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

The associated positive economic benefits from higher levels of education are well documented. Cities with a highly educated population are more likely to have a population on higher levels of income compared to those cities with a less educated population. For example Wellington, which has the highest percentage of people with post- school qualifications, also has the highest average hourly earnings of any city in New Zealand. This is consistent with the make up of the Wellington workforce being concentrated on the higher paying business and financial services sectors.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

The proportion of people with qualifications in the eight largest cities is higher than for the rest of New Zealand. Among the eight cities however, Manukau, Waitakere, and Christchurch have higher levels than other cities of people aged 15 years and over who have no qualifications. There are significant disparities between the eight cities when comparing degree or higher attainment levels. In Wellington, 26.7% of the population 15 years and over hold a degree or higher qualification compared to 7.4% in Manukau.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

There has been considerable growth throughout New Zealand in the percentage of people that hold an educational qualification. While there has been some increase in the percentage of those gaining post- school qualifications, most of the increase has been in those gaining school qualifications. Within the post- school field the apparent decline in the number of people with skilled vocational qualifications (e.g. trade certificates and apprenticeships), has been offset by increases in the numbers of people with degree level qualifications.

HOUSING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Qualification levels

31 Wananga is a public tertiary institution that provides programmes with an emphasis on the application of knowledge regarding ahuatanga Maori (Maori tradition)

according to tikanga Maori (Maori custom). www.minedu.govt.nz 32 Ministry of Education. Briefing for the Incoming Minister of Education, August 2002.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

37

Participation in community education

•

Participation in community education vary extensively across all eight cities, although all achieve higher rates than the rest of New Zealand.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Adult and community education programmes play a vital role in allowing access to learning for the people in our cities. It offers important opportunities for the wider community to gain knowledge, skills and confidence to participate fully in society. In recent years, on - going education and learning have become increasingly regarded as significant contributors to life enrichment and as essential requirements for competitive advantage in cities. This indicator shows the percentage of the population aged 15 years and over who have participated in community education. Community education includes study post- secondary school, but not study for degree or higher level qualifications. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Participation rates vary extensively across all eight cities, although all achieve higher rates than the rest of New Zealand. North Shore and Dunedin have the highest rates of participation. Wellington and Dunedin participation rates show a decline from 2000 to 2001, although both cities still maintain high levels of participation. Nationally, females accounted for almost three - quarters of all enrolments in community education. PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER WHO PARTICIPATED IN COMMUNITY EDUCATION (2000, 2001) 2000

Data source: Ministry of Education. Percentages calculated using 2001 Census data

2001

18

14.9 13.5

14.2

4

5.6

5.1

6.0

5.9

8.9

10.0

11.5 6.4

6.2

6

6.6

8

8.8

8.8

9.0

9.9

10

6.2

PERCENT

12

9.1

14

15.8

16

2 0 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

There appears to be a correlation between low levels of participation in community education and low levels of people with qualifications. This is the case in, for example, Waitakere, Manukau and Christchurch.

page

38

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?

• • • •

Income Costs Household expenditure Social deprivation

KEY POINTS

Overall, residents of the eight largest cities enjoy higher hourly and weekly earnings, and higher personal and household incomes than people in the rest of New Zealand. Measures of income distribution also tend to show that incomes are more evenly spread in the eight cities. Income disparities between males and females tend to be lower in the eight cities than elsewhere - probably due to the higher levels of employment for females and higher levels of pay for qualified females in cities. There are also higher proportions of middle and upper income earners in most of the eight cities than elsewhere in New Zealand. Yet while residents in the eight largest cities tend to enjoy higher incomes, they also face higher living costs. For example, living costs are higher in North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland and Manukau

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

There are close links between the measures in this chapter and the rest of the report. Low levels of income are associated with poorer health outcomes and health risk factors such as meningococcal disease and diabetes. Low incomes can also be a cause and effect of low educational attainment in families. Income inequality is associated with people’s ability and willingness to participate in the community and is therefore also closely related to community cohesion. Inequalities in incomes may contribute to higher levels of crime and poor perceptions of personal safety. People in paid employment are more likely to have a higher income than those who are either unemployed or not in the labour force. Qualifications and skills, as well as a vibrant economy are central to securing paid employment and a liveable income.

page

39

HOUSING

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

LINKS

HEALTH

These overall patterns of income distribution across the eight cities can obscure gaps in income earning capacity and distribution within the city populations. For example, the proportion of people who earn less than $20,000 per year in all eight cities is greater than those earning high incomes, and substantial proportions of the populations within each city live in low socio - economic areas. These people still face the higher costs associated with living in cities.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Levels of income and socio - economic position determine the ability to purchase goods and services and to obtain adequate food and housing. It is also an important factor in people’s ability to participate in the wider community. In cities, where there is a diverse mix of populations, assessing the economic standard of living of families and individuals is critical to understanding how the household economy supports the local and regional economy.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

The most affordable cities to live in terms of mortgage affordability and median weekly rents are Dunedin and Christchurch. This is further reinforced by the fact that there is less than a 10% difference in ordinary time weekly earnings between the high living cost cities and the low living cost cities (taken as an average between the two groups). This provides higher disposable or discretionary income levels for the low living cost cities.

SAFETY

This is the first of two chapters that explore economic indicators in the eight largest cities. The indicators and measures in this chapter look at those aspects of the economy that impact at the personal and household level, such as income and expenditure.

with spending on essentials such as housing higher than the average for the rest of New Zealand.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

INTRODUCTION

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

3

Economic Standard of Living

Income

•

Overall, incomes in the eight cities are higher than elsewhere in New Zealand.

•

In 2001, Wellington reported the highest median household income ($59,410).

•

The gap between the top and bottom income earners is closing, but the proportion of people at the lower end of scale outweighs the proportion of people at the upper end.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Income is a key indicator of individual, family and community wellbeing. Income levels indicate the ability of people to purchase essential and non - essential goods and services including food, housing, health, education, leisure and transport. It is the single most important changeable factor related to health and quality of life in general. Four measures have been used to explore levels of income among residents of the eight largest cities: • Median household income • Personal income • Receipt of means tested benefits • Average weekly earnings. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Median household income 33 Median household income levels vary from city to city. This reflects the different employment levels and variations in types of employment available. However, according to the 2001 Census, households in the eight cities tended to have higher median household incomes than the rest of New Zealand. This is partly offset by the higher cost of living in cities. Dunedin appears to be an exception with slightly lower median income levels than the rest of New Zealand in 2001 ($32,526 compared with $35,559), and a lower median income than the other largest cities. However, the average weekly earnings measured in the following pages shows Dunedin with an average ordinary time weekly earnings above the average for the rest of New Zealand. This discrepancy could be due to the very large tertiary student presence (Dunedin has one of the highest proportions of usually resident population aged 15 to 24 years old in New Zealand) with the result that data is skewed on this measure. Removing the ‘student effect’ would result in a median household figure similar to that of Christchurch. MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME (1991, 1996, 2001)

1991 $

1996 $

2001 $

Increase 1996 -2001 %

North Shore

41,719

46,865

53,355

13.8

Waitakere

36,335

41,497

44,976

8.4

Auckland

34,189

42,031

51,094

21.6

Manukau

37,078

42,658

48,441

13.6

Hamilton

32,839

36,235

40,254

11.1

Wellington

46,039

50,916

59,410

16.7

Christchurch

29,336

32,913

36,502

10.9

Dunedin

27,958

30,490

32,526

6.7

Rest of NZ

28,282

29,722

35,559

19.6

Total NZ

30,910

34,722

39,588

14.0

Data source: Statistics New Zealand , Census 1991, 1996, 2001

33 Income data in this table has not been equivalised - that is, it has not been adjusted to take into account household composition.

page

40

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

In 2001, Wellington reported the highest median household income ($59,410), with North Shore and Auckland also reporting incomes of over $50,000 per annum ($53,355 and $51,094 respectively). Between 1996 and 2001, there was a national increase in median household income of 14.0%. Only two of the eight largest cities experienced a percentage increase greater than this - Auckland (21.6%) and Wellington (16.7%). Large variations within cities are often masked when whole city or collective cities are the focus of analysis. For example, in Auckland, the median income in the Hauraki Gulf Islands Ward was $26,374 while it was $67,527 in the Hobson Ward. Within Manukau, the Papatoetoe Ward had a median household income of $38,769 while the median in the Clevedon Ward was $59,120.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Income

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Personal income - ends of the scale This measure looks at the proportions of people aged 15 years and over in two personal income categories - under $20,000 per annum (low income earners), and over $70,000 per annum (higher income earners).34 The figures are for 2001.

HOUSING

The proportion of people at the lower end of the income scale still outweighs the proportion of people at the upper end. 35 Nationally, over half (52.8%) of people aged 15 years and over reported they had an income of less than $20,000, compared with 5.1% who reported an income of $70,000 or more. This pattern is replicated in all of the eight cities and in the rest of New Zealand. In 2001, Dunedin had the greatest proportion (but not actual numbers) of low income earners (60.5%) which reflects the high proportion of students in Dunedin’s population. PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER IN PERSONAL INCOME BRACKETS (ENDS OF THE SCALE) (2001)

52.8

54.7 40.7

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

53.8

0 North Shore Waitakere Auckland Manukau (n=133,569) (n=109,650) (n=255,129) (n=173,964)

Hamilton (n=80,817)

Wellington Christchurch (n=122,133) (n=232,122)

Dunedin (n=86,076)

Rest of NZ Total NZ (n=559,932) (n=2,567,457)

Cities tend to have larger proportions of higher income earners than most other parts of New Zealand. In 2001, Wellington had the largest proportion of people with an income of $70,000 or more (11.9%), followed by Auckland and North Shore (9.2% and 8.3%). This may be influenced by the relatively higher proportions of people employed in the higher wage business and financial services in the three cities and the large government sector in Wellington. The gap between the two ends of the scale has decreased since 1996. There has been a drop in the proportion of people in the eight cities who earn less than $20,000. For example, in 2001, 54.7% of Christchurch residents earned less than $20,000, compared with 61% in 1996 and 66% in 1991. Higher levels of employment combined with wage increases are the likely reasons.

34 Personal income data presented in this section comes from the Census and covers all income sources, for example from employment, own business, asset ownership,

superannuation and capital income. This covers the general population within the age bracket including those working, those not working, students and retired people. 35 Figures at the upper and lower end of the income scale must be treated with some caution, as upper income earners do not always respond to income questions and very

low income earners sometimes hide income as assets and under report their incomes.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

41

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

5.1

4.0

3.0

11.9

4.1

4.2

9.2

3.7

8.3

10

3.9

20

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

30

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

46.9

45.3

51.8

PERCENT

48.7

50

40

55.2

60.5

60

More than $70,000 pa

HEALTH

Up to $20,000 pa

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001 - Data does not include specified incomes

Income Continued...

Analysis of personal income by ethnicity indicates that Maori, Pacific Islands and Asian populations are generally earning less than their European counterparts. This is partly influenced by the younger age structures within these populations, but it also reflects ethnic differences in educational attainment and employment levels and types of employment. Maori and Pacific Islands people tend to be over-represented among the unemployed and those in low paid employment compared to Europeans. Further, they are more likely to be employed in industrial sectors where wages and salaries are lower. PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE IN EACH ETHNIC GROUP AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER PER INCOME BRACKET, FOR TOTAL EIGHT CITIES (2001)

Less than $20,000 %

Over $70,000 %

European

46.1

7.5

Maori

54.5

2.4

Pacific Islands

59.8

0.9

Asian

67.4

2.9

Other

68.0

4.2

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001. Data on ethnicity is not prioritised

There are also imbalances in the distribution of income by sex, reflecting the higher numbers of women in part-time work, casual labour and on welfare benefits. Nationally, 62.8% of women earned $20,000 or less in 2001 compared to 42.2% of men; while 2.1% of women earned $70,000 or more compared to 8.1% of men. These differences appear to be least obvious in Auckland and Wellington, which had relatively fewer women in the lower income groups than elsewhere. Average weekly earnings This measure shows average weekly ordinary time earnings (before tax) in February of the indicated years. The data source is Statistics New Zealand’s Quarterly Employment Survey, which is a survey of enterprises with a turnover of $40,000 or more per annum. 36 Overtime payments are excluded, as are bonuses and other one - off payments to employees. As this is a survey of business locations within each city, the average weekly earnings shown here are of those who work in the city rather than those who live in that city. AVERAGE ORDINARY TIME WEEKLY EARNINGS (FEBRUARY 2000 TO 2002)

2000 $

2001 $

2002 $

2000 to 2002 %

North Shore

660

667

688

4.2

Waitakere

599

622

642

7.2

Auckland

736

761

788

7.1

Manukau

666

690

725

8.9

Hamilton

666

645

665

- 0.2

Wellington

807

847

871

7.9

Christchurch

619

618

658

6.3

Dunedin

628

630

648

3.2

Rest of NZ

613

616

639

4.2

Total NZ

661

672

698

5.6

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Quarterly Employment Survey

36 The survey population is all business locations belonging to economically significant enterprises in surveyed industries with employees. An economically significant

enterprise is one which meets at least one of the following criteria: has greater than $40,000 annual GST expenses or sales; has more than two full time paid employees; is in a GST exempt industry except residential property leasing and rental; is part of a group of enterprises; is a new GST registration that is compulsory, special or forced. A representative sample of 18,500 business locations is surveyed on a quarterly basis, and each February a larger sample of approximately 47,500 business locations is surveyed.

page

42

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Income

The increase in Manukau appears to have been driven by an 18% increase in earnings in the personal and social services industry in that city. Wellington’s increase appears to have been the result of a 30% increase in earnings in the ‘other industries’ category and a 15% increase in earnings in the transport and communication sector. Auckland experienced 10% increases in earnings in the manufacturing and construction sectors, and a 9% increase in earnings in the distribution and hospitality sector. Earnings in the personal and social services industry in Waitakere rose 10%, but most industries in this city experienced an increase of at least 5%. Notwithstanding this, Waitakere actually had the lowest level of earnings at $642 per week. This may be linked to almost half of the filled jobs in Waitakere being in the lower waged distribution and hospitality, and manufacturing industries. It may also reflect the higher concentration of part time and unskilled workers in those industries. Hamilton was the only city which experienced a small decrease in earnings (0.2%). This was largely driven by a 28% decrease in earnings in the transport and communications industry, and a 5% decrease in the personal and social services industry. There were also decreases in earnings in the transport and communications sector in each of the South Island cities but these were offset by increases elsewhere.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Earnings increased in seven of the eight cities between 2000 and 2002 -Hamilton was the exception. Five of the cities experienced increases greater than the national average. The increase in earnings was greatest in Manukau (8.9%), followed by Wellington (7.9%), Waitakere (7.2%) and Auckland (7.1%).

HOUSING

Rises in weekly earnings are a sign of economic vitality and activity (if the increases are greater than the rate of inflation). Nationally, average ordinary time weekly earnings in February 2002 were $698, an increase of $37 or 5.6% over earnings in February 2000.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

Government benefit statistics show how many benefits are given to working age people (those aged between 15 and 65 years). These data include all means tested benefits (for example, unemployment, invalids, sickness and domestic purposes). 37 This is a count of benefits, not people, so there may be some double counting of people in the figures. It also does not tell us how long people have been receiving benefits.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The number of people on benefits has fluctuated over the period 1998 to 2002. This may be influenced by administrative changes within Work and Income New Zealand. Over the period 1998 to 2002, the highest numbers of benefits were given in the three cities with the highest populations - Auckland, Manukau and Christchurch.

1999

2000

2001

2002

10,473

12,820

13,151

12,702

Waitakere

20,415

17,528

18,437

17,816

18,505

18,426

Auckland

35,462

37,156

37,174

37,618

35,705

35,431

Manukau

25,808

32,431

33,760

35,215

34,662

34,431

Hamilton

12,157

13,686

14,615

15,244

15,253

14,805

Wellington

11,637

12,300

11,880

12,043

11,421

11,331

Christchurch

33,313

36,221

36,501

37,040

35,264

33,662

Dunedin

11,483

12,101

12,300

12,336

11,350

10,741

Rest of NZ

207,915

218,938

217,499

218,335

208,845

197,845

Total NZ

367,262

390,279

392,639

398,467

384,156

369,374

SAFETY

1998 9,918

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

1997 9,072

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

TOTAL NUMBER OF BENEFITS GIVEN OUT (31 MARCH 1997 TO 2002)

North Shore

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Data source: Work and Income New Zealand

37 New Zealand Superannuation payments are not included as this is not a means tested benefit. Student allowances are also not included.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

HEALTH

Receipt of means tested benefits

page

43

Costs

•

For the years 1998 to 2002, prices rose annually across all Consumers Price Index (CPI) regions in New Zealand.

•

The Wellington region experienced the greatest increase in CPI while the Hamilton region has seen the greatest increase in the Food Price Index (March 1997 to 2002).

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Assessing the cost of goods and services provides an indication of living costs in the eight cities. While the consumer might face a large price increase in particular types of items, this might in turn be offset by lower increases, or even decreases, in other items. Households on lower incomes are particularly vulnerable to changes in price. This indicator uses two measures to assess costs: • Consumers Price Index • Food Price Index. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Consumers Price Index The Consumers Price Index (CPI) is a measure of the change in the price of goods and services purchased by private New Zealand households, and represents the average expenditure pattern. It can be used as an indicator of the effect of price change on the purchasing power of household income. It compares the rate of change in prices (not actual prices) and is presented by CPI region. 38 For the years 1998 to 2002, prices rose annually across all CPI regions in New Zealand. The percentage change was noticeably high in 2001 when the annual percentage change was 3.0% nationally, and up to 3.3% in the Wellington CPI region and 3.2% in the Hamilton CPI region. ANNUAL PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX, BY CPI REGION (MARCH QUARTERS 1998 TO 2002) 1998

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Consumers Price Index

1999

2000

2001

2002

3.0 2.5

2.6

2.6

3.0 2.3

2.4

2.3

2.6

2.0

Auckland

Christchurch

Dunedin

1.1 0.9 0.3

0.8

1.0 0.9

Wellington

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.8 Hamilton

0.6 0.4

0

0.9

0.5

0.4 0.2

1.0

1.2

1.5

0.7 0.2

PERCENT

3.2

3.0

3.0 2.5

3.3

3.5

Total NZ

38 The boundaries of these regions are not the same as local government regional boundaries.

page

44

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Costs

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Auckland

985.2

997.0

1,004.1

1,005.5

1,036.0

1,062.5

Hamilton

990.8

999.8

1,003.7

1,006.0

1,037.8

1,062.0

Wellington

987.4

992.7

1,000.7

1,006.8

1,040.3

1,064.8

North Island

986.5

996.3

1,003.4

1,006.0

1,037.0

1,063.0

Christchurch

980.9

991.3

1,000.0

1,005.3

1,035.3

1,059.3

Dunedin

987.9

996.1

1,002.7

1,005.8

1,032.3

1,059.3

South Island

983.6

992.9

1,001.4

1,005.0

1,034.0

1,059.8

Total NZ

983.4

993.8

1,003.0

1,005.8

1,036.0

1,062.0

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

CPI Region

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX, BY CPI REGION (MARCH QUARTERS 1997 TO 2002)

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Consumers Price Index

Food Price Index

Food is a basic item of household expenditure. Affordable food is important for nutrition and general health and is particularly important for children. Food prices are affected by seasonal factors and by changes in the broader national economy, as well as the international environment. Households on lower incomes have limited ability to adjust to increases in the price of food, as it tends to make up a significant proportion of household expenditure.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Food prices rose across New Zealand from 1998 to 2002. Generally, this increase has been low but there was a relatively large jump in the percentage change in the March 2001 to March 2002 year - 6.1% nationally and in most regions. This followed a year of very little percentage change in prices. CHANGE IN THE FOOD PRICE INDEX, BY CPI REGION (MARCH QUARTERS 1998 TO 2002) 1998

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Consumers Price Index

1999

2000

2001

HEALTH

HOUSING

The Food Price Index is one of the nine groups that make up the Consumers Price Index.

2002

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

5.0

Wellington

3.4 2.6

2.7

3.3 Dunedin

0.3

0.9

0.6

2.0

Christchurch

SAFETY

Hamilton

Total NZ

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Auckland

2.9 - 0.7

0 -1.0

1.8

2.8

2.8 0.7

1.6

1.9 0.0

1.0

0.6

2.6

2.8

3.2

3.0 2.0

3.0

4.0

2.1 2.4

PERCENT

6.1

6.2 5.6

5.9

6.0

6.0

6.3

7.0

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

45

Costs Continued...

Among the regions investigated here, the greatest increase in the Food Price Index over the five -year period from March 1997 to 2002 was in the Hamilton region, where food prices have risen by 15.2% over the whole period. This increase is almost the same as for New Zealand as a whole (15.3%). Comparable rates for the other regions were 13.8% in Auckland, 14.0% in Wellington, 13.7% in Christchurch and 14.4% in Dunedin. FOOD PRICE INDEX, BY CPI REGION (MARCH QUARTERS 1998 TO 2002)

CPI Region

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Auckland

960.2

980.4

1,004.0

1,004.0

1,030.2

1,092.9

Hamilton

948.9

967.3

998.3

1,004.3

1,032.3

1,093.4

Wellington

961.3

975.6

1,003.1

1,010.2

1,038.0

1,095.8

North Island

953.8

973.0

1,000.8

1,005.2

1,032.2

1,094.2

Christchurch

964.3

981.0

1,010.8

1,003.6

1,032.7

1,095.9

Dunedin

948.9

958.3

990.0

996.5

1,022.0

1,086.2

South Island

965.2

974.8

1,004.6

1,001.8

1,028.8

1,094.1

Total NZ

949.2

968.1

1,001.6

1,004.4

1,031.3

1,094.3

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Consumers Price Index

page

46

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Household expenditure patterns provide a basic indicator of the affordability of essential household items. They indicate the proportions of household income spent on essential and non - essential goods and services. Relatively high proportions of household income spent on food and housing can indicate that less is available to spend on other goods and services, including health, leisure and education. This indicator shows the proportion of household expenditure in several categories of products: • food - all food and meals away from home • housing - all expenditure associated with household tenure such as rents, rates, mortgage payments, bonds, refuse disposal, decoration and renovation, and section maintenance • household operation - expenditure on furniture, appliances, kitchen equipment, domestic fuel and power • apparel - clothing and footwear • transportation - motor vehicles and expenses associated with their operation, public transport, long distance travel • other goods - cigarettes, alcohol, medicine and first aid, sanitary and beauty items, books and stationery, computers, compact disks, video hire, photographic supplies, flowers • other services - medical and dental treatment, educational expenses, insurance, interest on overdrafts and credit cards, entertainment, lotteries, accommodation away from home.

HEALTH

The data is model based and produced by combining Household Economic Survey (HES) data with auxiliary data from the Census.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

On average, a quarter of household expenditure in the eight cities was on housing.

HOUSING

Households in the eight cities accounted for 48% of New Zealand’s total household expenditure in 2001.

•

WHAT DID WE FIND?

City- based households account for a significant proportion of the country’s total household expenditure. In the year ended 31 March 2001, households in the eight cities spent $26.9 billion or 48% of New Zealand’s total household expenditure. This is likely to be related to the higher disposable incomes in cities, and high population growth.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

In 2001, household expenditure across the main categories did not show much variation when averaged out across the eight cities. Housing costs were the exception. Households in the eight cities spent, on average, a quarter of their income (24.9%) on housing, compared to 21.7% in the rest of New Zealand.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Household expenditure

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE WITHIN EACH CATEGORY (2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Household Economic Survey. Sample sizes are too small to present the data at a city level.

Other Services 17.5

16.9

10.6

11.4

16.4

17.3

Other Goods

3.2 13.1

24.9

21.7

15.6

16.4

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Apparel Household Operations

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

3.1 12.0

SAFETY

Transportation

Housing

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Food

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

47

Social deprivation

•

Wellington and North Shore are the least disadvantaged cities, while Manukau has a marked proportion of its population living in areas of socio- economic disadvantage.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

The economic and social circumstances of our cities’ residents impact significantly on their ability to provide for their every day needs and to participate fully as members of their communities. This indicator uses the New Zealand Deprivation Index which shows the percentage of the population in the eight cities who live in each deprivation index decile. The Index combines a range of key socio - economic factors from the 2001 Census and estimates an overall score of material and social deprivation for a particular area, on a scale of 1 (least deprived) to 10 (most deprived). 39 Deprivation scores generally reflect the ability of households in New Zealand to achieve positive outcomes in areas such as health, income, education and employment. WHAT DID WE FIND?

There are considerable differences among the eight cities with regard to the proportion of resident populations living in lower and upper deciles. While North Shore and Wellington have over half of their populations living in decile 1, 2 or 3 areas (58.3% and 50.7% respectively), only 15.8% of Hamilton residents and 20.8% of Waitakere residents were in these deciles. Comparatively, Manukau has a marked proportion of its population living in the more deprived deciles 8, 9 or 10 (59.7%). The area - based approach taken in this measurement of social deprivation can mask the fact that a number of households living in the wealthier deciles will be living in lower socio - economic conditions. PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION LIVING IN DEPRIVATION INDEX DECILES (2001)

(least deprived) 1 %

2 %

3 %

4 %

5 %

6 %

7 %

8 %

9 %

North Shore

13.7

26.3

18.3

7.2

19.4

6.3

6.6

2.1

0.0

0.0

Waitakere

10.5

4.3

6.0

5.0

5.3

8.8

22.9

26.0

11.1

0.0

Auckland

9.4

8.9

10.6

12.2

6.7

15.3

3.0

12.4

9.4

11.8

Manukau

7.9

9.9

7.5

6.6

4.2

0.0

4.2

10.8

14.4

34.5

Hamilton

(most deprived) 10 %

6.1

4.3

5.4

13.8

2.8

13.8

10.3

11.0

26.3

6.0

Wellington

24.3

11.6

14.8

12.5

9.7

7.4

0.0

7.3

12.4

0.0

Christchurch

10.7

10.5

6.7

13.4

13.8

7.6

11.3

13.9

7.8

4.0

Dunedin

7.7

8.4

12.6

4.4

10.9

18.2

9.6

14.7

10.6

2.8

Rest of NZ

6.9

8.3

8.4

10.2

9.6

12.0

12.4

10.4

11.3

10.3

Data source: University of Otago, Wellington School of Medicine and Health Sciences

39 The index is a composite of a variety of factors including:

• • • • • • • • •

page

Income - equivalised household income (adjusted for household composition) Income - people aged 18 -59 years receiving a means tested benefit Transport - people with no access to a car Communication - people with no access to a phone Support - people aged less than 60 years living in a sole parent family Owned home - people not living in own home Qualifications - people aged 18 to 59 years without any qualifications Employment - unemployed people aged 18 to 59 years Living Space - equivalised household below a bedroom occupancy threshold.

48

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?

• • • • • •

Economic growth Employment Growth in the number of businesses Retail sales Residential and non -residential building consents Tourism

KEY POINTS

The eight cities account for between 55% and 60% of all economic output in New Zealand. In general, the economies of the eight largest cities have grown by 3.4% per annum over the four years to March 2002.

Levels of employment and economic growth, along with personal and household income and expenditure, are closely linked with people’s ability to secure a good quality of life for themselves and their families. This includes their ability to purchase adequate housing, health care and education. As the economy fluctuates, some groups are more likely to be vulnerable to unemployment - particularly the unskilled, those without qualifications and those living in areas of declining employment. Qualifications and skills are a prerequisite for secure and sustainable paid employment. A skilled workforce contributes to a strong economy.

HOUSING

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

LINKS

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Rates of unemployment have declined - just under 40,000 additional jobs were generated across the eight cities over the two years ended February 2002. There was an increase in the number of filled jobs, and a 20.3% growth in the number of economically viable businesses between 1998 and 2002. North Shore recorded the highest growth rate in numbers of business enterprises over this period.

New residential buildings across the eight cities represent half of all building consents issued in New Zealand, with Auckland, Manukau and Christchurch recording most of the activity. Overall population growth and higher levels of employment in the eight largest cities continue to attract people to live in these urban areas.

HEALTH

Economic growth and development help underpin quality of life and enhance prosperity in urban communities. The strength of the economy and levels of employment are closely related. A local economy that is growing and developing contributes to employment opportunities, and participation in paid employment is the main factor determining adequate income.

The four Auckland cities, Hamilton, Wellington and Christchurch are hubs of economic growth attracting migrants for work, especially in the business and financial industries and service sectors. These sectors tend to pay more, leading to higher incomes. Migration and population growth are central to many of the positive indicators of economic development.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

This is the second of two chapters that investigate indicators of economic wellbeing in the eight largest cities. This chapter looks at measures of the broader economy.

In the year ended March 2002, the eight cities accounted for $24.1 billion out of New Zealand’s total of $47.1 billion in retail expenditure (51%). The highest proportion of retail spending occurs in Auckland.

SAFETY

INTRODUCTION

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

4

Economic Development

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

49

Economic growth

•

Estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the eight cities grew by 3.4% per annum on average over the four years to March 2002, compared to the rest of New Zealand at 2.3%.

•

The eight cities have generally experienced faster population growth, therefore the difference in per capita income growth will be much smaller.

•

The eight cities account for between 55% and 60% of all economic output in New Zealand.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Economic growth is a widely accepted measure of how well an economy (region or city) is performing. Faster economic growth generally translates into higher economic welfare - people have more purchasing power. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a convenient way of capturing in one number all the partial indicators of economic performance, for example more jobs, houses, tourists, etc. GDP data for the eight cities shows how each city’s economy has grown since 1998. The data are based on regional GDP estimates by Infometrics Wellington, which are derived from detailed employment data by region and industry and also from rates of productivity growth by industry. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Over the four years ended March 2002, the eight cities grew by an average of 3.4% per annum, as measured by estimated GDP for each city. This was half a percentage point faster per annum than overall New Zealand economic growth. From 2000 to 2002, GDP in the rest of New Zealand grew at roughly the same pace as the eight largest cities on average. North Shore saw the greatest economic growth over the four years. It had an average growth of nearly 6% per annum, although the bulk of this occurred over the period 1998 to 2000. For cities in the Auckland region, economic performance over the four years to March 2002 is not quite so large once population growth is taken into account. GDP for the Auckland region is estimated to have increased by 3.4% per annum between 1998 and 2002, while the region’s population increased 1.9% per annum over the same period -implying 1.5% per capita GDP growth per annum. This compares with 1.9% per annum per capita growth for New Zealand as a whole over the same period.

ANNUAL AVERAGE PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, ESTIMATES 1995/96 PRICES (1998 TO 2002) 1998-2000

Data source: Infometrics, from Statistics New Zealand Employment Data

2000 -2002

8

8.5

9

7

North Shore

Waitakere

3.1

1.6

1.9

Rest of NZ

2.7

3.6

4.2

3.7

3.4

3.0

0

Average 8 cities

- 0.7

- 0.8

1

50

3.9

1.7

2

page

3.6

3.4 2.6

3.3

3

3.3

4

3.1

5

5.7

5.5

PERCENT

6

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total NZ

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Economic growth

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Wellington and Christchurch enjoyed relatively strong rates of economic growth over the period, but neither experienced particularly fast population growth, implying that the majority of the growth translated into higher per capita incomes. The economic significance of the eight cities The eight cities account for between 55% and 60% of all economic output in New Zealand. By their very nature cities are concentrations of economic activity, especially where scale and quality is important. For instance, people are drawn to the major cities to shop because there is a broader range of goods, quality and prices. Banks, retailers distributors, manufacturers and entertainment tend to be concentrated in the major cities because the labour and customer markets are bigger. In turn these activities attract people and businesses to locate in cities.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

As the graph below shows, the eight cities account for around 70% of total national employment in the finance/ insurance/business services; wholesale; construction; and communications sectors. Personal services and government also account for a relatively high proportion of total national employment.

SHARE OF TOTAL NATIONAL EMPLOYMENT (BY FTE), TOTAL EIGHT CITIES (FEBRUARY 2002)

HOUSING

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Business Demographic Survey

HEALTH

51.0

48.0

49.0

50.0

40

50.0

54.0

52.0

PERCENT

50

55.0

58.0

61.0

60

68.0

69.0

70

68.0

76.0

80

30

5.0

10

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

20

0

m

n

e /I

t io

ns

ns

ur

c an

e /B

us

in e

ss W

le ho

sa

li n

g Co

tr ns

uc

t io

n G

P

e ov

so er

rn

na

me

la

nt

nd

h ot

s er

er

He

vic

al t

es

ha

nd

m Co

mu

ni t

y a Tr

ns

po

rt u Ed

ca

t io

n

Re

ta

il M

an

a uf

c tu

rin

g Ut

ili t

ie s

Ac

c

m om

od

at

io n Pr

i

r ma

yS

ec

to

r

t To

al

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

Fi

c an

ic a

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Co

n mu

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

51

Employment

•

Just under 40,000 additional jobs were generated across the eight cities over the two years ended February 2002.

•

Since March 1998, unemployment rates have generally dropped across the eight cities with the greatest decrease being in Manukau (down to 4.9% from 10.7%).

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Paid employment is a major factor determining personal income, which in turn determines the ability of households to purchase goods and services. It also affects health, housing, education, and crime outcomes. People often define themselves by employment status and thus employment is also related to the ability of people to participate and have a sense of belonging in their community. Trends in employment and unemployment reflect the level of economic activity, demographic trends, skill levels, and social policies. They can also show pressures within the labour market. There are three measures indicating the state of the labour market: • Employment - filled jobs • Unemployment • Registered job seekers. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Employment - filled jobs This measure shows the number of filled jobs as at February each year, broken down by industry.40 The data source is Statistics New Zealand’s Quarterly Employment Survey, which is a survey of enterprises with a turnover of $40,000 or more per annum.41 In 2002, filled jobs in the eight cities accounted for over half (56.4%) of all employment in New Zealand. The four cities in the Auckland region accounted for just under a third of all employment. NUMBER OF FILLED JOBS (FEBRUARY QUARTERS 2000 TO 2002)

North Shore

2000

2001

2002

Change 2000 to 2002 %

61,210

65,550

69,020

12.8

Waitakere

36,830

36,940

38,100

3.4

Auckland

249,080

251,610

257,100

3.2

Manukau

93,330

95,010

95,610

2.4

Hamilton

50,490

52,460

54,250

7.4

Wellington

113,940

116,700

118,890

4.3

Christchurch

147,150

158,150

153,860

4.6

44,320

45,830

47,220

6.5

Total 8 cities

796,350

822,250

834,050

4.7

Rest of NZ

614,650

623,420

643,670

4.7

1,411,000

1,445,670

1,477,720

4.7

Dunedin

Total NZ

Date source: Statistics New Zealand, Quarterly Employment Survey

40 Filled jobs are calculated as the number of full- time and part- time employees plus working proprietors. Working proprietors in businesses with no employees are outside

the scope of the survey and are not included in the estimate of filled jobs.

41 The survey population is all business locations belonging to economically significant enterprises in surveyed industries with employees. An economically significant

enterprise is one which meets at least one of the following criteria: has greater than $40,000 annual GST expenses or sales; has more than two full time paid employees; is in a GST exempt industry except residential property leasing and rental; is part of a group of enterprises; is a new GST registration that is compulsory, special or forced. A representative sample of 18,500 business locations is surveyed on a quarterly basis, and each February a larger sample of approximately 47,500 business locations is surveyed.

page

52

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Employment

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

The personal and social services industry is the largest employer across the eight cities (28.5% of filled jobs in 2002), with the distribution and hospitality industry accounting for 25.9%. These numbers are consistent with the national distribution of employment by industry. There is a greater proportion of people employed in the personal and social services industry in Dunedin and Wellington (40.6% and 36.5% respectively) than nationally (28.7%). One third (32.4%) of all filled jobs in North Shore are in the distribution and hospitality industry. The business and financial services industry is relatively high in Wellington and Auckland, reflecting the concentration of banks, insurance and technology head offices in these two cities. People working in these businesses tend to be well remunerated and that underpins the relatively high average incomes in these centres.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Over the last two years (February 2000 to 2002) employment has risen equally as fast in the rest of New Zealand (4.7%) as in the eight cities taken as a whole. North Shore (12.8%), Hamilton (7.4%) and Dunedin (6.5%) have achieved faster employment growth compared to the other cities and the rest of New Zealand.

HOUSING

Within the Auckland region, North Shore and Auckland cities tend to have service - based economies, while Manukau and Waitakere are more dependent on manufacturing and construction activities. FILLED JOBS BY INDUSTRY (FEBRUARY QUARTER 2002) 42 Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Quarterly Employment Servey.

12.5 21.8

24.8

10.8

22.9

30.3

8.3

28.4 36.5

22.9

40.6

2.3

1.3

7.3

5.8

6.7

28.5

29.0

28.7

18.3

16.2

3.8

4.7

25.4

18.9

18.8 3.5

28.6

Other Transport and Communication Personal and Social services

Hamilton

27.6

23.7

4.9 12.8

Wellington Christchurch

4.1 10.4 Dunedin

18.6

7.2 9.8

Total 8 cities Rest of NZ

26.6

Distribution and Hospitality Construction Business and Financial services

5.8 14.7 Total NZ

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

Manukau

15.5

25.9 26.7

4.7 27.4

5.0 9.1

Auckland

14.5 15.3

25.7

7.2 Waitakere

5.0

Manufacturing 13.6

7.3 8.3

7.9

12.9

5.1

North Shore

32.6

25.8

32.4

17.9

4.6

HEALTH

29.2

6.9

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

PERCENT

24.1

2.9

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

7.6

42 ANZSIC stands for Australian New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification Codes.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Standard one digit ANZSIC codes have been used here. These are: • Business and financial services • Construction - includes related services e.g. plumbing, electricians etc • Distribution and hospitality - includes wholesale and retail trade, accommodation, cafes and restaurants • Manufacturing • Personal and social services - includes government administration, education, health and community services, cultural and recreational services. • Transport and communications - all forms of transport, postal and telecommunications services.

page

53

Employment Continued...

Unemployment The official rate of unemployment is measured by Statistics New Zealand through the Household Labour Force Survey.43 The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people expressed as a percentage of the labour force. In all but one city the rate of unemployment is lower now than it was five years ago. In some cases the decrease in the unemployment rate has been significant. The lower level of unemployment reflects strong economic growth between 1999 and 2002 as a result of a buoyant economy. This is likely to be attributable to increases in manufacturing for both the local economy and export markets, and growth in the retail and service sector to meet discretionary income and population - generated demand. This trend was especially apparent in Manukau where the unemployment rate decreased from 10.7% to 4.9%. This is generally attributed to the high levels of economic growth due to manufacturing in Manukau over the past five years. The rates for North Shore, Wellington, and Dunedin could be due to industrial and land use patterns, higher existing skill levels in North Shore and Wellington, and lower immigration, dominant industries, and investment patterns in Dunedin. By the March quarter of 2002, four of the eight cities had lower unemployment rates than the rest of New Zealand. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE (MARCH QUARTERS 1998 TO 2002)

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

North Shore

4.5

3.9

3.9

4.0

4.4

Waitakere

6.1

8.1

5.3

5.2

4.4

Auckland

9.0

7.8

10.1

6.9

6.0

Manukau

10.7

8.7

4.5

4.9

4.9

Hamilton

9.2

11.4

9.0

8.8

7.2

Wellington

5.4

5.0

5.4

3.3

5.0

Christchurch

9.4

8.8

6.9

7.3

6.0

Dunedin

8.0

9.4

8.3

6.8

8.0

Rest of NZ

7.3

7.0

6.7

5.5

5.5

Total NZ

7.5

7.5

6.7

5.7

5.6

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Household Labour Force Survey. Caution must be taken when interpreting these results, as sample sizes at city level are small

There are considerable differences in unemployment rates by ethnicity. In the March 2002 quarter, the national unemployment rate for Europeans was 4.2% while rates for Maori were 10.8%, Pacific Islands people 9.7% and ‘Other’ ethnic groups 10.2%. This pattern appears to be replicated in the eight cities and for the rest of New Zealand, although sample errors make it difficult to draw generalisations. This may be linked to the younger age structures and higher proportions of people leaving school with no or limited qualifications in these populations.

43 The Household Labour Force Survey is undertaken quarterly among 15,000 households and 30,000 individuals. This measure uses the International Labour Organisation

definition of ‘unemployed’ that requires that individuals must have actively looked for work in the previous four weeks or have a job to start within four weeks. This measure is less sensitive to administrative or legislative changes than other measures such as registered jobseekers.

page

54

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Employment

This measure identifies the numbers of registered job seekers with Work and Income New Zealand (WINZ) at the March quarter.44 While the count is sensitive to administrative and policy changes it provides an alternative method of looking at the numbers of people seeking work and may include those who are not counted in the official unemployment rate. Registered job seekers in the eight cities account for nearly one half of all job seekers in New Zealand. At March 2002, there was a total of 85,530 job seekers in the eight cities, which made up 49.3% of the national total of 173,280. The number of registered job seekers has increased at a faster rate in the eight cities than in the rest of New Zealand. Over the period 1997 to 2002, the numbers of job seekers in the eight cities increased 30.2% overall compared with 8.0% for the rest of New Zealand. People tend to migrate to the large urban areas from the rest of New Zealand and from overseas seeking work opportunities. The number of registered job seekers steadily increased in seven of the eight cities over the period March 1997 to March 2000 but appears to have declined since then. These findings are in line with the lowering unemployment rates and increase in filled jobs in the eight cities.

1999

2000

2001

2002

3,383

4,342

4,288

6,661

6,232

4,906

18,156

21,403

21,604

23,625

20,451

19,710

4,533

5,886

6,340

9,861

9,646

8,477

10,640

13,770

16,246

20,220

18,415

17,558

Hamilton

5,496

7,452

8,184

9,734

8,644

7,865

Wellington

6,460

7,131

7,019

7,973

7,019

6,939

14,076

17,262

18,496

20,209

17,457

15,254

5,155

5,935

6,416

7,324

5,756

4,821

North Shore Auckland Waitakere Manukau

Christchurch Dunedin

67,899

83,181

88,593

105,607

93,620

85,530

Rest of NZ

84,811

105,628

109,389

127,070

105,981

87,750

152,710

188,809

197,982

232,677

199,601

173,280

Total NZ

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Total 8 cities

HEALTH

1998

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

1997

HOUSING

NUMBER OF REGISTERED JOB SEEKERS (MARCH QUARTERS 1997 TO 2002)

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Registered job seekers

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

Data source: Work and Income New Zealand

44 The data is a count of people registered at each Work and Income New Zealand office, which may not necessarily be the city in which the person resides.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

55

Growth in the number of businesses

•

From 1998 to 2002, the overall growth rate of businesses among the eight cities was 20.3%, similar to the rate for the rest of New Zealand at 21.4%.

•

Among the eight cites, the overall growth rate in numbers of business enterprises since 1998 has been highest in North Shore at 29.3%.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Growth in the number of businesses is a leading indicator of current and future employment and economic activity. Vigorous business growth is a sign of a healthy local economy. This indicator measures the number of economically significant enterprises that were in existence in February of each year. The data is taken from Statistics New Zealand’s Business Frame Survey, which identifies an ‘economically significant enterprise’ as one that is GST registered and has a turnover of $30,000 per annum or more. 45 The data presented here shows net growth in the number of business, i.e. business ‘births’ minus business ‘deaths’. WHAT DID WE FIND?

From 1998 to 2002, the overall growth rate of businesses among the eight cities was 20.3%. This was similar to the rate for the rest of New Zealand (21.4%). Among the eight cites, the overall growth rate in numbers of business enterprises since 1998 has been highest in North Shore at 29.3% - higher than the national growth rate over the same period. This is linked to growth of the Albany industrial and residential areas during that time. Although the growth rate has been relatively high in all four Auckland region cities, the actual numbers of enterprises was highest in Auckland City (48,559 in 2002). Dunedin had the slowest rate of new business growth between 1998 and 2002 (11.3%). PERCENTAGE GROWTH IN NUMBERS OF ECONOMICALLY VIABLE BUSINESS ENTERPRISES (1998 TO 2002) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Business Frame Survey

29.3

30

20.6

21.4

20.3 17.0

15

18.6

20.5

20.8 17.2

PERCENT

20

22.5

25

11.3

10

5

0 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

45 The data cannot indicate how viable the new businesses are - most business failures occur within two years of their start up.

page

56

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

In the year ended March 2002, the eight cities contributed $24.1 billion out of New Zealand’s total of $47.1 billion in retail expenditure (51%). The highest proportion of retail spending occurs in Auckland.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

•

PEOPLE

Retail sales

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Change in retail expenditure reflects the health of a local economy. Locally spent dollars potentially contribute to more jobs for local residents and higher profits for local businesses. Increases in retail spending may also be linked to increased disposable income and higher levels of employment. This indicator shows the annual percentage change in retail expenditure from 1998 to 2002. The data are taken from the Retail Trade Survey published by Statistics New Zealand and are indicative only (due to small sample sizes within each region).46

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

Retail expenditure involves significant amounts of money. In the year ended March 2002, there was $47.1 billion retail expenditure in New Zealand, of which $24.1 billion was in the eight cities. Among the eight cities, the highest proportion of retail spending occurs in Auckland, with one quarter ($6.4 billion) of the total eight city retail sales expenditure recorded to year ended March 2002.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

The annual percentage changes in retail sales expenditure has fluctuated in all of New Zealand’s main regions over the period 1999 to 2002. In New Zealand as a whole, retail expenditure increased substantially in the year ended March 2000 (6.2%). This pattern was observed in all regions and across the rest of New Zealand. The Auckland region experienced a decrease in retail sales in the year ended March 1999, probably as a result of the Asian economic downturn in mid 1998, but enjoyed an increase of 7.7% the following year. In the 1999 to 2002 period, expenditure increased overall in all regions. This reflects general economic growth in this period. It is also a period when unemployment rates continued to decrease. ANNUAL PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN RETAIL SALES, BY REGION (YEARS ENDED MARCH 1999 TO 2002) 2000

2001

2002

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

1999

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Retail Trade Survey

10.6

12

Wellington

SAFETY

7.2 6.2 5.4

4.8 4.9

Canterbury

Otago

Rest of NZ

1.3

1.9

1.9

1.4 Waikato

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Auckland

Total NZ

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

0

-3.0

2

1.2

2.6

3.5

3.8

4.5

5.0 3.8

4

6.3

7.1 6.9

7.4

7.6

7.7 6 5.2

PERCENT

8

7.9

8.5

9.4

10

46 The survey has a sample of 4,000 enterprises with a turnover of $30,000 or more, and is stratified according to store type and size at the national level.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

57

Residential and non-residential building consents

•

New residential buildings across the eight cities represent half of all consents issued in New Zealand.

•

Since 1998, Auckland, Manukau and Christchurch have consistently had the highest numbers of residential consents issued.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Building and construction activity is a significant early indicator of overall economic activity. The level of residential building reflects population growth, interest rates, house price inflation and household income growth. Non-residential building relates to government spending and business investment. Building and construction activity can be measured as the number of consents for new buildings, the value of consents, or the value of work put in place. All provide some indication of the level of new building work, which in turn indicates a strong economy. Two measures are used here: • Residential • Non -residential. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Residential In the year ended March 2002, a total of 10,643 consents were issued for new residential buildings across the eight cities, representing half of all consents issued in New Zealand (49.9%). This proportion has been relatively constant for the previous five years. Auckland, Manukau and Christchurch have consistently recorded the highest numbers of residential consents. This is directly linked to the absolute size, as well as the growth in these cities’ populations. The number of new residential consents in the four major cities in the Auckland region rose 20.9% over the year ended March 2002, compared with 6.1% for the rest of New Zealand. These cities accounted for over two thirds of all new consents in the eight cities that year. The strong growth reflects a big turnaround in net migration from late 2001. NUMBER OF CONSENTS FOR NEW RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS (YEARS ENDED MARCH 1998 TO 2002)

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

North Shore

1,586

1,122

1,335

1,340

1,182

Waitakere

1,460

1,327

1,949

1,130

1,280

Auckland

2,918

2,170

3,393

1,863

2,554

Manukau

2,128

2,116

2,682

1,786

2,379

Hamilton

1,039

899

963

639

678

Wellington

1,332

1,179

1,190

1,043

962

Christchurch

2,220

1,790

1,990

1,341

1,397

187

134

219

182

211

Dunedin Total 8 cities

12,870

10,737

13,721

9,324

10,643

Rest of NZ

12,713

10,030

12,137

10,046

10,659

Total NZ

25,583

20,767

25,858

19,370

21,302

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Building consent data.

page

58

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Non-residential The Auckland region accounts for around half the value of all non -residential consents. Given that the four Auckland cities account for around a third of national GDP this suggests that building and construction is a relatively important component of economic activity. There has been little growth in the level of non -residential building activity in Auckland and Waikato over the last five years. In Wellington the value of consented commercial building work has fallen by around 25% since 1998. In contrast Christchurch and Dunedin (and surrounding areas) have experienced significant growth in activity.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Much of the growth in non -residential building activity has been concentrated in public sector buildings such as hospitals and educational institutions, and in factories and warehouses. The vast majority of such activity will have taken place in the major urban areas.

1999 $m

2000 $m

2001 $m

2002 $m

2003 $m

Auckland

922

1,023

875

900

1,062

983

Waikato

193

197

175

185

262

196

Wellington

319

273

245

300

256

233

Canterbury

277

281

260

384

282

409

89

121

107

119

127

114

Otago

HOUSING

VALUE OF NON-RESIDENTIAL CONSENTS ($ MILLION), BY REGION (1998 TO 2003)

1998 $millon

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Residential and non-residential building consents

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

Data source: Statistics New Zealand Building consent data. Includes new buildings plus alterations and additions

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

59

Tourism

•

Tourism activity in the cities has grown at 8% per annum between 1998 and 2003, compared to 5% per annum in the rest of New Zealand.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Tourists are an important source of demand for local businesses. They spend over $5 billion a year in New Zealand in retail stores, restaurants, cafes, hotels, on rental cars, and so on.47 Much of that spending is in the main cities where virtually all tourists enter and exit the regions. The number of short-term visitor arrivals in New Zealand and the number of bed nights purchased by tourists (both domestic and foreign) indicate the growth in a significant component of domestic economic activity. The bed nights purchased data is from the Statistics New Zealand Accommodation Survey. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Over the year ended March 2003, the eight cities accounted for 36% of total guest nights purchased, up from 33% in 1998. Tourism activity in the cities has grown at 8% per annum between 1998 and 2003, compared to 5% per annum in the rest of New Zealand. The hub status of Auckland International Airport has helped boost guest nights in Auckland and North Shore by 10% per annum and 12% per annum respectively between 1998 and 2003. Also, a steady migration of businesses to the Auckland region has boosted business tourism to that region. Over the year ended March 2003, the difference between growth in accommodation purchased in cities (8%) and in the rest of New Zealand (2%) has widened. Rationalisation of airline services after the United States terrorist attacks in 2001 and higher fuel prices saw flights to non -Auckland airports reduced. Also, Auckland’s hosting of the America’s Cup in 2002- 03 boosted tourism, in part at the expense of other parts of New Zealand. An exception to this was Dunedin where additional international flights from Dunedin International Airport to Australia have resulted in a 33% increase in international visitor arrivals. NUMBER OF GUEST NIGHTS PURCHASED (YEARS ENDED MARCH 1998 TO 2003)

North Shore Waitakere

1998

2000

2002

2003

207,043

243,307

274,071

361,152

99,633

93,791

63,576

55,285

Auckland

2,357,564

2,935,272

3,413,808

3,730,557

Manukau

502,271

543,156

614,930

682,607

Hamilton

322,108

376,430

437,971

481,322

992,903

1,196,322

1,338,988

1,419,508

2,104,536

2,346,626

2,707,869

2,872,639

Wellington Christchurch Dunedin

573,319

628,528

741,833

777,468

7,159,377

8,363,432

9,593,046

10,380,538

Rest of NZ

14,759,159

16,012,789

18,305,541

18,595,331

Total NZ

21,918,536

24,376,221

27,898,587

28,975,869

Total eight cities

Data source: Statistics New Zealand Accommodation Survey.

47 Statistics New Zealand; National accounts, private final consumption expenditure by non - residents in New Zealand; includes spending by foreign students studying in

New Zealand.

page

60

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

• • • • •

PEOPLE

Household tenure Housing costs and affordability Household crowding Government housing provision Urban housing intensification

KEY POINTS

Home ownership remains the dominant form of tenure in the eight largest cities, as it does nationally. However, home ownership rates are steadily declining in New Zealand. This is influenced by a number of factors including: home mortgage interest rates, the changing nature of household formation, levels of employment, income and housing costs.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Access to sustained employment increases the likelihood of an adequate income. This in turn increases the likelihood that people can buy a house of their choice that is more appropriate to their family size and lifestyle. Natural population increases and migration inflows lead to population growth that puts pressure on the demand for housing. The supply of housing often lags behind changes in demand, resulting in increased housing costs.

House costs vary within the eight largest cities and are particularly high in Auckland, Wellington and North Shore. Those living in the Auckland region on lower household incomes spend more of their total weekly expenditure on housing costs than anywhere else in New Zealand.

Ethnic groups with patterns of lower household incomes are more likely to face housing difficulties such as household crowding and affordability.

Housing crises, such as crowding, are often a result of affordability difficulties and other social factors. Household crowding is particularly an issue in the eight largest cities and especially in the

Changes in the political environment impact on the level and type of government commitment to the housing sector at both the local and national policy levels.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT HOUSING

Household size, composition and formation rates such as the smaller family, single occupied dwellings, separation and divorce, and an ageing population have resulted in changes in patterns of housing tenure and in the type and nature of our housing.

Poor quality and inappropriate housing can expose people to health problems.

page

61

HEALTH

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER

LINKS

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Issues related to housing crises, such as affordability problems, poor quality and household crowding, have many flow - on effects for people in our communities in areas such as health, education, community participation, community cohesion and safety.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

The eight largest cities have seen an emergence of higher density housing developments, such as apartment and terraced housing, over the last decade. Over the past five years (1998 to 2002) Auckland and Wellington have had the highest levels of higher density housing development in comparison with the other large cities.

SAFETY

This chapter presents a range of indicators that focus on housing. Housing is a basic human need and has one of the biggest impacts on people’s wellbeing and quality of life.

Auckland region because of its unique population structure and high housing costs. Crowding appears to be a significant issue for Maori and Pacific Islands peoples.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

INTRODUCTION

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

5

Housing

Household tenure

•

Rates of home ownership in the eight largest cities and nationally are declining, with corresponding rises in rented dwellings.

•

Combined, the eight cities account for 14.1% of the total proportion of people living in temporary dwellings in New Zealand.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Levels of household tenure are a guide to population stability, relative wealth of the community and changes in lifestyle and household patterns. There is a common philosophical belief in New Zealand that home ownership is an investment (especially in times of capital growth) and that ownership provides security of tenure, pride and social status. This indicator illustrates the proportion of private dwellings that are owned (with or without a mortgage) and the proportion that are rented using data from the previous three Censuses.48 Measures used to help understand the indicator are: • Home ownership • Levels of renting • Temporary dwellings. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Home ownership Home ownership remains the dominant form of tenure in the eight largest cities. This is consistent with national trends. North Shore had the highest rate of home ownership (66.2%) of the eight cities in 2001. Other cities with relatively high rates of ownership include Christchurch and Dunedin (both at 65.2%). Auckland had the lowest rate of home ownership at 51.8%, compared to a national average of 63.9%. Combined, the eight cities have a lower level of home ownership than the rest of New Zealand. While more people own homes in the largest cities than rent, the past decade (1991-2001) has seen the level of home ownership decrease significantly in all eight cities and nationally. PERCENTAGE OF PRIVATE DWELLINGS THAT ARE OWNED (1991, 1996, 2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 1991, 1996, 2001

1991

1996

2001

70.7 65.6 60.6

73.1 68.9 66.5

72.1 67.4 63.9

73.0 68.7 65.2

Hamilton

73.9 69.7 65.2

Manukau

65.2 62.4 58.3

69.8 63.2 58.4

40

74.0 67.4 60.8

50

60.7 56.0 51.8

PERCENT

60

79.7

70

71.8 64.7

80

78.5 72.6 66.2

90

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

30 20 10 0 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

48 Statistics New Zealand defines a private dwelling as any building or structure that is used (or intended to be used) for the purpose of human habitation, but is not available to

the public.

page

62

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

The decline in home ownership is a reflection of changing social and economic conditions in New Zealand. Massey University and the Real Estate Institute of New Zealand carried out a survey of renters in June 2002.49 Results show that while most people aspire to own a home, the goal has become increasingly harder to achieve, with financial constraints and job security being the two largest impediments. Areas of deprivation and low socio - economic status within the largest cities have lower rates of home ownership than those with higher socio - economic status. Home ownership tends to be lower among Maori and Pacific Islands populations across all eight cities, as it is in the rest of New Zealand. These groups are more likely to have younger populations, have larger and younger families and are more likely to be on lower incomes. In the eight cities combined, over half (54.5%) of the European population own their home, compared to about one quarter of the Maori (25.2%) and Pacific Islands people (22.9%).

Other %

North Shore

57.3

28.6

24.8

35.9

21.9

Waitakere

58.5

29.6

27.5

41.3

26.1

Auckland

48.6

20.7

18.0

29.0

17.5

Manukau

59.0

26.1

25.1

41.0

19.4

Hamilton

52.7

20.9

18.8

32.3

15.0

Wellington

50.5

24.3

22.1

40.4

20.0

Christchurch

56.6

27.3

22.0

33.3

20.7

Dunedin

54.6

29.4

22.8

23.9

23.7

Total 8 cities

54.5

25.2

22.9

34.7

19.9

Rest of NZ

61.1

32.5

25.6

38.7

31.8

Total NZ

58.2

30.1

23.6

35.4

22.3

HOUSING

Asian %

HEALTH

Pacific Islands %

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Maori %

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001. Data on ethnicity is not prioritised

Levels of renting In line with declining rates of home ownership in the largest cities, there has been corresponding increases in the levels of renting. The most significant representation of this trend is Waitakere, where the percentage of people renting over the ten -year period from 1991 to 2001 has increased by 9.6%, while the percentage of home owners has decreased by 15.1%. People on lower incomes tend to live in rented accommodation rather than in owner- occupied dwellings. Significant increases in levels of renting are more apparent in the largest cities than in the rest of New Zealand. This is consistent with the trend of rising housing costs-to -income levels in larger cities.

49 Survey of Declining Home Ownership Rates: June 2002, Massey Real Estate Analysis Unit and Real Estate Institute New Zealand. 50 The 2001 Census was the first time that tenure holders were asked their ethnicity. Previous analysis assigned the ethnicity of the occupier who filled in the dwelling form

to the household. No comparable data for 1991 and 1996 is available.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

63

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

Auckland (39.7%), Hamilton (35.4%) and Wellington (33.8%) had the highest levels of renting populations in 2001. These cities also tend to have large student populations on low incomes who rent, and young professionals and couples with no children who do not wish to commit to ownership. Wellington’s public service and diplomatic populations consists of many temporary professionals who have short-term accommodation requirements.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

European %

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION WITHIN EACH ETHNIC GROUP WHO OWN THEIR OWN HOME (2001) 50

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Household tenure

Household tenure Continued...

PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN PROPORTION OF PEOPLE OWNING AND RENTING (1991 TO 2001) Owned

Data source: Statistic New Zealand, Census 2001

North Shore

-12.4

Waitakere

8.4

-15.1

9.6

Auckland

-8.9

Manukau

4.9

-13.2

Hamilton

7.7 -11.0

7.9

Wellington

-7.0

Christchurch

3.5

-8.7

Dunedin

6.2

-7.7

Total 8 cities

4.8

-10.2

6.3

Rest of NZ

- 6.6

Total NZ

4.4

-8.2 -20

Rented

-15

-10

5.1 -5

0

5

10

15

20

PERCENTAGE CHANGE

Temporary dwellings This measure illustrates the number of people who live in private temporary dwellings. Temporary dwellings range from tents and caravans to yachts and barges. Typically, temporary dwellings are less habitable than permanent dwellings and may not adequately meet the basic housing needs of the inhabitants. High rates of occupation of temporary dwellings can put pressure on the physical and social infrastructure of cities. Occupation of temporary dwellings attached to permanent housing can result in household crowding, which has significant health, education and psychological implications for occupants. In each of the eight cities, the number of people living in temporary dwellings represents a very small percentage of that city’s population (0.1% - 0.2%), making it difficult to make inter- city comparisons. The following table shows the actual number of people in each city that live in temporary dwellings. NUMBER OF PEOPLE LIVING IN TEMPORARY PRIVATE DWELLINGS (2001)

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

33

168

198

204

54

42

255

57

1,011

6,150

7,158

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

Combined, the eight cities account for 14.1% of the total proportion of people living in private temporary dwellings in New Zealand. While some may live in temporary dwellings for lifestyle reasons, most of those living in temporary dwellings do so to reduce their accommodation and living costs relative to their income.

page

64

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

Low income households have lower levels of home ownership, particularly in the eight cities.

•

Rent prices in most of the eight largest cities are higher than the rest of New Zealand.

•

The highest house sale prices are in Auckland, Wellington and North Shore.

•

The most affordable cities, in terms of mortgage affordability and weekly rents, are Dunedin and Christchurch.

•

The proportion of weekly household spending on housing costs has increased considerably from 1998 to 2001 in some of the eight cities. Overall, the numbers of people receiving the Accommodation Supplement is slowly decreasing across all eight cities.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Housing costs and affordability

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

HOUSING

Housing is the largest component of many households’ expenditure and is central to the ability to meet basic needs. When housing costs are too high relative to income, people have less residual income to spend on other essentials such as food, power and health. People facing substantial housing cost burdens may be forced to live in unsafe, unhealthy or inappropriate accommodation to mitigate those costs.

HEALTH

Housing cost and affordability measures presented here outline the relative costs of obtaining housing, and indicate how affordable accommodation is for people in New Zealand’s eight largest cities. The measures used are: • Tenure security and household income • Residential dwellings sales • Home mortgage affordability • Rental affordability • Income spent on housing • Accommodation Supplement recipients. WHAT DID WE FIND?

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Tenure security and household income This measure explores the relationship between household income and tenure. 51 The most secure form of tenure is one that is guaranteed over a specified time and that is also affordable. Home ownership is generally regarded as a more secure form of tenure.

Total 8 cities

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

Rest of NZ

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

PERCENTAGE OF HOUSES OWNED OR RENTED, BY LOW AND HIGH HOUSEHOLD INCOME (2001) Total NZ

77.9

80

SAFETY 33.6

30

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

43.0

40

37.4

59.8

50

51.3

PERCENT

60

56.4

70

80.7

84.8

90

9.3

10

14.3

17.6

20

0 Owned, $70,000 and over

Rented, $20,000 and under

Rented, $70,000 and over

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Owned, $20,000 and under

51 As a result of a high number of unspecified household incomes, percentages have been calculated using specified answers only.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

65

Housing costs and affordability Continued...

Overall, there is a close relationship between levels of household income, tenure and geographical location. Households with higher household incomes tend to have much higher levels of home ownership than those with lower incomes. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSES OWNED OR RENTED, BY LOW AND HIGH HOUSEHOLD INCOME (2001)

$20,000 or less

$70,000 or more

Owned %

Rented %

Owned %

Rented %

North Shore

58.2

35.5

81.0

14.3

Waitakere

55.6

38.6

86.1

10.4

Auckland

43.6

50.4

71.2

23.9

Manukau

52.4

40.9

83.8

11.6

Hamilton

45.0

50.1

81.5

14.3

Wellington

46.8

48.1

74.7

21.5

Christchurch

55.1

40.0

82.7

13.2

Dunedin

54.1

40.3

85.0

10.0

Total 8 cities

51.3

43.0

77.9

17.6

Rest of NZ

59.8

33.6

84.8

9.3

Total NZ

56.4

37.4

80.7

14.3

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

In the eight cities, 77.9% of higher income households (over $70,000 per annum) own their homes, compared to only 51.3% of lower income households ($20,000 or under). Lower income households are much more likely to rent their accommodation. In the eight cities, 43% of lower income households rent, compared to only 17.6% of the higher income households. For all income groups living in cities with high housing costs, there is a greater level of renting and less home ownership. For example, in Auckland, households earning over $70,000 per annum have lower rates of ownership (71.2%) compared to the eight cities combined (77.9%). These same households in both Auckland and Wellington have greater rates of renting (23.9% and 21.5% respectively) than higher income households in cities such as Dunedin (10%). While housing affordability is a key driver in these patterns, other contributing factors might be the presence in cities such as Auckland and Wellington of higher density housing developments (rented apartments) and of population groups that are traditionally more likely to rent such as mobile young professionals. Auckland also has greater levels of renting among low income households (50.4%) where house pricing precludes ownership. This compares to 33.6% in the rest of New Zealand. North Shore, which is typically considered a city with high housing costs, has the largest level of low income earners owning their own homes (58.2%). North Shore has a slightly older population, with more retirees than the other cities, many of whom own their own homes without a mortgage. These households are likely to be in the low income category as they do not receive income from paid employment. Residential dwelling sales This measure looks at monthly median residential dwelling sales figures for each of the eight cities. 52 Consistently the highest sales prices have been in Auckland, Wellington and North Shore. This could be due to housing market demand spurred by migrants attracted to work and the concentration of commercial and financial activities in those cities. Five of the eight cities have higher sales prices than the national median. The exceptions are Dunedin, Hamilton and Christchurch.

52 Median dwelling sale figures calculated by the Real Estate Institute of New Zealand, based on sales volume per month.

page

66

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Housing costs and affordability

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

Consistent with national trends, most of the eight largest cities experienced an increase in median sale prices from 1998 to 2002. The most notable increase was in Auckland (from $265,766 to $287,582) and this trend is expected to continue as long as mortgage interest rates remain relatively stable.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Median dwelling prices in cities such as Manukau have been kept relatively high due to rapid growth driven by an increasing population (largely through natural increase). Housing supply tends to lag behind increases in demand, which leads to increased median prices in areas where demand is highest. While the housing market is again picking up in Christchurch, over the last few years the city has experienced a relatively weak market, resulting in limited or no capital gains for many home owners and property investors.

North Shore

255,255

275,551

258,638

264,368

271,709

Waitakere

195,195

196,393

207,305

175,766

185,341

Auckland

265,766

267,535

276,407

263,410

287,582

Manukau

235,235

235,471

219,645

227,490

238,095

Hamilton

165,666

160,321

167,818

158,046

156,629

Wellington

275,275

245,491

286,278

269,157

273,109

Christchurch

149,149

155,812

152,024

145,594

149,860

Dunedin

94,595

102,204

100,197

100,575

98,039

Total NZ

160,160

170,341

174,729

170,498

176,471

HOUSING

2002 $

HEALTH

2001 $

Data source: Real Estate Institute of New Zealand

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Overall, house prices are expected to continue to increase in the eight largest cities, driven by a number of factors including ongoing high net migration flows (particularly from Asia and returning expatriate New Zealanders), increases in personal income and continued under supply of houses (particularly in the Auckland region). Home mortgage affordability The Home Mortgage Affordability Index assesses the relative affordability of buying a home at a point in time. The Index incorporates national and regional average weekly earnings, regional median dwelling price and average mortgage interest rates for new borrowers. The affordability of a home mortgage for a particular region is compared against the national average (represented by 100%); therefore a high percentage denotes less home mortgage affordability. 54 In line with findings on median house sales prices, the Index shows that the Auckland region remains consistently the least affordable region for accommodation, recording above the 100% national average over five years to 2002. Home mortgage affordability in the Wellington region was above the national average in the June 2001 quarter, although home mortgage affordability improved in the June 2002 quarter. The Waikato/Bay of Plenty region remains consistently close to the national average.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Otago and Canterbury/Westland are the most affordable of the regions that contain the country’s eight largest cities. Improvements in affordability in some regions are the result of a comparative increase in income combined with a decrease in first mortgage rates and median dwelling prices. For example, in the seven years to May 2002, median house prices in Christchurch fell by 7.6% and first mortgage rates by 3%, while earnings have risen 15.6%. In contrast, total New Zealand house prices (reflecting the large contribution from the Auckland market) rose 29.6% while earnings increased 13.5%.

53 Adjusted using March Quarter Consumers Price Index figures. 54 This Index is produced by the Massey University Real Estate Analysis Unit. Data is not available at city level. The regional boundaries stated here are approximate

regional council boundaries. North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland, and Manukau are included in the Auckland Region; Hamilton is included in the Waikato /Bay of Plenty Region; Christchurch is included in the Canterbury/Westland Region; and Dunedin is included in the Otago Region.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

2000 $

SAFETY

1999 $

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

1998 $

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

MEDIAN RESIDENTIAL DWELLING SALE PRICE (ADJUSTED) (YEARS ENDED APRIL 1998 TO 2002) 53

67

Housing costs and affordability Continued...

HOME MORTGAGE AFFORDABILITY AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE NATIONAL AVERAGE, BY REGION (JUNE QUARTER 1998 TO 2002) 1998

Data source: Massey University Real Estate Analysis Unit

1999

2000

2001

2002

98.1 99.9 97.4 99.3 95.8

94.8 94.1 96.8 103.9 97.5

100

Waikato/Bay of Plenty

Wellington

90.2 87.1 90.6 86.1 77.9

120

135.2 129.8 131.8 131.5 135.0

140

PERCENT

80

61.3 55.3 63.3 59.7 56.7

60

40

20

0 Auckland

Canterbury/Westland

Otago

There are significant variations in house prices between cities. The Auckland and Wellington regions are largely built up urban areas and house prices tend to be higher, whereas areas such as Canterbury/Westland include rural bases where house prices tend to be lower. This means that it is likely that the actual Index for Christchurch may be higher than the regional average, though it is still likely to be well below that for Auckland. Rental affordability Rental affordability is a significant issue in the largest cities, particularly for low income earners. This measure shows the median weekly rent level for each city, for all landlord types (i.e. Housing New Zealand, local authority and private), as produced by the Ministry of Housing through its Tenancy Bond Database. 55 In the year ended June 2002, median rent prices varied between the eight largest cities, ranging from $250 per week in North Shore to $143 per week in Dunedin. With the exception of Hamilton, Christchurch and Dunedin, median weekly rents in the largest cities were higher than the national figures. Overall, it appears median weekly rents have not fluctuated greatly. However, the decrease in rent paid for Housing New Zealand (HNZ) properties may have disguised real rent increases in other parts of the rental market, particularly in private rentals. MEDIAN WEEKLY RENTS (YEAR ENDED JUNE 1998 TO 2002)

1998 $

1999 $

2000 $

2001 $

2002 $

North Shore

269

255

Waitakere

249

240

255

247

250

225

218

222

Auckland

254

250

240

237

245

Manukau

249

240

225

218

222

Hamilton

189

185

176

171

166

Wellington

229

240

245

237

240

Christchurch

179

175

172

166

166

Dunedin

139

145

147

142

143

Total NZ

184

185

176

176

176

Data source: Housing New Zealand

55 These figures have been deflated using June Quarter CPI figures.

page

68

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

The following graph illustrates the significant decrease in median weekly rent paid for HNZ properties. The biggest contributor to this decrease was the introduction of the Housing Restructuring (Income -Related Rents) Amendment Act that came into effect in 2001. This Act implemented the Government’s policy of setting the rent for people on low income in state houses at 25% of their income (provided they meet specific income and asset tests). This resulted in a closing of the gap between the cities in median weekly rents for HNZ- provided houses, to a median of $67 per week for each city and nationally.

MEDIAN WEEKLY RENTS FOR HOUSING NEW ZEALAND PROPERTIES (YEARS ENDED JUNE 1998 TO 2002)

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Housing costs and affordability

Data source: Housing New Zealand, INFOS time series

Waitakere

250 230

$229 Auckland

210

Manukau

$174

170 Hamilton

150 130

Wellington

$125

HOUSING

110

Christchurch

90 70

$67

Dunedin

2002

Total NZ

50 1999

1998

2000

2001

HEALTH

DOLLARS

190

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

North Shore

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

There are, however, wide price variations in other parts of the rental market. The last three Census years (1991, 1996, 2001) show a considerable increase in the proportion of renters who pay over $200 per week. A higher proportion of renters in the eight cities pay in excess of $200 per week compared to the rest of New Zealand. This trend is particularly apparent for the four cities in the Auckland region and in Wellington. PERCENTAGE OF RENTERS PAYING OVER $200 PER WEEK IN RENT (1991 TO 2001) 1991

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

1996

2001

53.1

SAFETY

22.3

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

12.8

4.1 8.7 15.9

Dunedin

8.0

7.1

32.7

36.0 11.0 16.1 17.9

Christchurch

10

21.5

27.7 17.1

20.4

21.1

20

26.4

26.6

30

31.0 36.8

35.9

Auckland

40.0

PERCENT

40

52.5

57.9 46.5

Waitakere

50

41.2

59.7 46.1

60.0

60

56.5

69.7

70

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

80

0 Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

North Shore

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

69

Housing costs and affordability Continued...

Income spent on housing Housing costs are one of the largest expenditure items in New Zealanders’ budgets and are considered to be one of the greatest contributors to deprivation and hardship for people on low incomes. This measure shows the proportion of household expenditure that is spent on meeting housing costs (i.e. rent, mortgage and property maintenance payments). 56 The data is model based. It is produced by combining Household Economic Survey data with auxillary data from the 2001 Census. PERCENTAGE OF WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE, SPENT ON HOUSING COSTS (2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Household Economic Survey

27.3

Auckland

Manukau

Christchurch

Dunedin

23.3

Wellington

21.7

21.7

Hamilton

22.1

21.7

PERCENT

20

22.2

24.9

26.6

25

27.9

26.2

30

15

10

5

0 North Shore

Waitakere

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

In line with housing affordability trends, cities in the Auckland region have higher proportions of weekly spending on housing costs than the other largest cities and nationally. Waitakere and Manukau have the highest proportions of expenditure on housing costs (27.9% and 27.3% respectively).

PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE SPENT ON HOUSING COSTS, BY INCOME QUINTILES, BY REGION (YEAR ENDED JUNE 2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, INFOS time series

35 Auckland Region Waikato Region

30

Wellington Region

PERCENT

25

Canterbury Region Otago Region

20

Rest of NZ 15 Under $20,700

$20,700 -$32,399

$32,400 -$51,099

$51,100 -$76,699

$76,700 or more

Total NZ

INCOME QUINTILES

The relationship between household income and expenditure on housing costs is shown in the above graph. 57 Typically, the lower the household income, the higher the proportion of total weekly spending on housing costs. This is particularly the case in the Auckland region, where housing costs are high. Lower income earners in the Auckland region spend more of their total weekly expenditure on housing costs than anywhere else in New Zealand.

56 This excludes net capital expenditure, which is defined as the difference between receipts from housing sales and outlays for housing purchases. 57 Care is required in making comparisons of expenditure with income from the Household Economic Survey, as the method of surveying income and expenditure does not

provide for consistency at an individual respondent level. Respondents in the lower and higher income bands tend to be under- represented in the survey.

page

70

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Housing costs and affordability

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

The Canterbury region, which includes Christchurch, is the exception to this trend, with lower income earners spending less of their total weekly expenditure on housing costs than those on higher incomes.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Of the eight cities, Dunedin and Christchurch appear to be the most affordable cities in terms of housing costs. Home mortgage affordability for Otago is the lowest for the regions containing the largest cities. This region is experiencing an upward trend due to comparative increases in income levels and decreases in first mortgage rates and median dwelling prices.

Accommodation Supplement recipients The Accommodation Supplement is a weekly payment to welfare beneficiaries and low income earners who are spending a high percentage of their income on rent or mortgage payments. 58 The amount of supplement received is determined by factors such as the individual’s income and assets. 59 This measure looks at the number of people who are receiving the Accommodation Supplement as a percentage of the total population in each city. 60 In areas where the proportion of people on low incomes is high, the proportion of state housing to rental dwellings is high, and there are high rates of Maori and Pacific Islands people, then the number of Accommodation Supplement recipients also tends to be high.

HOUSING

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Dunedin has the lowest median weekly rent level of the eight largest cities followed by Christchurch and Hamilton, all of which are under the national median. In addition to this, low income earners in Christchurch have the highest levels of home ownership and rented dwellings, followed closely by those in Dunedin.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

In cities where housing costs are high relative to other cities, such as North Shore, people on low incomes face greater affordability issues that may result in them being priced out of these areas. The regional maximas set by the Government are often not sufficient to offset these higher costs. Furthermore, there is no allowance made within the Supplement maxima for variations within regions and cities. ACCOMMODATION SUPPLEMENT RECIPIENTS AS A PROPORTION OF CITY POPULATION (YEARS ENDED MARCH 1999 TO 2002)

Waitakere

Number

%

Number

2002 %

Number

%

8,809

4.6%

9,361

4.9%

8,829

4.5%

8,687

4.4%

16,398

9.6%

15,935

9.2%

14,877

8.4%

14,912

8.2%

Auckland

33,587

8.8%

34,121

8.9%

25,496

6.6%

25,190

6.3%

Manukau

29,862

10.4%

31,946

10.9%

25,663

8.6%

25,262

8.2%

Hamilton

12,035

10.2%

12,574

10.6%

11,179

9.4%

10,851

8.9%

Wellington

11,637

6.9%

11,216

6.6%

8,900

5.2%

8,786

5.0%

Christchurch

28,448

8.8%

29,231

9.0%

24,458

7.5%

23,333

7.0%

8,489

7.1%

8,605

7.2%

6,925

5.8%

6,483

5.4%

Rest of NZ

155,349

7.5%

160,090

7.7%

138,081

6.6%

130,871

6.2%

Total NZ

304,614

7.9%

313,079

8.1%

264,408

6.8%

254,375

6.5% SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Dunedin

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

North Shore

%

2001

SAFETY

Number

2000

Data source: Ministry of Social Development

58 A high percentage is considered 25% of the individual’s income spent on rent or 30% of the individual’s income spent on mortgage payments. 59 This also takes into account the household size and the level of regional maxima payments available to the individual depending on the geographical region in which they live. 60 Annual household estimates, and annual age - sex population estimates at city level were unavailable at the time of this report. Estimates such as these may give a more

accurate reflection of the population that is eligible to receive the Accommodation Supplement.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

71

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

1999

HEALTH

In the year ended March 2002, Hamilton, Waitakere and Manukau had the highest proportion of residents receiving the Accommodation Supplement while North Shore had the lowest.

Housing costs and affordability Continued...

Overall, the proportion of those receiving the Accommodation Supplement is decreasing across all eight cities as well as nationally. This trend has been occurring since 1994 and may in part be due to the completion of rent reviews for Housing New Zealand tenants who had become eligible to receive assistance. New Zealand has also been experiencing reasonably strong economic growth in recent years, which has contributed to employment growth. In turn, this has helped to reduce unemployment and welfare numbers. In general, Maori and people of ‘Other’ ethnicities (including Asian) have higher percentages of their ethnic group receiving the Accommodation Supplement than Pacific Islands people and Europeans. This is most notable in Hamilton and Manukau where 18.7% and 17.3% respectively of the people receiving the Supplement are of these ethnicities. Pacific Islands people are more likely to have larger households, perhaps with more adults contributing to housing costs, which may reduce individual eligibility for the supplement. Pacific Islands people are also more likely than Maori to be in low income paid employment than on welfare benefits. People of European ethnicity in all of the largest cities are under-represented. Averaged across the eight largest cities, less than 6% of Europeans receive the Accommodation Supplement.

page

72

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Crowding is an indicator of housing affordability. People having difficulty affording their accommodation because of low income may share with others as a way to reduce overall housing costs. It is also an indicator of housing need, providing information on the suitability of a dwelling for the people occupying it. Living in crowded situations can contribute to poor health outcomes such as respiratory and infectious diseases (particularly meningococcal disease). This indicator measures the proportion of people in private dwellings who are living in crowded households. 61 In this analysis, crowded households are those that are short by two or more bedrooms.62 WHAT DID WE FIND?

HOUSING

In 2001, Manukau had the highest proportions of crowding, with 10.1% of all people in private dwellings living in crowded homes. Waitakere, Auckland and Manukau all show rates of crowding in excess of the national average. North Shore, featuring in many of our indicators of socio - economic advantage, has consistently demonstrated low levels of crowding (1.4% in 2001), as has Christchurch and Dunedin. PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE IN PRIVATE DWELLINGS LIVING IN CROWDED HOUSEHOLDS (1991, 1996, 2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 1991, 1996, 2001

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Households in Waitakere, Auckland and Manukau all show rates of crowding in excess of the national average.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

PEOPLE

Household crowding

1991

1996

2001

10.6 10.9 10.1

HEALTH

12

10

Manukau

Hamilton

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Rest of NZ

3.5 3.4 2.9

2.9 2.5 2.1

4.3 4.5 3.9 Wellington

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Auckland

Total NZ

Household crowding is more common for Pacific Islands people and, to a lesser extent, those of Maori ethnicity. This is evident in cities where there are higher concentrations of these populations such as Manukau, where 25.3% of Pacific Islands people and 14.7% of Maori residents experience household crowding. Auckland also has a higher crowding level than nationally, with 22.5% of Pacific Islands people, and 8.7% of Maori living in crowded households. These ethnic groups tend to have large households including younger children and extended family living arrangements (which most New Zealand homes do not cater for). Different cultural attitudes to the number of people living in one house, and differing cultural tendencies towards the pooling of resources, can also help account for higher rates of crowding among some non -European ethnic groups.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Crowding among people in the ‘Other’ ethnic category is high in some areas, particularly Hamilton (13.3%), Manukau (9.9%) and Wellington (8.8%) compared to the rest of New Zealand (3.8%). This category may include refugees and recent immigrants who tend to gravitate to larger cities in search of employment and support services.

61 Crowding occurs where the number of people residing in a household exceeds the capacity of the household to provide adequate shelter and services to its members

(Statistics New Zealand; New Zealand Now Housing, 1998). 62 This indicator uses the Australian Bureau of Statistics Index. Initially developed by the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation in the 1980s, the Index allocates a

specific bedroom to: each couple; each pair of children under 5 years; each pair of adolescents of the same sex aged 10 to 18 years; any person aged 18 years and over.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

SAFETY

Waitakere

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

North Shore

1.4 1.1 0.7

0

1.7 1.6 1.1

2.3 2.4 1.7

1.3 1.4 1.4

2

3.6 3.0

2.9

4

5.9 6.3 5.3

6 4.6 4.8 4.3

PERCENT

8

73

Government housing provision

•

Government housing provision is highest in cities within the Auckland region, particularly Manukau and Waitakere where indicators of deprivation are strongest.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

The level of government- owned housing in a city gives an indication of the government sector’s ability to provide housing for people on low incomes who might not otherwise be able to afford their accommodation. 63 This indicator uses two measures to assess whether the level of government- provided housing is increasing or decreasing: • Central government owned housing 64 • Local government owned housing. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Central government owned housing Housing New Zealand properties make up the largest proportion of government sector rentals in New Zealand. However, the majority of the country’s rented dwellings are leased from an individual or private trust. 65 Manukau has consistently had the highest proportion of Housing New Zealand units of any location in the country over the last five years. Manukau is strongly reflected in indicators of deprivation and serious housing need. Waitakere provides a less exaggerated example of the same pattern. The need for government housing is high in some cities in the Auckland region as low income people face affordability problems due to high housing costs. For example, while Auckland is less similar demographically to Manukau, it also has a high proportion of Housing New Zealand units because of its particularly high housing costs. In the eight largest cities, as well as nationally, the number of Housing New Zealand units as a proportion of all rented private dwellings has seen an overall drop of 5.8% over the last 5 years. However, the biggest change has been in the spread of houses across New Zealand. This has seen fewer state houses in the rest of New Zealand (14% decrease) and in cities with high socio - economic status such as Wellington (6.0% decrease). It has also seen an increase in cities with low socio - economic status such as Waitakere (16.1% increase) and Manukau (10.7% increase). Local authority owned housing All eight city councils provide social (subsidised) housing. Prospective tenants must meet some level of income, age and asset criteria. Proportional to all rented dwellings in their cities, Wellington (11.4%) provides the most local authority housing, followed by Dunedin (8.3%) and Christchurch (7.8%). Auckland did provide housing for older people on a pension until it sold its total pensioner housing stock to Housing New Zealand in March 2003. 66

63 Private sector low income households may be eligible for the Accommodation Supplement which, in some cases may provide a subsidy that is very near to what they

would receive if in Housing New Zealand accommodation. 64 In July 2001 HNZ included community group housing properties (approximately 1350). These properties have been excluded from the analysis to ensure consistency

between years. 65 There are no estimates of rented private dwellings between Census periods, therefore a trend analysis cannot be shown. However, on the assumption that the number of

rented dwellings is increasing, the trends would indicate that the proportions are decreasing in each city and nationally. 66 The number of Housing New Zealand units in Auckland City will have climbed in early 2003, with the sale of former Auckland City Council social housing stock to the

Government. While the sale has ensured that this stock remains in the social housing pool in the city, it is likely to have very little real impact on social housing provision in Auckland given that it represents a direct transfer of stock from one government agency to another.

page

74

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Government housing provision

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

The appropriateness and location of social housing stock for meeting the diverse needs of growing and changing populations is a significant issue in the largest cities. There is still an area of need in relation to both central and local government stock, particularly in the Auckland region, for three to four bedroom dwellings for larger (and often extended) families. The overall proportion of local and central government provided housing is shown in the graph below. PERCENTAGE OF LOCAL AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT OWNED HOUSES AS A PROPORTION OF ALL RENTED PRIVATE DWELLINGS (2001) Local Government

Data source: Housing New Zealand and the 8 city councils

Central Government

37.4

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

40 35

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Rest of NZ

HOUSING

Total NZ

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

Waitakere

16.8

7.8

0 North Shore

8.3

9.0

3.2

2.1

3.1

2.3

7.4

2.9

5

11.4

10

15.1

15.9

15

13.1

20

14.8

22.1

25

18.0

PERCENT

30

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

75

Urban housing intensification

•

Auckland has consistently had the highest proportion of urban housing growth and intensification, with over half (53.3%) of all new housing developments in 2002 being new apartments.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Urban housing intensification provides information about the changing patterns of land use in the eight largest cities. Intensification occurs as a result of population growth within a city, which is typically driven by high levels of inward migration. This indicator examines the number of new apartments (i.e. units, flats and apartments) as a proportion of all new private dwellings in the eight largest cities over the previous five years. 67 Urban intensification is typically described as medium to high density dwellings which includes housing types such as low to high rise apartments, mixed use development, and terraced housing.68 WHAT DID WE FIND?

The proportion of new apartments to all new dwellings varies greatly between the eight largest cities. Urban housing intensification is highest in the Auckland region and in Wellington. Auckland City has consistently had the highest proportion of urban housing intensification, with over half (53.3%) of all new housing developments in 2002 being new apartments. In 2002, Dunedin had no new apartment development, largely due to lack of population growth pressures, and lower land and house prices. Hamilton had no new apartments in 2001, but experienced a high increase in intensification in 2002 with 13.6% of all new dwellings being apartments. This development has occurred predominantly in Hamilton’s inner city and may be linked with its growing number of students. NEW APARTMENTS AS A PROPORTION OF ALL NEW DWELLINGS (1998 TO 2002)

1998 %

1999 %

2000 %

2001 %

19.7

33.3

13.6

29.6

21.0

9.7

18.5

26.0

15.7

18.4

Auckland

45.3

46.5

58.0

35.6

53.3

Manukau

0.0

4.1

4.4

0.6

11.9

Hamilton

1.9

0.0

2.6

0.0

13.6

North Shore Waitakere

2002 %

Wellington

45.1

41.6

31.8

33.1

40.1

Christchurch

12.4

15.3

12.3

14.8

3.4

Dunedin Total 8 cities Rest of NZ Total NZ

5.9

0.0

5.0

0.0

0.0

20.8

12.3

14.4

13.2

12.7

3.4

2.4

4.2

3.2

4.0

12.2

13.1

15.2

10.9

14.4

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Building Consent Data

67 Data for large new dwelling projects is volatile, and can cause difficulty in analysing movements in a series between periods. 68 Medium to high density housing is typically 25 or more dwellings per hectare and includes apartments, units and terrace housing (Auckland Regional Growth Strategy,

March 2003).

page

76

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Christchurch has experienced a decrease in inner- city intensification, particularly in 2002 which saw only 3.4% of all new dwellings being apartments. An increase in the number of new stand -alone dwellings, mainly on Christchurch’s perimeters, can account for this pattern, along with demand and supply issues associated with limited population growth.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Though the growth of urban intensification in Wellington seems to have slowed, it is important to note that the proportion of new apartments is still one of the highest in comparison to the other largest cities. The slight decrease in urban intensification may be a reflection of the constraint that the geography of Wellington (i.e. the waterfront and hills) imposes on new apartment development. The decrease is also closely associated with a reduction in the availability of older buildings to retrofit. Most of the redevelopments have now already taken place and there are few older buildings left to convert. PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN THE PROPORTION OF NEW APARTMENTS / UNITS (1998 TO 2002) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Building Consent Data

North Shore

1.3

Waitakere

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Urban housing intensification

8.6

Auckland

8.0

Manukau

HOUSING

11.9

Hamilton

11.6 -5.0

Wellington Christchurch

-9.0

Dunedin

-5.9

Total 8 cities

HEALTH

-8.2 0.7

Total NZ

2.2 -12.0

-9.0

- 6.0

-3.0

0

3.0

6.0

9.0

12.0

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

PERCENTAGE CHANGE

Of the eight largest cities, those in the Auckland region have seen continued growth in intensified urban housing developments over the past five years. These cities have high population growth rates, and attract the majority of new migrants that come into New Zealand. The Auckland Regional Growth Strategy supports the development of higher density housing as a way of coping with this growth and encouraging a greater range of housing choice and affordability. The strategy encourages urban housing to be developed where people can live within walking distance of work, schools, community facilities, shops and parks, and have easy access to public transport.

SAFETY

A recent survey of property professionals in the Auckland region by the Massey University Real Estate Analysis Unit showed that while detached housing remains the dominant housing preference, there is an increased move toward more intensive housing as the preferred option.69 Many choose to live in higher density areas because of their proximity to work and social facilities. Population groups such as new migrants, young professionals, couple - only households, and students tend to perceive high density housing as a more convenient and affordable housing option.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Urban housing intensification may put pressures on services and amenities and on the social and physical resources of the city. Housing intensification may also indicate that gentrification is occurring, particularly in inner city areas.70 Gentrification has implications for those on lower incomes, as gentrified areas may become less affordable with the increase in housing costs. Intensification in urban housing development is a way of coping with population growth, as well as providing a greater range of housing choice and affordability options.

69 New Zealand Residential Rental Market June 2002 Quarterly Survey Volume 5, Number 2. 70 Gentrification is where older areas are renovated and upgraded, usually by more affluent households moving into the area.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Rest of NZ

page

77

6

Health

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents a selection of indicators focusing on the physical and mental health of people in large cities. WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

The overall physical and mental health of city populations is interrelated with many other factors including socio - economic status, employment, housing and living environments. Living in a large city can also impact on our sense of health. Reasonable proximity to food outlets, health and GP services, recreation, leisure, employment opportunities, and housing is important to quality of life. WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER

• • • • • • • • •

Life expectancy Low birth weights Infant mortality Teenage parents Diseases Access to General Practitioners Mental health and emotional wellbeing Self reported health status Modifiable risk factors

KEY POINTS

Several indicators and measures show an overall improvement in recent years - higher life expectancy, declines in the rates of infant mortality and low birth weight babies, and a reduction in deaths by suicide among young people. The majority of the large city residents identify as being happy, rate their overall health as good and they undertake physical activity at least two to four times a week. There are some subtle differences between cities; for example, the residents of North Shore appear to have relatively higher life expectancy than residents in other cities. In 2001, almost one third of all mothers aged under 17 years lived in Manukau. The rate of meningococcal disease among children is especially high in Manukau. Between 1997 and 2000, Waitakere and Manukau consistently showed the lowest rate of GPs per population amongst all eight cities.

page

78

Significant disparities in health and wellbeing do exist between different groups in the cities and in New Zealand as a whole. For example, life expectancy declines markedly as the deprivation of the area of residence increases. There was a nine -year difference in life expectancy at birth for males between the least deprived and the most deprived areas of New Zealand society. For women this difference was smaller, but still over 6.5 years. Given the deprivation index levels in some of the largest cities, this is a concern. While death rates for Maori for almost all major causes have continued to decrease, Maori men and women experience an excess burden of mortality and morbidity throughout life, including higher infant mortality rates and low birth weight babies. Maori are more likely to smoke than non -Maori, and the rate of live births among females aged 13 to 17 years is considerably higher among Maori and Pacific Island females than other groups. The health of Pacific Islands peoples has improved over recent decades but they still experience a heavy burden of avoidable mortality and morbidity. For example, Pacific Islands people have higher rates of meningococcal disease. LINKS

In New Zealand, research and epidemiological studies consistently highlight the correlation between low socio - economic status (poverty) and poor health. In turn, low socio - economic status in New Zealand is connected to ethnicity - for example, the health status of Maori and Pacific Islands people is demonstrably poorer than other New Zealanders. This particularly affects city populations as the majority of people in these ethnic groups live in the eight largest cities. Other elements that affect our health include individual lifestyle factors (smoking, exercise, alcohol consumption), social and community influences (whether we feel empowered to participate in decisions that affect our health and wellbeing) and the quality of our living and working conditions. Government and local authorities can make a positive impact on these factors through good provision of health, leisure and recreation services and programmes.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

Residents of North Shore appear to have relatively higher life expectancy than residents of other cities.

•

There was a nine-year difference in life expectancy at birth for males between the least deprived and the most

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Life expectancy

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

deprived areas of New Zealand society. For women this difference was smaller, but still over six and a half years.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Life expectancy is a key indicator of the general health of the population. Improvements in overall life expectancy reflect improvements in social and economic conditions, lifestyle, access to health services, and medical advances. This indicator uses estimated life expectancy at birth. Data was sourced from Statistics New Zealand and was not available beyond 1996 at the time of writing this report.

Estimated life expectancy in New Zealand has increased since 1986 in particular for males (70.9 years in 1986 compared with 73.6 years in 1996). Male life expectancy is lower than female life expectancy across New Zealand and in all eight cities.

HEALTH

There are some subtle differences between cities. For example, residents in Dunedin had lower life expectancy rates than other cities over 1996 to 2001, although this shows improvement in 1996. The residents of North Shore appear to have relatively higher life expectancy than residents in other cities. ESTIMATED LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH (1986, 1991, 1996)

Females Years

1996

Males Years

Females Years

Males Years

Females Years

North Shore

73.2

79.3

74.2

80.0

75.7

81.1

Waitakere

72.4

78.4

72.8

78.7

74.0

79.5

Auckland

70.5

76.6

71.6

77.6

73.6

79.2

Manukau

71.3

77.3

71.6

77.6

73.3

78.9

Hamilton

71.2

77.3

72.4

78.3

74.1

79.7

Wellington

72.0

78.1

72.8

78.6

74.5

80.1

Christchurch

71.2

77.3

72.0

77.9

73.5

79.1

Dunedin

70.3

76.4

71.4

77.4

73.7

79.3

Total NZ

70.9

77.0

71.9

77.9

73.6

79.2

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Males Years

1991

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

1986

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

SAFETY

Data source: Statistics New Zealand.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

A study undertaken by the Ministry of Health found that there is a strong association between life expectancy and the level of deprivation in the area where people live.71 Life expectancy declines markedly as the deprivation of the area of residence increases. There was a nine -year difference in life expectancy at birth for males between the least deprived and the most deprived areas of New Zealand society. For women this difference was smaller, but still over 6.5 years.

71 Ministry of Health. Life Expectancy and Small Area Deprivation in New Zealand. 2001.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

79

Life expectancy Continued...

Overall, Maori life expectancy is lower than non -Maori. Estimates for ethnic groupings within the eight cities are not available, but it could be expected that life expectancy rates will be relatively low in areas of higher deprivation and high Maori population.72 Recent research shows that Maori and Pacific Islands people in New Zealand have made little, if any, life expectancy gains in the past two decades, while life expectancy has improved dramatically for New Zealand Europeans over the same period.73 New Zealand Europeans now live on average ten years longer than Maori and six to seven years longer than Pacific Islands people. The research found that the main contributor to the growing ethnic inequality in life expectancy is differing chronic disease mortality in middle and older age, with heart disease the leading contributor.

72 The life expectancy for Pacific Islands people is difficult to calculate due to small numbers and migration. 73 Ajwani S, Blakely T, Robson B, Tobias M, Bonne M. Decades of Disparity: Ethnic Mortality Trends in New Zealand 1980 -1999. Ministry of Health. Wellington 2003.

page

80

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Between 1997 and 1999, the rate of low birth weight babies in the eight largest cities was similar to the rest of New Zealand. Overall the rate of low birth weight babies appears to have declined since the early 1990s.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

•

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Birth weight is affected by the overall health of the mother, as well as her environment and level of access to prenatal care. A low birth weight baby weighs less than 2,500 grams. Babies of this weight or less are at greater risk of death within the first month of life. They also have increased risk of illness, disability and health problems in later life. This indicator measures the average annual number of low birth weight babies per 1,000 live births for the period 1997 to 1999.74

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

PEOPLE

Low birth weights

In the period 1997 to 1999 a total of 4,915 low birth weight babies were born in the eight cities, representing a rate of 62.8 per 1,000 live births. This is similar to the rate of 62.9 for the rest of New Zealand. Over this same period, Hamilton and Dunedin reported higher rates of low birth weight babies than other cities, although they had the lowest actual numbers of low birth weight babies.

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

HEALTH

The rate of low birth weight babies is higher among Maori than other ethnicities, and relatively higher rates were recorded among Maori in Hamilton and Dunedin for 1997 to 1999. RATE OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT BABIES PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS, BY ETHNICITY (1997 TO 1999 COMBINED) 75

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

64.7

320

58.4

418

61.0

75

39.8

353

61.9

549

59.6

182

45.5

670

61.1

1,027

59.6

513

69.2

1,070

63.0

232

62.8

385

68.0

65

75.4

Waitakere

121

74.2

Auckland

175

77.5

Manukau

279

75.5

278

47.3

Hamilton

134

83.0

19

53.2

Wellington Christchurch Dunedin

Total

33

53

70.2

30

49.8

345

64.5

428

63.8

111

71.8

40

67.8

615

64.1

766

65.3

35

82.9

10

60.2

227

69.7

272

70.8

973

76.1

667

47.6

3,275

63.6

4,915

62.8

Rest of NZ

1,875

70.9

259

49.8

3,677

60.5

5,811

62.9

Total NZ

2,848

72.7

926

48.2

6,952

61.9

10,726

62.9

Total 8 cities

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Rate

Other (includes European)

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Number North Shore

Pacific Islands

SAFETY

Maori

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Data source: New Zealand Health Information Service

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Smoking is one of the most important preventable determinants of low birth weight babies. Proportionately more Maori women smoke during pregnancy and are more likely to have low birth weight babies.76 The rate of low birth weight babies among Maori may also be linked to socio - economic status, income levels, and accessibility to affordable health care, education and housing.

74 In 1998, birth weight was only recorded for six months. This will not affect proportionality but should be noted when interpreting the results. 75 As the data presented here for non Maori and non Pacific Islands babies is combined it is not possible to ascertain the proportion in the ‘Other’ category of low birth

weight babies that were Asian. 76 National Health Committee. Maternity services for ‘hard to reach women’ not so satisfactory. News and Issues 15, www.nhc.govt.nz

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

81

Low birth weights Continued...

Pacific Islands populations have fewer low birth weight babies than others. Studies have found that, in general, Pacific Islands babies are significantly larger (heavier) and Asian babies significantly smaller (lighter) than all other ethnicities.77 This could account for the lower rates in Manukau and Auckland where there are significant Pacific Islands populations. Overall, the rate of low birth weight babies appears to have declined since the early 1990s. This may be linked to better post- natal care that enables very low birth weight babies to be kept alive, and to better overall health of mothers.

77 Ministry of Health. 1999 Report on Maternity. page 39.

page

82

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

In the period 1997 to 1999 there was a total of 461 infant mortalities in the eight cities, representing a rate of 5.8

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

per 1,000 live births.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Deaths in infancy is internationally recognised as a sensitive indicator of social and economic conditions and the adequacy of health services. Despite the declines experienced over the last 40 years, New Zealand’s infant death rate remains high internationally, with a 1997 ranking of 17th out of 19 OECD countries for which information was available. This represents a considerable change from 25 years ago when New Zealand’s infant mortality rate was the seventh lowest out of twenty developed countries.78 As the eight largest cities represent nearly half of the New Zealand population it is important to monitor this indicator. The leading causes of infant mortality are congenital anomalies and sudden infant death syndrome (known as SIDS, and as cot death).79 More than half of SIDS cases can be attributed to parents smoking during and after pregnancy. 80

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

PEOPLE

Infant mortality

An infant death is defined as a live born infant dying before their first birthday. This indicator shows the rate of deaths per 1,000 live births.

In the period 1997 to 1999 there was a total of 461 infant mortalities in the eight cities, representing a rate of 5.8 per 1,000 live births. The rate for the rest of New Zealand was 6.2 per 1,000 births for that period. Manukau and Hamilton experienced higher rates than other cities. The rate of infant mortality among Maori infants was considerably higher than the rate of ‘Other’ ethnic groups, across all cities. 81

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Rates appear to have dropped in all of the eight largest cities, as in the rest of New Zealand. Between 1989 and 1998, the total infant death rate in New Zealand almost halved, from 10.3 to 5.4 per 1,000 live births. This mainly reflects a reduction in the number of post-neonatal deaths (that is, after 28 days and before the first year of life is completed).82 RATE OF INFANT MORTALITY PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS, BY ETHNICITY (1997 TO 1999 COMBINED)

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

11.4

22

3.4

29

4.1

5.9

55

6.2

4.1

102

5.8

4.8

114

7.0

5.9

45

7.9

8

7.7

Waitakere

14

7.2

11

4.9

40

Auckland

19

7.1

46

9.6

54

Manukau

45

10.3

52

7.4

42

Hamilton

24

12.4

1

2.3

26

Wellington Christchurch Dunedin

7

Total

9

9.9

3

4.1

20

3.1

28

4.0

15

8.1

4

5.7

51

4.5

63

5.1

5

10.0

1

5.0

23

6.0

25

6.2

Total 8 cities

139

9.1

125

7.5

278

4.5

461

5.8

Rest of NZ

294

9.3

47

7.6

318

4.4

573

6.2

Total NZ

433

9.3

172

7.5

596

4.4

1034

6.1

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Rate

Other

SAFETY

Number North Shore

Pacific Islands

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Maori

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Data source: New Zealand Health Information Service. Data on ethnicity is non - prioritised, and people may have chosen more than one ethnicity. Rates are calculated among all people who chose that ethnicity.

78 Statistics New Zealand. www.stats.govt.nz 79 New Zealand Health Information Service. 2002. Foetal and Infant Deaths 1998. page 13. 80 Te Puni Kokiri. 2000. Tikanga Oranga Hauora Number 4, 2000. 81 It must be noted that numbers of infant mortalities within cities are statistically very small. For example between 1997 and 1999 there was only one recorded Pacific

Island infant death in Hamilton - therefore these rates must be interpreted with caution.

82 New Zealand Health Information Service 2002. Ibid. page 13.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

HEALTH

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

83

Teenage parents

• •

In 2001, the rate of births to females aged between 13 and 17 years in the eight cities (combined) was 7.5 per 1,000, which is lower than the rest of New Zealand. Among the eight cities, the rate of live births to females aged 13-17 years was highest in Manukau and Hamilton (2001).

•

Teenage parents are significantly more likely than other parents to be on low incomes.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Teenage parenthood has come to be regarded as a significant disadvantage in a world that increasingly demands an extended education, and in which delayed childbearing, smaller families, two -income households and careers for women are increasingly becoming the norm. 83 Women who become mothers at a young age are likely to have reduced educational attainment, limited opportunity to complete tertiary education, and reduced participation in paid work. There are also several physical and mental health risks associated with teenage pregnancy. Some overseas research indicates that pregnant teens are at greater risk of health problems, including anaemia, hypertension, renal disease and depressive disorders. 84 This indicator uses two measures to show the situation in the eight cities: • Rate of live births to females aged 13 to 17 years, as a rate per 1,000 of all females aged 13 to 17 years • Proportion of sole parents aged 15 to 19 years earning less than $20,000 per annum. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Births to teenage mothers The rate of births to females aged between 13 and 17 years in the eight cities (combined) was 7.5 per 1,000 (437) in 2001. This is slightly lower than the rate of 9.8 for the rest of New Zealand. This accounts for 2.0% of all live births, and one third of the national total of 1,169 babies born to all females in that age group in 2001. Among the eight cities, the rate of live births to teenage mothers was highest in Manukau and Hamilton, and lowest in Dunedin and Wellington. In 2001, almost one third of all mothers aged under 17 years lived in Manukau. The rate of live births among females aged 13 to 17 years is considerably higher among Maori and Pacific Islands females than other groups. In 2001, half of all births to females aged 13 to 17 years in the eight cities were to Maori females (49.6%) and one quarter to Pacific Islands females (23.7%). This ties in with other findings that Maori and Pacific Islands youth are also more likely to drop out of school, to have lower educational achievements and to live on lower incomes. NUMBER AND RATE OF LIVE BIRTHS PER 1,000 FEMALES AGED BETWEEN 13 AND 17 YEARS (1999 TO 2001)

1999 Number

2000 Rate

2001

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

North Shore

25

3.7

27

4.0

31

4.6

Waitakere

60

10.2

55

9.4

60

10.2

Auckland

77

7.0

73

6.7

62

5.7

Manukau

158

14.0

116

10.3

136

12.1

Hamilton

50

11.6

37

8.6

52

12.1

Wellington

26

5.5

10

2.1

19

4.0

Christchurch

64

6.1

78

7.4

62

5.9

Dunedin

17

4.3

19

4.8

15

3.8

Total 8 cities

477

8.2

415

7.1

437

7.5

Rest of NZ

745

9.9

759

10.1

732

9.8

1,222

9.2

1,174

8.8

1,169

8.8

Total NZ

Data source: Statistics New Zealand. Rates calculated using 2001 Census data

83 UNICEF Innocenti Report Card Issue No 3 July 2001.page 6 84 Sourced from world wide web: http://www.statcan.ca /english /kits /preg /preg3.htm (May 2003).

page

84

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Teenage parents

Teenage sole parents earning less than $20,000 per annum Given that socio - economic status is a key determinant of people’s ability to access health care services for themselves and their children, this measure investigates the links between low income and young parents. It shows the proportion of sole parents aged 15 to 19 years who earned less than $20,000 per annum in the 2001 Census. The proportion of young sole parents in the eight cities is small - the 2001 Census found that 1.2% of all sole parents in the eight cities were aged below 19 years. The majority of people who stated they were young sole parents were female.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

However, young sole parents were more likely than sole parents of other ages to live on low personal incomes. 85 In 2001, two thirds of young sole parents stated that they had a personal income of less than $20,000 per annum, compared with one third of all sole parents. This pattern was consistent across all eight cities. NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF SOLE PARENTS ON PERSONAL INCOMES LESS THAN $20,000 PER ANNUM (2001)

%

Number

%

Number

%

51

70.8

2,301

29.0

2,352

29.4

Waitakere

69

62.2

3,153

34.0

3,222

34.3

Auckland

90

60.0

5,292

32.2

5,382

32.5

Manukau

177

66.3

5,577

35.2

5,754

35.7

Hamilton

72

68.6

2,589

40.4

2,661

40.8

North Shore

Wellington Christchurch Dunedin Total 8 cities

30

66.7

1,545

26.1

1,575

26.4

129

71.7

6,222

39.8

6,351

40.2

45

78.9

2,070

40.9

2,115

41.3

663

67.2

28,749

34.8

29,412

35.2

Rest of NZ

1,101

71.1

41,979

42.9

43,080

43.3

Total NZ

1,764

69.3

70,728

39.2

72,492

39.6

HOUSING

Total sole parents

HEALTH

Number

All other sole parents

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Sole parents aged 15 to 19 years

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

Data source: Statistics New Zealand: 2001 Census

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Among the eight cities, the highest percentage of young sole parents living on a low personal income was recorded in Dunedin (78.9%).The largest actual number was recorded in Manukau (177). PERCENTAGE OF SOLE PARENTS EARNING LESS THAN $20,000 PER ANNUM (2001) Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

Aged 15 to 19 years

All other sole parents

80

SAFETY

67.2

50

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

42.9

40 34.8

PERCENT

60

71.1

70

30 20 10

Total 8 cities

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

0 Rest of NZ

85 Caution should be taken when interpreting these results, as approximately one quarter of all sole parents did not state their personal income on their Census form.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

85

Diseases

•

The rate of meningococcal disease among children is higher in the eight largest cities of New Zealand than for the rest of New Zealand. The rate is especially high in Manukau.

•

Rates of tuberculosis are higher in urban areas and among people of ‘other’ ethnicity.

•

An epidemic of Type 2 diabetes is occurring in the eight cities and across New Zealand.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Diseases reported below are those that can be spread through poor living conditions, and those that could be prevented through education and awareness raising. Notifiable diseases pose great threats to public health, especially in large urban centres where people live in close proximity to each other. New Zealand has a list of several notifiable diseases that general health practitioners must report to their local Medical Officer of Health and/or local authority. Three diseases are discussed in this section: • Meningococcal Disease • Tuberculosis (TB) • Diabetes. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Meningococcal Disease This measure shows the rate of notified cases of meningococcal disease per 10,000 children under 15 years (1999 to 2001). New Zealand’s epidemic of serogroup B meningococcal disease began in mid 1991. It is the most important notifiable disease in the country and it can result in severe disability or death. 86 As at 2001, the epidemic had resulted in a total of 4,197 cases and 185 deaths within New Zealand. The highest rates of disease occur in children aged under five years, and particularly younger than one year. For the year ended December 2001, 322 cases of meningococcal disease had been reported in the eight cities, and nine deaths were recorded. Of these cases, 66.1% (213) were children aged less than 15 years. RATE OF NOTIFIED CASES OF MENINGOCOCCAL DISEASE PER 10,000 CHILDREN AGED 15 YEARS AND UNDER (1999 TO 2001) Data source: Institute for Environmental Sciences and Research. Caution to be taken when interpreting results as actual numbers are small

1999

2000

2001

10.3 10.6 10.5

12

10

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

3.8 3.4

4.6

5.3 5.0 5.8

4.8 Wellington

Christchurch

1.9

2.0

2.4

2.4

1.0 0.3

0

1.0

2

3.3

3.6 3.4

4.2 4.2

4.3

4

1.6 2.0

6

6.2

6.5

7.3

7.9 7.7

RATE PER 10,000

8

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

86 Diana Martin et al. The Epidemiology of Meningococcal Disease in New Zealand in 2001. Ministry of Health. 2002. page 35.

page

86

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

The rate of meningococcal disease among children was higher in the eight cities than for the rest of New Zealand over this period. For example, in 2001, the rate among children in the eight cities was 5.8 per 10,000 compared with 4.6 for the rest of New Zealand. Rates in Manukau are among the highest in New Zealand (10.5 per 10,000 children in 2001). Hamilton has experienced an increase in the rate of meningococcal disease in the last few years. Throughout the epidemic, the geographic, age and ethnic distribution of cases has remained relatively constant. Rates in the Northern District Health Region are consistently the highest (averaging 22.4 per 100,000 since 1995).

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Rates of childhood meningococcal disease are highest among Pacific Islands communities. In 2001, the rate among Pacific Islands groups in the eight cities was 21.1 per 10,000 children, compared with a rate of 7.5 among Maori and 2.7 among European children. RATE OF NOTIFIED CASE OF MENINGOCOCCAL DISEASE PER 10,000 CHILDREN AGED 15 YEARS AND UNDER, BY ETHNICITY (2001)

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

North Shore

5

2.0

1

2.5

3

17.6

0

0.0

Waitakere

4

2.0

2

2.4

10

13.8

2

4.6

Auckland

7

2.2

11

12.2

38

26.3

0

0.0

Manukau

7

3.2

18

10.4

55

22.7

0

0.0

Hamilton

10

6.9

9

11.6

0

0.0

0

0.0

Wellington

3

1.5

0

0.0

3

14.5

0

0.0

Christchurch

5

1.1

4

5.1

3

13.2

0

0.0

Dunedin

11

6.5

0

0.0

1

14.8

1

13.2

Total 8 cities

52

2.7

45

7.5

113

21.1

3

0.7

72

2.4

128

9.5

14

8.9

2

1.9

124

2.5

173

8.9

127

18.3

5

0.9

Rest of NZ Total NZ

HOUSING

Number

Other

HEALTH

Rate

Pacific Islands

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Number

Maori

Data source: Institute for Environmental Sciences and Research. Data for ethnicity has been prioritised. Caution to be taken when interpreting results as actual numbers are small.

Household crowding is a significant risk factor for meningococcal disease in children. A three -year study shows that while household crowding is unlikely to have caused the epidemic in New Zealand, it has almost certainly intensified the disease’s effect among the most vulnerable (notably Maori and Pacific Islands people living in the Auckland urban area). 87 The Ministry of Health has started to trial a vaccine targeting the disease. 88 The vaccine will be available to under 20 year olds and will be free.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

European

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Diseases

Tuberculosis

87 Baker M, McNicholas A, Garrett N, Jones N, Stewart J, Koberstein V, Lennon D, ESR, Auckland Healthcare, University of Auckland 2000. Household crowding a major

risk factor for epidemic meningococcal disease in Auckland children. The Paediatric Infectious Disease Journal 2000: 19:983 -990. 88 Early meningococcal B vaccine trial results encouraging - Ministry of Health media release. 26 August 2003.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

87

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

The highest rates of TB disease are seen in New Zealand urban areas. In the period 1999 to 2001 combined, there were 1,172 notified cases of TB in New Zealand - of these, nearly two -thirds (63%) were reported in the eight largest cities (744 cases). The highest number was reported in Auckland, followed by Manukau and Wellington. The rate in the eight cities has been consistently higher than for the rest of New Zealand.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the more common notifiable infectious diseases. The majority of cases occur in adults. It is a disease of poverty and the risk of transmission is inversely related to socio - economic status, that is people living in cities with the lowest socio - economic status are at greater risk of TB. New Zealand has a higher rate of TB compared with other developed nations.

SAFETY

This measure shows the rate of notified cases of tuberculosis (TB) per 100,000 population for the period 1999 to 2001.

Diseases Continued...

RATE OF NOTIFIED CASES OF TB PER 100,000 POPULATION (1999 TO 2001) 1999

Data source: Institute for Environmental Sciences and Research. Caution to be taken when interpreting results as actual numbers are small

2000

2001

20.8 20.1 18.9

6.3 6.4

5.2 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

3.5

3.5

2.8

0

12.1 9.5 10.0

8.8

8.5 7.9

5

7.8

7.0 7.0 8.1

9.6

10

12.2

14.8 13.0 14.2

15

15.9 13.2 14.3

19.0

20

18.7

22.2

RATE PER 100,000

25

22.3 21.2

26.4

30

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

Over half of all TB cases in New Zealand are of people born outside New Zealand. For example, between 1999 and 2001, the number of notified cases was higher among people of ‘other’ ethnicity across all cities. The particularly high numbers of notified cases among ‘other’ ethnicities in Auckland, Manukau and Wellington may be linked to higher proportions of immigrants and refugees in those cities. 89

NUMBER OF NOTIFIED CASES OF TB, BY ETHNICITY (1999 TO 2001 COMBINED)

European North Shore

Maori

Pacific Islands

Other

Unknown

Total

6

2

1

32

-

41

Waitakere

12

10

8

41

-

71

Auckland

20

6

49

173

1

249

Manukau

9

37

63

66

1

176

Hamilton

1

2

3

23

5

34

Wellington

13

7

13

65

-

98

Christchurch

21

4

4

29

3

61

Dunedin Total 8 cities Rest of NZ Total NZ

7

-

-

7

-

14

89

68

141

436

10

744

77

153

44

102

52

428

166

221

185

538

62

1,172

Data source: Institute for Environmental Sciences and Research.

Diabetes An epidemic of Type 2 diabetes is occurring in the eight largest cities and across New Zealand. Type 2 diabetes most often occurs in adulthood, usually after the ages of 30 - 40 years. Increasingly though, teenagers and children are developing Type 2 diabetes. This is mainly driven by demographic trends and an increasing prevalence of overweight and obese people. This epidemic most severely affects Maori and Pacific Islands ethnic groups. There is no official count of the number of people living with Type 2 diabetes in the eight largest cities but it is estimated to be large. The impact of diabetes on illness and mortality is very significant, and will become more so as the prevalence increases. Health promotion, early detection, effective treatment and knowledge are all essential support for people with diabetes. 89 Turnbull, Dr. F, Ministry of Health 2003, Guidelines for Tuberculosis Control in New Zealand. page 4.

page

88

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

across all eight cities.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Survey results suggest that cost is an important factor for non-presentation at a GP.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

General Practitioners (GPs) are part of the front line of primary health care provision. Accessibility to a GP is an important issue in both treatment and prevention of poor health. The number of GPs per city may reflect accessibility to health services. A lower rate of GPs per head of population may result in difficulty in accessing primary health care for local populations and is associated with higher rates of hospitalisation. Two measures are used to assess access to general practitioners: • GPs per 100,000 population • Barriers to accessing a GP.

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Between 1997 and 2000, Waitakere and Manukau consistently showed the lowest rate of GPs per head of population

Rate of full time GPs per 100,000 population Between 1997 and 2000, Waitakere and Manukau consistently showed the lowest rate of GPs per head of population across all eight cities, with average rates of 63 and 70 per 100,000 population respectively. In comparison, Auckland and Christchurch have consistently shown the highest average rates at 104 and 109 respectively. This significant difference suggests that areas of greatest need may not be adequately provided for in terms of primary health care, or that people are using other providers such as hospitals.

HEALTH

•

PEOPLE

Access to general practitioners (GPs)

1998

1999

2000

78

82

83

80

Waitakere

68

63

63

61

Auckland

105

106

100

106

Manukau

72

71

70

69

Hamilton

NA

NA

109

95

Wellington

91

87

102

95

Christchurch

101

99

107

107

Dunedin

NA

NA

96

98

Total NZ

NA

NA

87

87

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

North Shore

1997

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

RATE OF GPS PER 100,000 POPULATION (1997 TO 2000)

SAFETY

Data source: NZ Medical Council. ‘NA’ indicates that data was not available

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

The geographic distribution of GPs within each of the eight cities is not clear from this data - that is, whether practices are located together or spread evenly through the city.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Poor access to health care, especially preventative health and early intervention services such as those offered by GPs, partly explains the link between socio - economic status and health. Social, cultural and economic factors influence the use of preventive and treatment services, with the more affluent population generally having better access to high quality health services. New Zealand studies demonstrate that individuals in lower socio - economic groups use GP services less than would be expected given their health status, and that financial constraints act as a deterrent to consultation for those with lower incomes and from more deprived areas.90

90 National Health Committee. 1998. The Social, Cultural and Economic Determinants of Health in New Zealand: Action to Improve Health.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

89

Access to general practitioners (GPs) Continued...

As part of its Primary Health Care Strategy, the Government has signalled its intent to make primary health care affordable for all. It is anticipated that this will in part be achieved through the establishment of Primary Health Organisations (PHOs) (funded through District Health Boards). These PHOs will provide a set of essential primary health care services to those people who are enrolled, and should benefit those communities that do not regularly utilise GP services, especially Maori and Pacific Islands people. The Ministry of Health calculates that better primary care can reduce hospital admissions among Maori and Pacific Islands people by around 33% and among Europeans by around 20%.91 Barriers to accessing a GP The Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 found relatively low percentages of participants who felt unable to go to a doctor in the previous 12 months although they wanted to - approximately one in every five respondents. Those more likely than others to state they had not gone included residents from Manukau, Maori or Pacific Islands people, and females. Those aged under 34 years and on a personal income of less than $20,000 per annum were also more likely not to go. The main reasons given for not going to the doctor was that it was too expensive or that they felt that the symptoms did not justify the cost (approximately one half stated this). Another reason was that people were too busy to find time to go. PERCENTAGE OF RESIDENTS WHO STATED THAT THERE HAD BEEN A TIME IN THE PREVIOUS 12 MONTHS WHEN THEY WANTED TO GO TO A DOCTOR, BUT COULD NOT (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002

30

21.0 17.0

13.0

19.0

17.0

15

17.0

PERCENT

20

20.0

22.0

25

10

5

0 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

91 New Zealand Herald. 22 June 2002. ‘A Tough Pill to Swallow’. B5.

page

90

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Recent data show a substantial reduction in youth suicide numbers in the last two and a half years.

•

In 1999, over one third of all 120 deaths by suicide among people aged 15 to 24 years were in the eight cities.

•

Rates of hospitalisations for attempted suicide across the eight cities tend to be lower than for the rest of New Zealand.

•

Survey results suggest that many residents in the eight cities suffer from stresses of raising families and living on

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Mental health and emotional wellbeing

lower incomes.

The term ‘mental health’ has long been considered to be more than the absence of mental illness. It is a broad term and has been described in the New Zealand context as that which nurtures spirituality, family, psychological/mental and emotional wellbeing, religion, physiology, environment, social responsibility and self.92 Mental health problems are psychological and emotional reactions and behaviours that are outside the usual range experienced by people in their daily lives, and that cause distress to themselves and others (such as bereavement reactions, anxiety over life events, and problems associated with substance abuse).93 This can be conceptually distinct from ‘mental illness’ and ‘mental disorders’ which cover a broad range of clinically diagnosed problems, and include mood disorders, schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders, conduct disorders, dementias and personality disorders.

HEALTH

Mental health and emotional wellbeing is a very difficult area to measure. Three proxy measures are used: • Suicide • Attempted suicide • Emotional wellbeing.

HOUSING

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Suicide

In 1999, the rate of suicide among young people aged 15 to 24 years was 18.1 per 100,000 in the eight cities combined (representing 48 suicides) and 30.1 deaths per 100,000 in the rest of New Zealand. Overall, the youth suicide rate appears to be decreasing. Total youth suicide rates in New Zealand are currently the lowest since 1987, which is consistent with international trends. However, suicide remains a personal, family and community tragedy, and the prevention of suicide and suicide attempts is a priority under the New Zealand Health Strategy.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Rates of youth suicide are higher among males than females. For example, in the years 1997 to 1999, over two thirds of all youth suicide deaths in the eight cities were male.95

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Younger people have higher rates of suicide than other age groups.94 This measure shows the number of deaths from suicide in people aged 15 to 24 years as a proportion per 100,000 of the total population in that age group from 1997 to 1999. Because suicide is, in statistical terms, an uncommon event and rates can vary immensely from year to year, it is better to look at the total pattern of suicide rates over several years.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

WHAT DID WE FIND?

92 Ellis,P and Collings,S. (Editors) Ministry of Health. Mental Health in New Zealand from a Public Health Perspective. 1997. 93 ibid 94 Ministry of Health 2002 Suicide Facts - Provisional 1999 statistics (all ages) 95 Research suggests that the differences in male and female suicide rates may be associated with choice of methods. Females, however, make more non -fatal suicide

attempts. (Statistics New Zealand, Suicide Facts)

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

91

Mental health and emotional wellbeing Continued...

DEATH RATE BY SUICIDE PER 100,000 OF POPULATION AGED 15 TO 24 YEARS, TOTAL EIGHT CITIES (1997 TO 1999) Data source: New Zealand Health Information Service. Rates calculated using 2001 Census data

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

38.4

40

30.1

31.7

18.1

20

18.1

24.8

RATE PER 100,000

30

10

0 1997

1998

1999

Suicides and attempted suicides are usually the result of a complex interplay of longer-term risk factors and stressful immediate events. Research has identified several factors that distinguish young people who make suicide attempts from other young people. These include social and education disadvantage, and a history of exposure to multiple family and parental disadvantages during childhood and adolescence. The development during adolescence of significant mental health problems, or adjustment and exposure to a serious or stressful life event immediately prior to the suicide attempt, are also factors.96 It is not clear, however, whether these risk factors may differ between youth in large cities and those not living in such environments. Attempted suicide This measure shows the number of hospitalisations for attempted suicide per 100,000 persons aged 15 to 24 years from 1997 to 1999.97 RATE OF HOSPITALISATIONS FOR ATTEMPTED SUICIDE PER 100,000, TOTAL EIGHT CITIES (1997 TO 1999) Data source: New Zealand Health Information Service. Rates calculated using 2001 Census data. Data is from publicly funded hospitals only

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

268.1

300

213.8

196.1

150 184.8

RATE PER 100,000

200

202.5

238.1

250

100

50

0 1997

1998

1999

96 Beautrais, A. 1997. In Our Hands: The Research Evidence. Ministry of Health. 97 There are some limitations with the data on hospitalisation. The data may include cases of deliberate self- harm where the intent was not death. In addition, the data may

include people who are admitted more than once during that year and includes those who died while in hospital. A further caveat is that admission criteria and coding conventions may vary across hospitals.

page

92

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Mental health and emotional wellbeing

In 1999, there was a total of 491 hospitalisations for attempted suicide among people aged 15 to 24 years in the eight largest cities. This represents approximately half of all hospitalisations among that age group for attempted suicide in the whole of New Zealand during that time. Similar to the findings for suicide deaths, the rate of hospitalisations for attempted suicide across the eight cities tends to be lower than for the rest of New Zealand. For example, in 1999 the rate for the eight cities was 184.8 per 100,000 persons in that age group while the rate for the rest of New Zealand was 213.8 per 100,000. This pattern is also evident in 1997 and 1998. The overall numbers have declined since 1997.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

More females are admitted to hospital for attempted suicide than males. For example, for the years 1997 to 1999 two thirds of all hospitalisations in the eight cities were females.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

People who have already made one suicide attempt are at greater risk of dying by suicide; therefore it is important that such people get effective follow - up support and treatment.98 Emotional wellbeing

HOUSING

The Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 asked a series of questions as proxy measures of emotional wellbeing among residents. Respondents were asked how often they felt happy, and how often they felt calm and peaceful (in the last four weeks), on a six point scale from never to all of the time.99 Approximately two thirds of respondents in each city stated that they felt ‘happy’ all or most of the time, and half felt calm and peaceful all or most of the time.

HEALTH

People who were significantly more likely than others to state that they feel happy and peaceful all of the time were males, people aged 55 years and over, and those living with their partner only.

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF EMOTIONAL WELLBEING WITHIN THE LAST FOUR WEEKS, TOTAL EIGHT CITIES (2002)

All of the time

39

Some of the time

23

Hardly ever

23

5

Never

2

16

54

16

12

2

SAFETY

Happy

8

A good bit of the time

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Calm and peaceful (in the last 4 weeks)

Most of the time

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

PERCENT

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Those significantly less likely to feel happy or peaceful all of the time included females, those aged 18 to 34 years, and people living in larger size households and with dependants. These findings suggest that many residents in the eight cities suffer stresses of raising families and living on lower incomes.

98 Ministry of Health. 2002. Youth Suicide Facts - Provisional 2000 Statistics (15 -24 year olds). 99 Survey conducted in November 2002 therefore ‘the last four weeks’ refers to approximately October 2002.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

93

Mental health and emotional wellbeing Continued...

Respondents were also asked about the effects of stress on their lives in the previous twelve months.100 The majority of people stated that they had experienced negative effects from stress and 11% stated that they had experienced an extremely negative effect. Only 5% of the sample stated that they had not experienced any stress in the previous twelve months. Those significantly more likely to state that they had experienced stress which had an extremely negative effect on them included Europeans, females, people aged 45 to 54 years, and people living on their own. Respondents were not asked what caused their stress, but they were asked whether they felt that they had someone that they could turn to for support. Most of those who stated that they experienced some level of stress in the last 12 months, felt that they had someone to turn to at least some of the time. Those significantly less likely to feel that they have someone to rely on included Asian/Indian/Pacific Islands people, people living in Manukau and males (especially those aged 35 to 54 years).

100 It was recognised when designing this survey that people’s stress levels differ and that the ability to function efficiently under stress will also differ from person to

person.

page

94

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

Across all eight cities, the majority of respondents stated that their health was good or extremely good.

•

Females, people living on low incomes, and people living on their own were more likely than others to state that their

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Self reported health is a global measure of health. It is subjective and complements the findings from more objective and direct health outcome measures. This indicator has two measures, both of which are from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002: • Self reported health status • Self reported health of lifestyle.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

health was poor.

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Self reported health status

WHAT DID WE FIND?

Self reported health status

HEALTH

HOUSING

Across all eight cities, the majority of respondents stated that their health was ‘good’ or ‘extremely good’ overall. Low percentages stated that their health was poor - ranging from 3% to 6%. Some were significantly more likely than others to state that their health was poor or very poor - such as females, people living in single person households or non -family households, those living in a household that earns less than $20,000 per year, and those not employed.

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF OWN HEALTH (COMPARED TO OTHERS OF OWN AGE) (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown on the graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent.

25

26

34

27

33

31

29

27

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Extremely good Good Neither good nor poor

58

9

12

11

12

11

2

2

3

3

3

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

55

52

56

10 3

56

9 5

Wellington Christchurch

58

11 3

Dunedin

SAFETY

60

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Extremely poor 60

Self reported healthy lifestyle Similar to findings for self reported health, the majority of survey respondents also stated that their lifestyle was healthy or very healthy. Very few respondents rated their lifestyle as unhealthy - approximately 4% across the cities.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Those significantly more likely to state that their lifestyle was unhealthy or very unhealthy were people aged 18 to 25 years (especially young men), those living in a household with more than five members, those living in a household that earns less than $20,000 per year, and those on a personal income of less than $20,000 per year.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

PERCENT

Poor

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

95

Self reported health status Continued...

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF HEALTH OF THEIR LIFESTYLE (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown on the graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent.

Very healthy 21

17

23

18

18

22

16

17

Healthy Neither healthy nor unhealthy

PERCENT

Unhealthy

62

13

page

57

22

55

62

58

19

16

18

4

3

3

4

4

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

96

61

58

58

18 2

18 4 1

Wellington Christchurch

Very unhealthy

21 3 1

Dunedin

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

The majority of survey respondents stated that they undertake physical activity at least two to four times a week.

•

Females, people aged 65 years and over, and people living on low incomes were more likely than others to state that

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

they never do any physical exercise.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified the lack of physical activity as one of the biggest contributors to the global burden of disease. Physical inactivity has been labelled second only to smoking as a modifiable risk factor for poor health.101 Maori and Pacific Islands populations, most of whom live in New Zealand’s largest cities, are high risk populations. This section includes information on: • Physical activity • Perceived barriers to physical activity • Smoking.

Physical activity Participation in physical activity is not an easy thing to measure and is not centrally measured in New Zealand. This measure is from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002, and it shows the frequency of physical activity by respondents aged 18 years and over. The survey asked respondents how often they take part in physical activity (defined in the survey as any activity such as sport, brisk walking, running or gardening that increases their heart rate or breathing for 30 minutes or more).102

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Overall, the majority of respondents stated that they undertake physical activity at least two to four times a week, with one third to one half indicating that they undertake activity every day, or nearly every day (this varied across cities). Those significantly more likely to never exercise included females, those aged 65 years and over, people living in a household with one or two members, and people on income less than $20,000 per year. When asked to state the three main things that they did in their free time, participating in sports/physical activity was the main activity stated in all eight cities, with percentages ranging from 61% in Manukau to 72% in North Shore.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Of the main ethnic groups, Europeans and Maori had the highest percentage (69% for both groups) that said they took part in sports or physical activity, while Pacific Islands people had the lowest percentage (57%). RESIDENTS’ FREQUENCY OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY (2002)

Manukau %

Hamilton %

Wellington %

Christchurch %

Every/nearly everyday

42

36

2- 4 times a week

40

40

Once a week

9

2-3 times a month

2

Once a month or less Never

Dunedin %

40

41

46

39

36

43

40

37

36

42

39

38

13

13

10

10

12

11

10

4

2

3

3

2

3

3

4

4

2

5

3

2

5

1

3

4

3

5

2

2

5

5

SAFETY

Auckland %

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Waitakere %

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002

101 New Zealand Health Strategy. DHB Toolkit: Physical Activity. 2001. 102 Within New Zealand, Sports and Recreation New Zealand’s ‘Push Play’ campaign recommends at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity on most, if

not all, days of the week. Moderate intensity physical activity is defined as activity that will cause a slight but not noticeable increase in breathing and heart rate (for example, a brisk walk).

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

HEALTH

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

North Shore %

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Modifiable risk factors

page

97

Modifiable risk factors Continued...

If residents mentioned that they participated in physical activity in their free time, they were then asked whether this was as part of an organised team, or whether it was informal. On average, a third of those who participated in physical activity in their free time stated that this was part of a club, team or organised group. RESIDENTS’ PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS CLUBS (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. (n = those residents who participated in sports in their free time).

Figures do not add to 100 percent as multiple responses were allowed.

Informal group/on your own Club, team or organised group

PERCENT

80

78

78

75

80 77 78

32

31

35

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

38

39 28

Manukau

Hamilton

35

Wellington Christchurch

76

32

Dunedin

Perceived barriers to physical activity Respondents in the survey were asked whether they had any difficulties participating in leisure activities and what makes it difficult for them to participate (more than one reason could be provided). 103 Around half stated that they did have difficulties. The most frequent reason was that they were too busy, had too many other commitments and did not have time. Residents in Auckland were significantly more likely than others to provide this reason (58%) as were people with dependants. The second most frequent reason given was that they could not participate in physical activities due to age, injuries or poor health (approximately a quarter of respondents). Approximately one in five stated that they could not afford it (percentages ranged from 15% in Dunedin to 20% in Manukau). Younger people aged 18-34 years and those on personal incomes less than $20,000 per year were more likely than others to state this as a reason. Smoking Smoking is one of the major causes of preventable death in New Zealand. It is associated with a wide range of ill health outcomes. The World Health Organisation states that tobacco is a known or probable cause of some 25 different diseases. For some - like lung cancer, bronchitis and emphysema - it is the major cause. Further, it is widely accepted that passive or second hand smoking can also be harmful to people’s health. The 1996 Census found that approximately one quarter of people aged 15 years and over were regular smokers. The 1996/97 New Zealand Health Survey also found that 25% of adults were smokers of ‘one or more’ cigarettes per day. Both data sources found that Maori are more likely to smoke than non -Maori. The prevalence of smoking is socially patterned. Research undertaken by the Ministry of Health found a correlation between the prevalence of smoking and deprivation decile - that is, smoking was more prevalent in the more deprived areas.104 Data on smoking is not available at a city level. However, given the combined cities population size, the incidence of poor health in cities and the population groups affected, it is clear that smoking is a major contributor to poor health in our cities.

103 The question read: ‘I’d like you to think about leisure activities that are important to you. Is there anything that makes it difficult for you to take part in these

important activities in your free time?’ They were not asked what the activity was.

104 Inhaling inequality - tobacco’s contribution to health inequality in New Zealand. Ministry of Health. 2001.

page

98

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER

• • • • •

Solid waste management and recycling Biodiversity Air quality Beach and stream/lake water quality Drinking water quality

KEY POINTS

Environmental management of landfills in the eight cities is generally of a higher standard than in New Zealand as a whole. Of the landfills serving the eight cities, only Christchurch lacks a leachate collection system, while 53% of landfills in New Zealand as a whole lack such systems. In addition, all eight cities have kerbside recycling services recovering a good range of emission intensive materials from the waste stream. Few cities recycle kitchen waste, biosolids or construction and demolition waste. Good progress has been made in most cities in surveying and mapping sites important for land–based biodiversity.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Waitakere and Hamilton have excellent grades for drinking water quality. Lower results were recorded for Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Although Dunedin was the only city that did not meet E. coli and Cryptosporidium compliance in 2002 for its water treatment plant, this is being addressed through a series of plant upgrades.

page

99

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT HOUSING HEALTH

In general, the risk to public health in regard to beach and stream/lake water quality is relatively low at the majority of marine water sites (beaches and harbours) sampled in the eight cities. Waitakere, Christchurch, Dunedin and Hamilton are the only cities of the eight that currently monitor freshwater bathing quality at selected streams and lakes. North Shore had the highest proportion of residents (51%) that perceived water pollution as a problem/big problem in their neighbourhood, while Wellington had the lowest proportion (18%). With the exception of Waitakere, the other three Auckland region cities and Hamilton rated water pollution as more of a problem in their neighbourhood than residents in Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The quality of the natural environment is directly related to people’s quality of life. Population growth and economic development puts pressure on the sustainability of the natural environment. Pressure for expansion of the urban area into peripheral areas will have effects on the natural ecosystems of both the land and sea. Issues such as environmental pollution, waste generation and management, heritage protection, and preservation of indigenous wildlife in built up areas are all issues to be considered by cities as they grow and develop.

Air pollution is an issue in Christchurch which had the highest rate of PM10 (suspended particle) exceedences between 1997 and 2001. In addition, in both Auckland and Christchurch the levels of carbon monoxide in relation to the other cities is high and Auckland had the highest nitrogen dioxide levels. Not surprisingly, residents of Auckland and Christchurch, when surveyed on this, were more likely to state that air pollution was a problem in their city than residents of the other large cities.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

SAFETY

This chapter looks at the natural environment - the physical aspects of the environment that are significant to living in cities, such as air, soil, water, drinking water, and waste disposal.

Waitakere and Christchurch have adopted comprehensive policies and programmes to prevent loss of biodiversity on these sites, targeting the threats posed by vegetation clearance, weeds and pests. Other cities have made less progress.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

INTRODUCTION

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Natural Environment

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

7

Introduction Continued...

LINKS

Population and economic growth, especially at the rate anticipated in the four Auckland region cities, places increasing pressure on environmental elements such as air and water. A healthy natural environment contributes to public health. For example, air pollutants can exacerbate cardiopulmonary diseases, asthma and other respiratory diseases. Emissions from motor vehicles and other sources of air pollution (e.g. industry, and fires for home heating) have been linked to more than 1,000 premature deaths per year in New Zealand. Polluted recreational water is also strongly related to human health problems such as stomach and intestinal illness, colds and flu, and skin, eye and ear infections. The effectiveness and sustainability of our waste disposal practices impacts on all of the above (i.e., ineffective waste disposal will create air, water and soil pollution and loss of biodiversity). Increasing water usage resulting in depletion of water supplies is a key factor in loss of biodiversity, water pollution and also impacts on recreational opportunities. Stress is also placed on waterways through point and non - point pollution sources. These factors can compromise the source of a city’s drinking water supply. The quality of drinking water supplied to consumers has a direct impact on people’s health and wellbeing. Biodiversity provides the critical ecosystem processes necessary to maintain life, such as the quality of the atmosphere, the climate, water and soil quality, and waste disposal. Apart from the ethical, aesthetic and cultural reasons behind the need to preserve biological diversity, there are also economic motives to do so. The range of biodiversity impacts on control of pest plants, animals and diseases, provision of food, clothing, building materials and medicines, and is a key component of tourism.

page

100

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Environmental management of landfills in the eight cities is generally of a higher standard than in New Zealand as a whole.

•

All eight cities have kerbside recycling services recovering a good range of emission-intensive materials from the

•

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

waste stream. None of the city councils currently offer a kitchen waste, biosolids, or construction and demolition waste

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

recycling service.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Waste is material that is perceived to have no further use and which is released into the environment as a means of disposal. If it is not effectively managed it can create a range of adverse environmental and human health effects, undermining our ability to live sustainably.

HOUSING

Waste includes solid, liquid or gaseous materials. While this section focuses on solid waste, it should be borne in mind that other major categories of waste produced in cities include liquid trade wastes, sewage, contaminated stormwater, greenhouse gas emissions, and various health - damaging air emissions from vehicles and stationary sources.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

This indicator seeks to assess the eight largest cities’ progress in the management of both waste disposal and waste reduction. Three categories of waste are looked at: • Hazardous wastes - including materials that are flammable, explosive, oxidising, corrosive, toxic, eco -toxic, infectious or radio -active. • Organic wastes - including garden and kitchen wastes, food processing wastes, and sewage sludge. • Emissions-intensive wastes - including metals, paper, glass, concrete and certain other materials associated with major greenhouse gas emissions at an earlier stage in the product life cycle. The indicator does not incorporate data on the total amount of waste produced or recycled per capita. One reason for this is because comparable data is not available for the eight cities.105 In addition to this, total waste and recycling volumes do not provide a reliable measure of the sustainability of waste management practices because of great differences in the environmental significance of various components of the waste stream.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

This indicator instead focuses on the range and quality of waste management and recycling services available to residents in each of the eight cities, focusing on the following ten key questions.106 Is a kerbside collection service for recyclables available to urban residents? Does the kerbside service include recycling of a range of emissions-intensive materials including at least metal cans, glass bottles, paper and some categories of plastics? 3. Is kerbside collection of garden waste available? 4. Is kerbside collection of compostable kitchen waste available? 5. Are biosolids diverted from land -filling to some beneficial use? 6. Are there policy measures to reduce construction and demolition waste disposal? 7. Is there a user/polluter pays policy including full cost recovery on waste treatment and disposal? 8. To manage hazardous waste, are there waste acceptance criteria at city landfills and household drop - off facilities available? 9. Do the landfills accepting most of the city’s waste have leachate collection systems? 10. Do the landfills accepting most of the city’s waste have landfill gas recovery systems?

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

1. 2.

105 There are a number of difficulties, but the main one is that waste in the four Auckland cities is managed by the private sector, and the volumes handled from each city

represent commercially sensitive information. 106 The questions focus on the three priority waste categories set out above, and the waste management priorities set out in The New Zealand Waste Strategy published by

the Government in March 2002. The questions relate to all services available to urban residents, embracing both public and private sector services.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

101

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

•

PEOPLE

Solid waste management and recycling

Solid waste management and recycling Continued...

WHAT DID WE FIND?

In general, the eight cities are performing better on both waste reduction and waste disposal services than New Zealand as a whole. Many smaller cities and communities do not have kerbside recycling services, and without these, recovery of materials from the waste stream is lower. In addition, despite some improvement in recent years, surveys by the Ministry for the Environment show that substandard landfills remain widespread in New Zealand. 107 The following table reproduces answers from the eight largest cities to the ten questions, on the previous page. POSITION OF EACH CITY IN WASTE MANAGEMENT AND RECYCLING (2003) = WASTE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA ONLY

Questions

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

1. Kerbside collection for recyclables 2. Emission intensive collection 3. Garden waste collection 108 4. Kitchen waste collection 5. Diversion of biosolids 6. Use of construction and demolition waste 7. Polluter pays policy 8. Hazardous waste 9. Leachate collection 10.Gas recovery Data source: Ecologic Foundation (interviews of councils and landfill operators June 2003)

Several cities also support community waste education activities including, in some cases, a cleaner production advisory service for business. The four Auckland region cities are involved in a joint pilot project that should lead to more effective management of construction and demolition waste in future.Representatives from Hamilton City Council, Christchurch City Council and North Shore City Council, in partnership with the Building and Research Association of New Zealand (BRANZ), have formed a working group to develop a national programme aimed at reducing and diverting construction and demolition waste from landfills. In 2002, 53% of New Zealand’s landfills lacked leachate collection systems, and 90% lacked landfill gas extraction systems. In the Ministry for the Environment’s landfill surveys, landfill operators generally claim to have rules excluding hazardous waste from landfills, but a variety of definitions of hazardous waste are used. Some landfills in small communities have no effective controls over site access and many have no collection system for small quantities of hazardous waste being deposited by households, farmers and other users.

107 1998 -9 National Landfill Census Report, Ministry for the Environment 2000; The 2002 Landfill Review and Audit, Ministry for the Environment 2003. 108 Garden waste service are available to residents of all the eight cities on a user- pays basis through commercial operators.

page

102

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

Good progress has been made in most cities in surveying and mapping sites important for land-based biodiversity.

•

Waitakere and Christchurch have adopted comprehensive policies and programmes to prevent loss of biodiversity on these sites. The other six cities also have a range of initiatives in place to conserve and sustain their biodiversity. Marine and freshwater biodiversity is not well protected in most cities.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Biodiversity

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Biodiversity is a short- hand term for the variety of life on earth (plants, animals, insects, bacteria, etc.), their genetic variation and the habitats and ecosystems that support them. This indicator focuses on biodiversity that is native to New Zealand.

HOUSING

New Zealand has a very high level of endemic biodiversity (plants, animals and ecosystems found nowhere else in the world). In February 2000, the Government adopted The New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy which seeks to ensure that individuals and communities take responsibility for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity, with particular reference to halting the decline of native biodiversity.109

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

This indicator makes a qualitative assessment focused on the following questions: 1. Is good survey information available on the terrestrial biodiversity of the city, including mapping of sites identified for protection? 2. Are policies in place that are expected to prevent further loss of terrestrial biodiversity through vegetation clearance on sites identified for protection? 3. Are weed and pest control programmes sufficient to maintain the terrestrial biodiversity resources that are identified as needing protection? 4. Is there at least one marine reserve near to the city? 5. Are the opportunities for residents to harvest finfish and shellfish largely free of significant curtailment from problem factors such as over-fishing, invasive species and pollution impacts? Questions 1 to 3 focus on sites of high value for conservation of terrestrial (land - based) biodiversity, regardless of whether on public or private land. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Waitakere and Christchurch have adopted comprehensive policies and programmes to prevent loss of biodiversity on these sites, targeting the threats posed by vegetation clearance, weeds and pests. Other cities have made less progress in protecting land - based biodiversity but all have a range of initiatives in place aimed at making progress.

109 The Ministry for the Environment plans to publicly notify a National Policy Statement On Indigenous Biodiversity in August /September 2003. This should provide

guidance to local authorities on implementing provisions of the Resource Management Act 1991 relevant to conserving and sustainably managing indigenous biodiversity.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

103

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

All coastal cities except Dunedin have at least one marine reserve to protect marine biodiversity near to the city. Sustainable use of marine and freshwater biodiversity is important to many urban residents, but is not well protected in most cities. In particular, the ability of city residents to gather shellfish is often restricted by contaminated water, and by other environmental trends which are reducing shellfish abundance.

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Good progress has been made in most cities in surveying and mapping sites important for land - based biodiversity.

Biodiversity Continued...

The following table summarises data collated for the eight cities in relation to the five questions. POSITION OF EACH CITY IN CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY (2003)

Questions

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

1. Survey/ mapping 2. Protect to prevent 3. Pest control 4. Marine reserve 5. Fishing Data source: Information from city councils, regional councils, Department of Conservation and Ministry of Fisheries, reviewed by Ecologic Foundation June 2003

In general, the eight cities are doing better than the rest of New Zealand in surveying and mapping the presence of significant terrestrial biodiversity within their boundaries. 110 Most cities reported plans and management programmes in the development phase which once implemented, would put the largest cities in a leadership position relative to New Zealand as a whole. It is not so clear that they are doing better at actually protecting the biodiversity thus identified. Because of their concentrations of population, its associated pressure on resources, and their contaminated stormwater, sediment and (in some cases) sewage discharges, large cities have particular difficulties in protecting the recreational and sustenance fisheries which are highly valued by their residents. While the health and wellbeing of marine and freshwater biodiversity around many cities seems to have been improving in recent years, fishing opportunities still appear to be significantly more constrained around most of the eight cities, than around New Zealand as a whole. The State of New Zealand’s Environment report characterises coastal water quality as high in most areas, except for a number of polluted estuaries, including notably the Waitemata, Manukau, Wellington, and Avon -Heathcote in Christchurch.111 Sewage discharges are a major constraint on people’s ability to safely harvest shellfish. Since 1997, substantial progress has been made with engineering upgrades to prevent sewage overflows into these harbours (other than the Avon -Heathcote). However, overflows are continuing periodically to affect shellfish in these locations, and stormwater discharges cause harmful substances to accumulate in shellfish, especially near to outfalls. Preliminary data from the Ministry of Fisheries’ soon -to - be - published National Recreational Fishing Survey and other reports on the perceptions of recreational fishers show that, while fisher satisfaction is high in most parts of the country, there are problems with harvesting shellfish around Christchurch and Wellington, and with both finfish and shellfish around Auckland and the Bay of Plenty. In this north - eastern fisheries area, 57% of finfish anglers and 44% of shellfish/rock lobster fishers believe that fishing grounds are being lost to them, or were no longer worth visiting, because of over-fishing.112 More recently, restrictions on trawling in the Hauraki Gulf and reductions in total allowable commercial catches are thought to have led to an improved situation for recreational finfishing around the four cities in the Auckland region.

110 The Department of Conservation (DOC) under the Protected Natural Areas Programme, accounts for the great majority of biodiversity serveying and site mapping in

New Zealand. DOC reports that 90 of the 206 ecological districts requiring serveying were completed as at June 2003. 111 Ministry for the Environment 1997, State of New Zealand’s Environment. page 7.72. 112 See Motivations and Perceptions of Seawater Recreational Fishers in New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries Project REC9802, Kim Walshe and Jo Ackroyd,

March 2000. page 3.

page

104

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Christchurch had the highest rate of PM10 exceedences between 1997 and 2001 (58 days were exceeded in 2002).

•

Christchurch and Auckland recorded the highest annual average levels of PM10 in relation to the other cities.

•

Auckland and Christchurch had the highest carbon monoxide levels in relation to the other cities.

•

Auckland recorded the highest levels of nitrogen dioxide in relation to other cities that monitored such levels.

•

Residents of Auckland and Christchurch were more likely to state that air pollution was a problem in their city than

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Air quality

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

residents of the other large cities.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Good air quality is essential for human health and the health of the natural environment. Factors that impact on air quality include domestic home heating, motor vehicle emissions, industrial emissions, outdoor burning (including agricultural burning and rubbish fires), plant pollens, dust, and sea spray. Increases in population, industry and motor vehicles impact directly on air quality in New Zealand’s eight largest cities.

Levels of particulate matter

•

Carbon monoxide levels

•

Nitrogen dioxide levels

•

Residents’ perception of air pollution as a problem.

It should be noted that data from the worst case monitored site in each city was used (Hamilton only has one air monitoring site). In some areas this may be a ‘residential neighbourhood’ site or it may be a ‘peak’ site. The location of air monitoring sites can change from year to year within cities. The following analysis of recorded results has taken these site changes into account. Site classifications are described in the Good Practice Guide for Air Quality Monitoring and Data Management published by the Ministry for the Environment, 1999. WHAT DID WE FIND?

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

A report released by the Ministry of Transport estimates that 400 people aged 30 years and over die prematurely each year from exposure to microscopic particles from vehicle emissions.113 (This equates to about 80% of the number of deaths annually from road traffic injuries.) The report also estimates that 64% of the increased premature mortality occurs in the greater Auckland region, and that 970 people from the same age group die prematurely each year from air pollution derived from all sources (including fires for home heating).

HEALTH

Exceedences of air quality guidelines

•

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

•

HOUSING

Five measures are used to assess air quality:

SAFETY

113 Ministry of Transport, January 2002. Health Effects Due to Motor Vehicle Air Pollution in New Zealand. Ministry of Transport, Wellington. 114 High levels of suspended particulate (fine dust) can directly impact on the health and well- being of residents. Larger particles are not generally a problem for human

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

This measure looks at the number of days per year that the air quality guidelines for PM10 (particulate matter suspended in the air that have a diameter of less than 10 microns) was exceeded.114 The main source of particulate matter in most areas of New Zealand is solid fuel burning for domestic home heating. Other sources include the combustion of fossil fuels in motor vehicles, industrial emissions, outdoor burning, and natural sources such as sea spray, pollens and dust. Levels of particulate matter are generally higher in winter than in summer due to wood fires being used to heat homes and because winter weather conditions are more conducive to elevated pollution.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Exceedences of air quality guidelines

health since they fall rapidly out of the atmosphere. High concentrations of smaller particles (less than 10 microns in size or PM10) however, can penetrate the lungs and damage the respiratory tissues.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

105

Air quality Continued...

The ambient air quality guidelines for New Zealand were reviewed by the Ministry for the Environment in 2002. For particles in the air less than 10 microns in diameter (PM10), the guidelines are 20 µg m -3 for an annual average and 50 µg m -3 for a 24 - hour average.115 Of the eight cities, Christchurch experienced the most exceedences for PM10 (58 days in 2001). Dunedin experienced two years (1998 and 2002) with 25 days that exceeded air quality guideline levels (exceedences recorded were predominantly for Mosgiel in the Tairei Valley outside urban Dunedin). Fires for home heating are a key factor in the high rates of air pollution in Christchurch - its geography and meteorology being contributing factors to air pollution in winter (i.e. temperature inversions occur over Christchurch during winter and can trap air pollution near the ground). NUMBER OF EXCEEDENCES OF AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES FOR PM10 (DAYS PER YEAR) (1997 TO 2002)

Guideline exceedences (Days per year*)

North Shore

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

7

0

0

n /a

8

n /a

Waitakere

n /a

0

7

0

0

n /a

Auckland

20

14

13

14

7

n /a

Manukau

4

1

2

n /a

n /a

n /a

Hamilton

n /a

0

8

1

10

n /a

Wellington

n /a

n /a

11

7

10

n /a

Christchurch

52

32

44

39

58

n /a

Dunedin

12

25

6

16

15

25

Data source: Environet Ltd. *Data are extrapolated for missing values and adjusted to high - volume sample equivalent concentrations. This includes adjusting the number of guideline exceedences statistically based on the number of days that monitoring was carried out. n /a = not available

Levels of particulate matter This measure looks at the annual average PM10 levels per city. When viewed over the period of a year, Christchurch’s PM10 levels are still higher than the other cities’ readings. Concentrations in Auckland were also well above the Ministry for the Environment’s annual average guideline of 20 µg m -3 each year. Little variation in annual levels of PM10 is apparent in Hamilton and Wellington, while Dunedin recorded slightly lower levels in 2001 and 2002. ANNUAL AVERAGE LEVELS OF PM10 (1997 TO 2002)

Annual average PM10 (µg m -3) 1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

North Shore

19

15

Waitakere

n /a

18

15

14

14

n /a

21

17

19

n /a

Auckland

25

30

28

Manukau

n /a

19

14

28

23

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

Hamilton

n /a

n /a

20

22

21

n /a

Wellington

n /a

n /a

Christchurch

33

26

18

18

20

20

34

29

32

33

Dunedin

n /a

19

18

18

14

15

Data source: Environet Ltd. n /a = not available

115 µg m -3 = micrograms per cubic metre of air.

page

106

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Carbon monoxide levels This measure looks at the maximum carbon monoxide concentration (CO) measured at each city location per year.116 Health effects associated with exposure to CO include headaches, dizziness and nausea, and can result in problems with visual perception, dexterity, learning ability and the ability to perform sensorimotor tasks. At very high concentrations (higher than those found in ambient air), carbon monoxide can result in unconsciousness and death. Sources of ambient air carbon monoxide concentrations typically include motor vehicle emissions, domestic home heating, outdoor burning and industry.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Air quality guidelines for CO have been set by the Ministry for the Environment at 30 mg m -3 for a 1- hour average concentration and 10 mg m -3 for an 8- hour average.117 These guidelines were set to maintain blood concentrations of COHb at less than 2.5%, at any level of physical activity. The guidelines (for both the 1- hour and 8- hour average) were exceeded in Auckland (1997 to 2001), Wellington (1998), Christchurch (1997 to 2002), and Dunedin (1998 and 1999). The highest hourly average CO concentrations were recorded in Auckland (38 mg m -3 in 1999) and Dunedin (41 mg m -3 in 1998 and 36 mg m -3 in 1999).

HOUSING

Christchurch and Auckland had the worst 8- hour average concentrations of the eight cities, although higher concentrations were recorded in Wellington in 1998. MAXIMUM CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) LEVEL (1997 TO 2002)

1999

2000

North Shore

17

Waitakere

8

2001

2002

14

14

8

11

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

n /a

6

8

20

n /a

10

7

9

n /a

4

n /a

n /a

n /a

4

4

3

5

n /a

22

19

38

21

19

n /a

14

14

25

11

12

n /a

Manukau

n /a

13

12

6

22

n /a

n /a

8

9

4

9

n /a

Hamilton

n /a

9

7

5

9

n /a

n /a

5

4

3

7

n /a

Wellington

3

27

12

2

2

1

3

26

11

2

2

1

Christchurch

27

20

25

20

20

26

20

14

21

16

16

16

Dunedin

5

41

36

8

6

14

5

13

11

5

3

10 BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Auckland

HEALTH

1998

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

1997

Maximum 8-hour average CO (mg m -3)

Data source: Environet Ltd. n /a = not available

Nitrogen dioxide levels This measure looks at the maximum nitrogen dioxide concentration measured at each city location per year. Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) is brown gas that is both pungent and acidic.118 NO 2 is formed through the oxidation of nitrogen oxide in the atmosphere as well as from direct emission from the combustion of fossil fuels. The main source of NO 2 in most urban environments is motor vehicle emissions, although burning of other fossil fuels (for example, coal, gas and oil) will also produce NO 2.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Air quality guidelines for NO 2 have been set by the Ministry for the Environment at a maximum of 200 µg m -3 for a 1- hour average concentration and 100 µg m -3 for a 24 - hour average.

116 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas that is produced as a product of incomplete combustion. When inhaled, CO is absorbed into the

bloodstream where it combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb).

117 mg m -3 = Milligrams per cubic metre of air. 118 NO is a respiratory irritant that affects lung function and can lower resistance to respiratory infections. It may also increase reactivity to natural allergens. 2

Young children, children and adults with asthma, and adults with heart and respiratory problems are the most susceptible to concentrations of NO 2.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

SAFETY

Maximum 1-hour average CO (mg m -3)

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Air quality

107

Air quality Continued...

Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin are the only cities of the eight that have consistently measured days of NO 2 exceedences per year. Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington and Christchurch were the only cities that monitored the hourly average. In both measures, the levels of NO 2 in Auckland far exceeds those measured in other cities. In Auckland the maximum one - hour average NO 2 levels exceeded the Ministry for the Environment’s air quality guidelines between 1998 and 2001. In all other areas monitored, NO 2 concentrations were within the guidelines. MAXIMUM NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO 2) LEVEL (1997 TO 2002)

1-hour average NO2 (µg m -3)

24-hour average NO2 (µg m -3)

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

North Shore

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

101

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

53

n /a

Waitakere

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

Auckland

97

418

246

433

311

n /a

68

117

120

122

135

n /a

Manukau

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

Hamilton

n /a

96

170

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

49

59

n /a

n /a

n /a

Wellington

n /a

53

n /a

13

22

17

n /a

50

n /a

11

20

16

Christchurch

119

93

112

108

106

n /a

50

34

37

37

52

n /a

Dunedin

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

n /a

20

30

29

20

n /a

n /a

Data source: Environet Ltd. n /a = not available

Residents’ perception of air pollution as a problem This measure presents survey results of residents’ rating of air pollution in their city. Residents in the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 were asked to rate how much of a problem air pollution has been in their neighbourhood in the last twelve months on a five point scale from ‘a big problem’ to ‘not a problem at all’. Perception varied across the cities. In line with other findings regarding air pollution, Christchurch and Auckland residents were significantly more likely than others to state that air pollution was a problem or a big problem (52% and 40% respectively). Wellington and Dunedin residents were least likely to see this as a problem (6% and 9% respectively). Ethnicity was a factor in responses. Maori and Pacific Islands residents were more likely to feel that air pollution was a problem in their neighbourhood than other respondents - just under half (42%) of all Pacific Islands and one third (35%) of Maori residents rated it as a problem, or big problem, in their neighbourhood compared with 27% European and 24% Asian/Indian residents.

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF AIR POLLUTION AS A PROBLEM IN THEIR NEIGHBOURHOOD (2002) Data source: Eight Cites Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in the graph, therefore figures might not add to 100 per cent.

Not a problem at all 36

14 23

35

16 38

48

Not much of a problem 13

40 Somewhat of a problem

PERCENT

27

37

33

9 15

A big problem

10

North Shore

Waitakere

108

Auckland

34

35

11 18

26

38

22 15

9 3

A problem

17 15

page

18

32

11

13

8 3

Manukau

Hamilton

10

26

4 2 Wellington Christchurch

16 7 2 Dunedin

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

In general, the risk to public health is relatively low at the majority of marine water sites (beaches and harbours) sampled across the eight cities. Waitakere, Christchurch, Dunedin and Hamilton are the only cities of the eight that currently monitor freshwater

•

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

bathing quality at selected streams and lakes. North Shore, Auckland, Manukau and Hamilton residents rated water pollution as more of a problem in their neighbourhoods than people in other cities.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Beach and stream/lake water quality is measured to ensure that the water is safe for human recreational use and to show the impact of human activity on beaches and natural waterways. High levels of bacteria can directly impact on the health and wellbeing of citizens as they indicate the presence of pathogens (illness- causing bugs). A key factor in the quality of beach and stream/lake water is the quality of a city’s stormwater and sewerage systems. Water quality data is analysed using the Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health national recreational water quality guidelines (1999).119 New water quality guidelines were published in July 2002 for use in future bathing seasons.

HEALTH

Three measures were used for this indicator: • Public health risk at selected marine bathing sites • Public health risk at selected freshwater bathing sites • Residents’ rating of water pollution as a problem in their neighbourhood.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

HOUSING

•

PEOPLE

Beach and stream/lake water quality

The number of monitoring sites (marine and freshwater) varies considerably across the eight cities, largely dependent upon the geography of the city. For example, cities with harbours and beaches have more marine monitoring sites whereas Hamilton which is an inland city has no monitoring sites. Public health risk is based around the number of times warning signs are erected, which is shown as a percentage of the number of samples taken over the bathing season.120 For example, in the 2001/2002 North Shore bathing season 624 samples were taken and warning signs were erected once (1/624 x 100 = 0.2%).121 The rate of public health risk is relatively low in six out of the seven cities that monitor marine water quality. This seems to be far higher in Waitakere, but can be attributed to the use of different sampling and analysis methodologies.122

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Public health risk at selected marine bathing sites

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

WHAT DID WE FIND?

of different methodologies being implemented around the country. The differences in methodologies used by the individual councils contributes to some inconsistencies in results, therefore the comparison of data shown within this section is difficult. 120 Public Health Risk (%) is calculated by taking the total number of times public warning signs were erected, dividing it by the total number of single samples taken over the season, then multiplying it by 100 to obtain a percentage. 121 Public warning signs are erected when there are two consecutive samples greater than 277 enterococci/100ml. * Manukau City Council erected permanent public warning signs at a number of sites each season (1999/2000 = 3 sites, 2000/2001 = 2 sites, 2001/2002 = 1 site). 122 Waitakere City Council erect public warning signs after recording a single sample greater than 277 enterococci/100ml, while the national guidelines only require public warning signs to be erected when there has been two consecutive samples greater than 277 enterococci/100ml in a 24 hour period.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

109

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

119 The Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health recreational water quality guidelines are open to interpretation by each council. This has resulted in a number

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Five out of the eight largest cities in New Zealand did not monitor freshwater bathing quality between 1999/2000 and 2001/2002. However, Hamilton has initiated a programme for the 2002/2003 bathing season, and North Shore proposes to set up a monitoring programme for Lake Pupuke for the 2003/2004 bathing season.

SAFETY

Public health risk at selected freshwater bathing sites

Beach and stream/lake water quality Continued...

As with marine water quality, public health risk is based around the number of times warning signs are erected, which is shown as a percentage of the number of samples taken over the bathing season. The rate of public health risk at Christchurch and Dunedin freshwater sites appears significantly higher than those recorded in Waitakere. This difference is not necessarily due to poorer water quality in the south, but can be attributed to the difference in the total number of samples taken over the sampling season. For example, in the 2000/2001 bathing season, Dunedin only monitored twice at their one sampling site and erected signs once (1/2 x 100 = 50%). In comparison, Waitakere monitored 8 sites 21 times and erected warning signs 15 times (15/168 x 100 = 8.9%).123 It is therefore very difficult to compare the rates of public health risk for Waitakere, Christchurch and Dunedin freshwater sites. Residents’ rating of water pollution as a problem in their neighbourhood This measure presents residents’ ratings of water pollution in their neighbourhood. Residents in the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 were asked to rate how much of a problem water pollution has been in their neighbourhood in the previous twelve months, on a five point scale from ‘a big problem’ to ‘not a problem at all’. Responses varied across the eight cities with North Shore, Auckland and Manukau residents significantly more likely than others to state that water pollution was a problem or a big problem. Just over half of all North Shore respondents (51%) stated that it was a problem/big problem compared with 18% in Wellington and 20% in Dunedin. Maori and Pacific Islands residents were more likely to feel that water pollution was a problem in their neighbourhood than other ethnic groups. Just under half of all Pacific Islands (48%) and Maori (47%) residents rated it as a problem/big problem in their neighbourhood, compared with 33% European and 18% Asian/Indian residents.

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF WATER POLLUTION AS A PROBLEM IN THEIR NEIGHBOURHOOD (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Not a problem at all 11

Not much of a problem

11 21

17 14

26

17 20 21

PERCENT

19

21 29

21

A problem 29

28 29

20 16

Somewhat of a problem

A big problem

21

28

21 23

24

18

20

26

23 18

30

16

15 21

21

9 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

14 Hamilton

13

13 5

10

Wellington Christchurch

7 Dunedin

123 Water quality is tested using indicator species. The indicators used for testing freshwater and marine water are different - freshwater is E.coli, marine is Enterococci.

The numerical thresholds are also different due to the different indicator species and methodologies used for testing freshwater and marine water - 410 for E.Coli, 277 for Enterococci.

page

110

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Waitakere and Hamilton have excellent grades for drinking water quality.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Water is essential to all life and is a fundamental resource for cities to operate effectively. Access to a continuous and high quality supply of water is often taken for granted, with little consideration for the environmental, social, and economic effects associated with its supply. Taking water from groundwater rivers and other natural sources for urban water supply can reduce the quantity and quality of fresh water available for the natural functions of ecosystems, and can have adverse impacts on flora and fauna.124 Additional stress is placed on these waterways through point (e.g., stormwater discharge and treated wastewater effluent) and non - point (e.g., agricultural run - off, particularly from dairy farms) pollution sources. 125 These factors can compromise the source of a city’s drinking water supply. Other factors that may impact on the quality of our drinking water are the methods of water treatment used and the condition of the water reticulation network.

HOUSING

Three measures are used for this indicator: • Public health water quality grading • E. coli and Cryptosporidium compliance at water treatment plants • E. coli compliance of water distribution zones.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

PEOPLE

Drinking water quality

WHAT DID WE FIND? HEALTH

Public health water quality grading

WATER TREATMENT PLANT GRADINGS

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Water Information New Zealand (WINZ) states that a drinking water supply for 500 or more people should have a public health grading. This consists of a single grading for each treatment plant. Gradings for distribution zones are also given. Gradings are shown below. DISTRIBUTION ZONE GRADINGS OF WATER RETICULATION NETWORKS

Completely satisfactory, negligible level of risk, demonstrably high quality

a

Completely satisfactory, negligible level of risk, demonstrably high quality

A

Completely satisfactory, very low level of risk

b

Satisfactory, low level of risk

B

Satisfactory, low level of risk

c

Marginal, moderate level of risk, may be acceptable in some small communities

C

Marginal, moderate level of risk, may be acceptable in some small communities

d

Unsatisfactory, high level of risk

D

Unsatisfactory, high level of risk

e

Completely unsatisfactory, very high level of risk

E

Completely unsatisfactory, very high level of risk

u

Not yet graded (Not yet required if less than 500 people)

U

Ungraded

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

A1

124 About half of New Zealand’s drinking water is pumped from the ground. 125 The Health of People and Communities: The effect of environmental factors on the health of New Zealanders (Report to the Minister of Health from the Public Health

Advisory Committee, October 2002).

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

111

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Drinking water is supplied to the four Auckland region cities by WaterCare Services. Wellington is supplied by the Wellington Regional Council. Drinking water for Hamilton, Christchurch and Dunedin is supplied by their respective city councils.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Treatment plant and source grading is based primarily on the likely health risks to the community and is, in effect, used as an indicator of the health risk of the water supply and not a direct grading of the drinking water quality. The distribution zone refers to all or part of a city, district or community that receives similar quality water from its taps.

SAFETY

Data source: www.drinkingwater.org.nz

Drinking water quality Continued...

Some of the treatment plant and distribution zone gradings have not been updated for some considerable time. Therefore the results for this measure need to be looked at in conjunction with the other two key drinking water quality measures (i.e. E. coli and Cryptosporidium compliance at water treatment plant(s), and E. coli compliance of water distribution zones). Three of the Auckland region cities (North Shore, Auckland and Manukau) received a ‘u’ for their water treatment plant because of the addition in 2002 of the new Waikato River drinking - water treatment plant that will service them. However, these plants are likely to return to their previous ‘A’ grade once they are able to be re - graded, which cannot occur until the new plants have been operating for a year and the whole grading system, which has been under review for the last two years, is implemented. Waitakere and Hamilton have excellent grades for drinking water quality (Aa). Lower results were recorded for Wellington (Bd), Christchurch (Ba) and Dunedin (Ed).126 PUBLIC HEALTH WATER QUALITY GRADING (JANUARY 2003)

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

ua

Aa

ua

ua

Aa

Bd

Ba

Ed

Data source: www.drinkingwater.org.nz NB: The default way to summarise multiple drinking - water zones to arrive at a single grading for a whole city is to use the grading from the worst zone in that city.

E. coli and Cryptosporidium compliance at water treatment plants Under the Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand 2000 (DWSNZ 2000) local authorities are required to regularly test drinking water to demonstrate its safety.127 There are two components to treatment plant compliance: E. coli (monitoring for E. coli and/or chlorine concentrations in the water as it leaves the treatment plant); and Cryptosporidium (demonstrating that the filtration and/or disinfection treatment is maintained such that it kills or removes at least 99.9% of Cryptosporidium cysts). Treatment plant and distribution zone status is given in addition to the water supply grade to allow a more complete assessment of the drinking-water quality of the supplies listed above.128 All water treatment plants achieved E. coli compliance. The exception was Dunedin where upgrades are in progress or being planned to ensure full Cryptosporidium protection within the next two years.129 E. coli compliance of water distribution zones E. coli compliance can be achieved by regular monitoring of the distribution zone to demonstrate that E. coli are not present in tap water. During 2002, the Hamilton zone, one of the six Christchurch zones, and five of the seven Dunedin zones were recorded as not complying with the DWSNZ 2000. This was primarily due to minor variances in the prescribed sampling procedures of DWSNZ 2000. It should be noted that at no stage was the quality of drinking water compromised in these three cities. For example, in Hamilton’s case, although the required tests were undertaken on a frequent standardised basis throughout 2002, the interpretation by Hamilton City Council of the sampling frequency was slightly different to that envisaged by the Ministry of Health. The correct interpretation has now been agreed to between these organisations, and this revised sampling frequency has now been in place since January 2003. E. COLI COMPLIANCE OF WATER DISTRIBUTION ZONES (2002)

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Comply

Comply

Comply

Comply

No

Comply

No

No

Data source: Water Information New Zealand

126 Wellington’s distribution zone grading of ‘d’ results from the Eastern Wellington zone only; all other Wellington zones are ‘a’ or ‘b’ grade. Christchurch’s drinking

water is extracted from deep bores without significant treatment, hence the best grading the treatment plant can attain is ‘B’. Dunedin has seven rural water schemes at various gradings. The main water supply supplies water to 50% of Dunedin residents at B grade and the balance at E grade. Current and future upgrades will ensure the E grade supplies receive a B grading (from the Ministry of Health) by 2005/2006. 127 Ministry of Health in January 2001. Under this standard drinking water is defined as ‘water intended to be used for human consumption, food preparation, utensil washing, oral hygiene or personal hygiene’. 128 A ‘C’ or ‘c’ grade is the best that can be achieved if a supply does not demonstrate microbiological compliance at the plant or zone. Some supplies have been reclassified to ‘u’ as the system is under review which has prohibited re - classification. 129 Water Information New Zealand.

page

112

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

• • • • • •

PEOPLE

Look and feel of the city City green space Graffiti Noise pollution Traffic and transport Public transport

KEY POINTS

More Wellington residents have a sense of pride in their city than residents in any of the other eight cities. Christchurch and Dunedin also rated highly with their residents. The indicators in this chapter cover some of the factors that may have contributed to these ratings on civic pride. Greenscape areas in a city are important in helping to mitigate the effects of urbanisation. All of the eight cities have more than 5 hectares of council managed greenspace for every 1,000 people, while Wellington, Dunedin and Christchurch have over 18 hectares. Wellington’s public transport system rated highest on all three scales of affordability, safety and convenience. In line with this, Wellington also had the lowest proportion of motor vehicle ownership while North Shore had the highest.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

LINKS WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER

HOUSING HEALTH

Cities that had the highest proportion of residents who considered that graffiti was a problem were Manukau and Auckland. However, residents in most cities did perceive it as an issue although levels of perception varied. Other issues identified were traffic congestion, safety, dangerous driving and ‘hoons’.

The way each city is built has an impact on the way residents feel about where they live. The way the city is designed, the safety of the roads, proximity to services and relationships with neighbours all impact on the liveability of a city. Aspects of the built environment can impact on people’s health, sense of community, and the sustainability of the natural environment. The amount of natural attributes that remain in the city throughout development can contribute to peoples’ sense of place. Green spaces also contribute to improving a city’s air quality. Provision of an affordable, safe and convenient public transport system can contribute to a city’s wellbeing, as the high dependence on private motor vehicles will only further exacerbate traffic congestion, safety, dangerous driving and the other issues raised by residents. The wellbeing of a community is clearly impacted upon by increasing population and housing densities. The difficulty faced by central and local governments is how to maintain the delicate balance of the natural environment whilst aiming for population growth and the economies of scale that a critical mass can bring.

page

113

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The built environment is an important contributor to the way people feel about where they live and has a huge impact on the sustainability of the natural environment. The way urban land is used to accommodate growth in households and industry also impacts on the costs and accessibility of housing, transport and employment. Poor access to these can impact on resident’s health, their sense of safety, and community wellbeing.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

Manukau and Auckland residents were more likely to state that noise pollution was a problem in their neighbourhood. At the other end of the country, Dunedin residents did not perceive this as a problem at all.

SAFETY

This chapter looks at the many aspects of the developed environment that make up a city, and that are important considerations in fostering a good quality of life for the city’s residents.

However, overall, the motor vehicle is still the dominant mode of transport to work in all eight cities.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

INTRODUCTION

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

8

Built Environment

Look and feel of the city

•

The majority of city residents feel a sense of pride in their city (ranging from 51% in Manukau to 87% in Wellington).

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Ideally, residents of a city feel a sense of pride and enjoyment about the area in which they live. This indicator acts as a barometer of how residents in the eight cities feel about the various aspects that comprise the built environment and their city’s liveability. The data is drawn from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Residents were asked whether they agreed or disagreed with the statement “I feel a sense of pride in the way my city looks and feels,” on a five point scale from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Overall, the majority of surveyed residents in each city agreed that they felt a sense of pride in the way their city looks and feels. The residents who agreed or strongly agreed ranged from 51% in Manukau to 87% in Wellington. Christchurch and Dunedin recorded high ratings of 84% and 82% respectively. RESIDENTS’ RATING OF SENSE OF PRIDE IN THE WAY THEIR CITY LOOKS AND FEELS (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Strongly agree 15

12

13

7

Agree

16 35

30

Neither agree nor disagree

35

Disagree

44

PERCENT

53

51

Strongly disagree

63

58

52

49

11

10

2

3

52

26

27

25 16

22

3

6 2

9 2

6

4

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

18

Wellington Christchurch

10 5

Dunedin

Some residents were more likely than others to agree that they felt a sense of pride in their city. These tended to be European and Asian/Indian residents, females aged 55 and over, those on personal incomes of less than $20,000 per year and those who felt that their overall quality of life was good or extremely good.130

130 Perceptions of overall quality of life is reported in the Social Connectedness chapter of this report.

page

114

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Residents were also asked the reason why they responded as they did. Although many responses tended to be city- specific, several main themes were evident. Those who agreed that they feel a sense of pride about how their city looks and feels, provided the following reasons: • like the gardens and parks / enjoyed open spaces (particularly Christchurch) • felt that their city was clean and tidy • had a great atmosphere and a good sense of community.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Those who disagreed provided the following reasons: • safety concerns (particularly Auckland and Manukau) • graffiti (particularly Manukau) • traffic congestion and roading concerns.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Look and feel of the city

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

HOUSING

Many of these matters are explored further in this chapter and in other parts of this report.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

115

City green space

•

All of the eight cities have more than five hectares of council managed green space for every 1,000 people.

•

Wellington, Dunedin and Christchurch have over 18 hectares for every 1,000 people.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Greenscape areas in a city, such as parks and gardens, perform a number of important functions. They help protect and enhance ecosystems, they help mitigate the effects of urbanisation by providing green areas within the city environment, and they provide residents with a range of recreational activities and opportunities. Green space also helps maintain a sense of community within the city. This indicator looks at the hectares of public green space in each city. The definition of ‘green space’ or ‘open space’ varies from council to council making this difficult to measure in a comparable way. Therefore the indicator is based on the actual hectares per council according to each council’s own definition as recorded in their District Plan. This means that the total per city could also include greenspace under the ownership of regional councils. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Green space is generally defined across the eight cities as ‘open space’ under the management and control of, or leased by the city council. This can include sports areas (parks that are designed to accommodate sports fields, courts etc), parks and gardens (includes passive recreational spaces, historic reserves, scenic reserves), riverside walks and other like areas. The table below shows the actual hectares of green space per council and the hectares per 1,000 of population. Each council has assessed their greenspace in different years so the data is not directly comparable at a single point in time, but is indicative over the period shown.131 TOTAL HECTARES OF GREEN SPACE PER CITY ASSESSED AT DIFFERENT TIMES OVER FIVE YEARS IN EACH CITY (1999 TO 2003) 132

Total hectares

Combined hectares per 1,000 head of population

North Shore

1,351

7.3

Waitakere

1,151

6.8

Auckland

2,179

5.9

Manukau

2,528

8.9

Hamilton

972

8.5

3,243

19.8

Christchurch

5,710

18.1

Dunedin

2,225

19.5

Wellington

Data source: Participating councils

All of the eight cities have more than five hectares of council managed green space for every 1,000 of population. Wellington, Dunedin and Christchurch all recorded very high ratios at 19.8, 19.5 and 18.1 respectively. Since the Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Six Largest Cities 2001 report, Wellington, Christchurch and Manukau appear to have increased their greenspace as their population has grown. The year and frequency of assessment varies from council to council. Hamilton and Dunedin are the only councils that have conducted a regular assessment of green space. In Hamilton’s case, green space has increased from 893 hectares in 1999 to 972.4 in 2003. Dunedin’s has remained static over that period; however both cities have seen population growth.

131 Assessed: Auckland 1999, North Shore 2000, Manukau and Wellington 2001, Waitakere 2002, Hamilton, Christchurch and Dunedin 2003. 132 Defined as open space under the management and control of, or leased by the city council as well as sports areas (parks that are designed to accommodate sports fields,

courts etc) and parks and gardens (includes passive recreational space, historic reserve, scenic reserve etc).Waitakere figures include parks. Park boundaries follow the legal surveyed boundaries and do not include road reserves, drainage and regional council land. In Manukau rural heritage (129 ha) and esplanade reserve and drainage (431.4 ha) are not used in the calculation ha /1,000 population. Kiripaka Wildlife Scenic Reserve (523.5 ha) which is jointly owned by Manukau City Council, Auckland Regional Council, and Department of Conservation, and maintained by Manukau City Council is included. Hamilton excludes 62 ha surrounding Horseshoe Lake in the north - west of Hamilton that is ultimately intended to become a natural heritage park (at present it is leased for farming purposes).

page

116

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

and Hamilton.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Graffiti strongly impacts on the way people feel about where they live. It is perceived as an act of vandalism and can contribute to people feeling unsafe in their neighbourhood - impacting negatively on their wellbeing. This indicator presents survey results of how residents rate graffiti in their neighbourhood. Respondents to the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 were asked to rate how much of a problem graffiti has been in their neighbourhood in the previous twelve months, on a five point scale from ‘a big problem’ to ‘not a problem at all’.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Graffiti is perceived as problematic in five out of the eight cities - Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau, Christchurch

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

PEOPLE

Graffiti

WHAT DID WE FIND?

HOUSING

The percentage of residents who perceived that graffiti was a problem or a big problem in their neighbourhood varied across the eight cities. Almost three quarters (72%) of Dunedin residents felt that it was not much of a problem at all. Over half of the residents surveyed in Manukau (62%) and Auckland (52%) stated that graffiti was a problem or a big problem in their neighbourhood.

HEALTH

Ethnicity was a key factor influencing people’s perception of graffiti. Maori and Pacific Islands people were more likely to feel that graffiti was an issue. Around half of all Pacific Islands people and Maori (57% and 52% respectively) rated graffiti as a problem or a big problem in their neighbourhood, compared with European (39%) and Asian/Indian (29%) people.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF GRAFFITI AS A PROBLEM IN THEIR NEIGHBOURHOOD (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent

Not a problem at all 14 18

10

29

18

PERCENT

A problem

22

34

38

A big problem

22

24 23

Somewhat of a problem

21

26

19

Not much of a problem

11 17

14

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

7 17

5

27

43

26 24

22 22

25

21

27 15

6

North Shore

11

21

6

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

SAFETY

16

39 14

8 3

Dunedin

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

27

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

The level of graffiti in a city can affect residents’ satisfaction with conditions in their neighbourhood. While perpetrators of graffiti are often juveniles, graffiti is a problem that affects the entire community. It can be related to school dropout rates, crime levels, and juvenile offending.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

117

Noise pollution

•

Residents in Manukau (34%) and Auckland (31%) felt that noise pollution was a problem or a big problem in their neighbourhood.

•

In the remaining cities noise pollution is not a major issue.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

The emission of noise is an intrinsic part of everyday activities within cities. Although some degree of noise is inevitable and generally accepted in an urban environment, noise can affect the way people feel about the area in which they live and can have a negative impact on their sense of wellbeing. Noise is recognised as both a health and an environmental issue. The trend toward higher density living tends to intensify the issue of noise. This indicator presents survey results of residents’ rating of noise pollution in their city. Residents in the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 were asked to rate how much of a problem noise pollution has been in their neighbourhood in the previous twelve months, on a five point scale from ‘a big problem’ to ‘not a problem at all’. WHAT DID WE FIND?

The majority of residents in six of the eight cities said that noise pollution was not a problem at all or not much of a problem in their neighbourhood. These views ranged from 63% in Hamilton to 75% in Dunedin. Residents in Manukau (34%) and Auckland (31%) were more likely than those from other cities to feel that noise pollution was a problem or a big problem in their neighbourhood. Just over one third (34%) of all Pacific Islands people stated that noise pollution was a problem or big problem in their neighbourhood, compared with 29% of Maori, 19% of Asian/Indian people and 18% of Europeans. RESIDENTS’ RATING OF NOISE POLLUTION AS A PROBLEM IN THEIR NEIGHBOURHOOD (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Not a problem at all 15

Not much of a problem

18 26

27

28

30

PERCENT

30

34

38

Somewhat of a problem A problem

30

A big problem 37

39 36

18

17

24

19

40

34 37

17

21

18

19

18

9

9

4

4

16 10

11

9

4

7

North Shore

Waitakere

12

13

Auckland

Manukau

6 Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

5 4 Dunedin

Population growth, housing intensification and increased use of motor vehicles around urban centres will all have an impact on peoples’ perception of noise as an issue.

page

118

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

The percentage of residents who used a private motor vehicle to get to work (as a proportion of all transport modes)

•

However the private motor vehicle is still the most common means of transport to work.

•

Motor vehicle ownership increased between 1991 and 2001 across the eight cities, with the average number per

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

appears to have decreased across all eight cities between 1991 and 2001.

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

•

PEOPLE

Traffic and transport

household ranging from 1.4 in Wellington to 1.7 in North Shore by 2001.

The high use of motor vehicles has a negative impact on the environment, a high human cost in regard to crashes and fatalities and a high environmental cost. This indicator uses three measures to highlight people’s dependence on motor vehicles for travel to work and the extent to which other modes of transport were used: • Motor vehicle ownership • Travel to work • Distances travelled by mode of transport.

HOUSING

The continued reliance on the motor vehicle in New Zealand cities has created congestion pressures and affects the ease of travel within and outside of cities. Consequences include delays in travel time and the movement of goods, individual stress and frustration. It also results in increased use of fossil fuels, which is a key contributor to air pollution.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Motor vehicle ownership The number of motor vehicles owned per household is a proxy measure of traffic congestion, air pollution and fossil fuel consumption. This measure presents data on the number of motor vehicles per household in the last three Censuses.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

There is a high level of motor vehicle ownership across all eight cities which is in line with levels for the whole of New Zealand. North Shore residents recorded the highest proportion of vehicle ownership (1.7 motor vehicles per household), while Wellington had the lowest (1.4).

HEALTH

WHAT DID WE FIND?

Auckland

Two motor vehicles %

Three motor vehicles or more %

Not specified %

Average number of motor vehicles per household

6.9

35.6

39.9

14.7

3.0

1.7

7.7

35.6

36.6

14.5

5.7

1.6

11.4

37.7

32.8

11.9

6.2

1.5

Manukau

8.8

33.7

36.3

15.3

6.0

1.6

Hamilton

10.2

41.2

33.6

12.0

3.1

1.5

Wellington

14.1

44.7

28.8

8.2

4.2

1.4

Christchurch

10.8

39.9

33.8

12.7

2.9

1.6

Dunedin

14.0

41.7

30.8

11.1

2.4

1.5

Rest of NZ

9.0

39.8

34.7

12.5

4.0

1.7

Total NZ

9.7

39.1

34.5

12.6

4.2

1.6

SAFETY

Waitakere

One motor vehicle %

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

North Shore

No motor vehicle %

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

MOTOR VEHICLE OWNERSHIP PER HOUSEHOLD (2001)

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

119

Traffic and transport Continued...

Approximately one third of households in the eight cities have one motor vehicle and a further third own two vehicles. Wellington had the highest proportion of single motor vehicle ownership (44.7%) and the lowest proportion of two vehicle ownership (28.8%). Manukau recorded the highest proportion of ownership of three or more motor vehicles (15.3% of all households). The percentage of households with more than one motor vehicle steadily increased from 1991 to 2001, implying that households have moved from having no or one motor vehicle to having more than one motor vehicle per household. The total number of motor vehicles across the eight cities increased by 17.3% from 513,981 in 1991 to 603,111 in 2001. The implication for cities is that there are more vehicles in total to accommodate; however it does not necessarily mean that there will be more vehicles on the road at one time. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS WITH NO MOTOR VEHICLE (1991, 1996, 2001) 1991

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 1991, 1996, 2001

1996

2001

10.9 10.7

13.0 12.4

14.0

16.6 16.1

8.8

9.0

10.2

11.7 10.7

11.4

11.8 12.0

13.9 8.4 7.7

6.9

6

9.5

10 9.2 8.2

PERCENT

12

8

14.1

14

10.8

16

16.8 15.9

17.1

18

4 2 0 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Rest of NZ

Travel to work This measure presents data on how residents in full-time employment (and aged 15 years and over) travelled to work on Census day in March 2001. The majority of residents across the eight cities used a motor vehicle to travel to work in 2001, ranging from 48.5% in Wellington to 71.3% in Manukau. The greatest percentage use of other forms of transport occurred in Wellington, where 13.5% walked or jogged to get to work. Wellington also had the largest proportion of residents (12.9%) out of the eight cities that used a public bus to get to work, whilst Hamilton had the lowest (1.5%). All cities showed a decline in the proportion of people who used a public bus to get to work between 1991 and 2001. The highest proportion of residents using a bicycle to get to work was Christchurch (5.7%). Hamilton had the second highest proportion (4%), whilst Manukau had the lowest (0.7%). The percentage of residents who used a motor vehicle to get to work (as a proportion of all transport modes) appears to have decreased across all eight cities between 1991 and 2001. This was most notable in Wellington where 48.5% of residents stated that they used a motor vehicle to get to work on Census day in March 2001 compared to 60.8% in March 1991. Wellington also had the lowest proportion of residents who used a motor vehicle to get to work in March 2001 of all eight cities. This pattern is opposite for the rest of New Zealand which experienced a rise in the percentage of people using motor vehicles to get to work between 1991 and 2001.

page

120

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

MEANS OF TRAVEL TO WORK ON CENSUS DAY (MARCH 2001)

Worked at home %

Not worked %

Motor or power cycle %

Other

%

Walked or jogged %

%

Not specified %

67.1

5.6

0.1

0.8

3.0

7.0

11.6

0.5

1.9

2.6

Waitakere (77,034)

71.1

3.7

0.8

0.9

2.3

5.7

11.0

0.5

0.6

3.6

Auckland (174,321)

62.9

7.7

0.3

1.3

5.3

6.8

10.1

0.4

1.1

4.1

Manukau (117,084)

71.3

3.3

0.7

0.7

2.2

5.4

10.2

0.3

0.8

5.2

Hamilton (53,082)

67.2

1.5

0.1

4.0

5.4

5.2

12.2

1.0

0.5

2.9

Wellington (90,510)

48.5

12.9

3.1

2.1

13.5

5.1

10.5

0.8

1.2

2.4

64

3.5

0.1

5.7

4.4

5.5

12.4

0.8

0.6

3.0

Dunedin (51,996)

63.2

3.0

0.1

2.3

8.8

5.9

12.6

0.6

0.7

2.9

Rest of NZ (918,204)

60.2

0.8

1.1

2.4

5.4

13.0

11.5

1.4

0.5

3.6

Total NZ (1,727,268)

62.1

3.0

0.9

2.4

5.4

9.7

11.3

1.0

0.7

3.5

Christchurch (151,233)

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

%

North Shore (93,807)

Bicycle

HOUSING

Train

HEALTH

Public bus %

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001. Note: Data includes those aged 15 years and over and in full- time employment.

There has also been an increase in all eight cities and in the rest of New Zealand in the proportion of people who stated that they worked from home on Census day. This may be linked to the decrease in the proportion using motor vehicles between 1991 and 2001, and an increase in people’s accessibility and use of technology e.g. emails, mobile phones etc. PERCENTAGE OF THOSE AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER AND EMPLOYED WHO USED A MOTOR VEHICLE TO GET TO WORK ON CENSUS DAY (1991, 1996, 2001) 1991

1996

2001 BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 1991 to 2001

40

58.7 59.6 60.2

66.7 63.6 63.2

SAFETY

PERCENT

50

64.3 65.0 64.0

57.7 53.7 48.5

67.9 65.9 67.2

73.2 71.8 71.3

67.3 65.2 62.9

69.6 68.3 67.1

60

72.5 71.6 71.1

80 70

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Motor vehicle %

Number employed per City

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Traffic and transport

30

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

20 10 0 Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Rest of NZ

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

North Shore

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

121

Traffic and transport Continued...

Distances travelled by mode of transport This measure shows the distance travelled (millions of kilometres in the 1998 calendar year) by various transport modes in the eight cities. The information was obtained from a survey conducted by the Land Transport Safety Authority from a sample of 8,000 New Zealand residents. This data shows that the motor vehicle remains predominant in people’s choice of conveyance to destinations, ranging from 83% in Wellington to 97% in North Shore and Dunedin. The total distance travelled by drivers of motor vehicles (with or without passengers) across the eight cities ranged from 945 million km in Wellington to 2,683 million km in Auckland. The total distance travelled by passengers in motor vehicles across the eight cities ranged from 375 million km in Dunedin to 1,279 million km in Christchurch. Around 4% of the distance travelled in Auckland, Manukau, Hamilton and Wellington was by bus. In total, the eight cities accounted for 84.4% of the total vehicle driver kilometres travelled in 1998 in relation to the whole of New Zealand. DISTANCES TRAVELLED BY MODE OF TRANSPORT (MILLION KM PER YEAR) (1998)

Vehicle Driver (with or without passengers)

Vehicle Passenger

Million km

%

Million km

%

North Shore

1,386

71

498

26

Waitakere

1,419

64

680

Auckland

2,683

58

Manukau

1,949

61

Hamilton

955

Wellington

945

Christchurch Dunedin Total NZ

Bicycle Million km*

Bus

Train

Other

Total

Million km

Million km

%

Million km*

%

Million km*

4

0.2

46

2.4

n /a

n /a

1,945 #

31

n /a

n /a

48

2.2

n /a

n /a

2,200 #

1,241

27

28

0.6

193

4.2

n /a

449

4,603 #

1,038

33

3

0.1

117

3.7

n /a

40

3,170 #

58

591

36

14

0.9

60

3.7

n /a

18

1,638

53

536

30

n /a

n /a

73

4.1

38

184

1,787 #

2,075

52

1,279

32

55

1.4

118

2.9

n /a

449

4,024 #

982

70

375

27

6

0.4

33

2.4

n /a

14

1,410

14,680

59

7,459

30

177

n /a

815

n /a

260

1,372

24,763

Data source: Land Transport Safety Authority

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Column totals marked * show the total estimated distance by this mode, including distance travelled in cities marked n /a. Row totals marked # show the total estimated distance travelled in this city by mode of transport, including distance travelled by modes marked n /a (see note 4). n /a = not available; too few trips by this mode to enable valid estimation of distance travelled. “Other” includes taxi, plane, ferry, and other unspecified modes. Distance estimates are not available for walking trips.

page

122

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

Residents of Wellington (42%) and Auckland (24%) were the highest users of public transport in 2001/02.

•

In most cities, more than half of the residents surveyed stated that public transport was safe, convenient

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Public transport

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

and affordable.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Public transportation systems provide links between different parts of the built environment, connecting the city’s residents with the services and activities they need and want. An affordable, reliable, attractive and safe public transport system can stimulate a reduction in the use of private motor vehicles, thereby reducing congestion, traffic noise, etc. Public transport that is healthy (i.e. transport that does not rely on fossil fuels) can also help reduce the impact of fuel pollution on the environment.

HOUSING

This indicator outlines patterns in transport use by residents of the eight largest cities. All data is drawn from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Four measures are used: • Use of public transport • Affordability of public transport • Safety of public transport • Convenience of public transport. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Surveyed residents were asked how often they had used public transport in the previous twelve months on a given frequency scale. Usage varied across the eight cities. Wellington had the highest percentage of residents who stated that they used public transport once a week or more (42%) followed by Auckland (24%). Hamilton had the lowest percentage (8%). RESIDENTS’ FREQUENCY OF USE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN PREVIOUS TWELVE MONTHS (2002)

Waitakere %

Auckland %

Manukau %

Hamilton %

Wellington %

Christchurch %

Dunedin %

Nearly every day

10

7

14

7

3

20

5

5

2- 4 times a week

5

3

7

5

2

13

6

6

Once a week

5

2

3

4

3

9

4

6

2-3 times a month

5

3

6

2

2

7

6

4

Once a month

5

2

6

5

4

8

6

4

17

23

19

16

24

26

21

50

65

41

58

70

18

47

54

SAFETY

20

Did not use

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Less often

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

North Shore %

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

Use of public transport

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

123

Public transport Continued...

Some residents were significantly more likely to have used public transport in the last twelve months than others. These included those from Wellington and Auckland, those of Pacific Islands and Asian ethnicity, those aged 18 to 25 years and people on lower personal incomes. The length of time people had lived in a city was a factor in their use of public transport. Of those who had lived in a city for less than four years, 29% said they used public transport once a week or more compared to 18% of people who had lived there for more than 10 years. Affordability of public transport Residents were asked about the affordability of public transport on a five point scale of ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ that transport is affordable. They were also asked about their perceptions of safety and convenience of public transport (using the same scale). These questions were asked of all survey respondents, regardless of whether or not they used public transport. Residents’ perceptions of the affordability of public transport varied across the eight cities. For example, only 38% of Waitakere residents agreed that it was affordable, whereas 72% of Wellington residents agreed. This result could reflect the disposable income levels in these cities. Distances travelled will be a factor in these perceptions. Waitakere residents generally have a greater distance to travel if they are travelling to the Auckland central business district. Residents in the four Auckland region cities, Pacific Islands and Asian people, females aged 35 to 54 years and people living in family situations were more likely than other residents to disagree that public transport in their city was affordable.

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF WHETHER PUBLIC TRANSPORT IS AFFORDABLE (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Strongly agree Agree 8

19

Neither agree nor disagree

8

PERCENT

6

7

18

8

8

Disagree Strongly disagree

45 42

32

34

53 43

49 53

12

16

14

15

13 14

15

3

5

North Shore

Waitakere

14

15 8

Auckland

3

6 2

Manukau

Hamilton

10 9 2

11 8 3

Wellington Christchurch

7 2

Dunedin

Safety of public transport Residents tended to feel that public transport in their city was safe - over two -thirds of residents in each city agreed with the statement. Wellington residents in particular agreed that public transport was safe (83%). Residents from Manukau and Auckland were more likely than other residents to disagree with the statement, as were Maori and Pacific Islands people.

page

124

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Public transport

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF WHETHER PUBLIC TRANSPORT IS SAFE (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Strongly agree Agree 17

11

15

12

17

23

14 19

Neither agree nor disagree

Strongly disagree 61

53

60

17 10

11

59

60

13

10

3

5

61

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

52

61

15

4

6 2

7

7 2

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

7 5

Wellington Christchurch

11 6

Dunedin

HOUSING

PERCENT

Disagree

Convenience of public transport

HEALTH

Perceptions of the convenience of travel by public transport varied across cities. Residents from all four Auckland region cities were significantly less likely than other residents to agree that public transport was convenient. Other groups who were less likely to agree included those of European ethnicity, those on household incomes of $70,000 or more, and those in full-time employment. RESIDENTS’ RATING OF WHETHER PUBLIC TRANSPORT IS CONVENIENT (2002)

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Strongly agree Agree

10 8

10

10

24

18

11

31

PERCENT

30

Disagree

26 34

42 46

12

Neither agree nor disagree

16

54

15

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

12

Strongly disagree

57

12

10

North Shore

18

Waitakere

15 28

13

19

13

14

Auckland

Manukau

18

9

10

6

8 2

7 2

Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

18 3

SAFETY

26 26

Dunedin

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

The continued dominance of the motor vehicle in New Zealand’s largest cities has created congestion pressures and affects the ease of travel in cities. Greater use of public transport can minimise the stress of traffic congestion, reduce motor vehicle emissions of carbon monoxide, enhance the ability of people on low incomes to get around the city and generally provide affordable, safe and convenient options for city travel.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

125

9

Safety

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents an overview of safety and law and order in the eight cities and insights on how residents perceive this. WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

Feeling and being safe and secure within our homes, communities and cities is a basic human right. It is a key determinant of perceptions of health, wellbeing and quality of life in cities. As cities grow, the need for safe social and physical environments where people are able to participate fully in their communities becomes an increasing challenge. WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER

• • • •

Perceptions of safety Child safety Road casualties Crime levels

However there are some areas of concern. The general trend in reported violent crime and the rate of recorded sexual offences has fluctuated, but overall has shown an increase. Total recorded juvenile offending statistics indicate that the majority of juvenile offences were committed by the 14 to 16 year old age group. Certain population groups are significantly over-represented in offending and victim statistics. For example, Maori youth are significantly over-represented in youth offending statistics, comprising around half of the youth in the youth justice system. Males accounted for 83% of all cases that resulted in convictions. Males are much more likely than females to be injured or killed in motor vehicle crashes. Across all eight cities dangerous driving (including drink driving, speeding and ‘hoons’) was highlighted as the major city safety issue. LINKS

KEY POINTS

Available information suggests significant improvements in crime and safety trends. Generally, reported crime appears to be declining. The rate of recorded burglaries has dropped in all cities although the eight cities combined still have a higher rate than the rest of New Zealand. Traffic fatalities have continued to decline across most cities. These improvements are becoming more apparent in the eight cities where perceptions of safety are generally high. Dunedin and Wellington had the largest proportion of residents stating that their local neighbourhoods were safe or very safe for children to play in unsupervised. Overall, residents across the eight cities report they feel safer in their homes and neighbourhoods than in the recent past.

Criminal and social research, internationally and in New Zealand, has linked adverse safety outcomes to social and economic disadvantage. Factors such as unemployment, low incomes, low educational achievement and family instability are believed to increase the likelihood of offending.133 Therefore, the cities and areas within the cities that experience low socio - economic status are more at risk of high crime levels and low perceptions of safety. For example, parts of Waitakere, Manukau, and Hamilton have both low socio - economic status and relatively low perceptions of personal safety. In some areas this is further compounded by urban design that fails to take into account features such as lighting, visibility and access.

133 Ministry of Justice. Interpreting Trends in Recorded Crime in New Zealand. 1997.

page

126

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Residents’ perceptions of safety are highest in Dunedin and Wellington.

•

While North Shore, Wellington and Dunedin residents were more confident about safety in their city centres at night, in general all city centres were considered unsafe after dark.

•

Across all eight cities dangerous driving (including drink driving, speeding and ‘hoons’), was highlighted as the major city safety issue.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Perceptions of safety impact on the health and wellbeing of the individual, family and the wider community. If people feel unsafe they are less likely to talk to their neighbours, use public transport, go out in the evening, use public amenities and generally participate in their communities.

HOUSING

This indicator presents two separate measures that illustrate perceptions of personal safety within New Zealand’s eight largest cities. Data has come from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002: • Perceptions of personal safety • City safety issues.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Feeling safe in their neighbourhood was ranked highly in most cities.

•

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Perceptions of safety

WHAT DID WE FIND?

Survey respondents were asked how safe or unsafe they feel in the home during the day and after dark; in their local neighbourhood during the day and after dark; and in their city centre during the day and after dark.134

HEALTH

Perceptions of personal safety

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Overall perceptions of safety were highest in Dunedin and Wellington. Auckland and Manukau respondents tended to indicate a lower overall perception of safety than other cities, particularly at night and in city centres. A large proportion of residents (in all eight cities) felt safe at home during the day and after dark. However, Auckland and Manukau residents were less positive about this after dark. PERCENTAGE OF RESIDENTS WHO FELT ‘VERY SAFE’ OR ‘SAFE’ (2002)

Dark %

Day %

Dark %

Day %

Dark %

93

84

96

73

90

47

Waitakere

91

81

91

57

82

31

Auckland

89

77

87

56

83

27

Manukau

87

77

87

56

78

28

Hamilton

96

84

95

61

89

31

Wellington

96

90

96

74

94

47

Christchurch

96

87

95

66

83

24

Dunedin

98

91

97

77

95

46

SAFETY

Day %

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

In city centre

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

North Shore

In neighbourhood

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002

134 Caution is required when interpreting perceptions of safety in the Auckland area ‘city centres’. Residents from Manukau, Waitakere and North Shore (as part of the

greater Auckland region), were asked what area they regarded as their ‘city centre’. The following results are perceived city centres for residents contacted in each city; Manukau City - Manukau City Centre: 32%, Queen Street /Downtown Auckland: 14%, Botany Downs: 12%, Mangere: 7%, Pakuranga: 7%, Howick: 4%, Hunter’s Corner: 1%, None /Other/Did not ask: 23%. Waitakere - Henderson: 36%, Queen Street /Downtown Auckland: 21%, New Lynn: 11%, West City: 9%, Kelston: 2%, Glenfield: 1%, Te Atatu: 1%, None /Other/Did not ask: 18%. North Shore - Takapuna: 31%, Queen Street /Downtown Auckland: 28%, Browns Bay: 8%, Glenfield: 8%, Birkenhead /Highbury: 6%, Albany: 4%, Devonport: 3%, None /Other/Did not ask: 12%.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

127

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

At home

Perceptions of safety Continued...

Feeling safe in their neighbourhoods was ranked highly in most cities, although the proportion of people feeling safe after dark dropped significantly, especially in Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau and Hamilton. The city centres of all eight cities were considered unsafe or very unsafe at night by a significant proportion of residents surveyed. North Shore, Wellington and Hamilton residents were markedly more confident about safety in their city centres at night. Female respondents felt less safe than males, particularly after dark in their neighbourhoods and in the city centres. There are possible links between perception of safety and actual crime levels as reported in other parts of this report. For example, the high level of juvenile offending in Christchurch may influence resident perceptions where only 24% of Christchurch residents feel safe in their city centre at night. Auckland respondents had one of the lowest perceptions of safety compared to other cities. Auckland has a high rate of burglary and a high rate of juvenile offending, which may influence resident’s perceptions of safety. City safety issues This measure illustrates key city safety and anti- social behavioural issues that residents considered to have been a problem over the last 12 months. Drawn from previous residents’ survey feedback from each city, a list of anti- social behaviours was compiled and incorporated into the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Residents across all cities were then asked to assess the relative significance of these in their own city. Respondents were asked how much of a problem they thought the stated city safety issues had been over the last 12 months. PERCENTAGE OF RESIDENTS WHO RATED CITY ISSUES AS A ‘BIG PROBLEM’ OR ‘A PROBLEM’ OVER THE LAST 12 MONTHS (2002) 135

Rubbish and litter

North Shore %

Waitakere %

Auckland %

Manukau %

Hamilton %

Wellington %

Christchurch %

Dunedin %

14

19

35

38

23

20

23

21

Vandalism

11

17

28

34

18

10

25

12

Car damage/theft

26

36

66

62

52

34

48

40

Dangerous driving

39

49

69

76

55

37

63

46

Traffic risk

27

31

48

41

33

32

40

34

Behaviours and appearance

8

16

19

27

17

11

18

8

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Note: Multiple responses permitted

Across all eight cities dangerous driving (including drink driving, speeding or ‘hoons’) was highlighted as a major issue. Manukau, Auckland and Christchurch residents were significantly more likely than others to state that it was a big problem or a problem. The risk from traffic for pedestrians or cyclists was also a problem or a big problem in these same cities. Car theft, damage to cars or theft from cars was the next issue highlighted by respondents throughout the eight cities. Residents from Auckland, Manukau, Hamilton and Christchurch were more likely than other residents to state that it was a big problem or a problem. Respondents from Auckland and Manukau were more likely to state that rubbish or litter and broken windows in shops/ public buildings or other vandalism was an issue within their cities than other respondents. Across all issues, Maori and Pacific Islands respondents were more likely than others to feel that these issues were a problem or a big problem. Perceptions of safety are influenced by environmental factors such as the look and feel of the city, level of graffiti, urban design, street lighting or perceived safety of public transport. Media and crime reporting can have a significant influence on perceptions of safety as can the visibility of police and other security measures.

135 Rubbish and litter: rubbish or litter lying about on the streets. Vandalism: broken windows in shops, public buildings or other vandalism. Car damage /theft: car theft,

damage to cars or theft from cars. Dangerous driving: dangerous driving including drink driving, speeding or hoons. Traffic risk: risk from traffic for pedestrians or cyclists. Behaviours and appearance: people who you feel unsafe around because of their behaviour, attitude or appearance.

page

128

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

Falls were the leading cause of hospitalisation among city children.

•

Dunedin and North Shore had the largest proportion of residents stating that their local neighbourhoods were safe or

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Protecting the physical and psychological health of our young people is a critical component of improving social wellbeing in New Zealand’s largest cities. The protection and nurture of children is a task shared by families and the communities they live in, as well as local and national support agencies.

HOUSING

This indicator presents three separate measures that illustrate levels and perceptions of child safety within the eight largest cities: • Unintentional child injuries • Perceptions of children’s safety in the neighbourhood • Notifications to Child, Youth and Family Services.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

very safe for unsupervised children.

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Child safety

WHAT DID WE FIND?

Unintentional child injuries

The lowest hospitalisation rate was in Christchurch at 1056.9 per 100,000 children followed by Wellington (1068.9) and Dunedin (1070.4). The highest rates were found in Auckland (1446.3), Waitakere (1409.8) and Hamilton (1340.6).

0 - 4 Yrs

Data source: New Zealand Health Information Service

5 - 9 Yrs

10 -14 Yrs

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

RATE OF HOSPITALISATION FOR UNINTENTIONAL INJURY PER 100,000 CHILDREN AGED 14 YEARS AND UNDER (1994 TO 2000 COMBINED)

HEALTH

This measure shows the hospitalisation rate of unintentional child injuries per 100,000 children aged 14 years and under between 1994 and 2000.136

Total

1113.2 1185.0 912.6 1070.4

Christchurch

Dunedin

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

1158.5 1059.1 950.1 1056.9

1068.9

1181.4 1134.7

1340.6

1461.1 1443.1 1099.5

Auckland

1356.7 1375.2 1143.3 1298.9

Waitakere

860.0

800

1464.0 1517.3 1344.0 1446.3

1000

1224.3 1061.8 1091.4

1200

981.4

600 400 SAFETY

RATE PER 100, 000 CHILDREN

1400

1347.5 1491.3 1387.6 1409.8

1600

200

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Nationally, unintentional injuries far exceed intentional injury as a cause of death and hospitalisation for children. Around 85% of all child injury deaths and 97% of hospitalisations are for unintentional injury.137 As the eight cities represent 44% of the New Zealand child population, this statistic is a concern.

136 Data measures the number of admissions to hospital and not the number of children. It only reflects injuries that result in admission to hospital and does not include

presentation to Accident and Emergency clinics, GPs, or private hospitals. Therefore, the data only reflects the ‘tip of the iceberg’ with regard to childhood injury. Data does not include: readmissions for prior injury, discharges for a length of stay in hospital of less than 24 hours, discharges where there was not a primary diagnosis of injury, cases of patients who died in hospital. 137 Safekids. Fact sheet: Unintentional Childhood Injury. www.safekids.org.nz

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

129

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

North Shore

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

0

Child safety Continued...

Falls were the leading cause of hospitalisation among city children, with playgrounds frequently associated with injury from falling. Although substantial progress has been made in the last 10 years to improve playground safety in all cities, studies show that falls from playground equipment continues to feature as the most common cause of injury-related hospitalisations for children aged under 15 years.138 The next main causes of hospitalisation were poisonings and burns for 0 - 4 year olds, pedestrian injuries and cutting/piercing injuries for 5 -9 year olds, and striking/struck by injuries and pedestrian injuries for 10 -14 year olds. Different ethnic groups appear to be at risk from different kinds of injuries. For example, Maori and Pacific Islands children were over-represented in scalds statistics and motor vehicle injuries, and European and ‘Other’ children in poisonings. Perceptions of children’s safety This measure illustrates residents’ perceptions in regard to local neighbourhoods and their suitability for children to play unsupervised. Data is drawn from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. RESIDENTS’ RATING OF SAFETY OF LOCAL NEIGHBOURHOOD FOR CHILDREN TO PLAY IN WHILE UNSUPERVISED (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Very safe 7

6

9

11

13

11

Safe

12

16

Neither safe nor unsafe 35

38

36 42

PERCENT

42

Unsafe 40

47

Very unsafe 49 25

23

21 21

22

18 12

22 24

24

23 18

16

5

6

21 15

13 2

6

6

10

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

6

4

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF REASONS WHY NEIGHBOURHOODS ARE UNSAFE FOR CHILDREN TO PLAY IN UNSUPERVISED (2002) 139

North Shore %

Waitakere %

Auckland %

Manukau %

Hamilton %

Wellington %

Christchurch %

Dunedin %

Strangers

44

55

50

Traffic

47

43

43

58

47

42

48

37

41

46

41

35

52

Supervision

30

21

27

Crime

10

13

8

22

26

32

28

33

9

12

5

6

2

Environmental

8

11

Bullying

4

5

4

4

8

8

8

15

4

6

8

1

7

9

Could get lost

9

Dogs

1

2

6

4

4

1

1

0

1

3

5

2

0

2

0

Other

1

4

7

3

4

7

3

7

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Note: Responses are of those who rated the neighbourhood as ‘unsafe’ or ‘very unsafe’

138 Injury Prevention Research Unit. Child and Adolescent Injury. www.otago.ac.nz/IPRU/Research /Child.html 139 Strangers: e.g. undesirable residents /strange people /unsavoury people /transients. Traffic: e.g. busy roads /heavy traffic/fast cars /lack of pedestrian crossings.

Supervision: children should always be supervised. crime: e.g. Crime /crime statistics including lack of police. Environmental: e.g. unsafe playgrounds /rivers /beach / open drains /marshlands. Bullying: bullying from other kids /teenagers. Could get lost: child could get lost or wander off. Dogs: e.g. attacks or strays.

page

130

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Like other issues in safety, perceptions of neighbourhood safety are closely linked to environmental factors such as the look and feel of the neighbourhood, graffiti, litter, street lighting, and proximity to busy roads or industrial areas. Media reports also have a significant impact on people’s perceptions of safety in general. Notifications to Child, Youth and Family Services This measure shows the rate of notifications for care and protection to Child, Youth and Family Services (CYFS) per 1,000 of the population aged under 17 years.140 More than one notification can be made for an individual child. The data shows two significant trends. From 1998 to 2000, there was a general increase in the number of notifications to CYFS offices in most of the eight cities. From 2000 to 2001, most of the eight cities saw a downward trend in the number of notifications. Both trends were also seen in national figures. The downward trend seen in 2001 may be the consequence of a number of factors, including the impact of strategies and policies such as public education strategies on child abuse prevention, the encouragement for families to seek help early, the delivery of early help services such as Family Start, and a change in the recording system at the end of 2000.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Waitakere, Auckland and Manukau had the largest proportion of residents who felt their local neighbourhoods were unsafe or very unsafe for their children to play in while unsupervised. Stranger danger was mentioned as the primary reason by at least half of all respondents in these three cities, followed by traffic issues.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Dunedin and North Shore had the largest proportion of residents stating that their local neighbourhoods were safe or very safe for unsupervised children.

HOUSING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Child safety

RATE OF NOTIFICATIONS TO CHILD, YOUTH AND FAMILY SERVICES PER 1,000 POPULATION AGED UNDER 17 YEARS (1998 TO 2001) 2001

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

24.8 26.4 27.4 25.5

22.1 16.3

17.5 18.8

26.3

28.6 27.6 27.5

29.2

29.9 25.5

10

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

10.7 13.3 11.2 11.0

15

19.7 21.4 22.9 22.2

22.5

20

16.7 17.5 16.0

25

13.9

RATE PER 1,000

25

31.9 31.2

28.3

30

2000

33.1

35

1999

HEALTH

1998

Data source: Child, Youth and Family Services Note: Hamilton Data was not available Rates calculated using 2001 Census as a base.

5

0 Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total NZ

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

Nationally, Maori children are more likely than non-Maori to be assessed as abused or neglected. In 2001, the rate per 1,000 was 7.2 for Maori and 4.9 for non-Maori. Rates of assessed abuse or neglect are fairly consistent across most age groups, but are much lower for males aged 14 to 16 years. Sex abuse rates are much higher for females than males in all age groups.141 This pattern is reflected in the eight cities and will impact on the next generation of parents.

140 Caution is required when interpreting this data. Annual fluctuations in notification levels may indicate children are becoming less safe, however the figures could also be

influenced by changes made in administrative practices, and improved awareness of the reporting system by the public. The catchment areas for Child, Youth and Family Offices are not consistent with city boundaries and reflect rates of notification by office rather than city. Data from the following offices are captured in the graph: North Shore = Takapuna office (Takapuna Service Delivery Unit includes much of the Rodney district - Rodney population has been included in analysis); Waitakere = Waitakere office; Auckland = Grey Lynn, Royal Oak, Otahuhu (the Otahuhu office services both Auckland and Manukau areas, hence the notifications have been halved for each TLA) offices; Manukau = Mangere, Otara, Manurewa, Otahuhu (the Otahuhu office services both Auckland and Manukau areas, hence the notifications have been halved for each TLA) offices; Wellington = Wellington office; Christchurch = Christchurch, Papanui, Sydenham offices; Dunedin = Dunedin office; Hamilton = no comparable information available. 141 Ministry of Social Development, Social Report 2002, www.mosd.govt.nz

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

131

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

North Shore

Road casualties

•

Most cities have experienced a decline in the number of road fatalities.

•

Males under the age of 25 are more likely than females in the same age group to be injured or killed in motor vehicle crashes.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

The increasing number of cars on city roads brings greater risk of injury and fatality from motor vehicle incidents. The eight largest cities in New Zealand are designed around motor vehicles, increasing the risk for pedestrians and cyclists. Measuring the number of fatalities and serious injuries helps assess this risk. The law requires all road traffic accidents that involve a motor vehicle and result in someone being injured to be reported. However, research indicates only about one half of such injury accidents are reported to the Land Transport Safety Authority (LTSA). Under-reporting is evident amongst single vehicle accidents, motorcycle accidents and accidents involving alcohol.142 This indicator shows the number of people killed or seriously injured in motor vehicle crashes as a proportion (per 100,000) of the total population.143 WHAT DID WE FIND?

Most cities have experienced a reduction in the number of road fatalities since 1998. Overall, the fatality rates for the total eight cities were notably lower than for the rest of New Zealand. RATE OF ROAD CRASH DEATHS PER 100,000 POPULATION (1998 TO 2001) 1998

Data source: Land Transport Safety Authority. The data for Hamilton was not available for 2001.

1999

2000

2001

25

18.9 20.5 18.9 18.6 13.1 13.2 12.0 11.7

15

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

6.3 4.7 3.9 3.7

6.7 3.3 3.4 3.4

2.4 3.0 3.5 3.6

5.2 5.9 4.2

5.9 4.4 5.4

Waitakere

3.6 3.1

6.3 5.0

6.3

North Shore

0

2.9 2.3 3.4

5.9 4.7 4.2 4.1

5

5.2 4.6 4.6

8.0

10 7.8

RATE PER 100,000

20

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

142 Land Transport Safety Authority, Annual statistics 2001. www.ltsa.govt.nz 143 Fatal injuries: injuries that resulted in death within 28 days of the accident. Serious injuries: fractures, concussions, internal injuries, crushings, severe cuts and

lacerations, general shock necessitating medical treatment and any other injury involving removal to and detention in hospital. Location of accident: Local body name, accident road, nearest side road or landmark and the distance and direction of the accident from that side road or landmark, state highway reference.

page

132

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Road casualties

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

RATE OF ROAD CRASH SERIOUS INJURIES PER 100,000 POPULATION (1998 TO 2001) 1999

2000

2001

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

1998

Data source: Land Transport Safety Authority

108.1

80.7 85.3 75.6 78.9

100

80

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

62.9 64.7 58.1 62.7 41.8 40.4 37.7 44.0

53.5 44.4

Hamilton

42.5

Manukau

55.4 39.2 36.9 48.6

Auckland

49.5 42.0 25.9 34.5

33.5 34.0 42.1 32.6

Waitakere

40.4 43.8 35.1 37.9

North Shore

44.9 40.6 45.7 44.0

20

28.4

40

42.6 37.9 43.1

60

24.0 29.5 30.7 22.7

RATE PER 100,000 POPULATION

120

0 Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

The serious injury rate in Dunedin exhibited a sharp increase between 2000 and 2001. The LTSA notes this trend as the result of a major increase in reporting rates rather than an increase in crashes.144

HEALTH

Nationally, traffic fatalities and injuries are falling - in 1998, 501 people died as a result of motor vehicle accidents (a rate of 13.1 deaths per 100,000 per population). A further 2,400 were seriously injured (a rate of 62.9 per 100,000 population). This compares to fatalities and serious injuries for 2001, where the rates were 11.7 and 62.7 per 100,000 respectively.

HOUSING

Wellington Christchurch

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Rates may be higher in the rest of New Zealand due to the higher incidence of fatalities on open roads compared to urban roads. In 2001, out of a total of 455 deaths on New Zealand roads, 342 occurred on open roads compared to 113 on urban roads.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Males appear more likely than females to be killed or injured in road crashes, especially young males. For example, 225 males within the eight cities died as a result of road crashes between 1998 and 2001 - 34% were aged between 15 and 24 years. By comparison, 104 females within the eight cities died over the same period - 18.3% were aged between 15 and 24 years. Much of the relative and sustained improvement in road safety experienced over the last 12 years has been the result of a multi-agency strategy. This partnership between the Ministry of Transport, the Land Transport Safety Authority, New Zealand Police, Transit New Zealand, Accident Compensation Corporation, Local Government New Zealand and Transfund New Zealand has certainly contributed to the significant drop in road trauma in New Zealand.145

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

Focused road safety campaigns have had a substantial impact on improving road safety outcomes - such as high intensity enforcement and advertising designed to address some of the key driver behaviours that contribute to road crashes - alcohol impairment, speeding, rural driving and seat- belt use.

144 Land Transport Safety Authority, Regional Road Safety Issues - Dunedin City. www.ltsa.govt.nz 145 New Zealand Road Safety Programme 2002/2003. www.ltsa.govt.nz

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

133

Crime levels

•

Burglary levels continue to decrease across most cities.

•

There is an upward trend in recorded sexual offences and recorded violent offences.

•

The rate of recorded burglaries, and violent offences in the combined eight cities is higher than for the rest of New Zealand.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Crime is a topic of great public concern. For many, the concern emerges from a perception that rising levels of crime constitutes an increasing threat to their safety, their property and their sense of wellbeing. Caution is required when interpreting crime data - fluctuations in crime rates maybe affected by changes in reporting by the public and recording by police, as well as by changes in the actual level of offending. Each result may have several alternate explanations. This indicator presents four separate measures that illustrate crime levels within our cities: • Youth apprehensions • Recorded burglary offences • Recorded violent offences • Recorded sexual offences. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Youth apprehensions This measure shows the total number of youth apprehensions within each city between 2000/01 and 2001/02.146 The data indicates that the majority of juvenile offences were committed by the 14 to 16 year old age group. The highest youth apprehension levels were found in Waitakere, Auckland, Manukau and Christchurch. Christchurch youth apprehension levels were the highest of all eight cities. It should be noted that both Waitakere and Manukau have the largest youth populations of all eight cities. NUMBER OF YOUTH APPREHENSIONS, BY AGE GROUP (2000/01 TO 2001/02) 147 0 to 13 years

Data source: New Zealand Police

14 to 16 years

7000

6020

6000

1836

2008

2299

905

1065

492

1701

880

632

1000

2226

2000

2521

2986

3000

3911

3933

4000

1075

NUMBER

5000

0 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

146 Caution is required when interpreting youth crime data. Although there are approximately 40,000 youth apprehensions each year, this does not equate to 40,000 young

offenders nor does it equate to 40,000 offences (for example, one offender may be apprehended for multiple offences; or several offenders may be apprehended for a single offence). 147 Youth Apprehensions - total youth apprehensions by Police Station grouped to teritorial local authority (TLA) boundaries. TLA boundaries do not necessarily reflect Police districts.

page

134

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Nationally, police apprehensions of under 17 years olds as a proportion of all offender apprehensions have remained relatively stable since 1991, at between 21% and 23%. Maori youth are over-represented in youth offending statistics, comprising around half of youth in the youth justice system. Males are also over-represented in the youth justice system, making up 77- 80% of apprehensions of under 17 year olds.148 Correlations may exist between an increased risk of juvenile offending, truancy, school exclusions, and non - engagement in education. Many young offenders are not engaged in education and are likely to have low levels of educational achievement.149

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Christchurch in particular stands out as having high levels of juvenile offending and high levels of school suspensions and stand - downs.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Crime levels

Recorded burglary offences This measure shows the rate of recorded burglary offences (including both dwellings and commercial buildings) per 10,000 population for each city.150

HOUSING

All eight cities have seen a decline in the rate of recorded burglaries. Although Auckland maintains the highest rate of recorded burglaries, New Zealand Police indicates that many offenders who are arrested for burglary in Auckland reside outside that city. This could indicate that for this measure, city boundaries are blurred within the regional context.

RATE OF RECORDED BURGLARY OFFENCES PER 10,000 POPULATION (1999/2000 TO 2001/2002) 151 1999/2000

2000/2001

2001/2002

HEALTH

Data source: New Zealand Police

350

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT BUILT ENVIRONMENT

187.3 159.0 156.4

168.9 143.5 134.2

208.9 177.1 182.2

Hamilton

214.8 172.7 183.3

Manukau

114.1 97.3 80.1

50

138.7 125.8 117.5

100

216.0 220.3

254.4 239.2 254.0

150

191.0 156.6 175.2

200

138.7 104.0 96.1

RATE PER 10,000

250

245.8 207.1 210.0

291.3

300

0 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

Nationally, the rate of burglaries has demonstrated a downward trend, decreasing from 187.3 per 10,000 in 1999/ 2000 to 156.4 in 2001/2002. This has been attributed to police strategies in place across New Zealand, and work by the justice sector and local community groups. Safer Community Councils have been set up throughout many parts of the country via partnerships with the Crime Prevention Unit and local authorities to implement crime prevention programmes. Such programmes involve communities taking ownership of solutions to crime and developing local initiatives targeting offenders and potential offenders.

148 Ministry of Justice. Report of the Ministerial Taskforce on Youth Offending. April 2002. 149 Ibid. 150 Dishonesty offences is the largest crime category. There are five classes of offence within this category: burglary, car conversion, thief, receiving and fraud. Burglary

offence class includes the following offence types: burglary for drugs, burglary (other types), Burglary Associated Offences (Crimes Act) and Crimes Act 1961 Section 240a. 151 Burglaries - total recorded burglary offences by Police Station grouped to TLA boundaries. TLA boundaries do not necessarily reflect Police districts.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

135

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

The rate of recorded burglaries in the eight cities combined is higher than the rest of New Zealand.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

Hamilton has experienced the greatest decline in recorded burglary rates, dropping from 291.3 recorded burglaries per 10,000 population in 1999/2000 to 220.3 in 2001/2002.

Crime levels Continued...

NUMBER AND RATE OF RECORDED BURGLARY OFFENCES PER 10,000 POPULATION (1999/2000 TO 2001/2002)

1999/2000

2000/2001

2001/2002

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

North Shore

2,633

138.7

1,999

104.0

1,867

Waitakere

3,272

191.0

2,725

156.6

3,087

175.2

Auckland

9,713

254.4

9,210

239.2

9,876

254.0

Manukau

7,068

245.8

6,070

207.1

6,262

210.0

Hamilton

3,431

291.3

2,568

216.0

2,632

220.3

Wellington

2,343

138.7

2,136

125.8

2,010

117.5

Christchurch

6,967

214.8

5,619

172.7

5,997

183.3

Dunedin

1,366

114.1

1,162

97.3

956

80.1

Total 8 cities

36,793

208.9

31,489

177.1

32,687

182.2

Rest of NZ

35,049

168.9

29,858

143.5

27,989

134.2

Total NZ

71,842

187.3

61,347

159.0

60,676

156.4

96.1

Data source: New Zealand Police Rates calculated using Census 2001 based population estimates

Recorded violent offences This measure shows the rate of recorded violent offences per 10,000 population for each city.152 Waitakere, Auckland and Manukau continue to have the highest rates of recorded violent offences. All Auckland region cities, with the exception of Manukau, have seen an apparent rise in the rate of recorded violence offences. It should be noted that historically, violent crime rates in the Auckland region track at a higher level than the national rate for such offending.

RATE OF RECORDED VIOLENT OFFENCES PER 10,000 POPULATION (1999/2000 TO 2001/2002) 153 1999/2000

Data source: New Zealand Police

2000/2001

2001/2002

104.5 112.8 114.4

97.4 107.2 110.0

112.9 119.4 119.5

97.8 104.6 103.3

97.5 110.0 91.9

Auckland

144.8 145.1 142.1

Waitakere

96.0 100.5 95.0

80

132.9 124.2 125.6

100 82.0 89.8 92.1

RATE PER 10,000

120

120.2 127.6 143.0

140

119.5 133.4 141.5

160

60 40 20 0 North Shore

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

The rate of recorded violent offences in the eight cities is higher than in the rest of New Zealand. Nationally, the rate of recorded violent offences has exhibited an upward trend, increasing from 104.5 per 10,000 in 1999/2000 to 114.4 in 2001/2002.

152 Violent offences category includes: homicide, kidnapping and abduction, robbery, grievous assaults, serious assaults, minor assaults, intimidation/threats and group

assembles. 153 Violent offences - total recorded violent offences by Police Station grouped to TLA boundaries. TLA boundaries do not necessarily reflect Police districts.

page

136

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Crime levels

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Violent crime traditionally arouses the most public concern and comment, although in reality it constitutes only approximately 10% of all recorded offences. The effect of violent crime on the victim and the general public’s perception of community safety contribute to its high profile. Other factors that can influence the number of recorded crimes include changing social attitudes (such as a less tolerant public reporting more crimes), legislative changes, changes to police recording practices, and increases/decreases to the police forces and their resources. NUMBER AND RATE OF RECORDED VIOLENT OFFENCES PER 10,000 POPULATION (1999/2000 TO 2001/2002)

Rate

Number

2001/2002 Rate

Number

Rate

North Shore

1,558

82.0

1,726

89.8

1,789

92.1

Waitakere

2,047

119.5

2,321

133.4

2,494

141.5

Auckland

4,590

120.2

4,912

127.6

5,561

143.0

Manukau

4,164

144.8

4,253

145.1

4,238

142.1

Hamilton

1,565

132.9

1,477

124.2

1,501

125.6

Wellington

1,621

96.0

1,706

100.5

1,625

95.0

Christchurch

3,163

97.5

3,578

110.0

3,006

91.9

Dunedin Total 8 cities

1,171

97.8

1,249

104.6

1,232

103.3

19,879

112.9

21,222

119.4

21,446

119.5

20,211

97.4

22,312

107.2

22,942

110.0

Total NZ

40,090

104.5

43,534

112.8

44,388

114.4 HEALTH

Rest of NZ

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Number

2000/2001

HOUSING

1999/2000

Data source: New Zealand Police Rates calculated using Census 2001 based population estimates

The rate of recorded sexual offences has fluctuated but overall has shown an upward trend, with the exception of Hamilton, Wellington and Dunedin. This upward trend is also reflected in the rates for the whole of New Zealand and the rest of New Zealand. National rates have increased from 8.2 per 10,000 in 1999/2000 to 9.1 in 2001/2002. Wellington has experienced the largest decrease in recorded sexual offences, dropping from 10.2 recorded sexual offences per 10,000 population in 1999/2000 to 7.2 recorded sexual offences per 10,000 in 2001/2002. Hamilton’s rate of recorded sexual offences is higher than other cities across the period shown, although there was a slight decline in 2001/2002.

SAFETY

Despite sexual crime making up less than 1% of all recorded crime for each of the last three years, the impacts on the victim and wider community are distressing. There appears to be an upward trend in level of recorded sexual offences across most of the eight cities and the country as a whole.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Increasing levels of recorded sexual offences may well be attributed to a heightened awareness of sex abuse issues, publicity around historical abuse and increased usage of the police DNA database, leading to positive identification of sex offenders.155

154 Sexual offences category includes: sexual affronts, indecent videos, sexual attacks, abnormal sex, immoral behaviour and immoral behaviour/miscellaneous. 155 NZ Police National News Release, 11 March 2003 www.police.govt.nz

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

This measure shows the rate of recorded sexual offences per 10,000 population for each city.154

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Recorded sexual offences

page

137

Crime levels Continued...

RATE OF RECORDED SEXUAL OFFENCES PER 10,000 POPULATION (1999/2000 TO 2001/2002) 156 1999/2000

Data source: New Zealand Police

2000/2001

2001/2002

18

15.6 15.6 15.1

16 14

9.0

8.2 8.1 9.1

Rest of NZ

Total NZ

7.4 8.1

9.0 8.1 9.3

10.5

9.5

9.1 7.2 7.0

7.3 7.1

10.2

Auckland

5.5 5.8

6.9

6

6.9 7.2

8.6 7.9 9.2

Waitakere

8

9.0 8.6 9.9

8.6

10

7.9

RATE PER 10,000

12

4 2

0 North Shore

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Nationally, Maori and Pacific Islands people are over-represented as offenders and as victims. In 2000, Maori comprised 42% of all convictions, 46% of convictions for violence, and 56% of proved cases in the Youth Court. The over-representation of Pacific Islands people is most pronounced in violent offending and has been linked to high levels of family violence. In 2000, Pacific Islands people comprised 15% of all convictions for violence. The 1996 New Zealand National Survey of Crime Victims found that Maori are more likely than Europeans to be victims of violent offending. It also found that Pacific Islands people are more at risk of being victims of violent offending than any other ethnic group (including Maori) and are more likely to experience repeat victimisation.157 NUMBER AND RATE OF RECORDED SEXUAL OFFENCES PER 10,000 POPULATION (1999/2000 TO 2001/2002)

1999/2000

2000/2001

2001/2002

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

North Shore

104

5.5

112

5.8

134

6.9

Waitakere

125

7.3

124

7.1

152

8.6

Auckland

328

8.6

305

7.9

356

9.2

Manukau

258

9.0

251

8.6

294

9.9

Hamilton

184

15.6

185

15.6

181

15.1

Wellington

173

10.2

117

6.9

124

7.2

Christchurch

309

9.5

256

7.9

342

10.5

Dunedin

109

9.1

86

7.2

84

7.0

Total 8 cities

1,590

9.0

1,436

8.1

1,667

9.3

Rest of NZ

1,540

7.4

1,683

8.1

1,877

9.0

Total NZ

3,130

8.2

3,119

8.1

3,544

9.1

Data source: New Zealand Police Rates calculated using Census 2001 based population estimates

The Government’s Crime Reduction Strategy identifies seven priority areas for targeted action. The priority areas include family violence (including child abuse), other violence (including sexual violence), youth offending and reoffending, and burglary. The Strategy emphasises the need for a comprehensive partnership approach between central and local government, and local communities, to ensure crime is tackled effectively.

156 Sexual offences - total recorded sexual offences by Police Station grouped to TLA boundaries. TLA boundaries do not necessarily reflect Police districts. 157 Ministry of Justice. Briefing to Incoming Minister 2002 - Crime Reduction Strategy.

page

138

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

Connecting with other people and networks is important in the development and maintenance of strong communities, or what is has more recently been referred to as social capital.158 The changing population experienced by the largest cities impacts on the way people in an area connect with one another other. New entrants to a neighbourhood, the way of life of the area, and the ability to communicate with neighbours all have an influence on people’s sense of belonging and their ability to thrive.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Internet and email, as a means of connecting with others is used daily by an average of 43% of respondents across all cities. This is lower than the national average. Socio - economic differences in the population are reflected in usage patterns. This has significance for the way governments communicate with citizens as we increasingly rely on e - communication.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

This chapter looks at being connected to others and the collective strength of local communities.

On average, 80% of survey respondents across all cities said that they belonged to some social group or network. Three quarters felt that feeling a sense of community was important and that they had positive interactions with their neighbours while over half felt there was local community support. When asked whether they had felt lonely or isolated over the past 12 months, 80% hardly ever or never felt lonely or isolated.

HOUSING

INTRODUCTION

HEALTH

10

Social Connectedness

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?

Three quarters of new immigrants to New Zealand (approximately 17,000) attended citizenship ceremonies in the eight largest cities in 2001. Most new settlers from Asia tend to settle in Auckland and Manukau. Manukau also sees the largest proportion of settlers from the Australasian region. According to 60% of respondents to the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002, the increased diversity makes their city a better or much better place to live.

Household composition and workforce participation patterns can also have an effect on people’s ability to participate in their community. Families with children may be more inclined to develop relationships that result in involvement in local initiatives and groups. Changes in mobility and telecommunications mean that for many people, their sense of community is not tied to their local neighbourhood. The increase in Internet access and mobile phone ownership means that for some people their social networks can function across large distances.

158 Social Capital refers to features of social organisation such as networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate co - ordination and co - operation for mutual benefit

(Cheyne, C., O’Brien, M., and Belgrave, M. Social Policy in Aotearoa New Zealand: A Critical Introduction. 2000.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Overall, indicators suggest that there are relatively high levels of social connectedness in all eight cities. The vast majority of respondents to the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 rated their overall quality of life as either good or extremely good, with Wellington and Christchurch ratings slightly higher than the other cities.

Many factors impact on residents’ sense of connectedness and belonging in communities. Secure tenure is one variable that can affect the development of a sense of community. For example, household mobility may impact on the length of time residents remain in local communities and therefore the investment they make in developing relationships with neighbours and local groups.

SAFETY

KEY POINTS

LINKS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Overall quality of life Diversity Local community strength and spirit Electronic communication

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

• • • •

139

Overall quality of life

•

The vast majority of residents across the eight cities stated that their overall quality of life was either good or extremely good.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

It is important to have some insight into how people feel about the quality of life in their city. This indicator provides a useful summary of overall perception of quality of life from the point of view of city residents. This indicator uses data from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. It explores respondents’ overall quality of life perceptions on a five point scale from ‘extremely poor’ through to ‘extremely good’. WHAT DID WE FIND?

The vast majority of residents across the eight cities stated that their overall quality of life was either good or extremely good (89%). Only 1% rated their quality of life as poor. Wellington and Christchurch residents rate their quality of life higher compared to those in the other large cities.

RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF OVERALL QUALITY OF LIFE (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore survey figures might not add to 100 percent Extremely good Good 31

24

24

22

25 39

34

31

Neither good nor poor

PERCENT

Poor Extremely poor

63

63

65

60

64 54

8 1

10 2

12 1

11 2

9 2

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

5 1

58

59

7 1

8 2

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

Ratings of quality of life amongst residents with different household incomes ranged significantly. Across all cities, lower income households were less likely to rate their quality of life positively, while higher income households ($70,001 and over) were significantly more likely to do so. Residents aged 65 years and over were more likely to rate their quality of life as extremely good (35%) in comparison to other age groups.

page

140

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

•

75% of new immigrants attend citizenship ceremonies in the eight cities.

•

Each city has a distinct immigrant population.

•

Across all eight cities, an average of 60% of survey respondents stated that increased diversity made the city

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Diversity

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

a better or much better place to live.

Cities are home for an increasing number of people with diverse lifestyles and cultures from different countries. This diversity impacts on how we communicate with different population groups, and how they are made to feel part of their city, and enjoy a quality of life. The measures used to look at diversity in the eight cities are: • Number of residents gaining citizenship • Ethnicity of citizenship ceremony attendees • Perceptions of diversity.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Number of residents gaining citizenship Looking at the number of residents gaining citizenship helps to understand the scope of ethnic diversity of people intending to make their home in New Zealand. The measure presumes that migrants attend citizenship ceremonies in the city in which they reside.159

Auckland had the highest number of ceremony attendees, followed by Manukau and North Shore. The Auckland region often acts as a gateway to the rest of New Zealand for new migrants because of the location of New Zealand’s largest and busiest international airport in Manukau. Many of these new arrivals settle in cities in the Auckland region to look for work.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

Approximately 23,535 people gained New Zealand citizenship in 2001. Three - quarters (approximately 17,000) of these attended ceremonies in the eight largest cities.

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

NUMBER OF RESIDENTS GAINING CITIZENSHIP THROUGH CITIZENSHIP CEREMONIES (1996, 2001) 1996

2001 BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Data source: Department of Internal Affairs

20000

17612

18000

14000

4285

404

258

1676

851

1290

934

843

5923

4042

367

1482

925

2000

2632

4000

3202

6000

2408

5243

8000

0

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

Total 8 cities

Rest of NZ

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

North Shore

159 In addition to Territorial Local Authority (TLA) citizenship ceremonies there are two ceremonies run in Auckland and Wellington by the Immigration Service. People

who attend these ceremonies are not classified by city and are therefore not included in this measure. As such, the total number of immigrants obtaining citizenship could be higher than the figures show. In addition some 234 immigrants obtained citizenship overseas.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

1018

10000

SAFETY

12000

1237

NUMBER OF RESIDENTS

16000

141

Diversity Continued...

Ethnicity of citizenship ceremony attendees This measure uses 2001 citizenship ceremony data from the Department of Internal Affairs, categorised by individual country and then combined into different world regions. There were several changes in the source country of citizenship attendees between 1996 and 2001. In 1996 those who received New Zealand citizenship came from 127 different countries. By 2001, this figure had increased to 156. During this five year period the large cities became home to an increasing number of people from South Africa, India, Korea and the Philippines.160 In 2001, China was the most common source country for immigration to New Zealand, with 2,579 Chinese people attending citizenship ceremonies in the largest cities. The ethnic composition of the new residents varies between the eight cities. Auckland and Manukau are key locations for Asian settlers. Manukau continues to be a key location for the settlement of new residents from the Australasian region, in particular people from Samoa, Tonga and Niue.161 Hamilton and North Shore have large proportions of settlers from Africa; the latter in particular contains a large population of South Africans. ETHNICITY OF CITIZENSHIP CEREMONY ATTENDEES (2001) Data source: Department of Internal Affairs

Africa

21

8

8

12

8

7

3 5

7 13

18 2

1

12

9 16

PERCENT

11

9

5

17

10

8

1

6

15

6 16 1

6

8

13

Europe

6

United Kingdom

13

13 1

1

1

24

14

14

10

3

13

6

15

27

17

12

9

South America Australasia

1

Central/Southern Asia

14 41 54

45

46

Central/Northern America

52

52

42

48

44

44 30

Middle East

5 1

1 7

8

6

North Shore (2,622)

Waitakere (1,472)

Auckland (5,228)

1

6

Manukau (4,030)

1

6

Hamilton (841)

1

3 8

3

17

8

Wellington Christchurch (1,284) (1,666)

2 6

Dunedin (403)

4 4

Total 8 cities Rest of NZ (23,493) (5,893)

2 6

Total NZ (46,878)

New residents may settle in certain geographical locations within cities. This can be the result of structural conditions, such as income factors and the operation of the housing market. It can also result from individual processes such as choice to live in areas with members of the same or similar ethnic groups for community support and cohesion.162 These spatial patterns are evident within the eight cities at the ward and meshblock level.163 The East Coast Bays ward in North Shore has a large and increasing population from South Africa, Mangere and Otara in Manukau have significant communities of Pacific Islands people and Wellington’s Northern ward has a large proportion of Asian residents.

160 It should be noted that New Zealand’s immigration policy underwent significant alterations after 1986. One aspect of immigration policy change was the government’s

focused approach on attracting business migrants from Asia (Bedford, R., Ho, E., and Lidgard, J., International Migration in New Zealand: Context, Component and Policy Issues. Population Studies Centre. University of Waikato. 2000. This has had implications for immigration patterns and consequently demographic change in the largest cities. 161 The Australasian Region includes Australia and the Pacific Islands. 162 Dunn, K.M. (1998) Rethinking Ethnic Concentration: The Case of Cabramatta, Sydney, in Urban Studies, Vol. 35(3), pp. 503 -527. 163 The meshblock is the smallest geographic unit for which statistical data is collected and processed by Statistics New Zealand. Wards are area units defined by territorial authorities for electoral purposes. The ward system was designed to allow for the recognition of communities within a district and to increase community involvement in the local government system.

page

142

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Diversity

Perceptions of diversity The previous two measures illustrate the growing amount of diversity in large cities. This can have both positive and negative effects on city residents, so this measure explores how city residents view diversity, using data from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Survey respondents were asked for their views on how the increase in numbers of people with different lifestyles and from a variety of countries impacted on their city. Wellington (69%), Dunedin (61%), and Christchurch (57%) respondents expressed the most positive views. It should be noted that Dunedin and Christchurch also have the lowest proportion of their population from non-European cultures.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The main benefits of cultural diversity identified by survey respondents included exposure to other cultures, better access to varied services, particularly ethnic foods and restaurants, and a belief that ethnic diversity makes cities more vibrant.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF EFFECT OF INCREASED DIVERSITY UPON CITY (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent A much better place

11

15

12

A better place

10 10

16

21

No difference

35 33

27

28

36 36

A worse place

38

41

PERCENT

HOUSING

10

40

A much worse place

43

HEALTH

34 38

46

40 40

27

32 32 25

North Shore

Waitakere

13 3

6

11 11 1

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

3

8 1

Wellington Christchurch

4 1

Dunedin

Overall, around a third (34%) felt that diversity makes no difference to their city. A small proportion (12%) felt that diversity made their city a worse or much worse place to live. Comments were associated with a perceived lack of integration into New Zealand society by migrants, and racial disharmony.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

The above measures highlight the growing impact of cultural diversity on large cities. These cities will become more diverse as their populations increase, particularly through immigration. Some cities acknowledge that migration increases a city’s vitality and can spur economic development through demand for goods and services, and they have policies aimed at celebrating diversity. However, the perceived negative effects, such as perceptions of racial disharmony, must be carefully managed.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

11 2

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

10 1

12

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

143

Local community strength and spirit

•

On average, 80% of respondents across all cities said that they belonged to some social group or network.

•

Over three quarters felt that a sense of community was important and that they had positive interactions with their neighbours.

•

Ethnicity and age are key variables in terms of the location of social groups and networks.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Being part of a social group or network has positive outcomes for the individual and society. The presence of formal and informal relationships between people facilitates participation in society, encourages a sense of belonging, and enables stable communities. This indicator explores the nature and extent of social groups and networks in the eight cities. Data is derived from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Four measures are included: • Group or network that matters most to residents • Community support • Sense of community • Social isolation. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Group or network that matters most to residents Survey respondents were asked which of the options best describes the group or social network that matters to them most: people who live in the same area; people who have the same interests, culture or beliefs; or no groups or networks. On average, 80% of respondents in all cities said that they belonged to some social group or network. The majority stated that their network is made up of people who have the same interests but who do not necessarily live in the local neighbourhood.

RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF GROUP OR NETWORK THAT MATTERS MOST TO THEM (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Mostly people living in my neighbourhood

17

18

15

16

10

14

8 16

Mostly people with same interests but not necessarily living in my neighbourhood

PERCENT

No particular groups or networks that I feel part of

page

63

63

70

16

17

14

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

144

60

22

Manukau

73

69 69

19

Hamilton

15

17

Wellington Christchurch

64

18

Dunedin

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Local community strength and spirit

Waitakere, at 18%, contained the highest proportion of residents with networks of people who do live in the same area whereas Christchurch had 8%. The highest proportion of people who felt they did not belong to any group or network was Manukau (22%). Respondents over 55 years (18%), and particularly those over 75 years of age (21%), placed greater importance on their local neighbourhood, as did Pacific Islands people (22%). Two thirds of Europeans stated that the groups and social networks that mattered most to them were those whose members contained similar beliefs and ideas, and that these do not necessarily have to be within a local neighbourhood.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Differences in terms of the location of social groups are partly influenced by mobility and technology. Vehicle ownership rates and email use mean that social networks can stretch across space. However some key local social institutions, such as churches and day centres, draw upon local population catchments.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

Community support This measure looks at perceptions of the level of support that people provide to one another in a neighbourhood. Survey respondents were asked to what extent they agreed or disagreed that the community works together and people and support each other, on a five point scale of ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’.

HOUSING

In the eight cities combined, over half the respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that people in their local neighbourhood supported one another. Residents in Manukau and Dunedin (both 58%) were more likely to agree or strongly agree with this than respondents in other cities. RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS THAT THE COMMUNITY WORKS TOGETHER AND THAT PEOPLE SUPPORT EACH OTHER (2002)

HEALTH

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Strongly Agree

11

12

15

15 14

10

11

12

Agree

Disagree

27

38

38

43

23

17

20

18

21

19

45

39

16

14

3

3

5

4

5

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Strongly Disagree

24 18

22

23

46

16

19

3

3

Wellington Christchurch

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

44

19 2

Dunedin

Maori and European respondents were less likely to feel that the community works together in their local neighbourhood compared to other ethnic groups. This links with previous findings in which Europeans stated that the groups and social networks that mattered most to them do not necessarily have to be within a local neighbourhood.

SAFETY

41

PERCENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Neither agree nor disagree

Sense of community

Over three quarters of respondents across all cities agreed or strongly agreed that feeling a sense of community was important (75%) and that they had positive interactions with their neighbours (86%). There was little variation between the individual cities.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

145

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

This measure looks at the perceived sense of community in local neighbourhoods amongst city residents. Survey respondents were asked to what extent they agreed or disagreed that a sense of community exists in their neighbourhood and whether they thought this was important, on a five point scale of ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’.

Local community strength and spirit Continued...

RESIDENTS’ SENSE OF COMMUNITY WITHIN LOCAL NEIGHBOURHOOD (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Strongly agree

11

13

8

12

15

11

13

Agree

15

Neither agree nor disagree Disagree

44

PERCENT

44

39

42

38

43

40

Strongly disagree

46

22

21

26

18

21

5

4

4

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

20

23

19

17

14

3

3

North Shore

Waitakere

25

21

16

19

4

4

14

20 3

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

Social isolation Survey respondents were asked how often they had felt lonely or isolated over the last 12 months on a six point scale of ‘never’ to ‘all of the time’. On average, 80% of survey respondents stated that they ‘hardly ever’ or ‘never’ felt lonely or isolated in the last 12 months. Dunedin respondents were more likely than others to state this (85%) where as Auckland respondents were more likely than others to say that they felt lonely only some (or more) of the time (22%). RESIDENTS’ FREQUENCY OF FEELING ISOLATED IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent All of the time 3

1 1

14

3 15

1 2

3 16

1

1 2 2

2 15

3 14

1 1

2 2 2 11

PERCENT

31

35

0 1

16

1 2 2

Most of the time

10

A good bit of the time

33 34

3

38

35

27

32

Some of the time Hardly ever Never

47

North Shore

48

Waitakere

43

42

Auckland

Manukau

46

Hamilton

50

53

Wellington Christchurch

53

Dunedin

There was a correlation between income levels and feelings of isoloation. People in households earning less than $20,000 per annum were more likely to feel lonely and isolated, compared with those earning $40,000 or more per annum. Asian and Indian peoples were more likely than others to feel lonely and isolated. This may be linked to high levels of Asian immigration and a lack of established social networks, and language difficulties. Belonging to a social network is important to a person’s wellbeing. People who feel that they do not belong to a social network can experience isolation. This is particularly relevant in the larger cities as they become home to an increasing number of migrants from foreign countries.

page

146

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

•

PEOPLE

Electronic communication

On average 43% of residents across all cities use email and the Internet daily, and all usage rates in all cities are lower than the national average. Socio- economic difference in the population are reflected in patterns of email and Internet use.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

•

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Communicating with others is fundamental to ensuring a healthy society. Electronic communication media can facilitate social interaction, stimulate learning, and overcome mobility barriers to keeping people connected. This indicator was selected because it can provide a perspective of the potential for city residents to communicate with others and remain involved in city life. Four measures are used: • Access to telecommunications • Use of email and the Internet • Location of email and Internet use • Importance of the Internet for decision - making.

HOUSING

WHAT DID WE FIND?

Access to telecommunications This measure outlines the level of access to three telecommunications media using 2001 Census data.

HEALTH

There are few differences between the eight cities in access to telephones.164 Internet access ranges from 51% in North Shore to 35% in Manukau, both of which are lower than the New Zealand average of 56%. The percentage of households with a fax machine ranges from 33% in North Shore to 23% in Manukau. This is also below the New Zealand average (38%).

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Nationally, the change in levels of access to telecommunications between 1996 and 2001 has been minimal.165

Telephone %

Fax machine %

Internet %

North Shore

1

96

33

51

Waitakere

3

91

27

41

Auckland

3

91

29

44

Manukau

3

91

23

35

Hamilton

3

92

24

38

Wellington

3

91

25

39

Christchurch

2

93

29

48

Dunedin

3

91

25

40

Rest of NZ

2

91

24

47

Total NZ

2

92

27

43

SAFETY

No access %

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS WITH ACCESS TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS (2001)

This measure looks at frequency of use of email and the Internet. Data is derived from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Respondents were asked on an average month, how often they use the Internet and email for work, education or personal use.

164 This measure does not include cellphone access. 165 The 1996 Census did not ask information pertaining to household fax and Internet access which meant that it is not possible to undertake direct comparisons between

Census periods.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

147

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Use of email and the Internet

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census 2001

Electronic communication Continued...

Looking at the eight cities combined, 43% of residents use email daily and 56% use the Internet daily. Significant differences in terms of usage were evident amongst different household incomes and age groups. Respondents across the eight cities with an income of less than $20,000 per annum (55%), and people aged over 55 years (33%) were less likely to use the Internet and email compared to other income and age groups. Location of email and Internet use Survey respondents who use the Internet or email once a month or more were asked where they go to use these. There were few differences between the cities in terms of the location of Internet and email use, with home and work being the two major places across all cities. Dunedin had the lowest rate of people who used the Internet at home (77%), but the highest usage at school or university (16%). The latter figure in part reflects the large proportion of students found in that city. Looking at the eight cities combined, Pacific Islands and Maori respondents were much more likely to use the Internet at a café or friend or relative’s house, whereas usage by European and Asian/Indian populations occurred predominantly in the home.166 RESIDENTS’ USE OF EMAIL AND INTERNET (2002)

Use per month Place:

North Shore %

Waitakere %

Auckland %

Manukau %

Hamilton %

Wellington %

Christchurch %

Dunedin %

79

70

77

65

75

85

70

69

Home

87

87

84

82

83

81

82

77

Work

54

54

52

53

54

61

48

47

School/Uni

10

10

12

10

11

11

12

16

Café

4

3

10

6

3

5

3

3

Other

2

7

8

7

10

5

5

6

Importance

60

62

64

55

64

65

59

56

Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002 Note: Multiple responses were allowed so percentages will not add to 100

Importance of the Internet for decision-making Respondents to the survey who use the Internet or email once a month or more were asked to rate the importance of the Internet in providing consumer reviews, information for work, education, events, activities or services, and other things that help them to make decisions. Approximately 60% of respondents from the eight cities combined stated that the Internet was either important or very important in providing information for making decisions. There were no significant differences between cities in this regard. Asian/Indian respondents were more likely to say it was a very important tool for decision making (43%) compared to other ethnic groups. Around a quarter (28%) of respondents over 55 years of age were more likely to rate it as an unimportant tool for decision - making. This is consistent with the relatively low level of computer usage amongst that age group. Socio - economic differences exist in terms of access to the Internet and location of usage. The movement toward the provision of services through electronic means needs to acknowledge the differences in levels of access between different population groups. Such differences have implications for the ability of certain groups to use these tools for communication purposes, which can have an impact on levels of social connectedness. Those without access, or who have limited access, to this technology will be disadvantaged.

166 There is a large amount of double counting in these figures as people could use the Internet in a number of different locations. The survey did not ask the predominant

location of usage.

page

148

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

The Treaty of Waitangi is integral to this in the enactment of rights for New Zealand’s indigenous people. City councils play a key role in facilitating the involvement of Maori and other citizens in the governance of the area. WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?

• • • •

Treaty of Waitangi Community involvement in decision - making Voter turnout Representation on local decision - making bodies

KEY POINTS

The councils of all eight cities recognise the Treaty of Waitangi as a key document in their organisation, and actively work with Tangata Whenua to incorporate Maori perspectives into policy and consultation processes.167 Overall, voter turnouts in local authority, regional council and district health board elections have

Effective local governance is related to the quality of involvement of residents. Decision - making processes can be compromised if those processes do not seek genuine input or if decisions are made that do not reflect community wishes. As well as cultural background, age plays a role in effective governance. Community views must be sought in a manner that is appropriate to the circumstances of participants. High levels of juvenile crime and births to teenage mothers indicate that greater youth community engagement is needed. Encouraging greater involvement in civic issues can better prepare young people for their role as citizens and can provide institutions and organisations with important insights from the perspective of young people. Electronic communications play a key role in this. There is a great amount of information and knowledge available through the Internet, but not everyone has access to this medium of communication. The level of citizen participation in the democratic process is linked to the sense of belonging people feel to their community and city, and the sense of safety and security felt at the personal and family level.

167 Tangata Whenua means people of the land.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

149

HOUSING

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

LINKS

HEALTH

There are gender and ethnic disparities in representation on governance bodies such as school and district health boards and councils.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The largest cities are becoming more diverse with people from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. For many new residents, there appear to be hurdles that discourage civil and political involvement. Issues such as language barriers and a traditional focus on a Westminster style of governance can limit people’s ability to exercise their civic rights and to participate in decision - making. Effective civil and political systems allow our communities to be governed in a manner that promotes justice and fairness, and thus a better quality of life.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

WHY THIS IS IMPORTANT

Public views on councils and their procedures vary considerably amongst the eight cities’ residents. Approximately half of those surveyed said they understood how councils made decisions and that they would like more of a say.

SAFETY

Our communities are built on the principle of democracy enabling certain civil and political rights. This chapter looks at the participation of residents in representative governance and decision-making processes at local and national levels.

been declining. Reasons for this decline are difficult to pinpoint. However a lack of information and a lack of interest were key reasons for declining voter turnouts at the 2001 local government elections.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

INTRODUCTION

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

11

Civil and Political Rights

Treaty of Waitangi

•

All councils recognise the Treaty of Waitangi as an important document and actively work with Tangata Whenua to incorporate Maori perspectives into policy and consultation processes.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Te Tiriti o Waitangi/the Treaty of Waitangi underpins relationships between central and local government and Tangata Whenua. Local government is obligated by both the Local Government Act (2002) and the Resource Management Act (1991) to actively engage Maori in the definition of community outcomes and resource management decisions. This indicator explores how the eight councils engage Maori and the role of the Treaty within each council. The data comes from the Councils of the eight cities, each of whom provided information on how they work with local Maori, the types of structures in place and the relationships they are developing. WHAT DID WE FIND?

North Shore City Council: recognises five iwi as being Tangata Whenua of North Shore. 168 The council’s annual plan contains a key objective of ensuring that council policy and services incorporate the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. Council also works with Awataha Marae on community projects. Waitakere City Council: has two formal agreements with local iwi, Te Kawerau a Maki and Ngati Whatua. The council also works closely with other Maori organisations including Te Whanau o Waipareira Trust. Council has established a Maori standing committee, Te Taumata Runanga, to ensure the needs of Maori residents are addressed. Auckland City Council: recognises three iwi groups who exercise ahikaa within Auckland City boundaries, Ngati Whatua o Orakei, Ngati Paoa and Ngati Rehua of Aotea - Great Barrier.169 The council has worked steadily to foster positive relationships with local iwi and the wider Maori community. A dedicated council team works to provide policy advice and support to the council, to facilitate consultation and engagement with Tangata Whenua, to foster positive relationships with Maori communities and to provide bicultural and educational support for Auckland City Council staff. The council consults with eight Tangata Whenua groups on pre -resource consent applications. A Tangata Whenua Consultative Committee meets monthly to discuss resource consents that may affect them. By considering and dealing with consents in advance, the committee has been able to save time and money. The council and Tangata Whenua have worked together successfully on a number of Treaty- based projects. Manukau City Council: has a commitment to Te Tiriti/Treaty of Waitangi shown through policy and legislative reviews, and through actively developing formal Tiriti/Treaty- based relationship agreements with the six Mana Whenua groups of Manukau.170 These relationship agreements are scheduled to be completed by December 2003 and will form the basis for future service level agreements with the business areas of Council. Council has established an elected member Treaty of Waitangi Working Party to manage the development of the Council’s response to the Treaty of Waitangi in Manukau and the region, a Tiriti/Treaty Corporate Team to guide the organisational response to Te Tiriti/Treaty, and a Tiriti/Treaty of Waitangi Unit to implement the commitments of Council. The Treaty of Waitangi Working Party is currently considering a range of possible structures that could lead to an increase in the representation and participation of Maori in local government decision - making processes.

168 Iwi means Maori tribe which usually consists of a number of hapu (sub - tribe) with a common ancestor. 169 Ahikaa means occupation. 170 Mana Whenua refers to Maori who are tied culturally to the area through their genealogy and ancestors who lived and died there.

page

150

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Hamilton City Council: embraces the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi, acknowledges the importance of kingitanga in the Waikato and values its partnership with both Mana Whenua and maataa waka.171 The partnership with Te Runanga O Kirikiriroa (TeROK) embodies a commitment by both parties to work toward a strong community for all people. It provides for the operation of a joint venture committee (comprising council and TeROK representatives) to discuss partnership issues and oversee administration of Council’s Maori project fund. Council recognises Nga Mana Toopu o Kirikiriroa as the representative of Waikato iwi with regard to natural and physical resource management issues under the Resource Management Act 1991.

Wellington City Council: has a Memorandum of Understanding with Ngati Toa Rangatira and the Wellington Tenths Trust. These memoranda outline how Mana Whenua participate in Council decisions on protocol, policy, regulatory and service delivery issues. Ngati Toa and Wellington Tenths Trust also have ex- officio membership on the Council’s standing committees. In addition, a Council subcommittee, Te Taumata, provides advice on policy, governance and operational matters. Regular hui are held to discuss matters of mutual concern to the Council and Wellington Maori, partnerships are developed and Maori consulted on specific issues, and the Council’s internal recruitment and training procedures aim to improve its capacity to deal with Maori issues appropriately.172

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Other initiatives carried out at a departmental level include: a signed protocol with Kai Tahu ki Otago Ltd for Resource Management Act issues; library programmes designed to build an improved understanding of, and respect for, Maori culture and language in the community; consultation on staff training issues; and a broad range of consultation on more detailed matters of policy development, involving formal and informal meetings, representation on committees and working parties, and hui.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

Dunedin City Council: is developing existing relationships with Kai Tahu through a ‘Maori Participation Working Party’ that includes Councillors and representatives from Te Runanga o Otaku and Kati Huirapa ki Puketeraki Runanga. The terms of reference for the working party indicate the following issues will be considered: sustainable development, capacity and opportunity to participate in Council decision - making processes, the Council’s Local Governance Statements, the role of a memorandum of understanding, and rating policies.

HOUSING

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Christchurch City Council: recognises the rights of Maori under the Treaty. The council has a Maori Liaison Office, comprised of city councillors, Ngai Tahu and other Maori representatives. The office contains an official who, amongst other duties, builds relationships between council, Tangata Whenua and other Maori groups.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Continued...

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

PEOPLE

Treaty of Waitangi

171 Kingitanga means kingship. Maataa waka means founding settlers, original canoes. 172 Hui means meeting.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

151

Community involvement in council decision-making

•

Approximately 75% of residents in the eight largest cities are satisfied with the level of public involvement in council decision-making.

•

Around half of those surveyed said they understood how councils made decisions and that they would like more of a say.

•

The majority of residents surveyed felt the public has some influence on council decision-making.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

The Local Government Act (2002) focuses on ‘democratic and effective local government that recognises the diversity of New Zealand communities.’ 173 The purpose of local government as described in the Act is: • to enable democratic local decision - making and action by, and on behalf of communities; and • to promote the social, economic, environmental, and cultural well- being of communities, in the present and for the future.174 Identification of community outcomes is one of the most significant changes in the planning area of the Act. The definition of outcomes must focus on engaging communities in planning for their community. Outcomes must also be developed with the community and not imposed by councils. In this new environment it is important to look at the nature of council decision - making, and in particular to measure resident satisfaction with decision - making and local authority consultation processes. This indicator is composed of three measures using data from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Survey respondents were asked their views on the following: • Understanding of how councils make decisions • Satisfaction with the level of public involvement in council decision - making • Public influence on council decision - making. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Understanding of how councils make decisions Survey respondents were asked a series of questions about council decision - making. Responses were ranked on a five point scale of ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ with the questions. Overall, half (50%) of respondents said they understand how council makes decisions, with Dunedin residents (59%) being more likely than others to express this view. Respondents from Auckland (37%) were more likely, compared to others, to disagree.

173 Local Government Act (2002) Part 1, Preliminary provisions, 3 Purpose. 174 Local Government Act (2002) Part 2, Purpose of local government, and role and powers of local authorities, Subpart 1 - Purpose of local government.

page

152

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Community involvement in council decision-making

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF AGREEMENT THAT THEY UNDERSTAND HOW THEIR COUNCIL MAKES DECISIONS (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent

8

7

7

5

7

9

5

6

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree 38

42

46

46

45

48

53

Disagree

17

14

13 14

14

30

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Strongly disagree

32

29

25

4

5

7

5

4

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

27

17

11 12

24

31

4

3

Wellington Christchurch

25

3

Dunedin

Dunedin and Christchurch residents were more likely to feel that decisions made by their councils were in the best interests of their city (58% and 55% respectively). Auckland respondents were polarised around this issue with 39% agreeing that this was the case and 37% disagreeing.175

HOUSING

PERCENT

42

HEALTH

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF AGREEMENT THAT DECISIONS MADE BY THEIR COUNCIL ARE IN THE BEST INTERESTS OF THE CITY (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore figures might not add to 100 percent Strongly agree 7

5

9

4

6

5

5

Agree

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

5

Neither agree nor disagree 34

40

44 43

45

50

53

Disagree Strongly disagree

16

19

21 23

15 19

26 23

24

20

6

7

11

7

5

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

25

19 5

22 18 6

Wellington Christchurch

3

Dunedin

Slightly over half of the respondents across all cities (59%) said that the issues their council deals with affect them. Manukau (31%) and Waitakere (31%) residents were more likely to perceive that the issues their council deals with do not affect them compared to those in the other cities.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Satisfaction with the level of public involvement in council decision-making Survey respondents were asked about their level of satisfaction with public involvement in council decision - making. Responses were ranked on a five point scale from ‘very satisfied’ to ‘very dissatisfied’. They were also asked to provide reasons for any dissatisfaction. The survey found that Dunedin (42%) and Wellington (41%) residents were most satisfied with public involvement in decision - making while Auckland (32%) and Manukau (30%) residents were most dissatisfied.

175 Auckland City Council was deliberating on a highly publicised, contentious issue at the time of the survey which may help to explain this polarisation.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

SAFETY

25

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

23

153

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

PERCENT

46

Community involvement in council decision-making Continued...

RESIDENTS’ RATING OF SATISFACTION WITH THE WAY THEIR COUNCIL INVOLVES THE PUBLIC IN THE DECISIONS IT MAKES (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore survey figures might not add to 100 percent Very satisfied 5

4

36

36

4

6

7

5

4

35

38

33

Satisfied Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

28

24

PERCENT

3

34

Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied

37 30 39

40

34

35

21 16

22

21

15 4

8

11

8

6

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

15 6

33

34

19 17 6

Wellington Christchurch

4

Dunedin

There were large ethnic differences in terms of satisfaction. Pacific Islands (54%) and Asian/Indian (50%) respondents were more likely, compared to other ethnic groups (30%), to be satisfied or very satisfied with involvement in decision - making. Across all cities, lack of consultation was the most frequent reason given for dissatisfaction with public involvement. There were some variations in reasons between individual cities. Wellington respondents (62%) stated that their council did not listen to public opinion.176 Christchurch respondents (57%) stated a lack of involvement of the public by council as their cause of dissatisfaction. In Auckland, respondents stated that the council was not doing enough for the people and placed too much emphasis on profit (11%). European respondents were more likely to state that councils had their own agenda and did not listen to public opinion, compared to other ethnic groups. Maori respondents suggested the lack of information and publicity was a cause for dissatisfaction. It may therefore be necessary for councils to reconsider how information is disseminated and decisions publicised. Public influence on council decision-making Survey respondents were asked to rate the extent to which the public is able to influence council decision - making on a four point scale from ‘large influence’ to ‘no influence’. Overall, 53% of survey respondents felt that the public does have some influence on council decision - making. However, perception of the strength of that influence varies significantly. Wellington, Dunedin and Christchurch respondents (at 59%, 57% and 56% respectively), were more likely to state that the public has some or a large amount of influence on what their council does. Compared to other cities, Auckland respondents were less likely to feel they had influence over their Council’s decisions. This view was also supported by European respondents. Across all eight cities, just over one third (37%) of respondents believed they had only a small influence over their council’s decisions.

176 There was a highly publicised and contentious issue being considered by Wellington City Council at the time of the survey, which may have influenced this perception.

page

154

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Community involvement in council decision-making

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

RESIDENTS’ SATISFACTION OF THE EXTENT OF PUBLIC INFLUENCE ON COUNCIL DECISION-MAKING (2002) Data source: Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore survey figures might not add to 100 percent

11

7

8 11

9

8

8

Some Influence Small influence

44

46 39

50

48

49

34

34

36

6

8

6

No influence

41

36

39

34

7

11

12

11

North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

PERCENT

45

38

39

7

Hamilton

Wellington Christchurch

Dunedin

Over two -thirds of respondents believed that voting in council elections provided residents with a chance to influence decisions about their community. Europeans were much more likely to disagree (23%) that voting influenced council decisions. Pacific Islands and Asian/Indian respondents were much more positive about the role of voting (with 79% and 72% respectively).

HEALTH

The results suggest that Dunedin, Wellington and Christchurch residents appear to better understand how their councils make decisions and accordingly have a stronger belief that they can influence those decisions.

HOUSING

7

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

Large influence

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Overall, 56% of respondents stated that they would like to have more say in what councils do, particularly Auckland (62%) and Manukau (61%) residents. Europeans were more likely than other ethnic groups to disagree with this.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

155

Voter turnout

•

Voter participation in national elections tends to be higher than local elections, with over 70% turnout in most cities.

•

Overall, voter turnout in local authority elections has slightly declined across all cities since 1992.

•

Lack of information is perceived as the biggest barrier to voter turnout.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

Voting in a democratic process is the main vehicle through which citizens can express their political will. It is one of the most fundamental roles and responsibilities accorded to citizens, and is a key to effective governance. The general election system is the process used to elect Members of Parliament who represent a local community in national affairs. The territorial local authority electoral system is the process used to elect city and regional councils, and community and district health boards. This indicator uses the following measures to assess voter turnout: • Voter turnout at local council elections • Barriers to voting in local council elections • Voter turnout at district health board (DHB) elections • Voter turnout at regional council elections • Voter turnout at general elections. WHAT DID WE FIND?

Voter turnout at local council elections Voting in a local council election is the main way in which residents can influence the delivery of services and decision - making in their local communities. Voter participation in local council elections indicates the proportion of the eligible voting population that actively participates in electing local representatives. It also reflects voter perceptions of their ability to influence important matters in their cities. The level of 2001 voter turnout for the eight city councils ranged from 54% in Dunedin to 37% in Manukau. Manukau has the second lowest voter turnout for local authority elections in New Zealand. PERCENTAGE OF VOTER TURNOUT AT LOCAL AUTHORITY ELECTIONS (1995, 1998, 2001) Source: Department of Internal Affairs

1995

1998

2001

66

70

Christchurch

45

50 52 49

Wellington

49 51

50 51 48

43

Hamilton

39 41 37

49 51 45 35

30

41

38

40

46 45

PERCENT

50

50 51 47

56

61

60

20 10 0 North Shore

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Dunedin

Total NZ

Overall, voter turnout in local council elections has slightly declined across all cities since 1992. The declining rates may be a cause of concern for local governments.

page

156

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

PEOPLE

Voter turnout

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Continued...

Barriers to voting

The most common reasons given were: • Lack of information (32%) • Time constraints (14%) • Lack of interest (22%) • Candidates did not appeal (8%).

HOUSING

The decision to vote is affected by many factors and it is important to gain some understanding of what these are when planning for citizen involvement in democratic processes. Barriers to accessing information can limit people’s understanding of election procedures and their knowledge of potential candidates. In cities with diverse communities, communication mediums used to transmit information is of critical importance. Election procedures also have an impact. For instance, local elections by postal ballot may not be conducive to high participation rates among transient and immigrant populations. This particularly affects renters who may be younger and/or lower income voters, and people newly arriving in a city.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

This measure looks at the factors that influence voter turnout in local authority elections. Data is drawn from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002. Respondents who did not vote in the last local authority election (held in 2001) were asked what motivated their decision.

A Christchurch survey of electors, commissioned following the relatively low turnout in the 2001 council election, found that younger people (under 35 years) and those who had lived in Christchurch for less than three years, were much less likely to vote than older people and those who had lived in the city for longer than ten years.177

HEALTH

Lack of information was again identified as a key barrier for newer residents. Older voters and long term residents commented on a sense of duty to vote, which is perhaps associated with a greater commitment to the city and to influencing decisions that affect residents. Voter turnout in district health board (DHB) elections

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

This measures 2001 voter turnout in the seven DHB areas that include the geographical boundaries of the eight cities. DHB elections were held for the first time in 2001 at the same time as the 2001 local council elections. The geographical area covered by a DHB is not always consistent with the local council boundaries. This is particularly the case in the Counties-Manukau and the Capital and Coast DHB areas.

%

Waitemata DHB

37

Auckland DHB

48

Counties-Manukau DHB

39

Waikato DHB

50

Capital and Coast DHB

48

Canterbury DHB

52

Otago DHB

59

SAFETY

DHB Region

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

PERCENTAGE OF VOTER TURNOUT IN DISTRICT HEALTH BOARD (DHB) ELECTIONS BY DHB REGION (2001)

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

The results show that Waitemata DHB had the lowest level of voter turnout at the 2001 elections and Otago DHB the highest. These findings reflect earlier measures that voter turnout, on average, is highest in Dunedin, Christchurch and Wellington and lower in the remaining five cities.

177 McRobie, A. (November 2001) Voting and Non -Voting in Christchurch City. Christchurch City Council, Christchurch.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

Data source: Department of Internal Affairs

page

157

Voter turnout Continued...

Voter turnout at regional council elections This measure looks at voter turnout in the five regional council areas within which the eight largest cities sit. Regional council boundaries do not directly align with local council (territorial authority) boundaries. The focus of regional councils tends to be on the management of natural and physical resources and public transport. The level of voter turnout decreased between 1998 and 2001. Otago Regional Council (61%) had the highest level of turnout and Auckland Regional Council (43%) the lowest.178 Aside from Auckland Regional Council, turnout rates for the other four regional councils were higher than for the rest of New Zealand. PERCENTAGE OF VOTER TURNOUT IN REGIONAL COUNCIL ELECTIONS (1992, 1995, 1998, 2001)

1992 %

1995 %

1998 %

2001 %

Auckland

44

34

46

43

Waikato

Not available

53

56

49

50

46

52

50

47

38

54

52

Not available

57

66

61

Regional Council

Wellington Canterbury Otago Rest of NZ

51

52

54

43

Total NZ

53

44

49

49

Data source: Department of Internal Affairs

Voter turnout at general elections This measures the levels of voter turnout in the 2002 general election. The data is in the form of electoral boundaries, which do not match those of a territorial local authority. Because electoral boundaries can shift, comparisons between 2002 and 1999 turnout rates by electorate are difficult. Of those five electorates with the lowest level of voter turnout at the 2002 election, four were located in the Auckland region. The five electorates with the highest turnout were spread amongst four regions. The cause of this level of turnout is difficult to determine. Access to information, a candidate’s appeal and communication mediums will have had an impact on the level of voter turnout in these electorates. FIVE ELECTORAL AREAS (ACROSS THE EIGHT CITES) WITH HIGHEST VOTER TURNOUT AND FIVE ELECTORAL AREAS WITH LOWEST VOTER TURNOUT IN LAST GENERAL ELECTION (2002)

Electorate (within region) with lowest proportion voter turnout

%

Electorate (within region) with highest proportion voter turnout

%

Mangere (Auckland)

70.9

Coromandel (Waikato)

82.9

Manukau East (Auckland)

71.0

Ohariu -Belmont (Wellington)

82.6

Manurewa (Auckland)

73.2

Otaki (Wellington)

82.4

Maungakiekie (Auckland)

73.9

Banks Peninsula (Christchurch)

82.3

Christchurch Central (Christchurch)

74.1

Rodney (Auckland)

81.9

Data source: Department of Internal Affairs

Voting in a general election is the main method through which New Zealand citizens contribute to representative democracy. General election referenda are sometimes used to canvass voters’ views on issues identified as being of great significance or interest to the country. It is mandatory for all New Zealand citizens and permanent residents aged 18 years and over to register on the electoral roll, but it is not mandatory to cast a vote.

178 This includes North Shore, Waitakere, Auckland and Manukau Cities. Waikato region includes Hamilton City, Canterbury region includes Christchurch City, Otago

region includes Dunedin City.

page

158

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

eight cities.

WHAT THIS IS ABOUT

HOUSING

Proportional representation on local decision - making bodies is an important component of democracy, particularly in cities with diverse populations. Residents in our cities have many different interests and needs, and differing levels of awareness and understanding of issues of importance. These differences are often based on factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, cultural background, religion, sexual orientation, income, employment status and so on. Where diversity is reflected through fair representation, it is more likely that communities will be effectively engaged in local decision - making processes. This section uses the following indicators to assess this: • Candidates standing for local authority elections • Composition of city councils and community boards • Representation by women on city councils • Composition of school boards of trustees.

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING

There are significant ethnic and gender differences in the composition of councils and school boards across the

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

•

PEOPLE

Representation on local decision-making bodies

WHAT DID WE FIND?

Candidates standing for local authority elections

The number of candidates per council position remains around three. That is, for every position on a council an average of three people contest it. In the 2001 elections, Dunedin had the lowest number of candidates per position (1.5) while North Shore had the highest (3.4). Between the 1998 and 2001 elections, the number of candidates per council position has, on average, increased. AVERAGE NUMBER OF CANDIDATES STANDING PER COUNCIL POSITION (1995, 1998, 2001)

Waitakere

Auckland

Manukau

Hamilton

Wellington

Christchurch

Dunedin

1995

3.0

2.7

1998

3.9

3.4

2001

3.4

3.3

3.3

Rest of NZ

2.9

2.9

2.6

2.2

3.5

2.5

2.7

3.6

3.2

3.2

3.6

3.3

3.5

3.2

3.1

3.1

2.9

2.4

1.5

2.7

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

North Shore

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH

It is important that elected representation on councils is proportional to the demographic characteristics within the local communities they serve. If the pool of candidates to an election is minimal, then the final composition of a governance body is affected.

Data source: Department of Internal Affairs

Composition of city councils and community boards

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

159

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

Data on ethnicity and age of elected representatives on councils is not officially collected. Anecdotal evidence suggests over-representation by Europeans, with a correspondingly poor representation by women, ethnic groups and young people. This is likely to have an impact on the ability of councils to understand and advocate for these population groups, and on the perceived relevance of councils to such communities. Specific groups or sectors of the community may not feel they are being heard or their concerns addressed. Alienation from local decision - making processes can have adverse repercussions for social connectedness in cities.

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS

SAFETY

Local Government New Zealand states that “local government is democracy in action” and “local democracy is about having the right mix of people… to best represent a particular community”. This raises the question of the representativeness of city councils.

Representation on local decision-making bodies Continued...

Representation by women on city councils This measure explores differences in gender representation on city councils. There is under-representation by females following the 2001 election. Waitakere had the highest number of female councillors at 63%, and Manukau the lowest at 19%. WOMEN CANDIDATES AND COUNCILLORS IN THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT ELECTIONS (2001)

2001 Women Candidates by TLA Number

2001 elected Women Councillors by TLA

% of total candidates

Number

%of elected councillors

Women as a proportion of the population Number

% of population

North Shore

17

33

7

47

95,637

52

Waitakere

20

43

10

63

86,376

51

Auckland

25

40

7

35

189,738

52

Manukau

14

24

4

19

145,413

51

Hamilton

11

28

3

21

59,835

52

Wellington

16

29

9

45

84,573

52

Christchurch

23

40

14

56

163,989

52

Dunedin

4

19

4

27

59,775

52

Data source: Department of Internal Affairs

Composition of school boards of trustees School Boards of Trustees are locally elected boards that govern state and state -integrated schools. Proportional representation on school boards of trustees is important for effective engagement of communities in the governance of our schools. This data was provided by the Ministry of Education and includes the ethnicity of school board trustees. The data is used to highlight differing levels of formal political engagement by various ethnic groups. In 2002 the majority of school board members were European. Manukau had the highest number of school board members from other ethnic groups followed by Auckland and Waitakere. This is consistent with the diverse populations of these cities.179 The measures of this indicator suggest a level of gender differences in terms of representation. This could be due to a number of variables including time constraints. ETHNICITY OF SCHOOL BOARD TRUSTEES (2002) Data source: Ministry of Education. ‘Don’t know’ responses are not shown in graph therefore survey figures might not add to 100 percent 1.8

1.8

2.9

0.7

2.1

1.3

0.4

0.4

Other European Asian

59.9

PERCENT

73.1

71.3

Pacific Island

76.6 85.2

88.5

87.7

91.4

Maori

2.8

1.6 5.6

0.4

North Shore

2.5

2.4

7.1

12.5

13.2

Waitakere

15.6 1.7 17.8

19.9

9.5

Auckland

0.7 1.8 4.0 6.1

Manukau

Hamilton

1.8 5.8

0.7

Wellington Christchurch

4.7

0.4 0.4

Dunedin

179 It should be noted that these measures reflect the most formal level of involvement and those which are recorded by various agencies. Many parents participate in

school activities by helping coach sport teams, running gala days and fundraising activities for instance. This involvement is central to the functioning of these activities.

page

160

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Conclusions It is important that there is a high level of quality of life in our cities and that this is sustainable. Cities must be managed and developed in a way that is balanced through considering social, economic, environmental and cultural impacts on the city and its residents in the present and for the future. Sustainable development therefore, is an everchanging process that can be described by the movement of indicators of quality of life over time.

QUALITY OF LIFE IN CITIES IS IMPROVING FOR SOME

The overall quality of life for most people living in New Zealand’s eight largest cities is improving. Our health is getting better and education standards are increasing. Overall crime is reducing and people’s sense of safety is more positive. Unintentional injuries such as traffic fatalities are declining. In recent years the economy has been creating more jobs, and a higher percentage of New Zealanders are employed than at any other time in the past 14 years. The majority of residents in our big cities feel a sense of pride in their city and rate their overall quality of life as good.

and services increases. The continual growth of business activity will be essential in order to provide local job opportunities to meet the needs of the rapidly growing local populations. It will also be essential for residents to have the skills and training that are required by local businesses to stimulate local economic growth. Unemployment is still an important challenge for our cities. Individuals who are unemployed often face considerable financial hardship as well as suffering stress and social isolation. COMMUNITY SAFETY HAS IMPROVED IN SOME AREAS

Generally, reported crime appears to be declining. The rate of recorded burglaries has dropped in all cities although the eight cities combined still have a higher rate than the rest of New Zealand. However, safety in town centres at night is still an issue. The general trend in reported violent crime and the rate of recorded violent and sexual offences have fluctuated, but overall seem to be rising. Rates of child abuse or neglect continue to be high by international standards.

OUR CITIES MAY NOT BE SUSTAINABLE

The populations within these cities are expected to continue rising, taking the majority of New Zealand’s growth in the coming years. As the population grows, demand will increase for natural resources such as water and land, and there will be increased pressure on transport infrastructure and services, water and waste systems, energy supplies, community services and recreational facilities. Cities in the Auckland region are already experiencing the impact of the large number of cars on the roads, although the proportion of residents who use a motor vehicle to get to work is slowly declining. Christchurch has ongoing problems related to air quality. All eight cities are working to improve the sustainability of their areas’ natural attributes through initiatives to minimise waste and improve biodiversity. Population growth can also have a significant impact on economic vitality as demand for goods

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

MANAGING DIVERSITY IS A KEY CHALLENGE

Our cities are growing in ethnic diversity, with higher proportions of Maori, Pacific Islands and Asian peoples in the eight cities compared to the rest of New Zealand. Ethnic diversity can have implications for the way in which services are provided, as well as social cohesion of cities and their communities. While the ethnic composition of the eight largest cities is varied, ensuring that residents have a sense of inclusion, respect for differences and an understanding of the things they have in common is a key challenge facing all cities. The age of a population creates implications for urban design and service planning, including leisure, health, urban facilities, housing and transport. Ageing is especially pronounced in North Shore, Christchurch and Dunedin whereas Manukau and Waitakere cities have more youthful population structures.

page

161

Conclusion Continued...

CONNECTEDNESS IS STILL AN ISSUE

There is a small proportion of the population who feel little or no connection to their community and who are not trusting of others. A small number of residents indicated that they feel lonely or isolated either all or most of the time. A proportion of residents also feel alienated from both local and national political processes. SOCIO -ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE IS STILL IMPACTING ON QUALITY OF LIFE

A key trend is the continuing and increasing exclusion of segments of society from full economic participation. Significant disparities in wellbeing exist between different groups in the large cities and New Zealand as a whole. Life expectancy declines markedly as the deprivation of the area of residence increases. People with the lowest incomes are more likely to suffer and die from just about every disease at every age than the more well- off. These differences are also seen in the incidence of accidental injuries, family violence, crime, victimisation and child abuse. Across our large cities the more affluent suburbs have higher rates of post- school qualification and the areas which are more deprived have more people with no qualifications. Enrolment in post- secondary school learning is relatively low among lower socio - economic families, and children from these families are more likely to perform poorly at school and be excluded from school. People with the lowest income and level of education are disadvantaged in accessing job opportunities and generally find it harder to retain work. They have become increasingly overrepresented among the unemployed and those in marginal employment. This is most evident in the largest cities. The case linking socio - economic disadvantage to poorer community outcomes is particularly marked in the statistics for Maori. While death rates for Maori (for almost all major causes) have continued to decrease, Maori men and women experience an excess burden of mortality and morbidity throughout life. This includes higher infant mortality rates, higher rates of death and hospitalisation in infancy, childhood and youth, and teenage pregnancy. Maori also have significantly poorer outcomes in the areas of education, employment, child safety and crime. The proportion of Maori women who smoke is considerably higher than non -Maori. The wellbeing of Pacific Islands people has improved over recent years, but they still experience a heavy burden of avoidable mortality and morbidity, high incidences of preventative disease, unemployment and educational underachievement. PEOPLE WANT TO BE MORE INVOLVED IN DECISION-MAKING

Residents have varying degrees of understanding of, satisfaction with, and involvement in, local decision - making yet the new Local Government Act 2002 expects this. Across all cities lack of consultation was the most frequent reason given for dissatisfaction with public involvement. A key challenge facing councils is to find relevant ways to engage with increasingly diverse communities within their cities. ONGOING MONITORING IS IMPORTANT

The new legislation also requires that councils develop community outcomes and monitor progress toward them. Production of this Quality of Life report has highlighted the significant gaps that exist in collection of quality of life statistics, both locally and nationally. No single agency collects all the data needed for this reporting. There is a lack of consistent data collection and recording across government agencies and across councils. WORKING TOGETHER IS ESSENTIAL

The issues facing large cities are not likely to be solved by a single agency or a single intervention. This quality of life report has highlighted the inter-relationship between outcomes. Multi- dimensional approaches are required to address improved outcomes, with inter-agency co - operation and planning, as well as multiple layers of intervention at organisational, institutional and community level. Collaboration between local government, central government, community, iwi/Maori and private sector agencies could significantly improve outcomes for our communities and residents. As a democratically accountable body representing geographical communities, city councils are well placed to broker co - ordination and collaboration between sectors within their cities.

page

162

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Data Collection OVERVIEW

This chapter summarises some of the issues concerning the collection of data for this report.180 The report includes 56 key quality of life indicators and their associated measures. INDICATOR SELECTION CRITERIA

The following ten selection criteria were used to assess the applicability of indicators for inclusion in this report: 1. Relevant (to social, environmental and economic outcomes in New Zealand’s largest cities) 2. Measurable (quantifiable, with data existing to measure it) 3. Cost effective (obtainable at a reasonable cost in terms of time and financial resourcing) 4. Valid (providing a true reflection or measure of the issue; scientifically credible or otherwise defensible) 5. Comparable (able to be standardised or compared accurately with similar indicators) 6. Understandable (able to be presented in a simple and appealing way to target audiences) 7. Responsive (responsive to changing conditions) 8. Time related (repeatable, showing trends over time) 9. Disaggregation (able to be disaggregated or broken down by demographic and other characteristics) 10. Leading/lagging (providing leading indicators to give early warning or predictors of change; providing lagging indicators to show effects or outcomes).

In some cases a commentary was provided where it was not possible to include a concrete measure. However, this compromise impedes the monitoring of trends over time and thus the ability to determine whether some things are getting better or worse. While considerable amounts of information and data exist across many areas and issues, there are still significant challenges around the availability, and therefore usefulness, of some data sets. The main problem is the presence of data gaps, with relevant information on some issues being unavailable at sub - national levels (and particularly at the city level) and at times not available at a national level. Examples are: soil quality, biodiversity, debt and savings levels, diabetes and obesity, mental health outcomes, physical disabilities, immunisation, housing quality, poverty lines, truancy, police response times and adult literacy. Other data availability problems encountered were: lack of robust time series data on some issues, limited ability to disaggregate some data sets by ethnicity, a lack of data on quality of life dynamics, and the age of some data sets. Inconsistencies in data collection made it difficult to report indicator results across different locations. For example, there is currently no set standard for measuring and reporting on beach water quality; open space, and building consents. Limited co - ordination of environmental monitoring between councils has exacerbated this problem. Other data consistency issues encountered were changing definitions and measurement conventions over time, and inconsistencies in geographical boundaries between agencies.

DATA ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Data inconsistency, availability and comparability provided constraints to the monitoring and analysis in this report. This has impacted on the types of indicators used in the report, resulting in the omission of some indicators, the use of proxy measures, and the need for caution in interpretation and analysis.

180 A copy of the full data report can be found on www.bigcities.govt.nz

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

163

Data Collection Continued...

GENERAL DATA CAUTIONS

There are a number of important general data cautions to keep in mind when reading the analytical interpretation in this report. 1. In some cases interpreting and comparing percentages across the cities requires caution as the base numbers may be too small to allow for meaningful or detailed interpretations of results. 2. In general, percentages are calculated as a proportion of the population in the city rather than as a percentage of all cities. 3. Statistics New Zealand utilises a confidentiality assurance technique of randomly rounding census statistics to base three. This may result in a total disagreeing slightly with the total of the individual items shown in tables. 4. Indicator data presented in this report are, where possible, disaggregated by ethnicity, age, sex and geographic location to help identify important sub-groups for analysis. However, the report does not identify variations within these sub-groups. 5. Ethnicity is a self- perceived status and people can belong to more than one ethnic category. The current report uses non - prioritised Census ethnicity data where people are coded to all ethnic groups that they say they belong to. Proportions may therefore total to greater than 100% in any given category. Further, the wording of the 2001 Census ethnicity question is not consistent with the 1996 question, and therefore time series comparisons cannot be undertaken between 1996 and 2001. 6. Most of the indicators presented in this report come from official data sources. Generally, they include only reported incidences of a phenomenon, rather than the actual number of cases which may in fact be higher. This is especially relevant to sensitive issues such as levels of crime, child abuse and neglect, where under-reporting is a recognised issue. 7. Aside from the Eight Cities Quality of Life Survey 2002, the data presented in this report have not been subjected to any form of significance testing. This could be a limitation if comparing results across cities. For example, comparisons between cities and over different time periods may or may not be statistically significant even where large differences are found. EIGHT CITIES QUALITY OF LIFE SURVEY 2002

A joint Quality of Life Survey was carried out for the first time in September and October 2002 by the eight participating cities. This was a telephone survey of 4,000 individuals (aged 18 years and over) from randomly selected households across the eight cities, with 500 interviews conducted per city. Quotas were placed on ethnicity, sex, age and city wards to ensure the final sample was representative of the populations of the cities and of ‘hard to find’ sub - groups. The survey, undertaken by AC Nielsen, focused on collecting data for indicators where this could not be obtained from elsewhere. As the survey was designed to meet information gaps in the current report, it did not include a comprehensive coverage of all quality of life issues. This survey is unique in New Zealand in that it is the first time councils have joined together to measure quality of life issues in a comparable way among their city populations. As such, the survey results make a significant contribution to outcome research in New Zealand.

page

164

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Consultation and Contributions THE FOLLOWING ORGANISATIONS (AND SEVERAL INDIVIDUALS WITHIN THEM) WERE CONSULTED, OR INVOLVED, IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS REPORT:

AC Nielsen

Manukau City Council

ASH New Zealand

Metromedia Integrated Brand Communication

Auckland City Council

Ministry for the Environment

Auckland Regional Council Auckland Regional Public Health Service Canterbury Regional Council

Ministry of Health, Disability Services Directorate Ministry of Health, Public Health Intelligence Unit

Canterbury Suicide Project

Ministry of Social Development

Canterbury University Department of Sociology

Napier City Council

Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and Evaluation

North Shore City Council

Children, Youth and Family Services

New Zealand Council of Christian Social Services

Christchurch City Council

New Zealand Police

Crown Public Health

Otago Regional Council

Department of Conservation

Rodney District Council

Department of Labour Te Tari Mahi School of Social and Cultural Studies, Massey Environet Ltd Environment Canterbury

University Social Services Waikato

Environment Waikato Environmental Science and Research Ltd Dunedin City Council

Statistics New Zealand Victoria University of Wellington School of Earth Sciences

Gisborne District Council Hamilton City Council

Waitakere City Council

Injury Prevention Research Unit, Otago University

Wellington City Council

Land Transport Safety Authority

Wellington Regional Council

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

165

Definitions Citizen: a resident of a city or town, especially one entitled (by law) to vote and enjoy other privileges there. Community cohesion: a group of people living in the same locality that have a strong sense of togetherness. Deprivation: the inability to meet basic needs, usually associated with a state of poverty. Ecosystem: a system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment. Ethnicity: the ethnic group or groups that people identify with or feel they belong to. Statistics New Zealand defines an ethnic group as a social group whose members have the following four characteristics: • Share a sense of common origins • Claim a common and distinctive history and destiny • Possess one or more dimensions of collective cultural individuality • Feel a sense of unique collective solidarity. Family: a family consists of two or more people who are members of the same household and who comprise either a couple or at least one parent role / child relationship or both. A familial relationship is defined as one in which a person is related to another household member by blood, marriage (registered or de facto) or adoption. This is a standard Statistics New Zealand definition. Governance: To make and administer public policy and affairs; to exercise a deciding or determining influence on. Household: a household is either one person who usually resides alone or two or more people who

page

166

usually reside together and share facilities (such as eating facilities, cooking facilities, bathroom and toilet facilities, a living area). This is a standard Statistics New Zealand definition. Over-represented: to imply or suggest a higher amount or percentage of a population group in a variable than is actually present in the total population. Physical infrastructure: the basic facilities, services and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society, such as transportation and communications systems, water and power lines, and public institutions such as schools etc. Resident: used in a broad sense to describe any person who lives (resides) within a city. In the Quality of Life survey, resident refers to a person living in a household within the city’s boundaries. Residents met a quota of age, ethnicity, gender and ward. Social cohesion: A component of social capital; social networks that help society function effectively; the voluntary associations that provide linkages between people in the community and enable them to be more effective in business, politics and a wide range of social activities. Socio-economic status: the status of a population group that involves social as well as economic factors. Under-represented: to imply or suggest a lower amount or percentage of a population group in a variable than is actually present in the total population. Urbanisation: the process of a geographical area changing from a rural to an urban (i.e. city) condition.

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Index of Tables and Graphs Location

Table/Graph

Page

PEOPLE Population Growth

Projected Population Growth (2001 to 2021)

16

Census Population, Estimated Population and Projected Population (2001, 2002, 2006, 2011, 2016, 2021)

17

Internal Migration (1996 to 2001)

18

Net External Migration (1992 to 2002)

18

Ethnic Composition (2001)

20

Growth in Ethnicity (1991 to 2001)

20

Five Most Common Languages Spoken (other than English) (2001)

21

Age Structure (2001)

22

Age Structure by Ethnicity (2001)

23

Current and Projected Median Age (2001, 2011, 2021)

24

Total Households in Private Occupied Dwellings (1991, 1996, 2001)

25

Household Composition (2001)

26

Percentage of Households with Two or More Families Resident (1991, 1996, 2001)

27

Average Household Size (1991, 1996, 2001)

27

Family Type as a Percentage of Total Households in Private Occupied Dwellings (2001)

28

Percentage Change in Family Type (1991 to 2001)

29

Participation in Early Childhood Education

Percentage of Population Aged 5 Years and Under Who Attend State Funded Pre-School (2000 to 2002)

31

School Decile Ratings

Percentage of Pupils within School Decile (2002)

33

School Suspensions and Stand-downs

Number of Suspensions/Stand-Downs, by Ethnicity (2001)

34

Ethnicity

Age

Families and Households

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

167

Index of tables and graphs Continued...

Qualification Levels

Participation in Community Education

Percentage of School Leavers with No Qualifications (1998 to 2001)

35

Percentage of Population Aged 15 Years and Over Within Highest Qualification Categories (1996, 2001)

36

Percentage Of Population Aged 15 Years and Over who Participated in Community Education (2000, 2001)

38

ECONOMIC STANDARD OF LIVING Income

Median Household Income (1991, 1996, 2001)

40

Percentage of Population aged 15 Years and Over in Personal Income Brackets (Ends of the Scale) (2001)

41

Percentage of People in each Ethnic Group Aged 15 Years and Over Per Income Bracket by Ethnicity, for Total Eight Cities (2001)

42

Average Ordinary Time Weekly Earnings (February 2000 to 2002)

42

Total Number of Benefits Given Out (31 March 1997 to 2002)

43

Annual Percentage Change in the Consumers Price Index, by CPI Region (March Quarters 1998 to 2002)

44

Consumers Price Index, by CPI Region (March Quarters 1996 to 2002)

45

Change in the Food Price Index, by CPI Region (March Quarters 1998 to 2002)

45

Food Price Index, by CPI Region (March Quarters 1998 to 2002)

46

Household Expenditure

Percentage of Total Household Expenditure Within Each Category (2001)

47

Social Deprivation

Percentage of Population Living in Deprivation Index Deciles (2001)

48

Annual Average Percentage Change in Gross Domestic Product, Estimates 1995/ 1996 Prices (1998 to 2002)

50

Share of Total National Employment (by FTE), Total Eight Cities (February 2002)

51

Number of Filled Jobs (February Quarters 2000 to 2002)

52

Filled Jobs by Industry (February Quarter 2002)

53

Unemployment Rate (March Quarters 1998 to 2002)

54

Number of Registered Job Seekers (March Quarters 1997 to 2002)

55

Growth in Number of Businesses

Percentage Growth in Numbers of Economically Viable Business Enterprises (1998 and 2002)

56

Retail Sales

Annual Percentage Change in Retail Sales, by Region (Years Ended March 1999 to 2002)

57

Residential and NonResidential Building Consents

Number of Consents for New Residential Buildings (Years Ended March 1998 to 2002)

58

Value of Non-Residential Consents ($ Million), by Region (1998 to 2003)

59

Number of Guest Nights Purchased (Years Ended March 1998 to 2003)

60

Costs

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Economic Growth

Employment

Tourism

page

168

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Index of tables and graphs Continued...

HOUSING Household Tenure

Percentage of Private Dwellings that are Owned (1991 to 2001)

62

Percentage of Population Within Each Ethnic Group who Own Their Own Home (2001)

63

Percentage Change in Proportion of People Owning and Renting (1991 to 2001)

64

Number of People Living in Temporary Private Dwellings (2001)

64

Percentage of Houses Owned or Rented by Low and High Household Incomes (2001)

65

Median Residential Dwelling Sale Price (adjusted) (Years Ended April 1998 to 2002)

67

Home Mortgage Affordability as a Percentage of the National Average, by Region (June Quarter 1998 to 2002)

68

Median Weekly Rents (Years Ended June 1998 to 2002)

68

Median Weekly Rents for Housing New Zealand Properties (Years Ended June 1998 to 2002)

69

Percentage of Renters Paying Over $200 per Week in Rent (1991 to 2001)

69

Percentage of Weekly Household Expenditure Spent on Housing Costs (2001)

70

Percentage of Household Expenditure Spent on Housing Costs, by Income Quintiles, by Region (Year Ended June 2001)

70

Accommodation Supplement Recipients as a Proportion of City Population (Years Ended March 1999 to 2002)

71

Household Crowding

Percentage of People in Private Dwellings Living in Crowded Households (1991, 1996, 2001)

73

Government Housing Provision

Percentage of Local and Central Government Owned Houses as a Proportion of All Rented Private Dwellings (2001)

75

Urban Housing Intensification

New Apartments as a Proportion of All New Dwellings (1998 to 2002)

76

Percentage Change in the Proportion of New Apartments / Units (1998 to 2002)

77

Life Expectancy

Estimated Life Expectancy at Birth (1986, 1991, 1996)

79

Low Birth Weights

Rate of Low Birth Weight Babies per 1,000 Live Births, by Ethnicity (1997 to 1999 combined)

81

Infant Mortality

Rate of Infant Mortality per 1,000 Live Births, by Ethnicity (1997 to 1999 combined)

83

Teenage Parents

Number and Rate of Live Births per 1,000 Females Aged Between 13 and 17 Years (1999 to 2001)

84

Number and Percentage of Sole Parents on Personal Incomes less than $20,000 Per Annum (2001)

85

Percentage of Sole Parents Earning less than $20,000 Per Annum (2001)

85

Rate of Notified Cases of Meningococcal Disease Per 10,000 Children Aged 15 Years and Under (1999 to 2001)

86

Housing Costs and Affordability

HEALTH

Diseases

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

169

Index of tables and graphs Continued...

Rate of Notified Cases of Meningococcal Disease Per 10,000 Children Aged 15 Years and Under, by Ethnicity (2001)

87

Rate of Notified Cases of TB Per 100,000 Population (1999 to 2001)

88

Number of Notified Cases of TB, by Ethnicity (1999 to 2001 combined)

88

Rate of GPs per 100,000 Population (1997 to 2000)

89

Percentage of Residents Who Stated That There Had Been a Time in the Previous 12 Months When They Wanted to go to a Doctor, But Could Not (2002)

90

Rate of Death by Suicide Per 100,000 Population Aged 15 to 24 Years (1997 to 1999)

92

Rate of Hospitalisations for Attempted Suicide Per 100,000 Population Aged 15 to 24 Years (1997 to 1999)

92

Residents’ Rating of Emotional Wellbeing Within the Last Four Weeks, Total Eight Cities (2002)

93

Residents’ Rating of Own Health (compared to others of own age) (2002)

95

Residents’ Rating of Health of Their Lifestyle (2002)

96

Residents’ Frequency of Physical Activity (2002)

97

Residents’ Participation in Sports Clubs (2002)

98

Solid Waste Management and Recycling

Position of Each City in Waste Management and Recycling (2003)

102

Biodiversity

Position of Each City in Conservation and Sustainable Management of Biodiversity (2003)

104

Air Quality

Number of Exceedences of Air Quality Guidelines for PM10 (days per year) (1997 to 2002)

106

Annual Average Levels of PM10 (1997 to 2002)

106

Maximum Carbon Monoxide (CO) Level (1997 to 2002)

107

Maximum Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Level (1997 to 2002)

108

Residents’ Rating of Air Pollution as a Problem in Their Neighbourhood (2002)

108

Beach and Stream / Lake Water Quality

Residents’ Rating of Water Pollution as a Problem in Their Neighbourhood (2002)

110

Drinking Water Quality

Public Health Water Quality Grading (January 2003)

112

E.coli Compliance of Water Distribution Zones (2002)

112

Look and Feel of the City

Residents’ Rating of Sense of Pride in the Way Their City Looks and Feels (2002)

114

City Green Space

Total Hectares of Green Space Per City Assessed at Different Times Over Five Years in Each City (1999 to 2003)

116

Access to General Practitioners

Mental Health and Emotional Wellbeing

Self Reported Health Status

Modifiable Risk Factors

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

page

170

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

Index of tables and graphs Continued...

Graffiti

Residents’ Rating of Graffiti as a Problem in Their Neighbourhood (2002)

117

Noise Pollution

Residents’ Rating of Noise Pollution as a Problem in Their Neighbourhood (2002)

118

Traffic and Transport

Motor Vehicle Ownership Per Household (2001)

119

Percentage of Households with No Motor Vehicle (1991, 1996, 2001)

120

Means of Travel to Work on Census Day (March 2001)

121

Percentage of Those Aged 15 Years and Over and Employed who used a Motor Vehicle to Get to Work on Census Day (1991, 1996, 2001)

121

Distances Travelled by Mode of Transport (Million km Per Year) (1998)

122

Residents’ Frequency of Use of Public Transport in Previous Twelve Months (2002)

123

Residents’ Rating of Whether Public Transport is Affordable (2002)

124

Residents’ Rating of Whether Public Transport is Safe (2002)

125

Residents’ Rating of Whether Public Transport is Convenient (2002)

125

Percentage Of Residents Who Felt ‘Very Safe’ or ‘Safe’ (2002)

127

Percentage of Residents who Rated City Issues as a ‘Big Problem’ or ‘A Problem’ Over the Last 12 Months (2002)

128

Rate of Hospitalisation For Unintentional Injury Per 100,000 Children Aged 14 Years And Under (1994 to 2000 Combined)

129

Residents’ Rating of Safety of Local Neighbourhoods for Children to Play in While Unsupervised (2002)

130

Residents’ Perceptions of Reasons Why Neighbourhoods are Unsafe for Children to Play in Unsupervised (2002)

130

Rate of Notifications to Child, Youth and Family Services Per 1,000 Population Aged 17 Years and Under (1998 to 2001)

131

Rate of Road Crash Deaths Per 100,000 Population (1998 to 2001)

132

Rate of Road Crash Serious Injuries Per 100,000 Population (1998 to 2001)

133

Number of Youth Apprehensions, by Age Group (2000/2001 to 2001/2002)

134

Rate of Recorded Burglary Offences Per 10,000 Population (1999/2000 to 2001/ 2002)

135

Number and Rate Of Recorded Burglary Offences Per 10,000 Population (1999/ 2000 to 2001/2002)

136

Rate of Recorded Violent Offences Per 10,000 Population (1999/2000 to 2001/ 2002)

136

Number and Rate Of Recorded Violent Offences Per 10,000 Population (1999/ 2000 to 2001/2002)

137

Rate of Recorded Sexual Offences Per 10,000 Population (1999/2000 to 2001/ 2002)

138

Number and Rate of Recorded Sexual Offences Per 10,000 Population (1999/ 2000 to 2001/2002)

138

Public Transport

SAFETY Perceptions of Safety

Child Safety

Road Casualties

Crime Levels

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003

page

171

Index of tables and graphs Continued...

SOCIAL CONNECTEDNESS Overall Quality of Life

Residents’ Perceptions of Overall Quality of Life (2002)

140

Diversity

Number of Residents Gaining Citizenship Through Citizenship Ceremonies (1996, 2001)

141

Ethnicity of Citizenship Ceremony Attendees (2001)

142

Residents’ Perceptions of Effect of Increased Cultural Diversity Upon City (2002)

143

Residents’ Perception of Group or Network That Matters Most to Them (2002)

144

Residents’ Perceptions That the Community Works Together and That People Support Each Other (2002)

145

Residents’ Sense of Community Within Local Neighbourhood (2002)

146

Residents’ Frequency of Feeling Isolated in the Past 12 Months (2002)

146

Percentage of Households with Access to Telecommunications (2001)

147

Residents’ use of Email and Internet (2002)

148

Local Community Strength and Spirit

Electronic Communication

CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS Community Involvement in Council Decision-Making

Voter Turnout

Representation on Local Decision-Making Bodies

page

172

Residents’ Rating of Agreement that they Understand How Their Council Makes Decisions (2002)

153

Residents’ Rating of Agreement that Decisions Made by Their Council are in the Best Interests of the City (2002)

153

Residents’ Rating of Satisfaction With the Way Their Council Involves the Public in the Decisions it Makes (2002)

154

Residents’ Rating of Satisfaction With the Extent of Public Influence on Council Decision Making (2002)

155

Percentage of Voter Turnout at Local Authority Elections (1995, 1998, 2001)

156

Percentage of Voter Turnout in District Health Board (DHB) Elections, by DHB Region (2001)

157

Percentage of Voter Turnout in Regional Council Elections (1992, 1995, 1998, 2001)

158

Five Electoral Areas (Across the Eight Cites) with Highest Voter Turnout and Five Electoral Areas with Lowest Voter Turnout in Last General Election (2002)

158

Average Number of Candidates Standing Per Council Position (1995, 1998, 2001)

159

Women Candidates and Councillors in the Local Government Elections (2001)

160

Ethnicity of School Board Trustees (2002)

160

Quality of Life in New Zealand’s Eight Largest Cities 2003