A Buddhist approach to disaster recovery and resilience in Sri Lanka Ted Yu Shen Chen, PhD Candidate Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning University of Melbourne [email protected]

Abstract This paper explores the idea of a Buddhist approach to disaster recovery through case studies of two Buddhist non-government organisations that worked in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami recovery in Sri Lanka. Buddhism claims influence over millions of people’s worldviews, including most of the population in Sri Lanka. This religion has within its own philosophical framework an approach to disaster definition, recovery and resilience and can potentially make a significant contribution to disaster research by offering a perspective that is currently very much overlooked. The paper begins with a deep understanding of the Buddhist philosophy to illicit three key concepts that are particularly resonant to the perception and experience of disasters: human suffering, dependant arising and compassion. Extending from these concepts a Buddhist perspective is presented that describes disasters as a sudden and heightened level of human suffering with its processes of recovery and resilience resting heavily on the holistic attention to the physical, emotional and spiritual dimensions of the survivors. Through the case studies of the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement and the Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation, the aim of the research is to tender a new area of study within the disaster literature specifically focused on religious approaches to recovery and resilience. These two case studies are not only the largest non-government organisation indigenous to their respective countries, Sri Lanka and Taiwan, but also have strong Buddhist practices that inform their approach. The pursuit of this study builds upon the existing research in the area of religion and disaster studies. This includes an established Christian literature on disaster management, as well as empirical studies in disaster sociology focused on religious communities. The research also intends to build on the Buddhist disaster literature by extending a strong foundation of theological principles and a growing ‘socially engaged Buddhist’ literature. It is the hope that insights from this exploratory research will encourage future studies in the area in order to be able to draw broader conclusions about religious dimensions of recovery and resilience that are also applicable to secular and government practices. Keywords: Religious NGOs, post-disaster, recovery, resilience, Buddhism

1. Introduction This paper stems from my current research into ‘a Buddhist approach to disaster recovery and resilience’ post 2004 tsunami in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka as a Buddhist majority country has embedded in its social infrastructure a religion that has been continually practiced for the last 2,500 years. Buddhism is not only a significant part of the Sri Lankan culture it is also a strong influence on many people’s outlooks on life and the reality of disasters. This poses the fundamental question of what a Buddhist approach to disaster is, and how that informs attitudes towards recovery and resilience. Focusing on two Buddhist non-government organisations (NGOs), Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement (Sri Lanka) and Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation (Taiwan), the aim of the paper is to extend from the Dhamma (Buddhist teachings) what a Buddhist approach to disaster recovery and resilience looks like and how it is manifest in the relief and recovery practices of these two NGOs to engender community resilience. These two case studies are chosen because they are the largest NGOs in their respective countries and have strong Buddhist principles guiding their practices. Sarvodaya with its extensive social network around the country mobilised its members for Shramadana (volunteer help base on the Buddhist principle of giving) and also built an eco-village for 55 families from three tsunami-affected villages in Kalutara. Tzu Chi arrived in Sri Lanka three days after the tsunami and stayed with the survivors for six years. On top of offering medical, food and shelter relief, Tzu Chi built the Great Love Village in Hambantota for 649 families. Tzu Chi’s commitment also included the construction of a secondary school, medical clinic, vocational training centre and the setting up the village collaborative and community programs needed for a successful transition of assets to the government and the residents. Unfortunately, the limits of this paper prohibit discussion of the Buddhist approach from the angle of the survivors but over the next four sections of this paper, the idea of the Buddhist approach is developed from the NGO perspective. Section one explores the Buddhist approach from the current context of academic research in Buddhism and disasters, sections two and three build on ideas surrounding Buddhist disaster definition and resilience through the discussion of three key Buddhist concepts: human suffering, dependant arising and compassion, and the final section examines how the philosophy is practiced in the context of Sarvodaya and Tzu Chi’s post tsunami efforts in Sri Lanka.

2. Buddhism and disaster research In De Silva’s (2006) study, “The tsunami and its aftermath in Sri Lanka: Explorations of a Buddhist perspective”, key aspects of the Buddhist religion and culture are explored in their effectiveness to the coping and management of post-traumatic stress disorders. According to De Silva, the practice of Buddhist philosophy such as ‘impermanence’ (anicca) enhances one’s ability to accept the temporal nature of worldly existence and can assist with the coping of loss;

the concept of ‘Kamma’ (karma) which explains disasters as nature’s system of causation and consequence and not acts of God can help people overcome a sense of guilt if they had previously believed that disasters were God’s punishments; and the practice of ‘compassion’ (karuna) can encourage both people affected and unaffected by the disaster to assist with the alleviation of suffering. Although De Silva presents a preliminary framework without an empirical backdrop, the research nevertheless suggests that a Buddhist approach to disaster recovery would extend from its larger philosophical worldview and the idiosyncratic practices of each Buddhist and Buddhist NGO. The limited literature in Buddhism and disasters does not seem to suggest a lack of interest in religion and disasters. In the Christian tradition, there is already an established body of theology driven literature that is particularly interested in what constitutes a Christian approach to disaster and recovery. The handbook on the ‘Christian perspectives on disaster management’ (Davis and Wall 1992) is an important piece of work that maps what a ‘Christian’ approach entails. The handbook draws concepts from the Bible on disaster mitigation (food storage in Egypt, Genesis 41.34-36), preparedness (Noah’s ark, Genesis 6.13-22), disaster events (eg. Earthquakes, Zechariah 14.5, Revelation 16:18 Luke 2.10-11), relief (food aid to Judea, Acts 11:27-30), rehabilitation (restoring mortgaged land, Ruth 4.1-12) and reconstruction (rebuilding of Jerusalem, Nehemiah 6:15). Theoretical work on what is considered a Buddhist approach to disaster is not available, however, there is gathering interest around Buddhist perspectives on social action and responsibility drawn directly from Buddha’s teachings of human suffering, dependant arising and compassion (Bond 2003; Jones 1989; Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement 2009) that in the context of disaster recovery and resilience can inform Buddhist approaches to social engagement and action.

3. Buddhism and disaster definition There is currently no academic consensus on what a disaster is (Dombrowsky 2006; Quarantelli 1998; Rosenthal 2006). Different definitions can be found across academic traditions and research usually stems from each discipline’s own interests such as geography (Mileti 1999), sociology (Quarantelli 1988) and anthropology (Oliver-Smith 2002). However, from the experience of the survivors, disasters are not separated between different disciplines of academic knowledge. To many survivors, their experiences are subjective, personal, real and emotional; their recovery is usually very complex, demanding a range of needs from physical housing to psychological counselling. A Buddhist definition will be closely connected to how people perceive disasters and its impact. The idea of defining disasters relative to the person experiencing is similar to Carr’s interpretation of disasters as the collapse of ‘cultural protections’,

“Not every windstorm, earth-tremor, or rush of water is a catastrophe. A catastrophe is known by its works; that is, to say, by the occurrence of disaster. So long as the shop rides out the storm, so long as the city resists the earth-shocks, so long as the levees hold, there is no disaster. It is the collapse of the cultural protections that constitutes the disaster proper.” (Carr 1932:211) How an individual perceives disasters and comes to terms with the physical and emotional impacts can be influenced by the worldview that person has. This is most evident in academic research where the worldview of researchers can be heavily influenced by their academic disciplines. Such as researchers in the geography tradition approach disasters as nature-caused events, where researchers in sociology would approach disasters as disruption to people and communities. In the same light, Buddhists have their worldviews based on the philosophy taught by Shakyamuni Buddha more than 2,500 years ago. Buddhist philosophy teaches people to see themselves, others and their environments as impermanent. Reality, from the Buddhist perspective, is manifest through its interconnected and dependant arising conditions and is ultimately empty of self nature (Gyatso 2005). This worldview, otherwise known as the right view in the Buddhist Noble Eightfold Path, aims to encourage people to have awareness of not only their temporal existence but move further to discover how any worldly existence is in fact in constant flux, changing to rising conditions, making them empty of self nature. People, environments and even emotions fluctuate based on its complex and dependent conditions. This is a difficult concept to understand because people tend not to think of themselves and their minds as dependent on anything, however, this view is easier when considering the growth and maturity of plants, dependant on the changing conditions of sunlight, water and nutrients. The wrong view will be to see the plant as self-determining (i.e. having a self nature), which is a common human mistake such as believing we have control over our lives or how our day will unfold. These types of wrong views induce attachment to the delusion of permanence, control and security; therefore when things that are ultimately impermanent manifest its true nature, people can get upset, depressed or even suicidal. All Buddhist teachings (Dhamma) are targeted at the problem of people’s suffering from attachment to these delusions, in particular to disasters because people cannot help clinging to things they lost, including their possessions, family and even their own physical body. This attachment-induced human suffering is central to the Buddhist perspective on what defines a disaster. This is best illustrated by the Buddhist Four Noble Truths that elicit the universal condition of suffering (Gyatso 2005): • • • •

Life means suffering The origin of suffering is attachment The cessation of suffering is attainable, through The practice of the path to enlightenment (Dhamma)

In the Buddhist worldview, suffering is ubiquitous and relative. Whether it is the heat of the day or an earthquake that has caused unprecedented deaths and property damage; suffering can be induced by almost anything and is relative to the person subject to the experience. This is evident by the fact that even the most pleasurable things to one person can be absolutely painful to another such as sugar to a diabetic patient or a roller coaster ride to a pregnant mother. Therefore, the Buddhist definition of disaster will not be focused on the disaster event but on the degree of suffering caused by the event. This definition of disaster is ultimately subjective and relates to tolerable thresholds of different people, cultures and attitudes. In this new definition, the immediate temptation will be to measure thresholds of suffering. However, keeping in mind that thresholds themselves are also temporary, therefore, this paper extends a disaster definition from the Dhamma as: a sudden and heightened level of emotional and physical suffering. The conceptualisation of disaster as a function of human suffering allows the attention on disasters to be shifted back onto people and their immediate needs of a life-supporting environment. In the same light, disaster recovery can be seen as the tapering off of the intensity of suffering to levels of acceptable normalcy. Depending on the processes of recovery, approaches with emphasis on reconstruction can cause physical suffering to taper off more quickly than emotional suffering and vice versa (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Buddhist approach to physical and emotional recovery (source: author)

A Buddhist approach would be able to appreciate more the inter-connected relationships between the physical and emotional dimensions of human suffering. Such as not having a shelter to live in after disasters can also have psychological impacts from the lack of privacy and security; equally, not having emotional care and psychological counselling can manifest in depression or anxiety that lead to ailments in the physical body. The complex interdependencies between the physical, emotional and the spiritual dimensions of human beings are central to a Buddhist approach to disaster recovery. Extending this idea, the definition of disaster resilience is a heightened ability to reduce or accept suffering. Resilience based on religious cultures is not limited to Buddhism and can be found across all forms of religions. Although resilience research based on religious beliefs and spirituality is new to traditional disaster literature it can be found in research within rehabilitation healthcare. Spirituality as the practice of religious beliefs have been demonstrated to have a positive connection to post traumatic growth in disaster survivors (Jang and LaMendola 2008). These findings build on Nathanson’s (2003) argument that spirituality has throughout human history been a quest to find meaning and purpose from the unavoidable condition of suffering. Tedeschi and Calhoun (1995) echo this ‘spiritual resilience’(Peres 2007) with the argument that religious beliefs can even offer survivors positive outlooks on disasters events. This concept of spiritual ‘empowerment’ in the disaster context is evident in Falk’s (2010) study on Buddhist monks affected by the 2004 tsunami. Although not a direct line of argument, Falk describes Buddhist monks as being able to turn around to help others recover through physical aid and emotional appeasement with rituals and religious teachings. The observation of personal resilience from cultivated spirituality is highlighted as an important factor for both personal and community recovery. Although this is a new perspective on disaster resilience, it has been forthcoming especially from the studies of religious clergy in disaster recovery (Feldbush 2007; Tilakaratne 2009). However, spirituality is not limited to religious clergy. In countries like Sri Lanka where the majority of the population are religious and there are long standing religious and spiritual traditions, spiritual resilience maybe a more common phenomenon.

4. Buddhist spirituality and disaster resilience Specific to the Buddhist spirituality, there are two key practices that contribute towards a practitioner’s resilience towards disasters. The first key practice is the meditation on disasters as dependent arising (Paticcasamuppāda) phenomena. This practice is fundamental to the elimination to what Buddhists refer to as attachment, because according to the principles of dependant arising, neither the disasters nor human beings have self nature. Both exist as result of co-dependent and arising conditions. Thus nothing can exist by its own will or determine its own development; instead everything arises because of a web of favourable condition and will demise the same way. Therefore, in the Buddhist worldview there are no Gods commanding over storms, or emotions that can persist forever or suffering that can be owned.

This is what the Buddhist term empty of self nature, where practitioners are able to embody the view that their physical body are mere results of a biological mechanism sustained on food and rest; their mental existence in a similar way sustained by sensory perceptions processed by the brain. According to Buddhist teachings these two phenomena provides an illusion of the existence of self. Therefore the idea that ‘I’ exist is merely a delusion dependant on the body’s ability to sense and brain’s ability to think. In light of this, a keen Buddhist practitioner can have stronger emotional resilience to disasters because they are less influenced by the attachments to self and more immune through the idea that there are no losses they can ultimately own. Practitioners instead see disaster as the natural unfolding of conditions outside of their will and control. This brings about the second key practice of Buddhist spirituality that contributes to disaster resilience. If the practice of dependant arising is the way Buddhist are taught to see, the practice of compassion (karuna) is the way Buddhist are taught to act. In the cultivation of karuna, one has to be fully engaged in the body, mind and speech. This means actively giving others happiness, alleviating their suffering and also having compassion on oneself. This concept, although almost universally understood is rarely practiced seriously. The Buddhist approach to disaster recovery would be driven from the principle of karuna. This is unlike many other secular approaches that would find karuna not a serious enough attitude to management and would easily prefer driving the recovery process on survivor incentives or efficiencies based on measurable outcomes. These two paradigms are ultimately conflicting because while the Buddhist approach will be centred on principles and values attributing to the cultivation towards enlightenment; motivations from self-interests and incentives will be seen from the Buddhist perspective as cultivating human greed. In the Buddhist approach, a compassionate recovery leads to personal and community resilience. If karuna is a shared principle between the NGO and survivors, not only are people engaged in their own recovery but are also engaged in the recovery of their neighbours and community. If this concept is taken seriously and engineered into the human processes of recovery, survivors can be empowered to help others in a form of personal empowerment and resilience. In a community where the spirit of reciprocity is healthy, a natural resilience is also nurtured through mutual care and assistance.

5. Buddhist spirituality and disaster recovery in practice Two Buddhist NGOs that take their Buddhist practices seriously in disaster recovery are Savordaya Shramadana Movement in Sri Lanka and Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation from Taiwan. Sarvodaya (which translates to the ‘awakening of all’) is the largest NGO in Sri Lanka involved in development and disaster relief works. Established in 1958, Sarvodaya claims to have to date

worked in more than 15,000 villages across Sri Lanka and has built a strong relationship with the local Buddhist monastic order as well as the Sri Lankan Singhalese Buddhist government. Despite its size as an organisation, Sarvodaya is a NGO that focuses on the spiritual cultivation of people through social engagement (Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement 2009). Volunteers, staffs and community members are encouraged to cultivate their spirituality through participation in Sarvodaya projects and develop the eight human qualities taught by the Buddha important for working towards enlightenment. Metta – Loving kindness Karuna – Compassionate action Muditha – Altruistic joy Upekkha – Equanimity Dana – Sharing Priyavachana – Pleasant language Arthacharya – Constructive action Samanathmata – Equality The cultivation of these qualities are central to the ethos of Sarvodaya and form the backbone to many of the decision making of the organisation; from the Buddhist clergy they work with, to the programs and projects they choose to undertake. Sarvodaya’s approach aims to empower and awaken people from the village level. This grassroots movement is central to their attitude of transforming the least empowered people. Through skills training, forming village cooperatives, building networked and inter-dependent relationships with neighbouring villages, Sarvodaya hopes to awaken people, professionally, politically and spiritually. Similar to the goal of the Buddha awakening people through his teachings, Sarvodaya aims to awaken individuals, families and villages up to the national and international level through Buddhism inspired action. Through a people’s movement approach, disaster recovery is organic and locally resourced. This helps to build relationships and bonds that encourage reciprocity and the spirit of social engagement. This social network is an asset for the community and becomes the ingredient for resilience when disaster strikes because it can bring people together to offer labour and financial resources through donations and fundraising. Sarvodaya also invites monks and nuns to participate in disaster recovery because of their local status as holy and respected people, commanding leadership with their moral standing. Buddhist clergy has two important roles in disaster recovery, firstly to encourage the people unaffected by the disaster to donate and volunteer their services towards recovery and secondly to offer Dhamma counselling to the emotional distraught. Sarvodaya’s approach to disaster recovery and resilience is similar to that of the Taiwanese Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation. Their key commonalities are their Buddhist principle driven operation philosophies and their objective to transform and empower people

through participation. Tzu Chi is the largest Buddhist disaster relief NGO in the world but comes from very humble beginnings in Taiwan. Founded by Master Cheng-Yen in 1966 in the poor rural area of Hualien, Taiwan, Tzu Chi is focused on the practice of Buddhism through compassionate action. At the core of Tzu Chi’s Buddhist philosophy and practice is the cultivation of ‘Great Love’ (Da Ai). The teaching and practice of Da Ai are the fundamental qualities that make Tzu Chi a religious NGO. Tzu Chi has taken traditional Buddhist practices such as meditation and chanting that focus on the cultivation of the inner mind and translated it into outer practices through social engagement. In this way, Tzu Chi practitioners are learning, struggling and embodying Buddhist ideas and philosophy through action. Thus the biggest difference between Tzu Chi and many other secular NGOs is in their ultimate objective to transform people through Da Ai. Activities, events and projects including disaster relief and reconstruction are designed to ultimately influence the way people live, relate to one another and think about this world. Tzu Chi has revolutionised traditional Buddhist practices by shifting the focus from Buddhist studies to responding to the real sufferings in society. This secularising of Buddhist practice follows Master Cheng-Yen’s vision to move Buddhists from studying the Sutra to practicing the Sutra (Sutra are teachings of the Shakyamuni Buddha). “Rather than reading the Sutra, better to practice the Sutra. Sutra means path, this path provides the way.” (Li 2010) Master Cheng Yen has used key sections of Buddhist teachings on becoming a Bodhisattva as central to the Tzu Chi operation philosophy. Bodhisattvas, often depicted as saintly figures, describe particular practitioners that have taken the vow to seek enlightenment for the benefit of others. In order to be a Bodhisattva, practitioners must attain Bodhicitta, which is a state of mind that has Da Ai on all living beings equally and without fail. This is very difficult to achieve and hence the reason people in Tzu Chi are often encouraged to aspire towards it, calling their members Bodhisattvas as reminder to cultivate their Da Ai. The practice of Da Ai plays a significant role in Tzu Chi’s approach to disaster relief and recovery. In aspiring to become Bodhisattvas, volunteers or staffs are not only carrying out an organisational task but more precisely on a vocation towards their ultimate enlightenment through doing the work of Tzu Chi (which directly translates as ‘compassion relief’). In the context of Tzu Chi’s approach to international disaster relief and recovery, Master Cheng Yen has her own philosophy – reconstruction is intertwined in the holistic process of recovery which involves firstly, ‘settling the body’ then ‘settling the mind’ and finally ‘settling life and livelihood’. These three key phrases summaries Tzu Chi’s approach to disaster recovery and outlines their belief that physical, emotional and spiritual recovery are inseparable.

Starting from attending to the recovery of the physical body which includes medical attention, food, clothes and shelter; recovery must then continue to care for the mind and the heart through psychological counselling, spiritual healing and empowerment. At Tzu Chi this is achieved by transforming survivors into volunteers. After which recovery must continue to restore mechanisms for supporting a new life and creating livelihood so families can thrive. Tzu Chi’s approach to disaster management must also be coupled with the practice of Da Ai. For the Tzu Chi volunteers, working to become a Bodhisattva, one must constantly practice and encourage others to practice mutual appreciation, respect and love. These attitudes are best practiced in post disaster situation through the engagement between volunteers and survivors. Tzu Chi has a famous practice that sets themselves apart from other NGOs; they exemplify respect to survivors through bending their backs low and offering blankets and food with both hand to every survivor. “So we need to from the bottom of our heart appreciate them (survivors)!... this is the inner most spirit…we have to talk about this otherwise people will misunderstand and think Tzu Chi is about a show… in the end, it is still up to the person to really embody the philosophy to understand it” (Architect for Tzu Chi tsunami houses, interview 2011 Jan 8) For Tzu Chi, their ultimate goal is to have their volunteers practice these attitudes and principles and inspire the survivors to return the same Da Ai in a cycle of love. Thus the gauge for the success of a project is whether there are people who were once receivers of aid becoming empowered to be givers of aid, continuing to spread and practice the philosophy of Da Ai as a seed of love. This is part of the reason why Tzu Chi’s disaster relief team has included in their principles - be the first to arrive at the disaster but last to leave. As a religious NGO, Master Cheng Yen’s vision is for Da Ai to transcend all religions and move towards a philosophy of fundamental respect, love and appreciation of all living beings.

6. Conclusion A Buddhist approach to disaster recovery and resilience is unlike any other approaches because of the fundamental goal to attain enlightenment. This primary objective sits on top of the projects and programs as these activities become vehicles to engage people, whether staff, volunteers, affected community and survivors to cultivate their transformative qualities for enlightenment. Thus where secular approaches have their focus on the recovery project, such as the efficiency of their staff and effectiveness of their three or five year program; Buddhist approaches are concerned about getting involved as many people as possible in the recovery process so more people can be influenced to practice Buddhism. The ultimate measure of success of a Buddhist approach is whether people are awakened to their potentials as a human being to have the qualities such as loving kindness, compassionate action and equality. Only though the cultivation of these principles can people develop spiritually and allow communities to be more resilient through individuals empowered to love themselves and others.

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