Citizenship, Social and Economics Education Volume 13 Number 1 2014 www.wwwords.co.uk/CSEE

Young Adolescents’ Knowledge and Notions of Citizenship FRANS H. DOPPEN Department of Teacher Education, Ohio University, Athens, USA JOSEPH R. FEINBERG Department of Middle and Secondary Education, Georgia State University, Atlanta, USA CHELSIE M. ARROWOOD-SCHULTHEIS New Lexington, Ohio, USA

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to use the US naturalization test as a springboard to gauge the citizenship knowledge and notions of young adolescent students in Ohio and Georgia. The participants’ citizenship knowledge was partially measured by administering questions from the US naturalization test in two case studies. Students from a range of academic achievement levels were then selected to participate in interviews regarding their notions of citizenship. The findings show that the overwhelming majority of adolescents in this study dismally failed the naturalization test. When interviewed, the predominantly Caucasian participants from Ohio struggled to articulate universal conceptions of citizenship and were notably uninformed about justice-oriented citizenship. The more diverse participants from Georgia showed very similar results, however, with a few notable exceptions among the immigrant adolescents.

Introduction According to a recent Newsweek magazine article titled ‘How Dumb Are We?’, 38% of 1000 Americans failed the citizenship test. The article’s author, Andrew Romano, declared, ‘The country’s future is imperiled by our ignorance’ (Romano, 2011). Romano noted that civic ignorance is not new in the USA and shared several explanations for the poor results. However, he failed to dissect the validity of using the naturalization test as a measure of civic knowledge and whether the test properly assesses citizenship traits. For example, 78% of the participants did not correctly answer why the Cold War was fought, which is very discouraging for history teachers. Yet, does not knowing the historical significance of the Cold War make someone a bad citizen? Does historical ignorance imperil the country’s future? Although the scope of this study does not answer the preceding questions, a greater emphasis is placed on the troubling historical assumptions embedded in the naturalization test and an exploration of the degree that adolescents participate in an examination of citizenship and become cognizant of what it means to be a good citizen. The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) naturalization test is one of the requirements for becoming a US citizen. In order to apply for US citizenship, an individual needs to hold a Permanent Resident Card, commonly referred to as a green card, for at least five years and satisfy residency requirements. In addition to the test, he or she must ‘[b]e able to read, write, and speak English’ and ‘be a person of good moral character, attached to the principles of the 14

http://dx.doi.org/10.2304/csee.2014.13.1.14

Young Adolescents’ Knowledge and Notions of Citizenship Constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the United States during all relevant periods under the law’ (USCIS, 2013). Typically, the USCIS officers randomly select 10-20 questions from a master list of 100 questions to orally examine an applicant’s knowledge. The USCIS naturalization test serves as a litmus analysis as immigrants are required to know this information to become US citizens. Popular news media, educators, and researchers seldom question the implicit assumptions that are embodied in the naturalization test (Feinberg & Doppen, 2010). Yet, the revisions implemented in 2008 highlight some of the controversial citizenship issues embedded in the naturalization test. The USCIS spent approximately $6.5 million to redesign the test and sought input from a variety of stakeholders, including immigrant advocacy groups, citizenship instructors and District Adjudications Officers. The director of the USCIS believed the test ‘talks about what makes an American citizen’ and conservative groups supported the changes as an improvement over the old version. However, some of the groups that were consulted for the new exam, such as the Illinois Coalition for Immigrant and Refugee Rights, denounced the test as being irrelevant (Preston, 2007). The debate and controversy abated when the test was implemented, but a recent historical analysis of the citizenship test or ‘memory test’ consistently shows a preference for efficiency and standardization with little regard for the relevance of citizenship education (Schneider, 2010). Without knowing the history and validity of the test, the majority (77%) of Americans believe all citizens should be able to pass it. Moreover, a slightly smaller majority think the naturalization test should be a graduation requirement for high school students (Korte, 2012). Recently, using the US naturalization test and a questionnaire survey, Feinberg and Doppen (2010) conducted a study to assess high school seniors’ knowledge of citizenship. They found that the participants lacked the necessary basic knowledge to answer many questions on the naturalization test, and furthermore, were unable to articulate a notion of active civic engagement. Similarly, this dual case study utilized the naturalization test as a pedagogical and evaluation tool to analyze middle level students’ knowledge and notions of citizenship. Civic duties and responsibilities are an integral part of being a US citizen. The knowledge and skills a citizen needs to become an active participant in its democracy are typically most directly taught in the social studies classroom. However, each state mandates its own citizenship education requirements. To our knowledge no state requires a focus on the US naturalization test. Moreover, social studies is becoming increasingly marginalized in schools due to the prevalence of standardized testing and budget cuts. Failing to include social studies, No Child Left Behind set as a national goal that all students be proficient in both reading and math by 2014 (O’Connor et al, 2007; Stecher et al, 2010). The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) defines social studies as: ‘the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence’. Its primary purpose is to ‘help young people make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world’. Furthermore, the NCSS reiterates that one of the goals of social studies is the ‘promotion of civic competence – the knowledge, intellectual processes, and democratic dispositions required of students to be active and engaged participants in public life’ (2010, p. 9). According to the NCSS, middle grades ‘social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of the ideals, principles and practices of citizenship in a democratic republic’ (2010, p. 121). At the end of middle school, students should be able to: exhibit an informed personal position on a civic issue based on reasoned arguments; develop and share policy positions in such forms as position statements, editorials, or political cartoons; use a variety of media to report on debates, petition, and findings from surveys; and create and implement a plan of action in collaboration with others on an issue of public concern (p. 122). The purpose of this study was to gauge the knowledge and notions of citizenship of young adolescents, i.e. middle level students, aged 10-15 years in grades 4-9 (Association for Middle Level Education, 2010). All students who participated in this study took an abbreviated version of the US naturalization test. In addition, 28 interviews were conducted with purposively selected students in consultation with their teacher.

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Frans H. Doppen et al Background Civic Education One of the most important goals of formal education in the USA, and many other nations, is to develop informed, active citizens. Students attend school to learn characteristics, values and skills that can be carried over into their adult lives which will in turn help them function in a democratic society. There is an ongoing public debate as to whether our schools sufficiently and appropriately prepare students for citizenship (Feinberg & Doppen, 2010). In order to effectively function in a democratic society, US students need to know how to participate as citizens and they should possess critical knowledge about social, political and civic issues. Citizenship is characterized by one’s knowledge and attitudes toward political, civic and societal engagement. This concept of citizenship implies a certain level of knowledge about duties and obligations that are required to function in a democratic society. Westheimer and Kahne (2004) identified three categories along a spectrum of citizenship: personally responsible, participatory, and justice-oriented. The personally responsible citizen can be defined as hard-working, selfdisciplined and honest, and acts responsibly within his or her community. The participatory citizen is involved in political and civic activities and seeks to organize events to benefit others. The justice-oriented citizen is concerned with injustices in society, works to determine the causes of these injustices, and find solutions (pp. 239-240). These typologies provide an effective framework for social studies teachers as they seek to prepare tomorrow’s citizens. Unfortunately, since No Child Left Behind only requires schools to test students in math, science and reading, many schools have pushed citizenship education out of the curriculum (O’Connor et al, 2007). As stated in The Civic Mission of Schools (Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement, 2003), the goal of civic education is to create ‘competent and responsible citizens, who are informed and thoughtful, participate in their communities, act politically and have moral and civic virtues’ (p. 10). Kahne and Middaugh (2008) argue that the best practices schools can use to promote and teach civic education are to teach about local, state and national government, provide opportunities to talk about current events, create opportunities for service-learning projects, become involved in extra-curricular activities, allow students to be involved in decision making, and use simulations for students to experience citizenship duties. Doppen et al (2008) used a survey to measure teachers’ perceptions of citizenship and social studies education. One of their main research goals was to answer the question, ‘to what extent ... teacher perceptions and practices [were] congruent with the citizenship mission of social studies education’ (p. 4). The participants who took the survey included 198 out of 2000 elementary and secondary social studies teachers across Ohio who were randomly selected from the state’s Department of Education database. While many of teachers who participated in this study placed great importance on teaching basic content knowledge and critical thinking skills rather than on developing citizens, they found that teachers who taught in the higher grades ranked teaching citizenship skills higher than those in lower grades. Concluding that ‘citizenship [did] not appear to be a guiding concept and [was], in fact, defined by the majority as personally responsible or participatory’, the authors called for increased attention to teacher preparation programs to the citizenship mission of social studies (pp. 9-10). Naturalization Test One of the best practices for teaching civic knowledge and responsibilities is to engage students in simulations. The USCIS naturalization test is a method for students to experience an important aspect of what an individual must go through in order to become a US citizen. The current version, adopted in 2008, replaced the old naturalization test which, according to the USCIS, ‘encouraged applicants to memorize facts just to pass a test’ (USCIS, 2006). It assesses a prospective citizen’s knowledge in three areas: American government (principles of American democracy, system of government, rights and responsibilities); American history (colonial period and independence, 1800s, recent American history and other important historical information); and integrated civics (geography, symbols, and holidays). Whereas the old naturalization test focused on facts, the hope 16

Young Adolescents’ Knowledge and Notions of Citizenship for the new test was that it would promote patriotism and emphasize citizen rights and responsibilities (USCIS, 2006). The USCIS claims the new naturalization test integrates many facets of citizenship in the USA and therefore may well serve as a model for assessing citizenship knowledge among students. Middle School Middle level students are in the midst of exploring their identities, values, and independence during an often tumultuous time period in their lives as they simultaneously undergo rapid physical changes. In its publication This We Believe, the Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE) (2010) argues that successful middle schools are characterized by a culture that includes: educators who value working with this age group and are prepared to do so; courageous, collaborative leadership; a shared vision that guides decisions; an inviting, supportive, and safe environment; high expectations for every member of the learning community; students and teachers engaged in active learning; an adult advocate for every student; and school-initiated family and community partnerships. The AMLE suggests that if these characteristics are present in middle schools they will help ensure every student receives the support he or she needs to succeed both academically and socially. Methods Participants The participants in this mixed study included two purposive samples of students near the completion of middle school and at the early start of high school. Survey and test data was collected from all of the participants completing the abbreviated version of the US naturalization test after which this data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Qualitative data was collected from a smaller sample group from each of the schools during which students were interviewed about their personal notions of active citizenship (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2008; Merriam, 2009). The Ohio sample included 147 participants near the completion of 8th grade. The Georgia sample included 123 participants and was conducted at the early start of 9th grade partially due to school system and Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval delays. However, they were within two weeks of learning world geography content, and their teachers assured the researchers that none of the citizenship and exam content was discussed prior to the data collection. The Ohio participants were from communities in the Appalachian region that are predominantly rural and Caucasian. The Georgia participants had a predominantly working-class background and were much more diverse with multiracial participants, yet few Caucasians. A total of 270 students completed the written format of the 50 odd- numbered questions from the list of ‘100 Civics Questions and Answers’ on the naturalization test (USCIS, 2011). The age of participants ranged from 13-15 with a mode of 14. Nearly all students who participated in the Ohio case study were Caucasian (98%), while 60% were ‘economically disadvantaged’, qualifying them for free or reduced lunches (Ohio Department of Education, 2013). In contrast, the Georgia case study participants reflected greater diversity with 43% Latino/a, 24% African American, 15% Asian, 11% multiracial, 5% Caucasian, and 2% other racial. The majority (58%) of Georgia students received free or reduced lunches. Data Collection The abbreviated version of the US naturalization test included 29 questions related to American government, 15 questions to American history, and 6 to integrated civics (see Appendix A). Applying Westheimer and Kahne’s (2004) typologies of citizenship, only one question might be categorized as beyond personally responsible since it inquires into ‘two ways that Americans can participate in their democracy’. The USCIS (2011a) suggested answers to this question include: vote, join a community group, run for office, and call Senators and Representatives.

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Frans H. Doppen et al To further assess their citizenship perceptions, in consultation with the teachers, 28 students from a wide range of academic achievement levels were selected to participate in a personal interview. In their interviews, which typically lasted 15 minutes, each student was asked a series of 8 questions concerning his or her knowledge and notions of citizenship (see Appendix B). The interviewees were neither informed that they were being asked questions that followed Westheimer and Kahne’s typology (2004), nor provided with the three citizenship categories. Findings Citizenship Knowledge To gauge their knowledge of citizenship, the students who participated in this study took an abbreviated version of the US naturalization test (see Appendix A). The data were tabulated by determining the percentage of students who correctly answered a question. In Ohio and Georgia, respectively, 9 out of 147 students (6%) and 11 out of 123 students (9%) passed the test with a score of 60% or higher, the percentile of correct responses required to pass the test. Of the 50 questions, only 7 questions in Georgia and 6 in Ohio were correctly answered by more than two thirds of the students. In the ‘System of Government’ section, 84% of Ohio (n = 124) and 81% (n = 100) of Georgia students correctly responded to a question that required them to name one branch of the government. In the ‘Colonial Period and Independence’ section, 70% (Ohio, n = 104; Georgia, n = 86) of the students from both states correctly answered who lived in the USA before the Europeans arrived. Under the ‘Recent American History and Other Important Historical Information’ section, the Georgia students (75% or n = 92) identified what Martin Luther King Jr did, which is a noticeable divergence from Ohio (58% or n = 39). However, Georgia is the birthplace of King. In the ‘Geography’ section, 74% in Ohio (n = 109) and 68% in Georgia (n = 83) correctly responded that the Pacific Ocean is on the West coast of the USA, and 82% in Ohio (n = 122) and 89% in Georgia (n = 109), respectively, were able to list one state that borders Mexico. Moreover, 93% in Georgia (n = 115) and 83 % in Ohio (n = 123) knew where the Statue of Liberty is located. Finally, in the ‘Symbols’ section, 95% of the students in Ohio (n = 140) and 91% in Georgia (n = 112) correctly answered why the US flag has 50 stars. In order to further highlight the participants’ egregious performance on the naturalization test, we also identified those questions that were answered correctly by less than one tenth of the participants in each case study. In the ‘Principles of American Democracy’ section, slightly more than 4% of the students in Ohio correctly answered both the number of amendments to the Constitution (n = 6) and correctly identified the US economic system (n = 7). In Georgia, 4% of the students (n = 5) correctly identified two rights listed in the Declaration of Independence. In the ‘System of Government’ section, only 3% of the Georgia students (n = 3) correctly answered how many voting members there are in the House of Representatives, and 6% (n = 7) knew how many justices there are on the Supreme Court and the name of the Speaker of the House of Representatives. In Ohio, 7% or less of the students correctly responded to questions pertaining to length of a US Senator’s term (n = 5), how many voting members there are in the House of Representatives (n = 0), who their US Representative was (n = 3), who becomes president if both the president and vice-president can no longer serve (n =3), what the Cabinet does (n = 10), what the judicial branch does (n = 8), how many justices there are on the Supreme Court (n = 7), what is one power of the federal government (n = 8), and who is the current Speaker of the House of Representatives (n = 3). In the ‘Colonial Period and Independence’ section, 7% of the students in Ohio (n = 10) correctly knew what happened at the Constitutional Convention, and only 1% in both case studies (Ohio, n = 2; Georgia, n =2) could name one of the writers of the Federalist Papers. In the ‘1800s’ section, only 4% of students in Ohio (n = 6) were able to state one important thing Abraham Lincoln did and 6% (n = 9) correctly identified Susan B. Anthony’s role in the women’s suffrage movement, whereas more than one tenth of Georgia students correctly answered both these questions. In the ‘Recent American History and Other Important Historical Information’ section, 1% from the Ohio sample (n = 2) and 8% from Georgia (n = 10) correctly identified who the president was during WWI, and 9% of the Ohio students (n = 13) and 5% of the students from Georgia (n = 6) knew what the main concern of the USA was during the Cold War.

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Young Adolescents’ Knowledge and Notions of Citizenship Lastly, in the ‘Geography’ section, 7% of the Ohio participants (n = 10) were able to correctly name one US territory. Citizenship Perceptions In order to gauge the citizenship perceptions of students in our study, we conducted a total of 28 student interviews. In both case studies, the interviews contained four main sections of questions. In the first section, in which the students were asked to define a good citizen, frequently recurring keywords were identified. These included ‘respect’, ‘obey laws’, ‘honesty’, ‘help’ (environment, people, community, country), ‘vote’, ‘constitutional rights’, and ‘pay bills or pay taxes’. More than half of the students used language related to being respectful. In a typical ‘respect’ response, James from Ohio said: Just respect everything and the people around.

Similarly, Josh from Ohio said: be good and like kind and not rude.

Juanita from Georgia gave a more nuanced response and tied loyalty to respect: They need to be loyal and responsible for their actions, respectful.

Slightly more than one-third of the students used language related to obeying the laws in their definition of being a good citizen, while more than one half used language that related to helping. The students referenced ‘helping’ in regard to different areas, specifically the environment, people, community and country. In one such response Dakota from Ohio stated: A good citizen would probably be helping out neighbors ... and just like help the environment and stuff.

According to Oscar from Georgia: Just minor stuff like if you see somebody that needs help, or if you have the chance to help other people that are less fortunate than you, you should act.

In the follow-up questions, based on Westheimer and Kahne’s (2004) spectrum, students were asked whether they agreed or disagreed with certain types of citizenship. When asked whether they agreed or disagreed with the notion of a personally responsible citizenry, all students answered positively. One of the main reasons for agreeing with this construct was that to be a good citizen a person needs to have a job and not be lazy. For example, Justin from Ohio stated: Yeah, I agree with it because I think that it is something important to do so you can get through life and have a good life and have a nice job and pay your bills. According to Erica from Georgia: They could work hard and have enough money. They can donate money to the poor.

James from Ohio said: Yeah, cause people should work really, really hard and if they don’t they are just a bum. Like my brother-in-law, he’s lazy.

Cody from Ohio stated: Yeah, I agree with that because if you’re not self-disciplined or don’t work hard and are not honest you won’t get a job and won’t be a responsible adult.

In the third section of the interview, students were asked about the importance of being a participatory citizen. Slightly over one-half of the students disagreed when asked whether they thought one needs to be involved in politics and civic activities to be a good citizen, one-third agreed, while the remaining students were undecided. Most of the rationales for disagreeing with the participatory citizen construct were that being a good citizen does not mean one has to know about or be involved in politics. Most of the students who agreed thought that being informed constitutes a sufficient level of participation. A typical negative response to the participatory construct came from Nicole from Ohio who said:

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Frans H. Doppen et al No because ... even a little person not even involved in politics or anything could help someone and could make a big difference. They just don’t get as noticed as the people that are involved in politics.

Also, Alina from Georgia noted: It is your choice to contribute to the community and like some people are like okay not.

In contrast, Jacob from Ohio provided a typical positive response when he stated: Yes, I agree with that because it is important to know what is happening in the government and stuff.

Similarly, Hanifah from Georgia argued: you can just give it all like do community service. Just do what you can. You don’t have to do something, but it would be good if you did.

In the last section of the interviews, students were asked whether or not they agreed with the justice-oriented citizen construct. Most were simply very confused and unsure about the role of a justice-oriented person in society. Nearly half of the students were unclear about whether they agreed with the statement that a good citizen should try to figure out why things are unfair and what they can do to fight for justice. Slightly less than half of the students agreed with the statement, while three students disagreed. Those who agreed with the statement generally provided answers that lacked substance and were unable to articulate why they agreed. Only few students appeared to grasp the concept of social action to promote social justice. For example, Alex from Georgia recommended: I think you should just speak out. You should make your voice heard. Like in a newspaper or something or just make a speech because if you put it out there, if you speak people will listen.

Amira, another student from Georgia, suggested using petitions: However, I think you could also try using a petition that way you can find people that agree with your cause. So even if you don’t get enough names to work on the petition, you now have more people to go out there and try to spread the work in the community.

In a typical response to why a citizen should strive to be a justice-oriented citizen, Jessica from Ohio stated: Yes, cause if you just sat around nothing would get done. Like an example would be the slavery, nothing would have got done.

Likewise, Samantha from Ohio replied: I think I do agree with it because if something is unfair you do have a reason to figure out why it is unfair and you should be able to fight for your justice and fairness altogether.

The majority of students were unclear in their responses. While they asserted that a good citizen needs to fight for justice they did not want to personally do it. In a typical response, Jason from Ohio said: I would agree with it because it kind of is unfair for people to do that because if they are fighting for the wrong stuff like dictators and everything, if they fight for the wrong stuff, like a whole bunch of people could die.

Jasmin, a student from an immigrant family in Georgia, said: Like this interview kind of did show me like what people think about what being a citizen is and you know not all of us in the United States are citizens, but we do follow the responsibilities, and we do follow our rights, and we are very knowledgeable about our government. So good people like that should be given the citizenship.

According to Elisa, also a student from an immigrant family in Georgia: people should think about not just themselves here. They need to think about the rest of the people. Not just because we are different races but also because we are all the same. We are all humans. We all got feelings, and they are deporting a lot of people that they are separating from

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Young Adolescents’ Knowledge and Notions of Citizenship their families. Children that are born here but their families cannot be here because they were not born here and they are deporting them. I think that is unfair because some people come here to become better and not to offend nobody or make anything wrong here. I think that instead of being like that and thinking only about yourself, I think they should go and help out other people.

Implications Every student in the public school system in the USA receives a social studies education. The main goal of social studies is to develop engaged and informed citizens (NCSS, 2010). Even though social studies is being de-emphasized across the nation, it is no less important to be civically engaged. If this study is any indication, students who leave middle school have some distance to go until the end of high school in terms of their knowledge and notions of citizenship, which underscores the unwarranted current de-emphasis of social studies. Based on the poor performance of the students in this study on the US naturalization test, in conjunction with the confused and unclear responses to personal interviews, much work and more focus is needed from middle level teachers to offer an effective civic education. Laguardia and Pearl (2009) state that, ‘One aspect of citizenship preparation is to encourage all to think independently and to learn how to solve difficult problems with logic and evidence’ (p. 360). The authors further state that citizens must act collectively in a functioning democracy and that the concept of collective citizenry must be taught. The social studies curriculum, as mandated by the Ohio Department of Education (ODE), is a bank of information that can be tested by both formal, standardized testing and experience-based assessments. Based on the Ohio Revised Standards in Social Studies, beginning during the 2014-2015 school year, students in the 4th and 6th grade will be tested on a standardized Ohio Achievement Assessment (ODE, 2012). The Georgia Department of Education has issued the Georgia Performance Standards which in the 5th and 8th grade includes a ‘Government and Civic Understanding’ strand requiring students to explain the rights and responsibilities of citizens (Georgia Department of Education, 2013). In addition, the state requires all students in 1st to 8th grade take a Criterion-Referenced Competency Test in reading, language arts and mathematics, which for students in 3rd to 8th grade includes science and social studies as well. In both states these standards give teachers of social studies a better framework for teaching students citizenship skills that will enable them to participate in the country’s democracy. Although some students in this study were better able than others to articulate their thoughts, categorizing them according to what type of citizen they might want to become someday was extremely difficult. Consequently one must hypothesize that they either did not understand the questions they were being asked or were unable to effectively verbalize their thoughts. The findings also suggest that the students in this study failed to meet many of the learning expectations for the middle grades detailed in the ‘Civic Ideals and Practices’ standard of the National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies (NCSS, 2010). The findings from this dual case study suggest that young adolescents are not equipped with a well-developed personal notion and knowledge of citizenship. They lack an understanding of the different citizenship constructs, as defined by Westheimer and Kahne (2004). Middle school teachers should assess their students’ knowledge to evaluate and identify their deficits. In addition, they should realize that typical middle level students are concrete thinkers who are unlikely to have yet developed a personal notion of citizenship. As a result, it is important for high school teachers to provide their students with concrete examples paired with abstract concepts. The USCIS Study Guide for the Naturalization Test (USCIS, 2011b) contains 100 sample questions and only one of those requires applicants to articulate how they might participate in US democracy. One of the primary roles of social studies education is to promote democracy and good citizenship in a diverse society, and schools are an ideal place to do so (Parker, 2003). Many of the middle level participants in this study incorrectly answered the naturalization test’s trivia style questions. In addition, the majority of the students’ interview responses fell short of articulating or defining a good citizen. Our participants failed to comprehend to what extent the naturalization test encourages prospective citizens to participate in the public decision-making process. In other 21

Frans H. Doppen et al words, few of the participants in this study showed some recognition of the value of citizenship participation and leadership. The future of democracy in the USA is not necessarily as ‘imperiled’ as claimed by some (Romano, 2011). Students, and adults, who fail to correctly answer trivial or knowledge level types of citizenship questions may well be the kind of citizens we would rather want. Indeed, some of the current conceptualizations of citizenship education are ‘narrow and often ideologically conservative’ and reflect ‘political choices that have political consequences’ (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004, p. 237). Thus, despite good intentions to facilitate citizenship education, teachers may in fact end up failing to promote participatory democratic principles. Creating thoughtful citizens who are able to critically examine civic issues and explore the nuances of good citizenship is more desirable. Our citizens and students are not ‘dumb’ as noted in the introduction. In order to eradicate ‘idiocy’ (Parker, 2003), social studies teachers must actively prepare tomorrow’s citizens for democratic participation. The US naturalization test can serve as a powerful pedagogical tool for teachers to use in their classroom to help their students critically examine conceptualizations of citizenship education that go ‘beyond personally responsible’ (Patterson et al, 2012). Further research should explore whether immigrants and recently naturalized citizens have different conceptions of the naturalization test and citizenship. In addition, additional research on students’ knowledge and notions of citizenship is necessary to examine the troubling historical assumptions embedded in the US naturalization test. ***** The authors would like to dedicate this article to the cherished memory of Dina Ann Metzler (1946-2013), an Ohio middle school teacher who was a zealous advocate for the social studies and her students. References Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE) (2010) This We Believe: keys to educating young adults. Westerville, OH: Association for Middle Level Education. Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (2003) The Civic Mission of Schools. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. Doppen, F., Misco, T. & Patterson, N. (2008) The State of K-12 Social Studies Instruction in Ohio, Social Studies Research and Practice, 3(3), 1-25. Feinberg, J.R. & Doppen, F.H. (2010) High School Students’ Knowledge and Notions of Citizenship, Social Studies, 101(3), 111-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00377991003711715 Georgia Department of Education (2013) Georgia Performance Standards: social studies. Georgia Standards.Org (GSO). https://www.georgiastandards.org/Standards/Pages/BrowseStandards/SocialStudiesStandards.aspx Kahne, J. & Middaugh, E. (2008) High Quality Civic Education: what is it and who gets it?, Social Education, 72(1), 34-39. Korte, G. (2012) Americans put to Shame by Immigrants on Sample Civics Test. USATODAY.com, April 27. http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2012-04-26/imiigrant-civics-test-americansfail/54563612/1 Laguardia, A. & Pearl, A. (2009) Necessary Educational Reform for the 21st Century: the future of public schools in our democracy, Urban Review, 41(4), 352-368. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11256-008-0115-9 Merriam, S.B. (2009) Qualitative Research: a guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: an expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Myers, D.G. (2005) Exploring Psychology. 6th edn. Holland, MI: Worth Publishers. National Assessment of Educational Progress (2007) The Nation’s Report Card: Civics 2006. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. National Council for the Social Studies (2010) National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies: a framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. Silver Spring, MD: National Council for the Social Studies.

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Young Adolescents’ Knowledge and Notions of Citizenship National Middle School Association (2003) This We Believe: successful schools for young adolescents. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association. O’Connor, K.A., Heafner, T. & Groce, E. (2007) Advocating for Social Studies: documenting the decline and doing something about it, Social Education, 71(5), 255-260. Ohio Department of Education (2012) Social Studies Content Standards and Model Curriculum Development: frequently asked questions. http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Academic-Content-Standards/Social-Studies/SocialStudies-Standards-Model-Curriculum-FAQ-February-2011-edited-December-2012-2.pdf.aspx Ohio Department of Education (2013) 2011-12 School Year Report Cards. reportcard.education.ohio.gov/Archives Parker, Walter C. (2003) Teaching Democracy: unity and diversity in public life. New York: Teachers College. Patterson, N., Doppen, F. & Misco, T. (2012) Beyond Personally Responsible: a study of teacher conceptualizations of citizenship education, Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 7(2), 191-206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1746197912440856 Preston, J. (2007) New Test Asks: What does ‘American’ mean? New York Times, September 28. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/28/washington/28citizen.html Romano, A. (2011) How Dumb Are We? Newsweek, March 20. http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/03/20/how-dumb-are-we.html Schneider, J. (2010) Memory Test: a history of U.S. citizenship education and examination, Teachers College Record, 112(9), 2379-2404. Stake, R.E. (1995) The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stecher, B.M., Vernez, G. & Steinberg, P. (2010) Research Brief: what can we learn from the implementation of No Child Left Behind? Santa Monica, CA: RAND. US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) (2006) Press Release: USCIS issues, questions and answers for the new pilot naturalization exam. http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) (2011a) Civics (History and Government) Questions for the Naturalization Test. Washington, DC: USCIS. http://www.uscis.gov/USCIS/Office%20of%20Citizenship/Citizenship%20Resource%20Center%20Sit e/Publications/100q.pdf US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) (2011b) 100 Civics Questions and Answers. http://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learners/study-test/study-materials-civics-test/100-civics-questionsand-answers-mp3-audio-english-version US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) (2013) Path to US Citizenship. USCIS. http://www.uscis.gov/us-citizenship/citizenship-through-naturalization/path-us-citizenship Westheimer, J. & Kahne, J. (2004) What Kind of Citizen? The Politics of Educating for Democracy, American Education Research Journal, 41(2), 237-269. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00028312041002237 Yin, R.K. (2008) Case Study Research: design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

APPENDIX A United States Naturalization Test American Government A: Principles of American Democracy 1. What is the supreme law of the land? 2. The idea of self-government is in the first three words of the Constitution. What are these words? 3. What do we call the first ten amendments to the Constitution? 4. How many amendments does the Constitution have? 5. What are two rights in the Declaration of Independence? 6. What is the economic system in the United States? B: System of Government 1. Name one branch or part of the government. 2. Who is in charge of the executive branch? 3. What are the two parts of the US Congress? 23

Frans H. Doppen et al 4. We elect a US Senator for how many years? 5. The House of Representatives has how many voting members? 6. Name your US Representative. 7. Why do some states have more Representatives than other states? 8. In what month do we vote for President? 9. What is the name of the Vice President of the United States now? 10. If both the President and the Vice President can no longer serve, who becomes President? 11. Who signs bills to become laws? 12. What does the President’s Cabinet do? 13. What does the judicial branch do? 14. How many justices are on the Supreme Court? 15. Under our Constitution, some powers belong to the federal government. What is one power of the federal government? 16. Who is the Governor of your state now? 17. What are the two major political parties in the United States? 18. What is the name of the Speaker of the House of Representatives now? C: Rights and Responsibilities 1. What is one responsibility that is only for United States citizens? 2. What are two rights of everyone living in the United States? 3. What is one promise you make when you become a United States citizen? 4. What are two ways that Americans can participate in their democracy? 5. When must all men register for the Selective Service? American History A: Colonial Period and Independence 1. Who lived in America before the Europeans arrived? 2. Why did the colonists fight the British? 3. When was the Declaration of Independence adopted? 4. What happened at the Constitutional Convention? 5. The Federalist Papers supported the passage of the US Constitution. Name one of the writers. 6. Who is the ‘Father of Our Country’? B: 1800s 1. What territory did the United States buy from France in 1803? 2. Name the US war between the North and the South. 3. What was one important thing that Abraham Lincoln did? 4. What did Susan B. Anthony do? C: Recent American History and Other Important Historical Information 1. Who was President during World War I? 2. Who did the United States fight in World War II? 3. During the Cold War, what was the main concern of the United States? 4. What did Martin Luther King, Jr do? 5. Name one American Indian tribe in the United States. Integrated Civics A: Geography 1. What ocean is on the West Coast of the United States? 2. Name one US territory. 3. Name one state that borders Mexico. 4. Where is the Statue of Liberty? B: Symbols 1. Why does the flag have 50 stars? 24

Young Adolescents’ Knowledge and Notions of Citizenship C: Holidays 1. When do we celebrate Independence Day? Appendix B Interview Questionnaire 1. In your own words, what does it mean to be a good citizen? 2. Some people think that a good citizen is honest, has self-discipline and works hard. Do you agree with that? Why or why not? 3. What are some things that you think such a citizen can do to help society? 4. Some people think that it’s not enough to be a good person but that a good citizen is also involved in politics and civic activities in his or her community at the state, local and national level. Do you agree with that? Why or why not? 5. What are some things that you think such a citizen can do to help society? 6. Some people think it’s not enough to be a good person and be involved in politics and civic activities in the community at the local, state and national level. They think that people should also try to figure out why some things are unfair and what citizens can do to fight for justice and fairness for everyone. Do you agree with that? Why or why not? 7. What are some things that you think such a citizen can do to help society? 8. What kind of citizen do you want to become once you get out of school? Please explain.

FRANS H. DOPPEN* is Chair of the Department of Teacher Education and a Professor of Social Studies Education at Ohio University in Athens, Ohio. His research interests focus on civic and global education. Correspondence: [email protected] JOSEPH R. FEINBERG serves as an Associate Professor of Social Studies Education at Georgia State University. His research interests include simulation games, teacher education, and servicelearning. CHELSIE M. ARROWOOD-SCHULTHEIS is a graduate of Ohio University. She holds a Bachelor degree in Integrated Social Studies and a master’s degree in Middle Childhood Education (Social Studies, Language Arts). She currently serves as a teacher at the Perry County Job and Family Services. *Contact author

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