IB Contemporary World History

Mr. Blackmon World War I in Outline

In Flanders fields the poppies blow Between the crosses, row on row, That marks our place; and in the sky The larks, still bravely singing, fly Scarce heard amid the guns below. We are the Dead. Short days ago We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow, Loved and were loved, and now we lie In Flanders fields. Take up our quarrel with the foe: To you from failing hands we throw The torch; be yours to hold it high, If ye break faith with us who die We shall not sleep, though poppies grow In Flanders fields. John McCrae (1872-1918) If I should die, think only this of me: That there's some corner of a foreign field That is for ever England. There shall be In that rich earth a richer dust concealed; A dust whom England bore, shaped, made aware, Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam, A body of England's, breathing English air, Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home. And think, this heart, all evil shed away, A pulse in the eternal mind, no less Gives somewhere back the thoughts by England given; Her sights and sounds; dreams happy as her day; Her laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness, In hearts at peace, under an English heaven. Rupert Brooke (1887-1915) I.

The Schlieffen Plan A. German military doctrine required a swift offensive aimed at enveloping and annihilating one of her two chief enemies, Russia or France. Then, using interior lines, Germany could turn on and dispose of the other. 1. Russia is too vast to be beaten quickly. Therefore, the Germans must defeat France quickly 2. The common Franco-German border is heavily fortified by the French, and the Germans do not believe that a swift victory is possible by a thrust from Alsace-Lorraine 3. Graf Alfred von Schlieffen therefore devises a bold plan to encircle the French from the north, violating Belgian and Luxembourg neutrality. The German right wing would be a bludgeon, swinging like a door hinged on Luxembourg. a. Schlieffen preferred a double envelopment along the lines of Cannae b. For lack of manpower, he plans a manoeuver sur les derriere, with Paris as the communication center to be seized. c. Such a brutal invasion of Belgium was in violation of treaties signed by Germany. Worse, it would certainly bring England into the war on the side of

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French Plan XVII A. Reckless advance into Alsace-Lorraine, with an emphasis on the offensive, thus running their heads into a noose. The French left was ignored. Expecting a German invasion of Belgium, the French welcomed it and thought they could cut off the German right wing by an attack through the Ardennes. The Guns of August A. The Western Front 1. At first the German advance went as scheduled. Special units invaded Belgium to secure the communications at Liège. However, the forts held out until Aug. 12, which prevented any widespread use of the rail lines. a. Liège was thought to be impregnable, but the Germans brought up 410 mm howitzers, the largest guns ever built to that date. This is an example of advancing technology outmoding military plans. b. The defense of Liège and the stubborn retreat of the Belgian army toward Antwerp imposes an early roadblock on a plan that required great speed and had little or no margin for error. 2. Reckless French attacks into from the Ardennes to Alsace and Lorraine led to encounter battles with advancing Germans. The French are defeated with heavy losses. They tend to recoil backwards, towards Paris, in the direction that the decisive German attack is coming. a. German officers in Alsace, intoxicated with success, demand an offensive, which fails against the prepared French defenses, and allows the French to withdraw units from that front and reassemble them around Paris. 3. First Battle of the Marne a. This is the most important single battle of the war. The German advance grinds to a halt before a French counterattack. (1) Technically, a gap opened up between two German armies, which allowed the French to attack into it: a battle of Central Position. Fearing to be beaten in detail, the German commanders order a withdrawal to reestablish a continuous line. b. The chief reasons for the failure of the German offensive include (1) the sheer exhaustion of the troops who were at their physical limits. They had been asked to do more than technology allowed. (2) "friction" in Clausewitz' phrase. Communication between Moltke and the front had collapsed. No one exercised central control of the German armies. Local commanders had an imperfect view of events, and made poor decisions. (3) luck: if Gen. Kluck had been given operational control over von Bülow, the result would probably have been different (4) nerve, which is a form of "friction." Moltke collapsed during the crisis (as he had expected he would--he had tried to refuse the job) while the French commander Joffre, was probably too stupid to panic. (5) leadership: Gen. Galliéni, who took over Paris with a strong hand, turned Paris into a fortress, collected a strategic reserve by stripping other sections of the front, and ordering the counterattack. 4. The Race to the Sea a. From September to October, the French and British try to envelop the German flank, but the Germans counter by moving farther to their own right. Eventually, the English Channel ends the process.

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Mr. Blackmon Page 3 Trench Warfare a. The typical experience of the Western Front becomes the trench, an enormous version of siege warfare extending from the English Channel to the Swiss border. b. M. Bloch was right. c. Normally, several lines of trenches would be dug, with communication trenches between them. d. the terrain between the lines was No Man's Land e. life is dominated by artillery, the machine gun, poison gas, barbed wire, mud, rain, filth, hunger, and fear. Men live like subterranean animals. (1) a single well sited machine gun could stop a battalion in its tracks. (2) barbed wire provided barriers to slow down assaults to allow artillery and machine guns to operate. (3) the great killer is artillery. Artillery turned the battle field into a moonscape. It destroyed roads, bridges, fields. Movement over shelled terrain became very difficult if not impossible. There was no real defense against artillery. All men could do was dig in as deep as possible and hope that they were lucky. Elements of new technology which influence land war a. barbed wire b. the machine gun c. bolt action, magazine rifles d. smokeless powder e. rapid fire artillery, requiring an effective breech loading mechanism and hydraulic recoil f. field telephones g. internal combustion engine and the use of trucks h. railroad (not actually new, but without the railroad the massive armies used could not have been gathered or supplied) i. airplanes, used initially in a reconnaissance role. Throughout the war, the most important use of the airplane was to provide aerial photographs. (1) invention of Anthony Fokker's arresting gear permitted the use of machine guns which fire through the prop. Initially, the Allies use aircraft with machine guns mounted on the top wing. j. later, poison gas k. later, the flame thrower l. later, the tank

The Eastern Front 1. Tannenberg a. In response to frantic French urging, the Russians consented to launch an early offensive against the Germans. Its purpose was to divert forces away from the decisive battle in France. Gen. Samsonov, the leader of the main Russian force, had little faith in success, but saw his effort as a sacrifice on behalf of his ally. b. The offensive penetrates East Prussia much earlier than the Germans' expected, and the German commander, von Prittwitz, panicked and was relieved. c. Paul von Hindenburg replaced Prittwitz as titular commander. A stolid general who had already retired, he was in no way considered their best commander d. Erich Ludendorff was assigned to Hindenburg as Chief of Staff. In keeping with German practice, the real power and brains lay with the senior staff

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officer. Brilliant, ruthless, and devoid of moral scruples, Ludendorff is the dominant partner. e. Even before the arrival of Hindenburg and Ludendorff, von Prittwitz' Chief of Staff had sat down and drawn up a series of plans to trap the Russians at Tannenberg, and confidently ordered them implemented. In an amazing example of doctrinal cohesion, Ludendorff, working on his train, developed virtually the same plan. Upon arrival, he approved Hoffmann's moves. (1) Tannenberg had in fact been wargamed repeatedly by the General Staff. Ludendorff and Hoffmann's battle was daring and aggressive, but the risks had long ago been calculated. f. Samsonov is surrounded and destroyed completely in the marshes of the Masurian Lakes. Samsonov commits suicide. g. Ironically, the Russian assault had its intended strategic effect, when Moltke pulled out two corps from the vital right wing and despatched them to the East. More ironically, Tannenberg had been fought and won before their arrival. Entry of the Ottoman Empire 1. Germany had established marginally better relations with the Young Turks, and especially Enver Pasha than the Allies. Russia was a hereditary enemy, of course, and Austrian interests in the Balkans coincided with Turkey's. England was a threat to Turkey's Arab territories. The escape of the Goeben and the Breslau and commissioning as a Turkish ship (retaining the German crew) tipped the balance War at Sea 1. Tirpitz' naval strategy proves bankrupt. Having built a "risk fleet," neither he nor the Kaiser would dare to risk it. Germany begins the war with no naval strategy at all to speak of. 2. Great Britain imposes a naval blockade on Germany a. Germany's Em den and a squadron under Graf Spee cause serious headaches without threatening anything truly vital. 3. Most significant naval surface action is the cruiser Goeben, caught in the Mediterranean Sea abut escaping to Turkey, where it is given to the Ottoman Empire. This is a factor of consequence in the Turkish declaration of war in November against Russia. 4. Subm arine warfare: since the Germans cannot raid commerce on the surface, they turn to the submarine. Declaring a war zone around Great Britain, where all vessels will be sunk on sight, they sink the Lusitania on May 7, 1915, killing about 1100 civilians. a. Inflames U.S. public opinion War in Africa 1. German colonies quickly snapped up 2. The exception is German East Africa, where a remarkable man, Col. Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck led a 5,000 man force, barely 5% of whom were Germans, in a stubborn and brilliant guerrilla war against mostly Commonwealth troops. At war's end, he had invaded an enemy colony, and there surrendered his men, unbeaten. Lettow-Vorbeck's campaign is the most extraordinary of the war, and one of the most extraordinary in military annals. Lettow-Vorbeck went into retirement, refused all blandishments by the Nazis, and survived the bombing of World War II. He was persona non grata in British Africa since he had demonstrated that black African troops could defeat Europeans if well led. Western Front 1. Of the uses and misuses of military theory: " 'To introduce into the philosophy of war a principle of moderation would be an absurdity. War is an act of violence

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pushed to its utm ost bounds.'" (Clausewitz qtd in Liddell Hart 61) "'Each of the adversaries forces the hand of the other, and a reciprocal action results which in theory can have no limit.'" (Stokesbury 91) a. Clausewitz actually points out that reality limited the development of theoretical limits. His theoretically absolute war had never been fought. 2. "The states of preindustrial, prepopular-government world had never managed to engage in 'total' war. They had never been able to raise the money for it, they had never been able to conscript sufficient numbers of their subjects or citizens to wage it, they had never been able to produce enough surplus from a subsistence economy to generate immense amounts of war matérial . . . . Governments could generate credit, factories could spew out guns, planes, and endless ammunition supplies, and men could be induced to die for slogans in greater numbers than ever before." (Stokesbury 91) 3. Fruitless offensives in the West, initiated by a French military doctrine of the offensive at all costs. 4. The Commanders: French General Joseph Joffre and the new German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn a. French offensive at First Battle of Champagne Jan.-Mar. 1915 b. German offensive at Second Battle of Ypres in April-May (1) Germans first use chlorine gas, as create a gap in the Allied lines (a) Unsurprising that Germany, with its superb chemical industries, would use this weapon first. It was first proposed by "Professor Haber, a distinguished chemist of Jewish origin," (Liddell Hart 69) (2) Falkenhayn did not believe poison gas would work, and made no provisions to exploit it. c. French offensive at Vimy Ridge in May d. French Second Champagne offensive in September (1) Falkenhayn digs a second line of defense deep behind the first, out of range of Allied guns e. French offensive at Third Battle of Artois in October f. British offensive at Loos late September (1) British use gas (2) German machine gunners called it the Leichenfeld von Loos-the corpsefield of Loos (3) As a result of bitter complaints, British commander Sir John French is replaced by Sir Douglas Haig: a mule was being replaced by a donkey. 5. The Butcher's Bill for Western Front 1915 alone a. Britain: 279,000 and the end of its professional, pre-War army b. Germany: 612,000 c. France: 1,292,000 (add this to 980,000 in 1914) War in the Mediterranean 1. Turkey's hostility poses a really serious problem for Russia, since it blocks the logical entry port for munitions and supplies of all types. To all intents and purposes, Tsarist Russia is strategically isolated. Its armies become increasingly desperate for weapons, munitions, clothing, and food. This contributes in a very important way to Russia's collapse and the Russian Revolution. 2. Gallipoli in April 1915 potentially could have solved this problem. A successful landing there could have opened the Straits and led to the fall of Constantinople, which would deprive the Turks of their only source of munitions (Liddell Hart 78) The operation is horribly botched, and the British eventually evacuate after 214,000

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casualties. a. The Turkish Army in the region was trained and commanded by German General Liman von Sanders, (who was a Jew, which must have been rare in the German army, especially since he has the "von" in his name indicating nobility; and how many Jewish generals have commanded Moslem troops? I do not, unfortunately, know more about this man's biography than this). The local Turkish commander was Mustapha Kem al, later called Atatürk, head of the Turkish state. War in the East 1. Battle of the Masurian Lakes: Ludendorff mauls a Russian army in February, forestalling an offensive 2. Austrians launch an offensive in Galicia in April, with German Generals Mackensen in command with Hans von Seeckt as Chief of Staff. a. Von Seeckt introduces the tactical idea of reinforcing success and bypassing strong points, which became the basis for German tactics in 1918. (Liddell Hart 86) b. The Russians are rolled back with heavy losses. The sheer size of the front, primitive road conditions, and Germany's other commitments prevent an effort adequate to finish the Russians off. (1) The Russian armies were badly mauled and no longer pose a direct threat to Germany (2) The Russian armies were desperate for munitions. This is the chief reason for their defeat. 3. Destruction of Serbia a. Germany concludes a treaty with Bulgaria to bring them into the war. b. Mackensen crosses the Danube while the Bulgarians invade in Serbia's rear. Caught, the Serbian army is driven through Albania. Survivors were picked up by the British and moved to Salonika. Italy's Entry into the War 1. Treaty of London 1915 a. Allies offered Italy Trieste, the Trentino, South Tirol, Gorizia, Istria, and northern Dalmatia to enter the war. b. The Italians begin a series of battles on the Isonzo River--11 in all from 1915 to 1917. At the end of that time, they had hammered their way all the way to the Isonzo River. Verdun: This battle comes to symbolize the entire French war effort and experience. Its psychological impact lasts long after the battle itself is over. 1. Von Falkenhayn decides to "bleed the French white" by attacking a point that the French would be forced to defend to the end. 2. Offensive opens in February, and achieves a strong advance, but fails to break through. 3. Gen. Henri Pétain is placed in command of the sector. Pétain differs from most French generals in that he is not so enamored of the offensive and believes that "Fire kills." a. Pétain opens up la voie sacrée, a single road under steady shell fire to supply the entire salient. He institutes a rotation system, pulling troops out of the line at regular intervals. This means that some 70% of the entire French Army experienced the hell of Verdun first hand. (Stokesbury 146) The French poilu swore "Ils ne passeront pas." and they didn't, but at truly hideous cost. 4. The battle lasted 10 months. At the end, neither side had won. The "meat grinder" had ground up both sides. 5. The battlefield is not large, and, taking into consideration size of the field,

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duration, concentration of forces, conditions of life, and casualties, Verdun might be the "worst" battle in recorded history. (Horne 327) a. Combined casualties are somewhere around 420,000 dead and 800,000 gassed or wounded. The French reburied 150,000 unidentified or partial bodies in an ossuary after the war. The French lost perhaps 542,000 men and the Germans 434,000. One can't be precise because bodies were blown up, dismembered, buried, exposed, blown up again, buried again, etc. etc. Different authorities vary, but all figures are ghastly. (Horne 328, Stokesbury 147-8) (1) As a comparison, British Empire casualties for all of World War I were: 353,652 dead, 801,529 wounded, and 90,844 missing. (Horne 328) b. The battleground remains to this day very dangerous as a result of unexploded ordnance. I have a friend who left the guide paths and immediately saw numerous unexploded mines and shells. 6. Neither the French nor the German army was quite the same. There was never as much trust in their leaders. The fighting was senseless, horrible, and futile beyond imagination 7. The "Verdun Mentality"--Joffre was fired during the battle, and Pétain became a national hero. a. In the post-war era, Pétain emphasized the use of massive field fortifications, noting that the Verdun forts stood up to inconceivable hammering. French military outlook becomes static and defensive (a trait that culminated in Dien Bien Phu). 8. Von Falkenhayn is also fired, and replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, who swiftly become not only the military commanders, but also virtually the German government as well. 9. A remarkable number of German leaders in World War II saw action at Verdun: Manstein, Guderian, Rommel, von Brauchitsch. They came up with different solutions. 10. Military innovations a. A modern conception of an air force, as both sides sought to control the air over Verdun in order to spot for artillery. b. Use of trucks to supply a large battle over an extended period of time c. Use of phosgene gas d. Introduction of the flame thrower e. Use of infiltration tactics by the Germans The Som m e The Somme holds the same mythological place for Great Britain as Verdun has for the French. In this battle, the rebuilt British Army, made up for the first time of conscripts instead of professionals, is shattered uselessly. The first day of the Somme is the bloodiest day in British history, and in the history of World War I. 1. There was no special military significance to the Somme sector--it was convenient 2. The British amassed the largest concentration of guns to date in history, and fired the heaviest barrage in history to prepare the advance. The British amassed 1,500 guns to 18 miles of front; the French sector had an even higher concentration. 3. When the advance came, the British found that the German wire had not been cut by the barrage nor had the German machine gunners been killed. They crawled out of their bunkers and massacred the heavily laden troops. a. The cream of the British Public Schools, the cream of the British middle class, was slaughtered that day b. It is the worst day in the history of the British Army: over 19,000 killed and about 38,500 wounded, in most cases without actually reaching the first objective. (Stokesbury 154) (1) In 40 minutes, a battalion from Newfoundland with 752 men

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lost 658 men and all 26 officers killed or wounded: 91%. 4. The battle becomes a monster, with Haig throwing in new attacks because he couldn't think of anything else better to do. 5. When it ends, Britain had lost 420.000 men, the French 195,00, and the Germans 650,000. Nothing had been accomplished. (Stokesbury 156) The Naval War 1. Two earlier surface engagements at Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank were inconclusive 2. Adm iral Reinhard Scheer named new commander of the High Seas Fleet. a. Receives permission to sortie the fleet 3. Sir John Jellicoe, picking up increased wireless traffic and having the German naval code, sorties as well a. Note the use of technology to provide intelligence 4. In Churchill's words, Jellicoe was the only man who could lose the war in a single day. Jellicoe was far more aware of this than anyone else. Also, he probably had an unparalleled technical knowledge not only of the strengths and weaknesses of his own fleet, but also the Germans' To put it bluntly, despite its superior size, the Royal Navy had serious weaknesses. There are those who criticize Jellicoe's handling of the Fleet, but their criticism is based on poor understanding of the problem. 5. The Battle of Jutland May 31, 1916 is the largest battleship engagement in history. It also is the last great naval battle fought only in one dimension. a. The battle cruiser screens engage first, and the Germans try to lure the British onto the main fleet. Here, the Germans maul the British. b. Despite being hampered by an almost complete lack of communication from his cruisers, Jellicoe puts his main force into a favorable position to attack Scheer's main force. c. Scheer extricates himself with taut ship handling and escapes. d. Jellicoe pursues into the night, but the forces pass each other by. e. Tactically, the battle is inconclusive; since the Germans retire, the battle is a strategic victory for Jellicoe. The next task of the High Seas Fleet will be the mutiny at Kiel that topples the Kaiser. (1) Ship for ship and pound for pound, the German ships were superior, and that in turn reflects technological superior of German industry over an aging British steel industry. The War in the East 1. The Brusilov offensive a. Gen. Alexei Brusilov adopts new tactics for the Russian army, shortening the bombardment, picking quiet fronts, and using picked shock troops instead of unwieldy masses. b. Brusilov uses these tactics against the Austrians, and cracks the front open, and threatens the Carpathians. (1) As he advances, his communications become even worse, and he received no effective help from other Russian armies, whose commanders were jealous of him. The Germans switch troops to shore up the Austrians, and Brusilov's men are stopped by exhaustion. The battle drags on in a standard meatgrinder. Both sides lose a million men. c. With this million casualties just before the winter, the Russian Army is finished. Ironically, its greatest success of the war seals its fate. 2. The Entry and Fall of Romania a. Desiring Transylvania from Hungary, and believing Brusilov's offensive would get it for them, Romania declares war on Austria. They wait too long, and they attack in the wrong direction (instead of south into Bulgaria to

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The Western Front 1. The Nivelle Offensive (Chemin des Dam es April 16th a. Gen. Robert Nivelle is named head of the French armies, and promises an offensive that will win the war in a single stroke. b. The Germans, quite independently, decide to concentrate on the Eastern Front, and therefore build a defensive line behind their front, the Hindenburg Line, in order to shorten the front and free troops up. c. Nivelle's security is so unbelievably lax that the Germans were as well informed as the French. d. Behind the powerful Hindenburg Line, well-prepared for the attack, the Germans massacre the poilus, who struggle for weeks, believing that this last sacrifice would win the war. e. By May 5, 120,00 French have been lost and divisions moving to the front begin baa-ing like sheep. f. By May 15, the poilus mutiny. They refuse to attack. The French Army has been broken. g. Henri Pétain replaced Nivelle, and acts to restore order. In large part, this requires giving some attention to the material needs of the troops, who were certainly the worst treated by their own government. h. The men will defend the trenches, but they refuse to attack. It will be a year before the French take the offensive, and no longer will they or could they bear the brunt of the fighting. The doctrine of L'attaquee à outrance has broken the sword of France. i. Amazingly, the Germans never learn of the mutiny! This in itself indicates that the men were not lacking in patriotism. 2. Third Ypres (Passchendaele) a. Sir Douglas Haig, confident of victory, now prepares his breakthrough (he was careful to keep large bodies of cavalry--as in sabers and horses--behind the lines to exploit the breakthrough in truly Napoleonic fashion. b. The bombardment began July 18. The offensive began July 31. In the meantime, the bombardment turned the battlefield into a bottomless pit of mud. c. Ypres is below sea level. It is kept dry only by elaborate dikes and drainage systems, all of which had been blown to hell long ago. d. Summer is a rainy time in Flanders. It began to rain very heavily August 1. e. The mud of Flanders is bottomless, clinging, and indescribable. It is not possible to move across the muddy fields unless one puts down duckboards. f. Flanders is flat. What little heights existed were in German hands. g. Flanders is probably the worst place in Europe to launch an attack, maybe the worst place in the world. Conditions are truly hideous and all advantages lie with the defender. h. A British staff officer, upon actually getting within five miles of the front, burst into tears and said "My God, did we send men to advance in that?" 3. "The Love Battles": "This Western-front business couldn't be done again, not for a long time. The young men think they could do it again, but they couldn't. They could fight the first Marne again but not this. This took religion and years of plenty and tremendous sureties and the exact relation that existed between the classes. . . . Why this was a love-battle--there was a century of middle-class love spent here . . . . All my beautiful lovely safe world blew itself here with a great gust of high explosive

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love . . . . " F. Scott Fitzgerald Tender is the Night 57 Dulce Et Decorum Est Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge, Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs And towards our distant rest began to trudge. Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots But limped on, blood-shod. All went lame; all blind; Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hoots Of gas shells dropping softly behind. Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! -- An ecstasy of fumbling, Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime . . . Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning. If in some smothering dreams you too could pace Behind the wagon that we flung him in, And watch the white eyes writing in his face, His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin; If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs, Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues, -My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori. Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) a. " Verdun and the Somme and Passchendaele were 'love battles,' and that the only people who could fight them were those who possessed a sublime faith in their countries, their institutions, and their own unquestioned value systems. Only that kind of security, that kind of unthinking confidence, armored men sufficiently to endure the hell of such battles. Now those men were gone." (Stokesbury 243) B. America's Entry into the War 1. The sinking of the Lusitania in May 1915 had outraged US public opinion as well as Woodrow Wilson (despite the fact that the ship was carrying both military supplies and personnel). 2. The sinking of the Arabic in August brought about a real threat of a US declaration of war. The Germans back down, and pledged to follow international law in submarine attacks. They also reduced submarine operations. 3. By 1916, the British blockade is beginning to have a serious effect, and pressure builds within German military circles to resume unrestricted are. 4. In March, 1916, the cross-Channel steamer Sussex was torpedoed, costing some American lives. Wilson threatens to sever diplomatic relations. Germany again backs down, and the Sussex pledge commits Germany to pre-war rules, which eliminates submarines as a commerce raider. 5. By the end of 1916, the blockade is causing very severe problems in Germany--

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1916-17 is Germany's Turnip Winter. The potato crop that harvest was half pre-war levels. With an official normal intake of 2,250 calories, rationing provided only 1,350 calories in early 1916, and only 1,000 calories during the Turnip Winter--a starvation diet for those who could not afford the black market. An estimated 750,000 Germans starved to death. In addition, the surviving population was weakened for the influenza epidemic of 1918, which killed more people than the war itself--6,000,000 in India alone. The epidemic moved from east to west, and struck Germany before it reached the Allies. (Holborn 460, Stokesbury 278) 6. Germany had constructed 100 new submarines. German naval planners estimated that they could sink 600,000 tons per month, enough to starve Britain into submission by August of 1917. (Holborn 458, Liddell Hart 141) 7. Hindenburg and Ludendorff are now the de facto rulers of Germany. a. Bethmann-Hollweg strenuously opposed the resumption of submarine war since it would certainly lead to the entry of the United States into the war. b. Hindenburg and Ludendorff brush the objections aside. (1) They viewed US potential military strength with complete disdain. They did not believe that the US could raise, train, or deploy significant forces in Europe. They ignored the US Navy, which the second largest in the world and growing. (2) US industrial capacity, adaptability and energy, as well as US financial resources meant absolutely nothing to these military technicians. 2. Germany resumes unrestricted subm arine warfare on February 1, 1917. The US severs diplomatic relations on February 3. 3. The Zim m erm ann Telegram , offering Mexico Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona in exchange for Mexican assistance. The British intercepted the note, and presented the text of this incredibly stupid telegram to Wilson February 24. 4. By April, German torpedoings has ended Wilson's reluctance to ask Congress for a declaration of war. The US declares war on April 6. 5. US entry dooms Germany. Without the US, Germany might have won in 1917. With the US in the war, Germany had no chance whatsoever of winning in 1918. a. US financial resources made an immediate and dramatic impact on Britain's and France's ability to continue to fight. b. The US Navy plays a decisive role in the anti-submarine campaign. In April, 1917, 25% of all ships sailing from Britain were sunk. When US Admiral Sims was shown the figures, he exclaimed "This means we are losing the war!" His British counterpart replied "That's right--and there is nothing we can do about it." (Stokesbury 222) Sims insists on the introduction of the convoy system. This, and the addition of large numbers of swiftly constructed US destroyers, broke the back of the submarine campaign by September. 6. The German decision was made out of "hubris and ignorance." (Holborn 458) The military, to whom Germans looked for leadership, had utterly failed them. When the inevitable collapse comes, both Hindenburg and (especially) Ludendorff will be very careful to renounce all responsibility for their disastrous policies and blame defeat on someone else. a. Ludendorff is the author of the "stab in the back theory." Caporetto October 24 1. The Germans had been perfecting a new tactical system, developed by Hans von Seeckt and Oscar von Hutier. It involves the use of picked troops (Sturmtruppen or storm troops, or Stoßtruppen or shock troops), short, intense bombardments, surprise, infiltration, and reinforcement of success. Such an attack oozes through a front, causing panic by getting behind strong points. Brusilov had developed the same ideas without fully understanding them. These tactics require a high level of training, morale, and

II.

motivation of the individual soldier. These units required not only special training but different discipline. Within the storm troops, enlisted men used the 2nd person familiar (du) to their officers. Modern infantry tactics are based on this system. 2. With relatively small forces, the Germans surprise the Italians, and break the front wide open. The Italians collapse and stream backwards. The only reason the Germans did not knock Italy out of the war is that (1) they did not expect so much success and did not devote enough resources to it (2) they outran their logistical support. a. The internal com bustion engine combined with the caterpillar tread will solve the problem of transportation problem. Blitzkrieg will wed the tank with shock troop tactics. 3. Italy stabilizes the line at the Piave, at the cost of 600,000 men. They are done for the year. C. The Collapse of the Romanov Empire 1. By 1917, there is hardly any support for the Romanov dynasty is Russia. 2. The end begins on March 8 in Petrograd with food riots. 3. The Russian Revolution will be dealt with in detail in a later unit. 4. Nicholas abdicates on March 15, and a provisional government is formed. 5. The provisional government made the mistake of attempting to continue the war when the vast bulk of the Russian people wanted an end to it. 6. Lenin, for purely ideological reasons, wanted to end the war. This is his most important lever in seizing control for the Bolsheviks. 7. The Germans apply massive pressure with an offensive deep into Russia. Despite fierce opposition, Lenin insists that the revolution has no choice but to make peace, or the Germans would shoot them all. Lenin was certainly correct in his assessment. 8. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (signed March 3, 1918 a. Independence for Finland, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Moldavia, Galicia, and Armenia b. All of these nations would fall under a German political and economic sphere of influence. c. Not unlike Friedrich List in the 19th century or Hitler's Lebensraum a quarter century later. d. Brest-Litovsk was considered harsh even by the chief German negotiator, was signed by Trotsky only by dire necessity, and proved to the Western Allies what kind of peace Germany would impose if she won. War Socialism A. The ravenous demands of total war drove the warring states dramatically increased the size and scope of governmental control, a process which has never been reversed. B. Germany, as a result of the blockade, took the lead in this process 1. Kaiser Wilhelm II in August 1914 proclaimed Burgfriede: "the internal peace kept by the defenders of a castle under siege" (Holborn 431) The Kaiser offers a cessation of class and party hostility: "I do not know parties any longer, I know only Germans." 2. A "state of siege" is declared, which gave military commanders virtually untrammeled power to suppress activities detrimental to the war effort. This included the suspension of many civil rights, complete censorship of all publications, and any measures necessary for internal security and control of associations. (Holborn 428-31) a. Censorship in Germany, as indeed all the warring powers, was grossly misused. The German public, and even the German cabinet and Reichstag was kept in ignorance of the real status of the war. 3. The Social Democrats accept these provisions. They vote war credits, and agree to suspend all labor strikes. In return, they are allowed some participation in the government and tacit recognition of the role of the trade unions. Time would demonstrate, however, that their power was far more apparent than real. Under the "state of siege," Germany ends the war virtually as a military dictatorship. a. The resignation of Bethmann-Hollweg in July 1917 marks the end of

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D.

E.

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the constitutional monarchy. 4. Walter Rathenau, (1867-1922, when he was murdered by right-wing extremists) the Jewish head of Germany's largest electrical firm, is the chief organizer of the integration of the German economy with the war effort. An opponent of the blank cheque and the declaration of war, he nevertheless placed his expertise at the service of his country. He discovered that the German General Staff, that font of planning, had no plans whatever for a long war, and no strategic stockpiles. Rathenau's genius is largely responsible for Germany's ability to stay in the war as long as it did despite the blockade. A brave and principled man, his contribution to the German war effort cannot be measured. Ludendorff hated him with a pathological virulence, but Ludendorff's armies could not have fought in 1917 or 1918 without him. Germany needed more Rathenau's and fewer Ludendorff's. 5. Wages rose with the war, but were outstripped by price increases as a result of wartime shortages. 6. Women enter the industrial work force (from approx. 1.4 million to 2.2 million), composing 37.8% of Krupps by war's end. Juveniles were increasingly employed, Sunday's rest, and the ten-hour day were abandoned. Juveniles' wages were necessary in many families to make up for the loss of real wages. The wages paid women and juveniles were dramatically lower than for men. (Ferro 171) 7. The Law of Auxiliary Patriotic Service did provide gains for war economy workers while also regulating the movement from job to job. Workers councils were introduced for businesses with 50 workers or more. These councils were to act as intermediaries for questions regarding wages, hours, working conditions, and welfare arrangements. The law also provided for some protection of civil rights (which was ignored by Ludendorff) (Holborn 462) The leaders of heavy industry resisted the workers' councils fiercely. The law was administered by Gen. Wilhelm Gröner, an expert on railroads and logistics, who understood that the manpower problem could not be solved without the trade unions. 8. Burgfriede puts the Social Democrats in a difficult position as time goes by, since they had to support policies with which they did not agree at a time when rationing and shortages hit the working classes harder than any other group. Since they had pledged not to strike, negotiation was the only tool left them, and that was ineffective in industries such as coal and iron. 9. Ludendorff's policies were ruthless and totalitarian in nature. In a move that presages the Nazis, he deports 400,000 Belgian workers for forced labor in German war industries. (Johnson 16) France declares Union sacrée as well. 1. The initial effect was the institution of virtual martial law, which was ruthlessly applied by a French officer corps with strong monarchist, clericalist connections (such as Foch, Castelnau and d'Esperey). Parliamentary control of the army and the conduct of the war was lost until the mutinies of 1917. 2. Leading politicians such as Malvy and Caillaux were arrested. Lists of subversives were compiled. (Johnson 16) 3. Censorship becomes very severe even in France, with its history of freedom of the press. One legacy became a suspicion of all information. (Ferro 126) Great Britain begins to abandon its "business as usual" attitudes by 1915. In December, 1915, Lloyd George pushes through the Defense of the Realm Act which organized corporatist war boards to coordinate manufacturing, transport, and supply. The US, even with the idealistic Progressive Woodrow Wilson as President, adopts policies at variance with traditional principles. As a war-time president, Wilson, the advocate of the New Freedom, looks more like Theodore Roosevelt and the New Nationalism of Herbert Croly. 1. War Industries Board, run by Bernard Baruch, "ran a kindergarten for 1920s interventionism and the New Deal, which in turn inspired the New Frontier and the Great

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F.

III.

1918 A.

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Society." (Johnson 17) 2. Fuel Administration 3. War Labor Policies Board 4. Shipping Board 5. Food Adm inistration, coordinated by Herbert Hoover, the prime architect of 1920s US domestic economic policy 6. Espionage Act and Sedition Act both restrict civil liberties with 500 arrests, including Eugene V. Debs (Ferro 115) 7. George Creel mobilizes a very effective propaganda campaign a. It should be noted that British propaganda was extremely adept as well. German propaganda was notably inept. At the outset of the war, internal social tensions were papered over. However, as the war progressed and suffering increased, grievances are intensified. All too often, conservatives holding real power used the national crisis to legitimize their authority and strengthen the power of the state. Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany collapse. France emerges even more divided than before. Ludendorff's Spring Offensives 1. Ludendorff believes that he must launch an offensive to break the Western Front quickly, or exhaustion would certainly defeat Germany. With Russia out of the war, and US troops not yet deployed, he believes that he must win in the spring of 1918. 2. Ludendorff adopts the new tactics and prepares a series of offensives with staggering technical skill. In the end, however, he mishandles the attacks because he had no clear strategic plan and also because he violated his own principles at crucial points. 3. On March 21, 1918, the first assault, codenamed "Michael," catches Haig by surprise and tears a gaping hole in the front by March 23. Ludendorff has achieved a breakthrough. Instead of exploiting the gap, he redirects the line of the offensive. a. German troops, capturing well-stocked British supply depots, begin to fall out and loot instead of continuing to fight. These men are hungry. Continuous fighting and movement was bringing on physical exhaustion as well. b. As large numbers of German troops compare the material wealth (not just weapons, but above all, food) of the Allies with their own condition, their morale begins to drop seriously. Their government had told them the submarines were starving the Allies. Discipline erodes. c. By March 25, the Germans had outrun their artillery, and were attempting to supply themselves across devastated terrain. 4. Ludendorff loses his head, and stops the original offensive and instead launches a second attack ("Mars") on April 9. This also meets initial success, but runs down for the same reasons. a. The Allies, under pressure of this drive, at last name a Commander-inChief to coordinate all armies: Marshall Ferdinand Foch. 5. Ludendorff launches a third offensive, this time against the French on the Chemins des Dames on May 27. a. The French deploy according to Foch's insistence of fighting for every inch of ground and counterattacking immediately and automatically, instead of using an elastic defense advocated by Pétain. b. A terrible hole is torn into the French lines, and the Germans drive on Paris. They advance 40 miles Again, however, the troops wear down, and Pétain assembles reserves (including 2 US divisions, equal in size to 4 French. The Americans were inexperienced but exceptionally aggressive and quick learners). The attack grinds to a halt. (1) By this point, 15 US divisions had been assembled in France since the offensives had begun, and more were pouring in.

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B.

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6. A 4th offensive is launched toward Soissons, but is stopped by French and US counterattacks. 7. Ludendorff's last effort goes in July 15 against Reims. (There were 27 European divisions defending, and 9 US equal numerically to 18 European. US numbers are becoming significant). On one flank, where the French deployed along Foch's lines, the Germans drove deeply. On the other, using Pétain's elastic defense, the Germans are counterattacked and stopped. 8. Ludendorff's offensives are over. His men are bled white, exhausted, and hungry. He had rolled the dice, and lost. On July 18, as Foch began directing Allied offensives, Ludendorff asked Hindenburg what Germany should do. Hindenburg replied "Do? Do? Make peace, you idiot!" (Stokesbury 280) 9. July 18th is the date accepted by historians when the military balance on the Western Front shifted. The Allied Summer/Fall Offensives 1. Ferdinand Foch is a fanatical proponent of the offensive. He at last has the resources to make it work. He begins coordinating a series of powerful offensives. 2. The July 18th Aisne-Marne offensive, while limited, was an unqualified success. 3. August 8th, "the black day" a. An Anglo-French offensive is planned at Amiens. b. Haig designates his best units, a Canadian and an Australian corps, for the attack. c. The Allies will solve the problem of breaking the trench systems with the tank, first used successfully in numbers at Cambrai, November 20, 1917. The tanks would break down the wire, cross trenches, and attack machine gun nests. Infantry and tanks would work in close cooperation. The intention was to break the front with tanks, infantry, and artillery, and then pass faster Whippet tanks and cavalry through to pursue. The latter stage did not occur as a result of exhaustion of the crews and incompatibility of tanks with horse cavalry. In addition, the British commanders were psychologically incapable of exploiting the situation. d. When the German Hutier tactics are wedded to the Allied tank, we are on the way to the development of Blitzkrieg e. The German army holding the front simply collapsed. Large numbers of soldiers surrendered, scenes of panic, insubordination and desertion were widespread. f. The German section of the line was held by seriously under strength units of poor quality (1) In order to launch his offensive, Ludendorff had been forced to cull out his best troops for training in the Hutier tactics for use as "shock divisions." The remaining "trench divisions" were made up of poorer material. In addition, Ludendorff's last efforts had drafted increasing numbers of industrial workers, including skilled workers, older workers, and especially anyone who challenged complete military authority. Not only did this weaken the industrial effort underlying the war, but it introduced Socialist agitators into the trenches. (Barnett 349, Holborn 502) (2) Corelli Barnett draws a strong parallel between the French mutiny and the collapse of many German units and notes "how far a war of nation states, fueled by a nationalistic 'ingroup psychology, had been modified by a new international class war, with 'ingroup' psychology based on class solidarity." (349-50,) g. August 8th is called by Ludendorff "the black day" for the German Army. He begins to unravel mentally. He becomes not only vindictive and

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eager to avoid taking responsibility for defeats (qualities he had always had) but also unrealistic, vacillating, and hysterical. (1) Ludendorff tells the Kaiser that the war is lost and Germany should negotiate a peace. (2) At that time, Ludendorff still had two prepared defensive lines, an organized army of 2,500,000 that could still fight defensively, and was opposed by armies without an overwhelming overall numerical advantage commanded by men who were unable to visualize anything other than piecemeal offensives. The reason he gives in so completely is the Americans: in August 1918, the US now had 1,400,000 men in France. Britain and France won the battles of 1918; America would win those of 1919. Germany was not "stabbed in the back" but overwhelmed economically, politically, technically, morally, and militarily. Germany had fought total war, and had lost totally. (Barnett 353) 4. August to November 1918 sees a series of Allied blows intended to drive the Germans back, and sever the rail links upon which German supplies depended. Behind the lines, the German Army is swiftly disintegrating. On the front, the more reliable units fight doggedly to preserve a more or less orderly retreat. There is some very hard fighting ahead, particularly in the Meuse-Argonne (the American sector, where the terrain was very difficult) and Flanders, but the Allied attacks are irresistible. Peace Negotiations and Armistice A. The end comes swiftly. B. Bulgaria collapses under an offensive from Salonika in September. They sign an armistice on September 29 that permits the Allies to continue to advance against Austria. C. Turkey, having lost Baghdad, and with the Arabian desert in full revolt, now loses Palestine to Allenby (who enjoyed a 3:1 advantage over Liman von Sanders) at the Battle of Megiddo September 19. Turkey signs an armistice October 30. D. The Austrian front collapses at Vittorio Veneto in late October. Their army disintegrates. E. Czechoslovakia declares formal independence on October 21. F. Yugoslavia declares independence on October 29. G. Austria and Hungary secede from their own state by October 31 H. Austria-Hungary, a nation that no longer existed, signs an armistice on November 3. Kaiser Charles abdicates Nov. 12, to no one's interest. (Stokesbury 299) I. The End of the Hohenzollern Empire 1. June 19, 1917, the Catholic Center Party, led by Mathias Erzberger, hitherto a staunch supporter of the war, calls for a peace without annexations. 2. Wilson issues the Fourteen Points January 8, 1918. a. open covenants openly arrived at b. freedom of the seas c. removal of trade barriers d. arms reduction e. impartial adjustment of colonial claims with due concern with the peoples as well as the imperial governments f. German evacuation of Russia g. German restoration of Belgium h. German restoration of France i. adjustment of the Italian frontier j. self determination for the peoples of Austria-Hungary k. restoration of Rumania, Montenegro, and Serbia l. self determination for the peoples of the Ottoman Empire m. reestablishment of Poland with access to the sea n. a League of Nations

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10. in Munich on November 7.

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3. Ludendorff demands an immediate armistice be opened September 29, and concedes the end of authoritarian government by recommending the formation of a popular government. The party leaders of the Reichstag, who had been kept in the dark about military conditions, are stunned. 4. Prince Max of Baden is named Chancellor on October 4. Well-educated, liberal, an early advocate of a conciliatory peace, he is the finest and most capable chancellor since Bismarck. a. Max asks for an armistice, accepting the Fourteen Points as a basis for peace negotiations. 5. Wilson demands the cessation of submarine warfare, stated that no armistice would be allowed that would diminish Allied military superiority (ie: no breathing space), and bluntly inquired whether the present government represented the German people or the militaristic crowd that had started the war. 6. Wilson follows this with a note on October 24 stating that the Allies would not make peace with the King of Prussia (ie the Kaiser) or "'military masters and monarchical autocrats'." (Stokesbury 305) 7. Without consulting anybody, Ludendorff issues an appeal to "us soldiers" to fight to the bitter end. Considering the state of the army and nation, this was irrational. It created difficulties for Max, since Wilson wanted to know who was really in charge. 8. The Kaiser calls Hindenburg and Ludendorff to a meeting on October 26. Ludendorff bitterly criticized the government. The Kaiser coldly replied that the government was acting on Ludendorff's demand of September 29 for an immediate armistice. Ludendorff tendered his resignation, which was accepted. Hindenburg tendered his as well; however, the Kaiser refused to accept it and appealed to Hindenburg's monarchism to obey. Ludendorff never forgives Hindenburg. 9. The Kiel Mutiny October 29, 1918 a. Naval officers determined on a last "death ride" against the Royal Navy. The government was not consulted. The enlisted men were not impressed. b. The sailors refuse to obey orders. A spontaneous and disorganized movement, it spreads quickly through the fleet. The sailors take control of Kiel, and the mutiny spreads to naval bases at Wilhelmshaven, Hamburg, Brunswick and Hanover. The army refuses to put the mutiny down. Military authority collapses. c. The government sends Gustav Noske, the military expert of the Social Democratic party, who establishes authority over them largely by agreeing with them. d. The sailors did not challenge the parties, but the authority of the Kaiser and the military caste. e. Revolution and disorder spreads to Cologne and other key transportation centers. Kurt Eisner, an Independent Socialist (who was also a Jew) leads a successful revolution 11. 12.

November 9, the Berlin workers walk off the job. Abdication of Wilhelm II a. That same day, Wilhelm proposes gathering the army and marching to reconquer Germany b. Ludendorff's successor, Wilhelm Gröner, recognizes that the Social Democrats will have to organize a government, bluntly tells Wilhelm that the army would not obey him. 13. The Social Democrats demand control of the government, and Max agrees. Friedrich Ebert becomes Chancellor. 14. On November 11, 1918, in the forest of Compiegne, Matthias Erzberger signed

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the Armistice agreement. At 11:00, the guns fell silent.

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IX

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The Cost

Population in 1914 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) Total Number Mobilized 1914-1918 Dead Wounded Prisoners/Missing Total Casualties Percentage of Population Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties Percentage of Population as Casualties

Population in 1914 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) Total Number Mobilized 1914-1918 Dead Wounded Prisoners/Missing Total Casualties Percentage of Population Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties Percentage of Population as Casualties

France

British Empire

40,000,000*

45,000,000*

1,250,000

711,000

8,410,000 8,904,467 1,357,800 908,371 4,266,000 2,090,212 537,000 191,652 6,160,000 3,190,235 21.0

19.7

73.3

35.8

15.4

07.0

Italy

Russia

35,000,000

164,000,000

750,000

1,200,000

5,615,000 12,000,000 650,000 1,700,000 947,000 4,950,000 600,000 2,500,000 2,197,000 9,150,000 16.0 39.1

76.3

06.2

05.5

U.S.A. Population in 1914 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) Total Number Mobilized 1914-1918 Dead Wounded Prisoners/Missing

07.3

92,000,000 150,000 4,355,000 116,516 204,002 4,500

IB Contemporary World History World War I Total Casualties Percentage of Population Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties Percentage of Population as Casualties

Mr. Blackmon Page 20 323,018 04.7 08.1 00.35

AustriaHungary Population in 1914 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) Total Number Mobilized 1914-1918 Dead Wounded Prisoners/Missing Total Casualties Percentage of Population Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties Percentage of Population as Casualties

Germany

50,000,000 812,000

65,000,000

2,200,000

7,800,000 11,000,000 1,200,000 1,773,700 3,620,000 4,216,058 2,200,000 1,152,800 7,020,000 7,142,558 15.6

16.9

90.0

64.9

14.0

10.9

Ottoman Empire Population in 1914 Armed Forces 1914 (incl. reserves) Total Number Mobilized 1914-1918 Dead Wounded Prisoners/Missing Total Casualties Percentage of Population Mobilized Percentage of Mobilized as Casualties Percentage of Population as Casualties

20,000,000 360,000 2,850,000 325,000 400,000 250,000 975,000 14.25 34.2 04.8

* The population of Great Britain in 1914 was 45,000,000. The estimated population of the British Empire was 390,000,000. Casualty figures, however, are for the Empire (including Canadian, South African, and Indian casualties, for instance). I do not have a breakdown by Dominion and colony.

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* The population of metropolitan France was 40,000,000. The population of the French Empire was 58,000,000. Casualty figures are for the Empire. Britain's overseas empire provided a larger proportional contribution than did France's overseas empire, and casualties would reflect this. Sources: Different authorities have different figures. It is impossible to obtain truly accurate figures. This table is adapted from the Encyclopedia Britannica Vol. 29 p. 987 and Kagan, Ozment, and Turner p. 888.

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Mr. Blackmon Page 22 Works Cited

Barnett, Corelli. The Swordbearers: Supreme Command in the First World War. New York: Signet, 1963. Ferro, Marc. The Great War: 1914-1918. New York: Routledge, 1973. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. Tender Is the Night. New York: Scribner, 1933. Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany: 1840-1945 Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1969. Horne, Alistair. The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916. New York: Penquin Books, 1964. Johnson, Paul. Modern Times. Rev. Ed. New York: Harper, 1991. Kagan, Donald, Ozment, Steven, and Turner, Frank M. The Western Heritage. 2nd Ed. New York: MacMillan, 1983. Liddell Hart, Capt. Basil H. The War in Outline: 1914-1918. New York: Award Books, 1965. Stokesbury, James L. A Short History of World War I. New York: William Morrow and Co., 1981. "The World Wars." Encyclopedia Britanica Vol. 29 Chicago: Encyclopedia Britanica Inc. 1993. 961-987. Works Consulted Albrecht-Carrié, René. The Meaning of the First World War. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1965. Bernstein, Paul and Green, Robert W. History of Civilization. Vol II. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams and Co., 1971. Blum, Jerome, Cameron, Rondo, and Barnes, Thomas G. The European World Since 1815: Triumph and Transition. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1966. Messenger, Charles. The Art of Blitzkrieg. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1991. Silkin, Jon, ed. The Penquin Book of First World War Poetry. 2nd Ed. (New York: Penguin,1981. IB Contemporary World History

Mr. Blackmon World War I Essay Questions

I will select SEVEN of the following ELEVEN and ask you to choose ONE essay to write: 1 "Scientific and technological advance play an important part in the nature and outcome of wars." Discuss the First World War with this claim in mind. (Modified from 1989) (HL) 2 The one consistent winner of modern warfare has been technology; the consistent loser has been humanity.” (Ziegler) Discuss with reference to new technology in the First World War. (Modified from 1996) (HL) 3 Discuss the First World War from the point of view of the impact of weaponry on (a) tactics and strategy (b) the role and involvement of civilians. (Modified from 1987)

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4 Choose TWO battles or campaigns from the First World War, and show how they affected the subsequent course and eventual outcome of the war. (Modified from 1989) (HL) 5 "War is much too serious a thing to be left to military men." (Talleyrand). With reference to the First World War, estimate the importance of generals in (a) influencing the decisions to go to war, (b) shaping military strategy, and (c) establishing war aims. (Modified from 1994) (HL) 6 How comprehensively are the characteristics of "total war" illustrated by the First World War? (Modified from 1990) (HL) 7 "War is the locomotive of history" (Leon Trotsky). With reference to the First World War, consider to what extent war has acted as an accelerator/catalyst of (A) technical; (B) economic; (C) social, and (D) political change. (Nov. 1990) (HL) 8 Discuss the mobilization of society in the (A) political (B) economic (C) social and (D) intellectual/cultural dimensions during the First World War. 9

Apply the following quote to the First World War: "To introduce into the philosophy of war a principle of moderation would be an absurdity. War is an act of violence pushed to its utmost bounds. . . . Each of the adversaries forces the hand of the other, and a reciprocal action results which in theory can have no limit." Carl von Clausewitz

10 On the eve of war in 1914, all nations involved expected a short war. Instead they experienced the bloodiest war of attrition thus far in history. Why was this the case? 11 The First World War began as a primarily European conflict over a purely European issue (Serbia). It ended as a world-wide cataclysm that collapsed empires, shattered a civilization and brought the U.S. into the mainstream of world affairs. Trace the course AND causes of this radicalization. IB Contemporary World History

Mr. Blackmon World War I Essay Examination

Form A Choose ONE of the following to write! 1 "Scientific and technological advance play an important part in the nature and outcome of wars." Discuss the First World War with this claim in mind. (Modified from 1989) (HL) 3 Discuss the First World War from the point of view of the impact of weaponry on (a) tactics and strategy (b) the role and involvement of civilians. (Modified from 1987) 4 Choose TWO battles or campaigns from the First World War, and show how they affected the subsequent course and eventual outcome of the war. (Modified from 1989) (HL) 5 "War is much too serious a thing to be left to military men." (Talleyrand). With reference to the First World War, estimate the importance of generals in (a) influencing the decisions to go to war, (b) shaping military strategy, and (c) establishing war aims. (Modified from 1994) (HL)

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6 How comprehensively are the characteristics of "total war" illustrated by the First World War? (Modified from 1990) (HL) 8 Discuss the mobilization of society in the (A) political (B) economic (C) social and (D) intellectual/cultural dimensions during the First World War.

10 On the eve of war in 1914, all nations involved expected a short war. Instead they experienced the bloodiest war of attrition thus far in history. Why was this the case?

IB Contemporary World History

Mr. Blackmon World War I Essay Examination

Form B Choose ONE of the following to write! 2 The one consistent winner of modern warfare has been technology; the consistent loser has been humanity.” (Ziegler) Discuss with reference to new technology in the First World War. (Modified from 1996) (HL) 3 Discuss the First World War from the point of view of the impact of weaponry on (a) tactics and strategy (b) the role and involvement of civilians. (Modified from 1987) 4 Choose TWO battles or campaigns from the First World War, and show how they affected the subsequent course and eventual outcome of the war. (Modified from 1989) (HL) 5 "War is much too serious a thing to be left to military men." (Talleyrand). With reference to the First World War, estimate the importance of generals in (a) influencing the decisions to go to war, (b) shaping military strategy, and (c) establishing war aims. (Modified from 1994) (HL) 6 How comprehensively are the characteristics of "total war" illustrated by the First World War? (Modified from 1990) (HL) 7 "War is the locomotive of history" (Leon Trotsky). With reference to the First World War, consider to what extent war has acted as an accelerator/catalyst of (A) technical; (B) economic; (C) social, and (D) political change. (Nov. 1990) (HL) 11 The First World War began as a primarily European conflict over a purely European issue (Serbia). It ended as a world-wide cataclysm that collapsed empires, shattered a civilization and brought the U.S. into the mainstream of world affairs. Trace the course AND causes of this radicalization. IB Contemporary World History

Mr. Blackmon World War I Essay Examination

Form C Choose ONE of the following to write! 1 "Scientific and technological advance play an important part in the nature and outcome of wars." Discuss the First World War with this claim in mind. (Modified from 1989) (HL)

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3 Discuss the First World War from the point of view of the impact of weaponry on (a) tactics and strategy (b) the role and involvement of civilians. (Modified from 1987) 4 Choose TWO battles or campaigns from the First World War, and show how they affected the subsequent course and eventual outcome of the war. (Modified from 1989) (HL) 5 "War is much too serious a thing to be left to military men." (Talleyrand). With reference to the First World War, estimate the importance of generals in (a) influencing the decisions to go to war, (b) shaping military strategy, and (c) establishing war aims. (Modified from 1994) (HL) 6 How comprehensively are the characteristics of "total war" illustrated by the First World War? (Modified from 1990) (HL) 8 Discuss the mobilization of society in the (A) political (B) economic (C) social and (D) intellectual/cultural dimensions during the First World War.

10 On the eve of war in 1914, all nations involved expected a short war. Instead they experienced the bloodiest war of attrition thus far in history. Why was this the case?

IB Contemporary World History

Mr. Blackmon

World War I Essay Examination Form D Choose ONE of the following to write! 2 The one consistent winner of modern warfare has been technology; the consistent loser has been humanity.” (Ziegler) Discuss with reference to new technology in the First World War. (Modified from 1996) (HL) 3 Discuss the First World War from the point of view of the impact of weaponry on (a) tactics and strategy (b) the role and involvement of civilians. (Modified from 1987) 4 Choose TWO battles or campaigns from the First World War, and show how they affected the subsequent course and eventual outcome of the war. (Modified from 1989) (HL) 5 "War is much too serious a thing to be left to military men." (Talleyrand). With reference to the First World War, estimate the importance of generals in (a) influencing the decisions to go to war, (b) shaping military strategy, and (c) establishing war aims. (Modified from 1994) (HL) 6 How comprehensively are the characteristics of "total war" illustrated by the First World War? (Modified from 1990) (HL) 7 "War is the locomotive of history" (Leon Trotsky). With reference to the First World War, consider to what extent war has acted as an accelerator/catalyst of (A) technical; (B) economic; (C) social, and (D) political change. (Nov. 1990) (HL) 11 The First World War began as a primarily European conflict over a purely European issue (Serbia). It ended as a world-wide cataclysm that collapsed empires, shattered a civilization and brought the U.S. into the mainstream of world affairs. Trace the course AND causes of this radicalization.

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