World Religions Readings Packet
Introduction Why study world religions? What role, if any, does religion play in foundations of liberty? In 1962, a case was brought before the United States Supreme Court regarding the constitutionality of prayer in public school. Students in the Abington School District of Pennsylvania were required to read at least ten verses from the Bible at the beginning of the school day. After completing these readings, all students were required to recite the Lord’s Prayer. Students could be excluded from these requirements with a written note from their parents. The question before the court was whether the Abington’s policy violated the religious freedom of students as protected by the First and Fourteenth Amendments. By an 8‐to‐1 vote, the court found such a violation. The required activities encroached on both the Free Exercise Clause and the Establishment clause of the First Amendment. Justice Tom C. Clark, writing for the majority, explained, “It is insisted that, unless these religious exercises are permitted, a ‘religion of secularism’ is established in the schools. We agree, of course, that the State may not establish a ‘religion of secularism’ in the sense of affirmatively opposing or showing hostility to religion, thus ‘preferring those who believe in no religion over those who do believe.’ Zorach v. Clauson, supra, at 343 U. S. 314. We do not agree, however, that this decision in any sense has that effect. In addition, it might well be said that one's education is not complete without a study of comparative religion or the history of religion and its relationship to the advancement of civilization.” (emphasis added) As you study the original source materials for each of the religious traditions included in this packet, consider the role that religion literacy plays in your education, and how the type of education that you have influences the amount of liberty you may rightly claim. Due to size constraints, only minimal excerpts from the vast libraries of religious source materials could be included. It is impossible to equally represent every denomination, sect, or school of thought. No ill is intended by the inclusion or exclusion of any particular religious tradition over another. Rather, it is hoped that this will serve as an inspiration to pursue with deeper, more thoughtful study the rich store of knowledge contained in all religious traditions. You might find it helpful to keep a list of the teachings, symbols, practices, founders, institutions, and values that you find are unique to each, as well as those that are shared between one or more groups. Religion has been a powerful motivator for both good and evil throughout the history of mankind. By increasing your religious literacy, you will be better able to comprehend current world events, better relate to increasingly more diverse neighbors, and better understand yourself.
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Bahá’í Faith The Báhá’í Faith emerged in Persia from Shia Islam in the 19th century. Divine messengers are sent to humanity on an ongoing basis, with a specific message for a given time and place in history. Today’s message is that humanity is one single race and that the day has come for its unification in one global society. God has set in motion historical forces that are breaking down traditional barriers of race, class, creed, and nation and that will, in time, give birth to a universal civilization. The principal challenge facing the peoples of the earth is to accept the fact of their oneness and to assist the processes of unification. The word “Báhá’í” is not meant to refer to the religion as a whole, it is either a reference to the faith or to a follower of Bahá’u’lláh. Website: www.bahai.org Brief History: Religious history has unfolded through a series of divine messengers. Each messenger was appointed to establish a religion based on a particular time and place in history. The list includes Moses, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, and continued into the 19th century through Báb and Bahá’u’lláh. This claim eventually led to the execution of Báb in Iran, and persecution of Bahá’u’lláh and other followers for years afterwards. Subsequent leaders were exiled and the faith was able to take root, growing to a membership that spans over 200 countries today. Estimated Adherents: 5‐6 million Founder: Founder: Mírzá Husayn `Alí Núrí, later called Bahá’u’lláh Basic Beliefs: From www.bahai.org: Bahá'u'lláh taught that there is one God whose successive revelations of His will to humanity have been the chief civilizing force in history. The agents of this process have been the Divine Messengers whom people have seen chiefly as the founders of separate religious systems but whose common purpose has been to bring the human race to spiritual and moral maturity.
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Humanity is now coming of age. It is this that makes possible the unification of the human family and the building of a peaceful, global society. Among the principles which the Bahá'í Faith promotes as vital to the achievement of this goal are
the abandonment of all forms of prejudice assurance to women of full equality of opportunity with men recognition of the unity and relativity of religious truth the elimination of extremes of poverty and wealth the realization of universal education the responsibility of each person to independently search for truth the establishment of a global commonwealth of nations recognition that true religion is in harmony with reason and the pursuit of scientific knowledge
Sacred Texts: The canonical texts are the writings of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, `Abdu'l‐Bahá, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice, and the authenticated talks of `Abdu'l‐Bahá.
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Buddhism During its 2500 year history, Buddhism has grown from a tiny religious community in northern India into a movement that spans the world. It has influenced civilizations in India and Southeast Asia, China, Tibet, Korea, and Japan. It has become a major part of the mutli‐religious western world. Buddhism plays a “religious” role in many cultures, but it does not conform to many of our most basic assumptions about religions. Buddhists do not worship a God, they revere the memory of a man who found a way out of the suffering of life. The release of suffering constitutes the ultimate goal of human life. Brief History: The story of Buddhism begins with a man named Siddhartha Gautama in northern India around 500 B.C.E. Later known as the Buddha, he found a liberation from suffering and passed the learning on to his followers. His disciples formed a community of monks which continued to grow after his death. Two major reform movements eventually appeared in India, the Mahayana and the Tantra. As it was transmitted to other countries in Asia, it developed in strikingly new ways. It was carried to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century B.C.E. and from there to Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Buddhism entered China in the 2nd century C.E. with monks and merchants through Central Asia, into the heartland of China, and eventually to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. In the 8th century C.E. it was carried across the Himalayas from India to Tibet. Today, the Dalai Lama, the leader of the Tibetan Buddhist community, is one of the most visible and active Buddhist leaders in the world. Estimated Adherents: 500 million 500 million Major Schools of Buddhism: Theravada – “Tradition of the Elders” Mahayana – “Greater Vehicle” Vajrayana‐ “Diamond Vehicle” Basic Beliefs: The Triple Refuge:
I take refuge in the Buddha. I take refuge in the Dharma [the Buddha’s teaching]. I take refuge in the Smagha [the community of the Buddha’s followers].
The Middle Way:
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Between hedonism and ascetism lies the middle way to nirvana.
The Four Noble Truths: 1‐ 2‐ 3‐ 4‐
The truth of suffering (life is unsatisfactory). The truth of the arising of suffering (suffering is caused by our craving). The truth of the cessation of suffering (suffering can stop). The truth of the path that leads to the cessation of suffering (the eightfold path is the way).
The Eightfold Path: 1‐ 2‐ 3‐ 4‐ 5‐ 6‐ 7‐ 8‐
Right view Right intention (resolve) Right action Right speech Right livelihood Right effort Right concentration Right mindfulness
Five Moral Precepts:
For laypeople: 1‐ 2‐ 3‐ 4‐ 5‐
No killing No stealing No lying No abuse of sex No drinking of intoxicants
Additional for monks: 6‐ No eating after noon 7‐ No sleeping on soft beds 8‐ No handling money Founder’s Story: Founder: Siddhartha Gautama, “Buddha” From Buddha, The Gospel by Paul Carus, [1894] THE ENLIGHTENMENT
as the water‐lily and pure in mind as the lotus. As the Queen of Heaven, she lived on earth, untainted by desire, and immaculate.
There was in Kapilavatthu a Sakya king, strong of purpose and reverenced by all men, a descendant of the Okkakas, who call themselves Gotama, and his name was Suddhodana or Pure‐Rice. His wife Mayadevi was beautiful
The king, her husband, honored her in her holiness, and the spirit of truth, glorious and strong in his wisdom like
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unto a white elephant, descended upon her. When she knew that the hour of motherhood was near, she asked the king to send her home to her parents; and Suddhodana, anxious about his wife and the child she would bear him, willingly granted her request.
alarmed and asked: "Why has the sight of my son caused thee grief and pain?" But Asita's heart rejoiced, and, knowing the king's mind to be perplexed, he addressed him, saying: "The king, like the moon when full, should feel great joy, for he has begotten a wondrously noble son. I do not worship Brahma, but I worship this child; and the gods in the temples will descend from their places of honor to adore him. Banish all anxiety and doubt. The spiritual omens manifested indicate that the child now born will bring deliverance to the whole world.
At Lumbini there is a beautiful grove, and when Mayadevi passed through it the trees were one mass of fragrant flowers and many birds were warbling in their branches. The Queen, wishing to stroll through the shady walks, left her golden palanquin, and, when she reached the giant sala tree in the midst of the grove, felt that her hour had come. She took hold of a branch. Her attendants hung a curtain about her and retired. When the pain of travail came upon her, four pure‐minded angels of the great Brahma held out a golden net to receive the babe, who came forth from her right side like the rising sun bright and perfect.
"Recollecting that I myself am old, on that account I could not hold my tears; for now my end is coming on and I shall not see the glory of this babe. For this son of thine will rule the world. The wheel of empire will come to him. He will either be a king of kings to govern all the lands of the earth, or verily will become a Buddha. He is born for the sake of everything that lives. His pure teaching will be like the shore that receives the shipwrecked. His power of meditation will be like a cool lake; and all creatures parched with the drought of lust may freely drink thereof. On the fire of covetousness he will cause the cloud of his mercy to rise, so that the rain of the law may extinguish it. The heavy gates of despondency will he open, and give deliverance to all creatures ensnared in the self‐entwined meshes of folly and ignorance. The king of the law has come forth to rescue from bondage all the poor, the miserable, the helpless."
The Brahma‐angels took the child and placing him before the mother said: "Rejoice, O queen, a mighty son has been born unto thee." At her couch stood an aged woman imploring the heavens to bless the child. All the worlds were flooded with light. The blind received their sight by longing to see the coming glory of the Lord; the deaf and dumb spoke with one another of the good omens indicating the birth of the Buddha to be. The crooked became straight; the lame walked. All prisoners were freed from their chains and the fires of all the hells were extinguished.
When the royal parents heard Asita's words they rejoiced in their hearts and named their new‐born infant Siddhattha, that is he who has accomplished his purpose."
No clouds gathered in the skies and the polluted streams became clear, whilst celestial music rang through the air and the angels rejoiced with gladness. With no selfish or partial joy but for the sake of the law they rejoiced, for creation engulfed in the ocean of pain was now to obtain release. The cries of beasts were hushed; all malevolent beings received a loving heart, and peace reigned on earth. Mara, the evil one, alone was grieved and rejoiced not.
And the queen said to her sister, Pajapati: "A mother who has borne a future Buddha will never give birth to another child. I shall soon leave this world, my husband, the king, and Siddhattha, my child. When I am gone, be thou a mother to him." And Pajapati wept and promised. When the queen had departed from the living, Pajapati took the boy Siddhattha and reared him. And as the light of the moon increases little by little, so the royal child grew from day to day in mind and in body; and truthfulness and love resided in his heart. When a year had passed Suddhodana the king made Pajapati his queen and there was never a better stepmother than she.
The Naga kings, earnestly desiring to show their reverence for most excellent law, as they had paid honor to former Buddhas, now went to greet the Bodhisattva. They scattered before him mandara flowers, rejoicing with heartfelt joy to pay their religious homage. The royal father, pondering the meaning of these signs, was now full of joy and now sore distressed. The queen mother, beholding her child and the commotion which his birth created, felt in her timorous heart the pangs of doubt.
THE TIES OF LIFE WHEN Siddhattha had grown to youth, his father desired to see him married, and he sent to all his kinsfolk, commanding them to bring their princesses that the prince might select one of them as his wife.
Now there was at that time in a grove near Lumbini Asita, a rishi, leading the life of a hermit. He was a Brahman of dignified mien, famed not only for wisdom and scholarship, but also for his skill in the interpretation of signs. And the king invited him to see the royal babe.
But the kinsfolk replied and said: "The prince is young and delicate; nor has he learned any of the sciences. He would not be able to maintain our daughter, and should there be war he would be unable to cope with the enemy."
The seer, beholding the prince, wept and sighed deeply. And when the king saw the tears of Asita he became
The prince was not boisterous, but pensive in his nature. He loved to stay under the great jambu‐tree in the garden
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of his father, and, observing the ways of the world, gave himself up to meditation. And the prince said to his father: "Invite our kinsfolk that they may see me and put my strength to the test." And his father did as his son bade him.
The charioteer, much embarrassed, hardly dared speak the truth. He said: "These are the symptoms of old age. This same man was once a suckling child, and as a youth full of sportive life; but now, as years have passed away, his beauty is gone and the strength of his life is wasted."
When the kinsfolk came, and the people of the city Kapilavatthu had assembled to test the prowess and scholarship of the prince, he proved himself manly in all the exercises both of the body and of the mind, and there was no rival among the youths and men of India who could surpass him in any test, bodily or mental. He replied to all the questions of the sages; but when he questioned them, even the wisest among them were silenced.
Siddhattha was greatly affected by the words of the charioteer, and he sighed because of the pain of old age. "What joy or pleasure can men take," he thought to himself, when they know they must soon wither and pine away!" And lo! while they were passing on, a sick man appeared on the way‐side, gasping for breath, his body disfigured, convulsed and groaning with pain. The prince asked his charioteer: "What kind of man is this?" And the charioteer replied and said: "This man is sick. The four elements of his body are confused and out of order. We are all subject to such conditions: the poor and the rich, the ignorant and the wise, all creatures that have bodies are liable to the same calamity."
Then Siddhattha chose himself a wife. He selected his cousin Yasodhara, the gentle daughter of the king of Koli. In their wedlock was born a son whom they named Rahula which means "fetter" or "tie," and King Suddhodana, glad that an heir was born to his son, said: "The prince having begotten a son, will love him as I love the prince. This will be a strong tie to bind Siddhattha's heart to the interests of the world, and the kingdom of the Sakyas will remain under the scepter of my descendants."
And Siddhattha was still more moved. All pleasures appeared stale to him, and he loathed the joys of life. The charioteer sped the horses on to escape the dreary sight, when suddenly they were stopped in their fiery course. Four persons passed by, carrying a corpse; and the prince, shuddering at the sight of a lifeless body, asked the charioteer: "What is this they carry? There are streamers and flower garlands; but the men that follow are overwhelmed with grief!"
With no selfish aim, but regarding his child and the people at large, Siddhattha, the prince, attended to his religious duties, bathing his body in the holy Ganges and cleansing his heart in the waters of the law. Even as men desire to give happiness to their children, so did he long to give peace to the world. THE THREE WOES
The charioteer replied: "This is a dead man: his body is stark; his life is gone; his thoughts are still; his family and the friends who loved him now carry the corpse to the grave." And the prince was full of awe and terror: "Is this the only dead man, he asked, or does the world contain other instances?"
THE palace which the king had given to the prince was resplendent with all the luxuries of India; for the king was anxious to see his son happy. All sorrowful sights, all misery, and all knowledge of misery were kept away from Siddhattha, for the king desired that no troubles should come nigh him; he should not know that there was evil in the world.
With a heavy heart the charioteer replied: "All over the world it is the same. He who begins life must end it. There is no escape from death."
But as the chained elephant longs for the wilds of the jungles, so the prince was eager to see the world, and he asked his father, the king, for permission to do so. And Suddhodana ordered a jewel‐fronted chariot with four stately horses to be held ready, and commanded the roads to be adorned where his son would pass.
With bated breath and stammering accents the prince exclaimed: "O worldly men! How fatal is your delusion! Inevitably your body will crumble to dust, yet carelessly, unheedingly, ye live on." The charioteer observing the deep impression these sad sights had made on the prince, turned his horses and drove back to the city.
The houses of the city were decorated with curtains and banners, and spectators arranged themselves on either side, eagerly gazing at the heir to the throne. Thus Siddhattha rode with Channa, his charioteer, through the streets of the city, and into a country watered by rivulets and covered with pleasant trees.
When they passed by the palace of the nobility, Kisa Gotami, a young princess and niece of the king, saw Siddhattha in his manliness and beauty, and, observing the thoughtfulness of his countenance, said: "Happy the father that begot thee, happy the mother that nursed thee, happy the wife that calls husband this lord so glorious."
There by the wayside they met an old man with bent frame, wrinkled face and sorrowful brow, and the prince asked the charioteer: "Who is this? His head is white, his eyes are bleared, and his body is withered. He can barely support himself on his staff."
The prince hearing this greeting, said: "Happy are they that have found deliverance. Longing for peace of mind, I shall seek the bliss of Nirvana."
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Then asked Kisa Gotami: "How is Nirvana attained?" The prince paused, and to him whose mind was estranged from wrong the answer came: "When the fire of lust is gone out, then Nirvana is gained; when the fires of hatred and delusion are gone out, then Nirvana is gained; when the troubles of mind, arising from blind credulity, and all other evils have ceased, then Nirvana is gained!"
have become disgusted with lust. All oppresses me, and existence itself seems intolerable." The samana replied: "Where heat is, there is also a possibility of cold; creatures subject to pain possess the faculty of pleasure; the origin of evil indicates that good can be developed. For these things are correlatives. Thus where there is much suffering, there will be much bliss, if thou but open thine eyes to behold it. Just as a man who has fallen into a heap of filth ought to seek the great pond of water covered with lotuses, which is near by: even so seek thou for the great deathless lake of Nirvana to wash off the defilement of wrong. If the lake is not sought, it is not the fault of the lake. Even so when there is a blessed road leading the man held fast by wrong to the salvation of Nirvana, if the road is not walked upon, it is not the fault of the road, but of the person. And when a man who is oppressed with sickness, there being a physician who can heal him, does not avail himself of the physician's help, that is not the fault of the physician. Even so when a man oppressed by the malady of wrong‐doing does not seek the spiritual guide of enlightenment, that is no fault of the evil‐destroying guide."
Siddhattha handed her his precious pearl necklace as a reward for the wisdom she had inspired in him, and having returned home looked with disdain upon the treasures of his palace. His wife welcomed him and entreated him to tell her the cause of his grief. He said: "I see everywhere the impression of change; therefore, my heart is heavy. Men grow old, sicken, and die. That is enough to take away the zest of life." The king, his father, hearing that the prince had become estranged from pleasure, was greatly overcome with sorrow and like a sword it pierced his heart. THE BODHISATTVAS RENUNCIATION IT was night. The prince found no rest on his soft pillow; he arose and went out into the garden. "Alas!" he cried "all the world is full of darkness and ignorance; there is no one who knows how to cure the ills of existence." And he groaned with pain.
The prince listened to the noble words of his visitor and said: "Thou bringest good tidings, for now I know that my purpose will be accomplished. My father advises me to enjoy life and to undertake worldly duties, such as will bring honor to me and to our house. He tells me that I am too young still, that my pulse beats too full to lead a religious life."
Siddhattha sat down beneath the great jambu‐tree and gave himself to thought, pondering on life and death and the evils of decay. Concentrating his mind he became free from confusion. All low desires vanished from his heart and perfect tranquility came over him.
The venerable figure shook his head and replied: "Thou shouldst know that for seeking a religious life no time can be inopportune."
In this state of ecstasy he saw with his mental eye all the misery and sorrow of the world; he saw the pains of pleasure and the inevitable certainty of death that hovers over every being; yet men are not awakened to the truth. And a deep compassion seized his heart.
A thrill of joy passed through Siddhattha's heart. "Now is the time to seek religion," he said; "now is the time to sever all ties that would prevent me from attaining perfect enlightenment; now is the time to wander into homelessness and, leading a mendicant's life, to find the path of deliverance."
While the prince was pondering on the problem of evil, he beheld with his mind's eye under the jambu tree a lofty figure endowed with majesty, calm and dignified. "Whence comest thou, and who mayst thou be asked the prince.
The celestial messenger heard the resolution of Siddhattha with approval. "Now, indeed he added, is the time to seek religion. Go, Siddhattha, and accomplish thy purpose. For thou art Bodhisatta, the Buddha‐elect; thou art destined to enlighten the world. Thou art the Tathagata, the great master, for thou wilt fulfill all righteousness and be Dharmaraja, the king of truth. Thou art Bhagavat, the Blessed One, for thou art called upon to become the savior and redeemer of the world. Fulfill thou the perfection of truth. Though the thunderbolt descend upon thy head, yield thou never to the allurements that beguile men from the path of truth. As the sun at all seasons pursues his own course, nor ever goes on another, even so if thou forsake not the straight path of righteousness, thou shalt become a Buddha. Persevere in thy quest and thou shalt find what thou seekest. Pursue thy aim unswervingly and thou shalt gain the prize. Struggle earnestly and thou shalt conquer. The benediction of all deities, of all saints of all that seek
In reply the vision said: "I am a samana. Troubled at the thought of old age, disease, and death I have left my home to seek the path of salvation. All things hasten to decay; only the truth abideth forever. Everything changes, and there is no permanency; yet the words of the Buddhas are immutable. I long for the happiness that does not decay; the treasure that will never perish; the life that knows of no beginning and no end. Therefore, I have destroyed all worldly thought. I have retired into an unfrequented dell to live in solitude; and, begging for food, I devote myself to the one thing needful. Siddhattha asked: "Can peace be gained in this world of unrest? I am struck with the emptiness of pleasure and
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Bodhisattva walked along on the highroad with a beggar's bowl in his hand.
light is upon thee, and heavenly wisdom guides thy steps. Thou shalt be the Buddha, our Master, and our Lord; thou shalt enlighten the world and save mankind from perdition.
Yet the majesty of his mind was ill‐concealed under the poverty of his appearance. His erect gait betrayed his royal birth and his eyes beamed with a fervid zeal for truth. The beauty of his youth was transfigured by holiness and surrounded his head like a halo. All the people who saw this unusual sight gazed at him in wonder. Those who were in haste arrested their steps and looked back; and there was no one who did not pay him homage.
Having thus spoken, the vision vanished, and Siddhattha's heart was filled with peace. He said to himself: "I have awakened to the truth and I am resolved to accomplish my purpose. I will sever all the ties that bind me to the world, and I will go out from my home to seek the way of salvation. The Buddhas are beings whose words cannot fail: there is no departure from truth in their speech. For as the fall of a stone thrown into the air, as the death of a mortal, as the sunrise at dawn, as the lion's roar when he leaves his lair, as the delivery of a woman with child, as all these things are sure and certain‐even so the word of the Buddhas is sure and cannot fail. Verily I shall become a Buddha."
Having entered the city of Rajagaha, the prince went from house to house silently waiting till the people offered him food. Wherever the Blessed One came, the people gave him what they had; they bowed before him in humility and were filled with gratitude because he condescended to approach their homes. Old and young people were moved and said: "This is a noble muni! His approach is bliss. What a great joy for us!"
The prince returned to the bedroom of his wife to take a last farewell glance at those whom he dearly loved above all the treasures of the earth. He longed to take the infant once more into his arms and kiss him with a parting kiss. But the child lay in the arms of his mother, and the prince could not lift him without awakening both. There Siddhattha stood gazing at his beautiful wife and his beloved son, and his heart grieved. The pain of parting overcame him powerfully. Although his mind was determined, so that nothing, be it good or evil, could shake his resolution, the tears flowed freely from his eyes, and it was beyond his power to check their stream. But the prince tore himself away with a manly heart, suppressing his feelings but not extinguishing his memory.
And King Bimbisara, noticing the commotion in the city, inquired the cause of it, and when he learned the news sent one of his attendants to observe the stranger. Having heard that the muni must be a Sakya and of noble family, and that he had retired to the bank of a flowing river in the woods to eat the food in his bowl, the king was moved in his heart; he donned his royal robe, placed his golden crown upon his head and went out in the company of aged and wise counselors to meet his mysterious guest. The king found the muni of the Sakya race seated under a tree. Contemplating the composure of his face and the gentleness of his deportment, Bimbisara greeted him reverently and said: "O samana, thy hands are fit to grasp the reins of an empire and should not hold a beggar's bowl. I am sorry to see thee wasting thy youth. Believing that thou art of royal descent, I invite thee to join me in the government of my country and share my royal power. Desire for power is becoming to the noble‐minded, and wealth should not be despised. To grow rich and lose religion is not true gain. But he who possesses all three, power, wealth, and religion, enjoying them in discretion and with wisdom, him I call a great master."
The Bodhisattva mounted his noble steed Kanthaka, and when he left the palace, Mara stood in the gate and stopped him: "Depart not, O my Lord," exclaimed Mara. "In seven days from now the wheel of empire will appear, and will make thee sovereign over the four continents and the two thousand adjacent islands. Therefore, stay, my Lord." The Bodhisattva replied: "Well do I know that the wheel of empire will appear to me; but it is not sovereignty that I desire. I will become a Buddha and make all the world shout for joy."
The great Sakyamuni lifted his eyes and replied: "Thou art known, O king, to be liberal and religious, and thy words are prudent. A kind man who makes good use of wealth is rightly said to possess a great treasure; but the miser who hoards up his riches will have no profit. Charity is rich in returns; charity is the greatest wealth, for though it scatters, it brings no repentance.
Thus Siddhattha, the prince, renounced power and worldly pleasures, gave up his kingdom, severed all ties, and went into homelessness. He rode out into the silent night, accompanied only by his faithful charioteer Channa. Darkness lay upon the earth, but the stars shone brightly in the heavens.
"I have severed all ties because I seek deliverance. How is it possible for me to return to the world? He who seeks religious truth, which is the highest treasure of all, must leave behind all that can concern him or draw away his attention, and must be bent upon that one goal alone. He must free his soul from covetousness and lust, and also from the desire for power.
KING BIMBISARA SIDDHATTHA had cut his waving hair and had exchanged his royal robe for a mean dress of the color of the ground. Having sent home Channa, the charioteer, together with the noble steed Kanthaka, to King Suddhodana to bear him the message that the prince had left the world, the
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deliverance of the ego from material existence in states of ecstasy.
"Indulge in lust but a little, and lust like a child will grow. Wield worldly power and you will be burdened with cares. Better than sovereignty over the earth, better than living in heaven, better than lordship over all the worlds, is the fruit of holiness. The Bodhisattva has recognized the illusory nature of wealth and will not take poison as food. Will a fish that has been baited still covet the hook, or an escaped bird love the net? Would a rabbit rescued from the serpent's mouth go back to be devoured? Would a man who has burnt his hand with a torch take up the torch after he had dropped it to the earth? Would a blind man who has recovered his sight desire to spoil his eyes again?
Alara said: "What is that self which perceives the actions of the five roots of mind, touch, smell, taste, sight, and hearing? What is that which is active in the two ways of motion, in the hands and in the feet? The problem of the soul appears in the expressions 'I say,' 'I know and perceive,' 'I come,' and 'I go' or 'I will stay here.' Thy soul is not thy body; it is not thy eye, not thy ear, not thy nose, not thy tongue, nor is it thy mind. The I is the one who feels the touch in thy body. The I is the smeller in the nose, the taster in the tongue, the seer in the eye, the hearer in the ear, and the thinker in the mind. The I moves thy hands and thy feet. The I is thy soul. Doubt in the existence of the soul is irreligious, and without discerning this truth there is no way of salvation. Deep speculation will easily involve the mind; it leads to confusion and unbelief; but a purification of the soul leads to the way of escape. True deliverance is reached by removing from the crowd and leading a hermit's life, depending entirely on alms for food. Putting away all desire and clearly recognizing the non‐existence of matter, we reach a state of perfect emptiness. Here we find the condition of immaterial life. As the munja grass when freed from its horny case, as a sword when drawn from its scabbard, or as the wild bird escaped from its prison, so the ego liberating itself from all limitations, finds perfect release. This is true deliverance, but those only who will have deep faith will learn."
"The sick man suffering from fever seeks for a cooling medicine. Shall we advise him to drink that which will increase the fever? Shall we quench a fire by heaping fuel upon it? "I pray thee, pity me not. Rather pity those who are burdened with the cares of royalty and the worry of great riches. They enjoy them in fear and trembling, for they are constantly threatened with a loss of those boons on whose possession their hearts are set, and when they die they cannot take along either their gold or the kingly diadem. "My heart hankers after no vulgar profit, so I have put away my royal inheritance and prefer to be free from the burdens of life. Therefore, try not to entangle me in new relationships and duties, nor hinder me from completing the work I have begun. I regret to leave thee. But I will go to the sages who can teach me religion and so find the path on which we can escape evil.
The Bodhisattva found no satisfaction in these teachings. He replied: "People are in bondage, because they have not yet removed the idea of the ego. The thing and its quality are different in our thought, but not in reality. Heat is different from fire in our thought, but you cannot remove heat from fire in reality. You say that you can remove the qualities and leave the thing, but if you think your theory to the end, you will find that this is not so.
"May thy country enjoy peace and prosperity, and may wisdom be shed upon thy rule like the brightness of the noon‐day sun. May thy royal power be strong and may righteousness be the scepter in thine hand." The king, clasping his hands with reverence, bowed down before Sakyamuni and said: "Mayest thou obtain that which thou seekest, and when thou hast obtained it, come back, I pray thee, and receive me as thy disciple." The Bodhisattva parted from the king in friendship and goodwill, and purposed in his heart to grant his request.
"Is not man an organism of many aggregates? Are we not composed of various attributes? Man consists of the material form, of sensation, of thought, of dispositions, and, lastly, of understanding. That which men call the ego when they say 'I am' is not an entity behind the attributes; it originates by their co‐operation. There is mind; there is sensation and thought, and there is truth; and truth is mind when it walks in the path of righteousness. But there is no separate ego‐soul outside or behind the thought of man. He who believes the ego is a distinct being has no correct conception. The very search for the atman is wrong; it is a wrong start and it will lead you in a false direction.
THE BODHISATTVA'S SEARCH ALARA and Uddaka were renowned as teachers among the Brahmans, and there was no one in those days who surpassed them in learning and philosophical knowledge. The Bodhisattva went to them and sat at their feet. He listened to their doctrines of the atman or self, which is the ego of the mind and the doer of all doings. He learned their views of the transmigration of souls and of the law of karma; how the souls of bad men had to suffer by being reborn in men of low caste, in animals, or in hell, while those who purified themselves by libation, by sacrifices, and by self‐mortification would become kings, or Brahmans, or devas, so as to rise higher and higher in the grades of existence. He studied their incantations and offerings and the methods by which they attained
"How much confusion of thought comes from our interest in self, and from our vanity when thinking 'I am so great,' or 'I have done this wonderful deed?' The thought of thine ego stands between thy rational nature and truth; banish it, and then wilt thou see things as they are. He who thinks correctly will rid himself of ignorance and acquire wisdom.
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The ideas 'I am' and 'I shall be' or 'I shall not be' do not occur to a clear thinker.
father of the I of today, and the karma of my past deeds affects the fate of my present existence.
"Moreover, if our ego remains, how can we attain true deliverance? If the ego is to be reborn in any of the three worlds, be it in hell, upon earth, or be it even in heaven, we shall meet again and again the same inevitable doom of sorrow. We shall remain chained to the wheel of individuality and shall be implicated in egotism and wrong. All combination is subject to separation, and we cannot escape birth, disease, old age, and death. Is this a final escape?"
"Supposing there were an atman that performs the actions of the senses then if the door of sight were torn down and the eye plucked out, that atman would be able to peep through the larger aperture and see the forms of its surroundings better and more clearly than before. It would be able to hear sounds better if the ears were torn away; smell better if the nose were cut off; taste better if the tongue were pulled out; and feel better if the body were destroyed.
Said Uddaka: "Consider the unity of things. Things are not their parts, yet they exist. The members and organs of thy body are not thine ego, but thine ego possesses all these parts. What, for instance, is the Ganges? Is the sand the Ganges? Is the water the Ganges? Is the hither bank the Ganges? Is the hither bank the Ganges? Is the farther bank the Ganges? The Ganges is a mighty river and it possesses all these several qualities. Exactly so is our ego."
"I observe the preservation and transmission of character; I perceive the truth of karma, but see no atman whom your doctrine makes the doer of your deeds. There is rebirth without the transmigration of a self. For this atman, this self, this ego in the 'I say' and in the 'I will' is an illusion. If this self were a reality, how could there be an escape from selfhood? The terror of hell would be infinite, and no release could be granted. The evils of existence would not be due to our ignorance and wrong‐doing, but would constitute the very nature of our being."
But the Bodhisattva replied: "Not so, sir! If we remove the water, the sand, the hither bank and the farther bank where can we find any Ganges? In the same way I observe the activities of man in their harmonious union, but there is no ground for an ego outside its parts."
Then the Bodhisattva went to the priests officiating in the temples. But the gentle mind of the Sakyamuni was offended at the unnecessary cruelty performed on the altars of the gods. He said: "Ignorance only can make these men prepare festivals and hold vast meetings for sacrifices. Far better to revere the truth than try to appease the gods by shedding blood. What love can a man possess who believes that the destruction of life will atone for evil deeds? Can a new wrong expiate old wrongs? And can the slaughter of an innocent victim blot out the evil deeds of mankind? This is practicing religion by the neglect of moral conduct. Purify your hearts and cease to kill; that is true religion. Rituals have no efficacy; prayers are vain repetitions; and incantations have no saving power. But to abandon covetousness and lust, to become free from evil passions, and to give up all hatred and ill‐will, that is the right sacrifice and the true worship."
The Brahman sage, however, insisted on the existence of the ego, saying: "The ego is the doer of our deeds. How can there be karma without a self as its performer? Do we not see around us the effects of karma? What makes men different in character, station, possessions, and fate? It is their karma, and karma includes merit and demerit. The transmigration of the soul is subject to its karma. We inherit from former existences the evil effects of our evil deeds and the good effects of our good deeds. If that were not so, how could we be different?' The Tathagata meditated deeply on the problems of transmigration and karma, and found the truth that lies in them. "The doctrine of karma, he said, is undeniable, but the theory of the ego has no foundation. Like everything else in nature, the life of man is subject to the law of cause and effect. The present reaps what the past has sown, and the future is the product of the present. But there is no evidence of the existence of an immutable ego‐being, of a self which remains the same and migrates from body to body. There is rebirth but no transmigration.
URUVELA, PLACE OF MORTIFICATION THE Bodhisattva went in search of a better system and came to a settlement of five bhikkhus in the jungle of Uruvela; and when the Blessed One saw the life of those five men, virtuously keeping in check their senses, subduing their passions, and practicing austere self‐ discipline, he admired their earnestness and joined their company. With holy zeal and a strong heart, the Sakyamuni gave himself up to meditative thought and a rigorous mortification of the body. Whereas the five bhikkhus were severe, the Sakyamuni was severer still, and so they revered him, their junior, as their master.
"Is not this individuality of mine a combination, material as well as mental? Is it not made up of qualities that sprang into being by a gradual evolution? The five roots of sense perception in this organism have come from ancestors who performed these functions. The ideas which I think, came to me partly from others who thought them, and partly they rise from combinations of the ideas in my own mind. Those who have used the same sense‐organs, and have thought the same ideas before I was composed into this individuality of mine, are my previous existences; they are my ancestors as much as the I of yesterday is the
So the Bodhisattva continued for six years patiently torturing himself and suppressing the wants of nature. He trained his body and exercised his mind in the modes of the most rigorous ascetic life. At last, he ate each day one
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THE Holy One directed his steps to that blessed Bodhitree beneath whose shade he was to accomplish his search. As he walked, the earth shook and a brilliant light transfigured the world. When he sat down the heavens resounded with joy and all living beings were filled with good cheer. Mara alone, lord of the five desires, bringer of death and enemy of truth, was grieved and rejoiced not. With his three daughters, Tanha, Raga and Arati, the tempters, and with his host of evil demons, he went to the place where the great samana sat. But Sakyamuni heeded him not. Mara uttered fear‐inspiring threats and raised a whirlwind so that the skies were darkened and the ocean roared and trembled.
hemp grain only, seeking to cross the ocean of birth and death and to arrive at the shore of deliverance. And when the Bodhisattva was ahungered, lo! Mara, the Evil One, approached him and said: "Thou art emaciated from fasts, and death is near. What good is thy exertion? Deign to live, and thou wilt be able to do good work." But the Sakyamuni made reply: "O thou friend of the indolent, thou wicked one; for what purpose hast thou come? Let the flesh waste away, if but the mind becomes more tranquil and attention more steadfast. What is life in this world? Death in battle is better to me than that I should live defeated." And Mara withdrew, saying: "For seven years I have followed the Blessed One step by step, but I have found no fault in the Tathagata."
But the Blessed One under the Bodhi‐tree remained calm and feared not. The Enlightened One knew that no harm could befall him.
The Bodhisattva was shrunken and attenuated, and his body was like a withered branch; but the fame of his holiness spread in the surrounding countries, and people came from great distances to see him and receive his blessing. However, the Holy One was not satisfied. Seeking true wisdom he did not find it, and he came to the conclusion that mortification would not extinguish desire nor afford enlightenment in ecstatic contemplation.
The three daughters of Mara tempted the Bodhisattva, but he paid no attention to them, and when Mara saw that he could kindle no desire in the heart of the victorious samana, he ordered all the evil spirits at his command to attack him and overawe the great muni. But the Blessed One watched them as one would watch the harmless games of children. All the fierce hatred of the evil spirits was of no avail. The flames of hell became wholesome breezes of perfume, and the angry thunderbolts were changed into lotus‐blossoms.
Seated beneath a jambu‐tree, he considered the state of his mind and the fruits of his mortification. His body had become weaker, nor had his fasts advanced him in his search for salvation, and therefore when he saw that it was not the right path, he proposed to abandon it. He went to bathe in the Neranjara River, but when he strove to leave the water he could not rise on account of his weakness. Then espying the branch of a tree and taking hold of it, he raised himself and left the stream. But while returning to his abode, he staggered and lay as though dead.
When Mara saw this, he fled away with his army from the Bodhi‐tree, whilst from above a rain of heavenly flowers fell, and voices of good spirits were heard: "Behold the great muni! his heart unmoved by hatred. The wicked Mara's host 'gainst him did not prevail. Pure is he and wise, loving and full of mercy. As the rays of the sun drown the darkness of the world, so he who perseveres in his search will find the truth and the truth will enlighten him." ENLIGHTENMENT
There was a chief herdsman living near the grove whose eldest daughter was called Nanda; and Nanda happened to pass by the spot where the Blessed One had swooned, and bowing down before him she offered him rice‐milk and he accepted the gift. When he had partaken of the rice‐milk all his limbs were refreshed, his mind became clear again, and he was strong to receive the highest enlightenment.
THE Bodhisattva, having put Mara to flight, gave himself up to meditation. All the miseries of the world, the evils produced by evil deeds and the sufferings arising therefrom, passed before his mental eye, and he thought: "Surely if living creatures saw the results of all their evil deeds, they would turn away from them in disgust. But selfhood blinds them, and they cling to their obnoxious desires. They crave pleasure for themselves and they cause pain to others; when death destroys their individuality, they find no peace; their thirst for existence abides and their selfhood reappears in new births. Thus they continue to move in the coil and can find no escape from the hell of their own making. And how empty are their pleasures, how vain are their endeavors! Hollow like the plantain‐tree and without contents like the bubble. The world is full of evil and sorrow, because it is full of lust. Men go astray because they think that delusion is better than truth. Rather than truth they follow error, which is pleasant to look at in the beginning but in the end causes anxiety, tribulation, and misery."
After this occurrence, the Bodhisattva again took some food. His disciples, having witnessed the scene of Nanda and observing the change in his mode of living, were filled with suspicion. They feared that Siddhattha's religious zeal was flagging and that he whom they had hitherto revered as their Master had become oblivious of his high purpose. When the Bodhisattva saw the bhikkhus turning away from him, he felt sorry for their lack of confidence, and was aware of the loneliness of his life. Suppressing his grief he wandered on alone, and his disciples said, "Siddhattha leaves us to seek a more pleasant abode." MARA, THE EVIL ONE
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"Through many births I sought in vain The Builder of this House of Pain. Now, Builder, You are plain to see, And from this House at last I'm free; I burst the rafters, roof and wall, And dwell in the Peace beyond them all."
And the Bodhisattva began to expound the Dharma. The Dharma is the truth. The Dharma is the sacred law. The Dharma is religion. The Dharma alone can deliver us from error, from wrong and from sorrow. Pondering on the origin of birth and death, the Enlightened One recognized that ignorance was the root of all evil; and these are the links in the development of life, called the twelve nidanas: In the beginning there is existence blind and without knowledge; and in this sea of ignorance there are stirrings formative and organizing. From stirrings, formative and organizing, rises awareness or feelings. Feelings beget organisms that live as individual beings. These organisms develop the six fields, that is, the five senses and the mind. The six fields come in contact with things. Contact begets sensation. Sensation creates the thirst of individualized being. The thirst of being creates a cleaving to things. The cleaving produces the growth and continuation of selfhood. Selfhood continues in renewed birth. The renewed births of selfhood are the causes of sufferings, old age, sickness, and death. They produce lamentation, anxiety, and despair.
There is self and there is truth. Where self is, truth is not. Where truth is, self is not. Self is the fleeting error of samsara; it is individual separateness and that egotism which begets envy and hatred. Self is the yearning for pleasure and the lust after vanity. Truth is the correct comprehension of things; it is the permanent and everlasting, the real in all existence, the bliss of righteousness. The existence of self is an illusion, and here is no wrong in this world, no vice, no evil, except what flows from the assertion of self. The attainment of truth is possible only when self is recognized as an illusion. Righteousness can be practiced only when we have freed our mind from passions of egotism. Perfect peace can dwell only where all vanity has disappeared.
The cause of all sorrow lies at the very beginning; it is hidden in the ignorance from which life grows. Remove ignorance and you will destroy the wrong desires that rise from ignorance; destroy these desires and you will wipe out the wrong perception that rises from them. Destroy wrong perception and there is an end of errors in individualized beings. Destroy the errors in individualized beings and the illusions of the six fields will disappear. Destroy illusions and the contact with things will cease to beget misconception. Destroy misconception and you do away with thirst. Destroy thirst and you will be free of all morbid cleaving. Remove the cleaving and you destroy the selfishness of selfhood. If the selfishness of selfhood is destroyed you will be above birth, old age, disease, and death, and you will escape all suffering.
Blessed is he who has understood the Dharma. Blessed is he who does no harm to his fellow‐beings. Blessed is he who overcomes wrong and is free from passion. To the highest bliss has he attained who has conquered all selfishness and vanity. He has become the Buddha, the Perfect One. THE FIRST CONVERTS THE Blessed One tarried in solitude seven times seven days, enjoying the bliss of emancipation. At that time Tapussa and Bhallika, two merchants, came traveling on the road near by, and when they saw the great samana, majestic and full of peace, they approached him respectfully and offered him rice cakes and honey. This was the first food that the Enlightened One ate after he attained Buddhahood.
The Enlightened One saw the four noble truths which point out the path that leads to Nirvana or the extinction of self: The first noble truth is the existence of sorrow. The second noble truth is the cause of suffering. The third noble truth is the cessation of sorrow. The fourth noble truth is the eightfold path that leads to the cessation of sorrow.
And the Buddha addressed them and pointed out to them the way of salvation. The two merchants, seeing the holiness of the conqueror of Mara, bowed down in reverence and said: "We take our refuge, Lord, in the Blessed One and in the Dharma." Tapussa and Bhallika were the first that became followers of the Buddha and they were lay disciples.
This is the Dharma. This is the truth. This is religion. And the Enlightened One uttered this stanza:
Sacred Texts: Buddhist scripture and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism emphasize different texts and their relative importance. No single central text is universally referred to by all traditions. The Pali Tipitaka and Mahayana Sutras are supported by significant numbers of Buddhists, though the size and complexity of the canon is remarkable.
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The Dhammacakkappavattan Sutta (“ Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion”) is traditionally the Buddha’s first discourse after he attained enlightenment. In it he teaches about the “Middle Way”, “The Noble Eightfold Path”, and the “Four Noble Truths” of Buddhism. DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANA SUTTA (Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion) translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu © 1993–2012 I have heard that on one occasion the Blessed One was staying at Varanasi in the Game Refuge at Isipatana. There he addressed the group of five monks: "There are these two extremes that are not to be indulged in by one who has gone forth. Which two? That which is devoted to sensual pleasure with reference to sensual objects: base, vulgar, common, ignoble, unprofitable; and that which is devoted to self‐affliction: painful, ignoble, unprofitable. Avoiding both of these extremes, the middle way realized by the Tathagata — producing vision, producing knowledge — leads to calm, to direct knowledge, to self‐awakening, to Unbinding. "And what is the middle way realized by the Tathagata that — producing vision, producing knowledge — leads to calm, to direct knowledge, to self‐awakening, to Unbinding? Precisely this Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. This is the middle way realized by the Tathagata that — producing vision, producing knowledge — leads to calm, to direct knowledge, to self‐awakening, to Unbinding. "Now this, monks, is the noble truth of stress: Birth is stressful, aging is stressful, death is stressful; sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair are stressful; association with the unbeloved is stressful, separation from the loved is stressful, not getting what is wanted is stressful. In short, the five clinging‐aggregates are stressful. "And this, monks, is the noble truth of the origination of stress: the craving that makes for further becoming — accompanied by passion & delight, relishing now here & now there — i.e., craving for sensual pleasure, craving for becoming, craving for non‐ becoming. "And this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of stress: the remainderless fading & cessation, renunciation, relinquishment, release, & letting go of that very craving. "And this, monks, is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress: precisely this Noble Eightfold Path — right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. "Vision arose, insight arose, discernment arose, knowledge arose, illumination arose within me with regard to things never heard before: 'This is the noble truth of stress.' Vision arose, insight arose, discernment arose, knowledge arose, illumination arose within me with regard to things never heard before: 'This noble truth of stress is to be comprehended.' Vision arose, insight arose, discernment arose, knowledge arose, illumination arose within me with regard to things never heard before:' This noble truth of stress has been comprehended.' "Vision arose, insight arose, discernment arose, knowledge arose, illumination arose within me with regard to things never heard before: 'This is the noble truth of the origination of stress'... 'This noble truth of the origination of stress is to be abandoned' ... 'This noble truth of the origination of stress has been abandoned.' "Vision arose, insight arose, discernment arose, knowledge arose, illumination arose within me with regard to things never heard before: 'This is the noble truth of the cessation of stress'... 'This noble truth of the cessation of stress is to be directly experienced'... 'This noble truth of the cessation of stress has been directly experienced.' "Vision arose, insight arose, discernment arose, knowledge arose, illumination arose within me with regard to things never heard before: 'This is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress'... 'This noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress is to be developed'... 'This noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress has been developed.'
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"And, monks, as long as this — my three‐round, twelve‐permutation knowledge & vision concerning these four noble truths as they have come to be — was not pure, I did not claim to have directly awakened to the right self‐awakening unexcelled in the cosmos with its deities, Maras, & Brahmas, with its contemplatives & brahmans, its royalty & commonfolk. But as soon as this — my three‐round, twelve‐permutation knowledge & vision concerning these four noble truths as they have come to be — was truly pure, then I did claim to have directly awakened to the right self‐awakening unexcelled in the cosmos with its deities, Maras & Brahmas, with its contemplatives & brahmans, its royalty & commonfolk. Knowledge & vision arose in me: 'Unprovoked is my release. This is the last birth. There is now no further becoming.'" That is what the Blessed One said. Gratified, the group of five monks delighted at his words. And while this explanation was being given, there arose to Ven. Kondañña the dustless, stainless Dhamma eye: Whatever is subject to origination is all subject to cessation. And when the Blessed One had set the Wheel of Dhamma in motion, the earth devas cried out: "At Varanasi, in the Game Refuge at Isipatana, the Blessed One has set in motion the unexcelled Wheel of Dhamma that cannot be stopped by brahman or contemplative, deva, Mara or God or anyone in the cosmos." On hearing the earth devas' cry, the devas of the Four Kings' Heaven took up the cry... the devas of the Thirty‐three... the Yama devas... the Tusita devas... the Nimmanarati devas... the Paranimmita‐vasavatti devas... the devas of Brahma's retinue took up the cry: "At Varanasi, in the Game Refuge at Isipatana, the Blessed One has set in motion the unexcelled Wheel of Dhamma that cannot be stopped by brahman or contemplative, deva, Mara, or God or anyone at all in the cosmos." So in that moment, that instant, the cry shot right up to the Brahma worlds. And this ten‐thousand fold cosmos shivered & quivered & quaked, while a great, measureless radiance appeared in the cosmos, surpassing the effulgence of the devas. Then the Blessed One exclaimed: "So you really know, Kondañña? So you really know?" And that is how Ven. Kondañña acquired the name Añña‐Kondañña — Kondañña who knows.
The Dhammapada (“The Words of the Teaching”) is a collection of short, easily memorized verses of Buddha’s teaching. From Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 10: The Dhammapada and the Sutta Nipata, by Max Müller and Max Fausböll, [1881]: DHAMMAPADA CHAPTER I. THE TWIN‐VERSES. 1. All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, pain follows him, as the wheel follows the foot of the ox that draws the carriage.
5. For hatred does not cease by hatred at any time: hatred ceases by love, this is an old rule. 6. The world does not know that we must all come to an end here;‐‐but those who know it, their quarrels cease at once.
2. All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with a pure thought, happiness follows him, like a shadow that never leaves him.
7. He who lives looking for pleasures only, his senses uncontrolled, immoderate in his food, idle, and weak, Mâra (the tempter) will certainly overthrow him, as the wind throws down a weak tree.
3. 'He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me,'‐‐in those who harbour such thoughts hatred will never cease.
8. He who lives without looking for pleasures, his senses well controlled, moderate in his food, faithful and strong, him Mâra will certainly not overthrow, any more than the wind throws down a rocky mountain.
4. 'He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me,'‐‐in those who do not harbour such thoughts hatred will cease.
9. He who wishes to put on the yellow dress without having cleansed himself from sin, who disregards temperance and truth, is unworthy of the yellow dress.
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10. But he who has cleansed himself from sin, is well grounded in all virtues, and regards also temperance and truth, he is indeed worthy of the yellow dress.
17. The evil‐doer suffers in this world, and he suffers in the next; he suffers in both. He suffers when he thinks of the evil he has done; he suffers more when going on the evil path.
11. They who imagine truth in untruth, and see untruth in truth, never arrive at truth, but follow vain desires.
18. The virtuous man is happy in this world, and he is happy in the next; he is happy in both. He is happy when he thinks of the good he has done; he is still more happy when going on the good path.
12. They who know truth in truth, and untruth in untruth, arrive at truth, and follow true desires. 13. As rain breaks through an ill‐thatched house, passion will break through an unreflecting mind.
19. The thoughtless man, even if he can recite a large portion (of the law), but is not a doer of it, has no share in the priesthood, but is like a cowherd counting the cows of others.
14. As rain does not break through a well‐thatched house, passion will not break through a well‐reflecting mind.
20. The follower of the law, even if he can recite only a small portion (of the law), but, having forsaken passion and hatred and foolishness, possesses true knowledge and serenity of mind, he, caring for nothing in this world or that to come, has indeed a share in the priesthood.
15. The evil‐doer mourns in this world, and he mourns in the next; he mourns in both. He mourns and suffers when he sees the evil of his own work. 16. The virtuous man delights in this world, and he delights in the next; he delights in both. He delights and rejoices, when he sees the purity of his own work.
Recent Messages from Current Leadership: The 14th Dalai Lama (Tenzin Gyatso) is the longest lived incumbent to the office of Dalai Lama. Of Tibetan origin, he is one of the most visible and active leaders in Buddhism. A charismatic speaker, he has traveled the world, teaching Tibetan Buddhism and advocating the importance of compassion as the source of a happy life.
STATEMENT BY HIS HOLINESS THE DALAI LAMA ON THE NEW MILLENIUM January 1, 2001 Many people seem to be excited about the new millennium, but the new millennium in itself will be nothing special. As we enter into the new millennium things will be the same; there will be nothing unusual. However, if we really want the next
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millennium to be happier, more peaceful and more harmonious for humankind we will have to make the effort to make it so. This is in our hands, but especially in the hands of the younger generation. We have had many experiences during this century—constructive as well as extremely destructive ones. We must learn from these experiences. We need to approach the next millennium more holistically, with more openness and farsightedness. If we are going to make the right kind of efforts to make the future of the world better, I believe the following matters are of great importance. 1.
While engaging in material progress and taking care of physical well‐being we need to pay equal attention to developing peace of mind and thus taking care of the internal aspect of our being.
2.
Along with education, which generally deals only with academic accomplishments, we need to develop more altruism and a sense of caring and responsibility for others in the minds of the younger generation studying in various educational institutions. This can be done without necessarily involving religion. One could therefore call this 'secular ethics', as it in fact consists of basic human qualities such as kindness, compassion, sincerity and honesty.
3.
This past century in some ways has been a century of war and bloodshed. It has seen a year‐by‐year increase in defense spending by most countries in the world. If we are to change this trend we must seriously consider the concept of non‐violence, which is a physical expression of compassion. In order to make non‐violence a reality we must first work on internal disarmament and then proceed to work on external disarmament. By internal disarmament I mean ridding ourselves of all the negative emotions that result in violence. External disarmament will also have to be done gradually, step by step. We must first work on the total abolishment of nuclear weapons and gradually work up to total demilitarization throughout the world. In the process of doing this we also need to work towards stopping the arms trade, which is still very widely practiced because it is so lucrative. When we do all these things, we can then hope to see in the next millennium a year‐by‐year decrease in the military expenditure of the various nations and a gradual working towards demilitarization. Human problems will, of course, always remain, but the way to resolve them should be through dialogue and discussion. The next century should be a century of dialogue and discussion rather than one of war and bloodshed.
4.
We need to address the issue of the gap between the rich and the poor, both globally and nationally. This inequality, with some sections of the human community having abundance and others on the same planet going hungry or even dying of starvation, is not only morally wrong, but practically also a source of problems. Equally important is the issue of freedom. As long as there is no freedom in many parts of the world there can be no real peace and in a sense no real freedom for the rest of the world.
5.
For the sake of our future generations, we need to take care of our earth and of our environment. Environmental damage is often gradual and not easily apparent and by the time we become aware of it, it is generally too late. Since most of the major rivers flowing into many parts of south‐east Asia originate from the Tibetan plateau, it will not be out of place to mention here the crucial importance of taking care of the environment in that area.
6.
Lastly, one of the greatest challenges today is the population explosion. Unless we are able to tackle this issue effectively we will be confronted with the problem of the natural resources being inadequate for all the human beings on this earth. We need to seriously look into these matters that concern us all if we are to look forward to the future with some hope.
Words to Know: samsara nirvana dharma bodhisattva emptiness karma mantra samgha
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Christianity Christianity claims more adherents than any other religion and is the dominant tradition among diverse peoples. It has remarkably various manifestations, in distinct groupings and specific styles. Most of the world operates on a dating system that is centered around the birth of Jesus: B.C. (before Christ) and A.D. (anno Domini). Brief History: Accepts the biblical history from Adam to Jesus Christ. The birth, life, and death of Jesus Christ mark the beginnings of Christianity. It rapidly expanded across the Roman Empire, despite persecution and lack of central controls. In the 2nd century C.E. Christianity defined itself. When Constantine pronounced it the official religion, its long period of political and cultural influence began. Estimated Adherents: 2 billion Significant Groupings: Orthodox Roman Catholic Protestant Founder’s Story: Founder: Jesus Christ From the King James Version of Matthew CHAPTER 1 1 The book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham.
8 And Asa begat Josaphat; and Josaphat begat Joram; and Joram begat Ozias; 9 And Ozias begat Joatham; and Joatham begat Achaz; and Achaz begat Ezekias;
2 Abraham begat Isaac; and Isaac begat Jacob; and Jacob begat Judas and his brethren;
10 And Ezekias begat Manasses; and Manasses begat Amon; and Amon begat Josias;
3 And Judas begat Phares and Zara of Thamar; and Phares begat Esrom; and Esrom begat Aram;
11 And Josias begat Jechonias and his brethren, about the time they were carried away to Babylon:
4 And Aram begat Aminadab; and Aminadab begat Naasson; and Naasson begat Salmon;
12 And after they were brought to Babylon, Jechonias begat Salathiel; and Salathiel begat Zorobabel;
5 And Salmon begat Booz of Rachab; and Booz begat Obed of Ruth; and Obed begat Jesse;
13 And Zorobabel begat Abiud; and Abiud begat Eliakim; and Eliakim begat Azor;
6 And Jesse begat David the king; and David the king begat Solomon of her that had been the wife of Urias;
14 And Azor begat Sadoc; and Sadoc begat Achim; and Achim begat Eliud;
7 And Solomon begat Roboam; and Roboam begat Abia; and Abia begat Asa;
15 And Eliud begat Eleazar; and Eleazar begat Matthan; and Matthan begat Jacob;
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16 And Jacob begat Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, who is called Christ.
8 And he sent them to Bethlehem, and said, Go and search diligently for the young child; and when ye have found him, bring me word again, that I may come and worship him also.
17 So all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations; and from David until the carrying away into Babylon are fourteen generations; and from the carrying away into Babylon unto Christ are fourteen generations.
9 When they had heard the king, they departed; and, lo, the star, which they saw in the east, went before them, till it came and stood over where the young child was.
18 Now the birth of Jesus Christ was on this wise: When as his mother Mary was espoused to Joseph, before they came together, she was found with child of the Holy Ghost.
10 When they saw the star, they rejoiced with exceeding great joy. 11 And when they were come into the house, they saw the young child with Mary his mother, and fell down, and worshipped him: and when they had opened their treasures, they presented unto him gifts; gold, and frankincense and myrrh.
19 Then Joseph her husband, being a just man, and not willing to make her a publick example, was minded to put her away privily. 20 But while he thought on these things, behold, the angel of the LORD appeared unto him in a dream, saying, Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife: for that which is conceived in her is of the Holy Ghost.
12 And being warned of God in a dream that they should not return to Herod, they departed into their own country another way. 13 And when they were departed, behold, the angel of the Lord appeareth to Joseph in a dream, saying, Arise, and take the young child and his mother, and flee into Egypt, and be thou there until I bring thee word: for Herod will seek the young child to destroy him.
21 And she shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt call his name JESUS: for he shall save his people from their sins. 22 Now all this was done, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying,
14 When he arose, he took the young child and his mother by night, and departed into Egypt:
23 Behold, a virgin shall be with child, and shall bring forth a son, and they shall call his name Emmanuel, which being interpreted is, God with us.
15 And was there until the death of Herod: that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying, Out of Egypt have I called my son.
24 Then Joseph being raised from sleep did as the angel of the Lord had bidden him, and took unto him his wife:
16 Then Herod, when he saw that he was mocked of the wise men, was exceeding wroth, and sent forth, and slew all the children that were in Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, from two years old and under, according to the time which he had diligently enquired of the wise men.
25 And knew her not till she had brought forth her firstborn son: and he called his name JESUS. CHAPTER 2 1 Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem,
17 Then was fulfilled that which was spoken by Jeremy the prophet, saying,
2 Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him.
18 In Rama was there a voice heard, lamentation, and weeping, and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children, and would not be comforted, because they are not.
3 When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him.
19 But when Herod was dead, behold, an angel of the Lord appeareth in a dream to Joseph in Egypt,
4 And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born.
20 Saying, Arise, and take the young child and his mother, and go into the land of Israel: for they are dead which sought the young child's life.
5 And they said unto him, In Bethlehem of Judaea: for thus it is written by the prophet,
21 And he arose, and took the young child and his mother, and came into the land of Israel.
6 And thou Bethlehem, in the land of Juda, art not the least among the princes of Juda: for out of thee shall come a Governor, that shall rule my people Israel.
22 But when he heard that Archelaus did reign in Judaea in the room of his father Herod, he was afraid to go thither: notwithstanding, being warned of God in a dream, he turned aside into the parts of Galilee:
7 Then Herod, when he had privily called the wise men, enquired of them diligently what time the star appeared.
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23 And he came and dwelt in a city called Nazareth: that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophets, He shall be called a Nazarene.
CHAPTER 4 1 Then was Jesus led up of the spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil.
CHAPTER 3 1 In those days came John the Baptist, preaching in the wilderness of Judaea,
2 And when he had fasted forty days and forty nights, he was afterward an hungred.
2 And saying, Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.
3 And when the tempter came to him, he said, If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread.
3 For this is he that was spoken of by the prophet Esaias, saying, The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.
4 But he answered and said, It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God.
4 And the same John had his raiment of camel's hair, and a leathern girdle about his loins; and his meat was locusts and wild honey.
5 Then the devil taketh him up into the holy city, and setteth him on a pinnacle of the temple, 6 And saith unto him, If thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down: for it is written, He shall give his angels charge concerning thee: and in their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a stone.
5 Then went out to him Jerusalem, and all Judaea, and all the region round about Jordan, 6 And were baptized of him in Jordan, confessing their sins.
7 Jesus said unto him, It is written again, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God.
7 But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees come to his baptism, he said unto them, O generation of vipers, who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come?
8 Again, the devil taketh him up into an exceeding high mountain, and sheweth him all the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of them;
8 Bring forth therefore fruits meet for repentance:
9 And saith unto him, All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and worship me.
9 And think not to say within yourselves, We have Abraham to our father: for I say unto you, that God is able of these stones to raise up children unto Abraham.
10 Then saith Jesus unto him, Get thee hence, Satan: for it is written, Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve.
10 And now also the axe is laid unto the root of the trees: therefore every tree which bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fire.
11 Then the devil leaveth him, and, behold, angels came and ministered unto him.
11 I indeed baptize you with water unto repentance. but he that cometh after me is mightier than I, whose shoes I am not worthy to bear: he shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost, and with fire:
12 Now when Jesus had heard that John was cast into prison, he departed into Galilee; 13 And leaving Nazareth, he came and dwelt in Capernaum, which is upon the sea coast, in the borders of Zabulon and Nephthalim:
12 Whose fan is in his hand, and he will throughly purge his floor, and gather his wheat into the garner; but he will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire.
14 That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by Esaias the prophet, saying,
13 Then cometh Jesus from Galilee to Jordan unto John, to be baptized of him.
15 The land of Zabulon, and the land of Nephthalim, by the way of the sea, beyond Jordan, Galilee of the Gentiles;
14 But John forbad him, saying, I have need to be baptized of thee, and comest thou to me?
16 The people which sat in darkness saw great light; and to them which sat in the region and shadow of death light is sprung up.
15 And Jesus answering said unto him, Suffer it to be so now: for thus it becometh us to fulfil all righteousness. Then he suffered him.
17 From that time Jesus began to preach, and to say, Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.
16 And Jesus, when he was baptized, went up straightway out of the water: and, lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove, and lighting upon him:
18 And Jesus, walking by the sea of Galilee, saw two brethren, Simon called Peter, and Andrew his brother, casting a net into the sea: for they were fishers.
17 And lo a voice from heaven, saying, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased.
19 And he saith unto them, Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men.
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12 And when he was accused of the chief priests and elders, he answered nothing.
20 And they straightway left their nets, and followed him. 21 And going on from thence, he saw other two brethren, James the son of Zebedee, and John his brother, in a ship with Zebedee their father, mending their nets; and he called them.
13 Then said Pilate unto him, Hearest thou not how many things they witness against thee? 14 And he answered him to never a word; insomuch that the governor marvelled greatly.
22 And they immediately left the ship and their father, and followed him.
15 Now at that feast the governor was wont to release unto the people a prisoner, whom they would.
23 And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing all manner of sickness and all manner of disease among the people.
16 And they had then a notable prisoner, called Barabbas. 17 Therefore when they were gathered together, Pilate said unto them, Whom will ye that I release unto you? Barabbas, or Jesus which is called Christ?
24 And his fame went throughout all Syria: and they brought unto him all sick people that were taken with divers diseases and torments, and those which were possessed with devils, and those which were lunatick, and those that had the palsy; and he healed them.
18 For he knew that for envy they had delivered him. 19 When he was set down on the judgment seat, his wife sent unto him, saying, Have thou nothing to do with that just man: for I have suffered many things this day in a dream because of him.
25 And there followed him great multitudes of people from Galilee, and from Decapolis, and from Jerusalem, and from Judaea, and from beyond Jordan.
20 But the chief priests and elders persuaded the multitude that they should ask Barabbas, and destroy Jesus.
CHAPTER 27 1 When the morning was come, all the chief priests and elders of the people took counsel against Jesus to put him to death:
21 The governor answered and said unto them, Whether of the twain will ye that I release unto you? They said, Barabbas.
2 And when they had bound him, they led him away, and delivered him to Pontius Pilate the governor.
22 Pilate saith unto them, What shall I do then with Jesus which is called Christ? They all say unto him, Let him be crucified.
3 Then Judas, which had betrayed him, when he saw that he was condemned, repented himself, and brought again the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests and elders,
23 And the governor said, Why, what evil hath he done? But they cried out the more, saying, Let him be crucified.
4 Saying, I have sinned in that I have betrayed the innocent blood. And they said, What is that to us? see thou to that.
24 When Pilate saw that he could prevail nothing, but that rather a tumult was made, he took water, and washed his hands before the multitude, saying, I am innocent of the blood of this just person: see ye to it.
5 And he cast down the pieces of silver in the temple, and departed, and went and hanged himself.
25 Then answered all the people, and said, His blood be on us, and on our children.
6 And the chief priests took the silver pieces, and said, It is not lawful for to put them into the treasury, because it is the price of blood.
26 Then released he Barabbas unto them: and when he had scourged Jesus, he delivered him to be crucified.
7 And they took counsel, and bought with them the potter's field, to bury strangers in.
27 Then the soldiers of the governor took Jesus into the common hall, and gathered unto him the whole band of soldiers.
8 Wherefore that field was called, The field of blood, unto this day.
28 And they stripped him, and put on him a scarlet robe.
9 Then was fulfilled that which was spoken by Jeremy the prophet, saying, And they took the thirty pieces of silver, the price of him that was valued, whom they of the children of Israel did value;
29 And when they had platted a crown of thorns, they put it upon his head, and a reed in his right hand: and they bowed the knee before him, and mocked him, saying, Hail, King of the Jews!
10 And gave them for the potter's field, as the Lord appointed me.
30 And they spit upon him, and took the reed, and smote him on the head.
11 And Jesus stood before the governor: and the governor asked him, saying, Art thou the King of the Jews? And Jesus said unto him, Thou sayest.
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31 And after that they had mocked him, they took the robe off from him, and put his own raiment on him, and led him away to crucify him.
51 And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom; and the earth did quake, and the rocks rent;
32 And as they came out, they found a man of Cyrene, Simon by name: him they compelled to bear his cross.
52 And the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints which slept arose,
33 And when they were come unto a place called Golgotha, that is to say, a place of a skull,
53 And came out of the graves after his resurrection, and went into the holy city, and appeared unto many.
34 They gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall: and when he had tasted thereof, he would not drink.
54 Now when the centurion, and they that were with him, watching Jesus, saw the earthquake, and those things that were done, they feared greatly, saying, Truly this was the Son of God.
35 And they crucified him, and parted his garments, casting lots: that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet, They parted my garments among them, and upon my vesture did they cast lots.
55 And many women were there beholding afar off, which followed Jesus from Galilee, ministering unto him:
36 And sitting down they watched him there;
56 Among which was Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James and Joses, and the mother of Zebedees children.
37 And set up over his head his accusation written, THIS IS JESUS THE KING OF THE JEWS.
57 When the even was come, there came a rich man of Arimathaea, named Joseph, who also himself was Jesus' disciple:
38 Then were there two thieves crucified with him, one on the right hand, and another on the left. 39 And they that passed by reviled him, wagging their heads,
58 He went to Pilate, and begged the body of Jesus. Then Pilate commanded the body to be delivered.
40 And saying, Thou that destroyest the temple, and buildest it in three days, save thyself. If thou be the Son of God, come down from the cross.
59 And when Joseph had taken the body, he wrapped it in a clean linen cloth,
41 Likewise also the chief priests mocking him, with the scribes and elders, said,
60 And laid it in his own new tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock: and he rolled a great stone to the door of the sepulchre, and departed.
42 He saved others; himself he cannot save. If he be the King of Israel, let him now come down from the cross, and we will believe him.
61 And there was Mary Magdalene, and the other Mary, sitting over against the sepulchre.
43 He trusted in God; let him deliver him now, if he will have him: for he said, I am the Son of God.
62 Now the next day, that followed the day of the preparation, the chief priests and Pharisees came together unto Pilate,
44 The thieves also, which were crucified with him, cast the same in his teeth.
63 Saying, Sir, we remember that that deceiver said, while he was yet alive, After three days I will rise again.
45 Now from the sixth hour there was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour.
64 Command therefore that the sepulchre be made sure until the third day, lest his disciples come by night, and steal him away, and say unto the people, He is risen from the dead: so the last error shall be worse than the first.
46 And about the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani? that is to say, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?
65 Pilate said unto them, Ye have a watch: go your way, make it as sure as ye can.
47 Some of them that stood there, when they heard that, said, This man calleth for Elias.
66 So they went, and made the sepulchre sure, sealing the stone, and setting a watch.
48 And straightway one of them ran, and took a spunge, and filled it with vinegar, and put it on a reed, and gave him to drink.
CHAPTER 28 1 In the end of the sabbath, as it began to dawn toward the first day of the week, came Mary Magdalene and the other Mary to see the sepulchre.
49 The rest said, Let be, let us see whether Elias will come to save him. 50 Jesus, when he had cried again with a loud voice, yielded up the ghost.
2 And, behold, there was a great earthquake: for the angel of the Lord descended from heaven, and came and rolled back the stone from the door, and sat upon it.
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3 His countenance was like lightning, and his raiment white as snow:
12 And when they were assembled with the elders, and had taken counsel, they gave large money unto the soldiers,
4 And for fear of him the keepers did shake, and became as dead men.
13 Saying, Say ye, His disciples came by night, and stole him away while we slept.
5 And the angel answered and said unto the women, Fear not ye: for I know that ye seek Jesus, which was crucified.
14 And if this come to the governor's ears, we will persuade him, and secure you.
6 He is not here: for he is risen, as he said. Come, see the place where the Lord lay.
15 So they took the money, and did as they were taught: and this saying is commonly reported among the Jews until this day.
7 And go quickly, and tell his disciples that he is risen from the dead; and, behold, he goeth before you into Galilee; there shall ye see him: lo, I have told you.
16 Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a mountain where Jesus had appointed them.
8 And they departed quickly from the sepulchre with fear and great joy; and did run to bring his disciples word.
17 And when they saw him, they worshipped him: but some doubted.
9 And as they went to tell his disciples, behold, Jesus met them, saying, All hail. And they came and held him by the feet, and worshipped him.
18 And Jesus came and spake unto them, saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth.
10 Then said Jesus unto them, Be not afraid: go tell my brethren that they go into Galilee, and there shall they see me.
19 Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost:
11 Now when they were going, behold, some of the watch came into the city, and shewed unto the chief priests all the things that were done.
20 Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world. Amen.
Basic Beliefs: Doctrine occupies a central place in Christianity. Christian belief is expressed formally by creeds and doctrines that have developed over time in response to internal conflict. Although all Christians emphasize belief, there is no common assent for any single creed. Apostles Creed: rudimentary statements of belief developed in the New Testament
(Catholic Church translation) 1. I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth. 2. I believe in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord. 3. He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. 4. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried. 5. He descended to the dead. On the third day he rose again. 6. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. 7. He will come again to judge the living and the dead. 8. I believe in the Holy Spirit, 9. the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints, 10. the forgiveness of sins, 11. the resurrection of the body, 12. and life everlasting. Amen.
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Athanasian Creed Whosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the catholic faith. Which faith except every one do keep whole and undefiled; without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. And the catholic faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Persons; nor dividing the Essence. For there is one Person of the Father; another of the Son; and another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty coeternal. Such as the Father is; such is the Son; and such is the Holy Ghost. The Father uncreated; the Son uncreated; and the Holy Ghost uncreated. The Father unlimited; the Son unlimited; and the Holy Ghost unlimited. The Father eternal; the Son eternal; and the Holy Ghost eternal. And yet they are not three eternals; but one eternal. As also there are not three uncreated; nor three infinites, but one uncreated; and one infinite. So likewise the Father is Almighty; the Son Almighty; and the Holy Ghost Almighty. And yet they are not three Almighties; but one Almighty. So the Father is God; the Son is God; and the Holy Ghost is God. And yet they are not three Gods; but one God. So likewise the Father is Lord; the Son Lord; and the Holy Ghost Lord. And yet not three Lords; but one Lord. For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity; to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord; So are we forbidden by the catholic religion; to say, There are three Gods, or three Lords. The Father is made of none; neither created, nor begotten. The Son is of the Father alone; not made, nor created; but begotten. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son; neither made, nor created, nor begotten; but proceeding. So there is one Father, not three Fathers; one Son, not three Sons; one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts. And in this Trinity none is before, or after another; none is greater, or less than another. But the whole three Persons are coeternal, and coequal. So that in all things, as aforesaid; the Unity in Trinity, and the Trinity in Unity, is to be worshipped. He therefore that will be saved, let him thus think of the Trinity. Furthermore it is necessary to everlasting salvation; that he also believe faithfully the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. For the right Faith is, that we believe and confess; that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and Man; God, of the Essence of the Father; begotten before the worlds; and Man, of the Essence of his Mother, born in the world. Perfect God; and perfect Man, of a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting. Equal to the Father, as touching his Godhead; and inferior to the Father as touching his Manhood. Who although he is God and Man; yet he is not two, but one Christ. One; not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh; but by assumption of the Manhood by God. One altogether; not by confusion of Essence; but by unity of Person. For as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man; so God and Man is one Christ; Who suffered for our salvation; descended into hell; rose again the third day from the dead. He ascended into heaven, he sitteth on the right hand of the God the Father Almighty, from whence he will come to judge the quick and the dead. At whose coming all men will rise again with their bodies; And shall give account for their own works. And they that have done good shall go into life everlasting; and they that have done evil, into everlasting fire. This is the catholic faith; which except a man believe truly and firmly, he cannot be saved.
Nicene Creed We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only‐begotten Son of God, begotten of his Father before all worlds, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; by whom all things were made; who for us and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit of the Virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; he suffered and was buried, and the third day he rose again according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and is seated at the right hand of the Father; and he shall come again, with glory, to judge both the living and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. And we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and giver of Life,
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who proceeds from the Father and the Son; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets; and we believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; and we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.
Chalcedonian Creed We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body; consubstantial [co‐essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin; begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably; the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person and one Subsistence, not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten God (μονογενῆ Θεὸν), the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us.
Westminster Confession of Faith I. There is but one only living and true God, who is infinite in being and perfection, a most pure spirit, invisible, without body, parts, or passions, immutable, immense, eternal, incomprehensible, almighty, most wise, most holy, most free, most absolute, working all things according to the counsel of His own immutable and most righteous will, for His own glory; most loving, gracious, merciful, long‐suffering, abundant in goodness and truth, forgiving iniquity, transgression, and sin; the rewarder of them that diligently seek Him; and withal most just and terrible in His judgments, hating all sin, and who will by no means clear the guilty. II. God hath all live, glory, goodness, blessedness, in and of Himself; and is alone in and unto Himself all‐sufficient, not standing in need of any creatures which He hath made, nor deriving any glory from them, but only manifesting His own glory in, by, unto, and upon them: He is the alone fountain of all being, of whom, through whom, and to whom, are all things; and hath most sovereign dominion over them, to do by them, for them, and upon them, whatsoever Himself pleaseth. In His sight all things are open and manifest; His knowledge is infinite, infallible, and independent upon the creature, so as nothing is to Him contingent or uncertain. He is most holy in all His counsels, in all His works, and in all His commands. To Him is due from angels and men, and every other creature, whatsoever worship, service, or obedience He is pleased to require of them. In the unity of the Godhead there be three Persons of one substance, power, and eternity; God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. The Father is of none, neither begotten nor proceeding; the Son is eternally begotten of the Father; the Holy Ghost eternally proceeding from the Father and the Son.
Sacred Texts: Old Testament New Testament Apochrypha (not accepted by all Christians as part of the canon)
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Words to Know: apostle baptism ascetic covenant creed episcopal congregationalist presbyterian eschatology pope reformation resurrection sacrament trinity
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Confucianism Many scholars agree that Confucianism is still the strongest force shaping East Asian culture. To understand East Asia, one must understand Confucian values. Brief History: The Chinese worldview has been shaped by certain cosmological beliefs and folk traditions for millennia. The universe has regularities and patterns, but there is no deity or lawgiver in charge of it all. The most basic pattern is the complementary forces of yin and yang. Each exists because the other exists, and each flows into the other in continuous cycle. The Chinese ideal is not one side conquering the other but rather achieving the proper balance between the two. From two forces the next level moves to the Five Elements, but better understood in a dynamic (processes or phases) rather than a static sense: watery, earthy, woody, metallic, and fiery. They are in a perpetual cycle of transformation, either of generation or of conquest. In the cycle of generation, wood catches fire, fire reduces to ash (earth), the earth forms metal, metals melt to liquid, and water nourishes the growth of wood. The cycle of conquest is driven by one element overcoming the next. Qi is one of the most important Chinese metaphysical concepts. It is translated as “vital force,” “vital energy,” or “cosmic breath.” Qi is circulating within our bodies and the natural world. It bridges the divide between the physical, mental, and spiritual. Ancestors are supernatural beings who can play a helpful role in human lives. In general, they are seen as helping the living family members and serving as the family representative in the spirit realm. But the ancestor can also bring bad luck on a family if the ancestor is angered by being neglected. Estimated Adherents: 500 million 500 million (generally combined with Daoism) Founder’s Story: Founder: Kong Fuzi (or Kongzi) [Romanized: Confucius] Confucius was born in 551 B.C.E., a time of great chaos in China. Rulers of different states fought each other for supremacy, raising large armies capable of tremendous brutality. The rulers of these states often invited philosophers from different schools to hear the best ideas of the day and select advisors. Confucius was one of these philosophers. He journeyed around china trying to persuade rulers to hire him and implement his ideas. Along the way he gathered many disciples. He was revered as a great teacher. Confucius believed in a time during the reign fo the great sage‐kings when there was perfect order in society. He looked for answers in history to restore the practices and values of that golden age. He
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emphasized learning and study rather than introspection and intuition. He developed a program of study that became a central component in the body of common knowledge that unified China through a common cultural inheritance. Basic Beliefs: Among others:
Learning is a way to develop one’s character Ritual brings people together in community Ritual and virtue are superior to law Key virtues: filial piety, loyalty, reciprocity, benevolence Five key relationships: 1. parent – child 2. husband – wife 3. elder brother – younger brother 4. ruler – subject 5. friend – friend
Sacred Texts: The Five Classics: Shu Ching, Shih Ching, I Ching, Li Ki, Ch’un Ch’iu The Analects CONFUCIAN ANALECTS Confucius translated by James Legge [1893] may have been not faithful;‐whether, in intercourse with friends, I may have been not sincere;‐whether I may have not mastered and practiced the instructions of my teacher." The Master said, "To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper seasons." The Master said, "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies." Tsze‐hsia said, "If a man withdraws his mind from the love of beauty, and applies it as sincerely to the love of the virtuous; if, in serving his parents, he can exert his utmost strength; if, in serving his prince, he can devote his life; if,
1 The Master "Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application? "Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters? "Is he not a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?" The philosopher Yu said, "They are few who, being filial and fraternal, are fond of offending against their superiors. There have been none, who, not liking to offend against their superiors, have been fond of stirring up confusion. "The superior man bends his attention to what is radical. That being established, all practical courses naturally grow up. Filial piety and fraternal submission,‐are they not the root of all benevolent actions?" The Master said, "Fine words and an insinuating appearance are seldom associated with true virtue." The philosopher Tsang said, "I daily examine myself on three points:‐whether, in transacting business for others, I
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in his intercourse with his friends, his words are sincere:‐ although men say that he has not learned, I will certainly say that he has. The Master said, "If the scholar be not grave, he will not call forth any veneration, and his learning will not be solid. "Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles. "Have no friends not equal to yourself. "When you have faults, do not fear to abandon them." The philosopher Tsang said, "Let there be a careful attention to perform the funeral rites to parents, and let them be followed when long gone with the ceremonies of sacrifice;‐then the virtue of the people will resume its proper excellence." Tsze‐ch'in asked Tsze‐kung saying, "When our master comes to any country, he does not fail to learn all about its government. Does he ask his information? or is it given to him?" Tsze‐kung said, "Our master is benign, upright, courteous, temperate, and complaisant and thus he gets his information. The master's mode of asking information,‐is it not different from that of other men?" The Master said, "While a man's father is alive, look at the bent of his will; when his father is dead, look at his conduct. If for three years he does not alter from the way of his father, he may be called filial." The philosopher Yu said, "In practicing the rules of propriety, a natural ease is to be prized. In the ways prescribed by the ancient kings, this is the excellent quality, and in things small and great we follow them. "Yet it is not to be observed in all cases. If one, knowing how such ease should be prized, manifests it, without regulating it by the rules of propriety, this likewise is not to be done." The philosopher Yu said, "When agreements are made according to what is right, what is spoken can be made good. When respect is shown according to what is proper, one keeps far from shame and disgrace. When the parties upon whom a man leans are proper persons to be intimate with, he can make them his guides and masters." The Master said, "He who aims to be a man of complete virtue in his food does not seek to gratify his appetite, nor in his dwelling place does he seek the appliances of ease; he is earnest in what he is doing, and careful in his speech; he frequents the company of men of principle that he may be rectified:‐such a person may be said indeed to love to learn." Tsze‐kung said, "What do you pronounce concerning the poor man who yet does not flatter, and the rich man who is not proud?" The Master replied, "They will do; but they
are not equal to him, who, though poor, is yet cheerful, and to him, who, though rich, loves the rules of propriety." Tsze‐kung replied, "It is said in the Book of Poetry, 'As you cut and then file, as you carve and then polish.'‐The meaning is the same, I apprehend, as that which you have just expressed." The Master said, "With one like Ts'ze, I can begin to talk about the odes. I told him one point, and he knew its proper sequence." The Master said, "I will not be afflicted at men's not knowing me; I will be afflicted that I do not know men." 2 The Master said, "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." The Master said, "In the Book of Poetry are three hundred pieces, but the design of them all may be embraced in one sentence 'Having no depraved thoughts.'" The Master said, "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. "If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good." The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. "At thirty, I stood firm. "At forty, I had no doubts. "At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. "At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. "At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right." Mang I asked what filial piety was. The Master said, "It is not being disobedient." Soon after, as Fan Ch'ih was driving him, the Master told him, saying, "Mang‐sun asked me what filial piety was, and I answered him,‐'not being disobedient.'" Fan Ch'ih said, "What did you mean?" The Master replied, "That parents, when alive, be served according to propriety; that, when dead, they should be buried according to propriety; and that they should be sacrificed to according to propriety." Mang Wu asked what filial piety was. The Master said, "Parents are anxious lest their children should be sick." Tsze‐yu asked what filial piety was. The Master said, "The filial piety nowadays means the support of one's parents. But dogs and horses likewise are able to do something in
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the way of support;‐without reverence, what is there to distinguish the one support given from the other?" Tsze‐hsia asked what filial piety was. The Master said, "The difficulty is with the countenance. If, when their elders have any troublesome affairs, the young take the toil of them, and if, when the young have wine and food, they set them before their elders, is THIS to be considered filial piety?" The Master said, "I have talked with Hui for a whole day, and he has not made any objection to anything I said;‐as if he were stupid. He has retired, and I have examined his conduct when away from me, and found him able to illustrate my teachings. Hui!‐He is not stupid." The Master said, "See what a man does. "Mark his motives. "Examine in what things he rests. "How can a man conceal his character? How can a man conceal his character?" The Master said, "If a man keeps cherishing his old knowledge, so as continually to be acquiring new, he may be a teacher of others." The Master said, "The accomplished scholar is not a utensil." Tsze‐kung asked what constituted the superior man. The Master said, "He acts before he speaks, and afterwards speaks according to his actions." The Master said, "The superior man is catholic and not partisan. The mean man is partisan and not catholic." The Master said, "Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous." The Master said, "The study of strange doctrines is injurious indeed!" The Master said, "Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it;‐this is knowledge." Tsze‐chang was learning with a view to official emolument. The Master said, "Hear much and put aside the points of which you stand in doubt, while you speak cautiously at
the same time of the others:‐then you will afford few occasions for blame. See much and put aside the things which seem perilous, while you are cautious at the same time in carrying the others into practice: then you will have few occasions for repentance. When one gives few occasions for blame in his words, and few occasions for repentance in his conduct, he is in the way to get emolument." The Duke Ai asked, saying, "What should be done in order to secure the submission of the people?" Confucius replied, "Advance the upright and set aside the crooked, then the people will submit. Advance the crooked and set aside the upright, then the people will not submit." Chi K'ang asked how to cause the people to reverence their ruler, to be faithful to him, and to go on to nerve themselves to virtue. The Master said, "Let him preside over them with gravity;‐then they will reverence him. Let him be final and kind to all;‐then they will be faithful to him. Let him advance the good and teach the incompetent;‐then they will eagerly seek to be virtuous." Some one addressed Confucius, saying, "Sir, why are you not engaged in the government?" The Master said, "What does the Shu‐ching say of filial piety?‐'You are final, you discharge your brotherly duties. These qualities are displayed in government.' This then also constitutes the exercise of government. Why must there be THAT‐making one be in the government?" The Master said, "I do not know how a man without truthfulness is to get on. How can a large carriage be made to go without the crossbar for yoking the oxen to, or a small carriage without the arrangement for yoking the horses?" Tsze‐chang asked whether the affairs of ten ages after could be known. Confucius said, "The Yin dynasty followed the regulations of the Hsia: wherein it took from or added to them may be known. The Chau dynasty has followed the regulations of Yin: wherein it took from or added to them may be known. Some other may follow the Chau, but though it should be at the distance of a hundred ages, its affairs may be known." The Master said, "For a man to sacrifice to a spirit which does not belong to him is flattery. "To see what is right and not to do it is want of courage."
Words to Know: yin yang qi
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Daosim Daosim is a term that describes a variety of things. One form is philosophical, or classical; the other is religious, or liturgical because of the significance of ritual. Brief History: See “Confucianism” for cultural context. Daoism’s roots go back to the Warring States period (4th to 3rd century B.C.E.), though the first organized form of Daoism didn’t develop until the end of the 2nd century C.E. It gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty. Estimated Adherents: 500 million 500 million (generally combined with Confucianism) Founder’s Story: Founder: Laozi Laozi lived in the 6th century B.C.E. Nobody really knows who Laozi was or if he even existed, though he is often depicted as an old, white‐haired man riding an ox. The influential text, Dao De Ching, is attributed to him. Basic Beliefs: Among others:
Dao: the “Way” Rid oneself of learning and ritual to return to a more natural way Ideal state is effortless action Without human interference, the Dao can do its harmonizing working, bringing about order Freedom Experience moment‐by‐moment transformations of life
Sacred Texts: Zhuangzi Dao De Ching Dao De Ching by Lao‐tzu translated by James Legge [1891]
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Therefore the sage manages affairs without doing anything, and conveys his instructions without the use of speech. All things spring up, and there is not one which declines to show itself; they grow, and there is no claim made for their ownership; they go through their processes, and there is no expectation (of a reward for the results). The work is accomplished, and there is no resting in it (as an achievement). The work is done, but how no one can see; 'Tis this that makes the power not cease to be.
1 The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao. The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name. (Conceived of as) having no name, it is the Originator of heaven and earth; (conceived of as) having a name, it is the Mother of all things. Always without desire we must be found, If its deep mystery we would sound; But if desire always within us be, Its outer fringe is all that we shall see. Under these two aspects, it is really the same; but as development takes place, it receives the different names. Together we call them the Mystery. Where the Mystery is the deepest is the gate of all that is subtle and wonderful.
3 Not to value and employ men of superior ability is the way to keep the people from rivalry among themselves; not to prize articles which are difficult to procure is the way to keep them from becoming thieves; not to show them what is likely to excite their desires is the way to keep their minds from disorder. Therefore the sage, in the exercise of his government, empties their minds, fills their bellies, weakens their wills, and strengthens their bones. He constantly (tries to) keep them without knowledge and without desire, and where there are those who have knowledge, to keep them from presuming to act (on it). When there is this abstinence from action, good order is universal.
2 All in the world know the beauty of the beautiful, and in doing this they have (the idea of) what ugliness is; they all know the skill of the skilful, and in doing this they have (the idea of) what the want of skill is. So it is that existence and non‐existence give birth the one to (the idea of) the other; that difficulty and ease produce the one (the idea of) the other; that length and shortness fashion out the one the figure of the other; that (the ideas of) height and lowness arise from the contrast of the one with the other; that the musical notes and tones become harmonious through the relation of one with another; and that being before and behind give the idea of one following another.
4 The Tao is (like) the emptiness of a vessel; and in our employment of it we must be on our guard against all fulness. How deep and unfathomable it is, as if it were the Honoured
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Ancestor of all things! We should blunt our sharp points, and unravel the complications of things; we should attemper our brightness, and bring ourselves into agreement with the obscurity of others. How pure and still the Tao is, as if it would ever so continue! I do not know whose son it is. It might appear to have been before God.
because they do not live of, or for, themselves. This is how they are able to continue and endure. Therefore the sage puts his own person last, and yet it is found in the foremost place; he treats his person as if it were foreign to him, and yet that person is preserved. Is it not because he has no personal and private ends, that therefore such ends are realised? 8 The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of water appears in its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men dislike. Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao. The excellence of a residence is in (the suitability of) the place; that of the mind is in abysmal stillness; that of associations is in their being with the virtuous; that of government is in its securing good order; that of (the conduct of) affairs is in its ability; and that of (the initiation of) any movement is in its timeliness. And when (one with the highest excellence) does not wrangle (about his low position), no one finds fault with him.
5 Heaven and earth do not act from (the impulse of) any wish to be benevolent; they deal with all things as the dogs of grass are dealt with. The sages do not act from (any wish to be) benevolent; they deal with the people as the dogs of grass are dealt with. May not the space between heaven and earth be compared to a bellows? 'Tis emptied, yet it loses not its power; 'Tis moved again, and sends forth air the more. Much speech to swift exhaustion lead we see; Your inner being guard, and keep it free. 6 The valley spirit dies not, aye the same; The female mystery thus do we name. Its gate, from which at first they issued forth, Is called the root from which grew heaven and earth. Long and unbroken does its power remain, Used gently, and without the touch of pain.
9 It is better to leave a vessel unfilled, than to attempt to carry it when it is full. If you keep feeling a point that has been sharpened, the point cannot long preserve its sharpness. When gold and jade fill the hall, their possessor cannot keep them safe. When wealth and honours lead to arrogancy, this brings its evil on itself. When the work is done, and one's name is becoming
7 Heaven is long‐enduring and earth continues long. The reason why heaven and earth are able to endure and continue thus long is
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distinguished, to withdraw into obscurity is the way of Heaven.
In loving the people and ruling the state, cannot he proceed without any (purpose of) action? In the opening and shutting of his gates of heaven, cannot he do so as a female bird? While his intelligence reaches in every direction, cannot he (appear to) be without knowledge? (The Tao) produces (all things) and nourishes them; it produces them and does not claim them as its own; it does all, and yet does not boast of it; it presides over all, and yet does not control them. This is what is called 'The mysterious Quality' (of the Tao).
10 When the intelligent and animal souls are held together in one embrace, they can be kept from separating. When one gives undivided attention to the (vital) breath, and brings it to the utmost degree of pliancy, he can become as a (tender) babe. When he has cleansed away the most mysterious sights (of his imagination), he can become without a flaw.
Words to Know: dao (tao) wu wei de yin yang
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Egyptian (Ancient) The civilization of Ancient Egypt lasted over 3000 years, during which the Egyptians developed a multitude of gods and goddesses, as well as esoteric practices that are still being studied today. Egypt was also one of the first sources of a monotheistic religion. This rich tradition was mostly unknown until the language was deciphered in the 19th century. Brief History: The history of Egypt is divided into dynastic periods. The Early Dynastic period began with the unification of Egypt around 3000 B.C.E. Through the Old and Middle Kingdoms, a pantheon of gods and goddesses developed. Under Akhenaten in the New Kingdom, worship was reduced to a single god. With the spread of Christianity, Egyptian religion slowly faded away. Estimated Adherents: None known Founder: Founder: unknown Basic Beliefs: Among others:
Pharoah is God’s representative on earth (if not a god himself) Universe is a fixed, eternal order, but is constantly under attack by disorder Mankind is responsible to help maintain order Elaborate beliefs about death and afterlife
Sacred Texts: No unified religious scripture, but produced many religious writings of various types: The Pyramid Texts Egyptian Book of the Dead The Rosetta Stone
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Hinduism “Hinduism” is a problematic term to describe a complex and diverse set of beliefs and culture. There is no single statement of belief that would be agreed upon by all Hindus. There is no central authority to establish orthodoxy; no universally agreed upon creed. The very word “Hindu” is not native to the Indian culture. It was used by outsiders to name the culture of the Indus River Valley. Unlike what westerners typically consider a religious tradition, Hinduism is not a part or aspect of life; it is far more encompassing than that, influencing every aspect of Hindu life, including arts, music, medicine, etc. The stream of Hinduism has undergone continuous change from its early roots to modern times. If you attend a yoga class or talk about your karma, Hinduism has already had an influence on you. Hinduism is now truly a world religion. Brief History: Many consider Hinduism the oldest religious tradition. The Indus River Civilization flourished from around 3000 to 1500 B.C.E. The Aryans migrated into the region, bringing an oral tradition of knowledge known as the Veda, and other beliefs and practices that greatly influenced the established culture. Between 1500 and 500 B.C.E. the Aryan culture flourished and became the foundation out of which Hinduism arose. A reevaluation of Hindu rituals spurred the development of the classical period of Hindu history from 500 B.C.E. through the early centuries C.E. Islam entered India in the 8th century through military conquest. By the 15th century, Muslim sultans ruled India. This represented the first significant stress on the Hindu culture in the modern era. The second was the British colonization of India in the 18th century, bringing with it western ideas and values. Mohandas K. (“Mahatma”) Gandhi, taking many of his philosophical foundations from Hindu thought, was a key figure in India’s independence movement. In the 20th century there has been a significant movement of Hindus and Hinduism into the West. Estimated Adherents: 1 billion Founder: None known Sacred Texts: The Vedas: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Athara Veda “Veda” is a word that means “knowledge” or “wisdom.” The Vedas are some of the oldest existing texts in an Indo‐European language. They are the primary texts of Hinduism. They also had a vast influence on Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. In the Vedic hymns, there is an emphasis on rituals performed for the gods in the hopes of gaining benefits in this world, for this life. There is not a significant otherworldly aspect.
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“Let noble thoughts come to us from everywhere.” ‐‐The Vedas The Rig Veda, the oldest, contains 1,028 hymns dedicated to a variety of deities. From Rig Veda, translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith [1896] RIG VEDA BOOK I HYMN I. Agni. 1 I Laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice, The hotar, lavishest of wealth. 2 Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as by ancient seers. He shall bring hitherward the Gods. 3 Through Agni man obtaineth wealth, yea, plenty waxing day by day, Most rich in heroes, glorious. 4 Agni, the perfect sacrifice which thou encompassest about Verily goeth to the Gods. 5 May Agni, sapient‐minded Priest, truthful, most gloriously great, The God, come hither with the Gods. 6 Whatever blessing, Agni, thou wilt grant unto thy worshipper, That, Aṅgiras, is indeed thy truth. 7 To thee, dispeller of the night, O Agni, day by day with prayer Bringing thee reverence, we come 8 Ruler of sacrifices, guard of Law eternal, radiant One, Increasing in thine own abode. 9 Be to us easy of approach, even as a father to his son: Agni, be with us for our weal. HYMN II. Vāyu. 1 BEAUTIFUL Vāyu, come, for thee these Soma drops have been prepared: Drink of them, hearken to our call. 2 Knowing the days, with Soma juice poured forth, the singers glorify Thee, Vāyu, with their hymns of praise. 3 Vāyu, thy penetrating stream goes forth unto the worshipper, Far‐spreading for the Soma draught. 4 These, Indra‐Vāyu, have been shed; come for our offered dainties’ sake: The drops are yearning for you both. 5 Well do ye mark libations, ye Vāyu and Indra, rich in spoil! So come ye swiftly hitherward. 6 Vāyu and Indra, come to what the Soma‐presser hath prepared: Soon, Heroes, thus I make my prayer. 7 Mitra, of holy strength, I call, and foe‐destroying Varuṇa, Who make the oil‐fed rite complete. 8 Mitra and Varuṇa, through Law, lovers and cherishers of Law, Have ye obtained your might power 9 Our Sages, Mitra‐Varuṇa, wide dominion, strong by birth, Vouchsafe us strength that worketh well. HYMN III. Aśvins 1 YE Aśvins, rich in treasure, Lords of splendour, having nimble hands, Accept the sacrificial food. 2 Ye Aśvins, rich in wondrous deeds, ye heroes worthy of our praise, Accept our songs with mighty thought.
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3 Nāsatyas, wonder‐workers, yours are these libations with clipt grass: Come ye whose paths are red with flame. 4 O Indra marvellously bright, come, these libations long for thee, Thus by fine fingers purified. 5 Urged by the holy singer, sped by song, come, Indra, to the prayers, Of the libation‐pouring priest. 6 Approach, O Indra, hasting thee, Lord of Bay Horses, to the prayers. In our libation take delight. 7 Ye Viśvedevas, who protect, reward, and cherish men, approach Your worshipper's drink‐offering. 8 Ye Viśvedevas, swift at work, come hither quickly to the draught, As milch‐kine hasten to their stalls. 9 The Viśvedevas, changing shape like serpents, fearless, void of guile, Bearers, accept the sacred draught 10 Wealthy in spoil, enriched with hymns, may bright Sarasvatī desire, With eager love, our sacrifice. 11 Inciter of all pleasant songs, inspirer of all gracious thought, Sarasvatī accept our rite 12 Sarasvatī, the mighty flood,—she with her light illuminates, She brightens every pious thought. HYMN IV. Indra 1 As a good cow to him who milks, we call the doer of fair deeds, To our assistance day by day. 2 Come thou to our libations, drink of Soma; Soma‐drinker thou! The rich One's rapture giveth kine. 3 So may we be acquainted with thine innermost benevolence: Neglect us not, come hitherward. 4 Go to the wise unconquered One, ask thou of Indra, skilled in song, Him who is better than thy friends. 5 Whether the men who mock us say, Depart unto another place, Ye who serve Indra and none else; 6 Or whether, God of wondrous deeds, all our true people call us blest, Still may we dwell in Indra's care. 7 Unto the swift One bring the swift, man‐cheering, grace of sacrifice, That to the Friend gives wings and joy. 8 Thou, Śatakratu, drankest this and wast the Vṛtras’ slayer; thou Helpest the warrior in the fray. 9 We strengthen, Śatakratu, thee, yea, thee the powerful in fight, That, Indra, we may win us wealth. 10 To him the mighty stream of wealth, prompt friend of him who pours the juice, Yea, to this Indra sing your song.
Upanishads The final portion of the Vedas are the Upanishads. Around the 6th century B.C.E., an increasing number of religious seekers were leaving the Vedic tradition and striking out on new paths. The Upanishads had the greatest impact on Indian philosophy, and in fact were to later influence philosophical movements in the West as well. Whereas the other Vedas focus on ritual and maximizing welfare in this life, the Upanishads are highly philosophical and speculative, believing attachment to the things of this world produces suffering. The Upanishads, Part I, translated by Max Müller, [1879] KHÂNDOGYA‐UPANISHAD. FIRST PRAPÂTHAKA.
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2. They meditated on the udgîtha (Om) as the breath (scent) in the nose, but the Asuras pierced it (the breath) with evil. Therefore we smell by the breath in the nose both what is good‐smelling and what is bad‐smelling. For the breath was pierced by evil.
FIRST KHANDA 1. 1. LET a man meditate on the syllable Om, called the udgîtha; for the udgîtha (a portion of the Sâma‐veda) is sung, beginning with Om.
3. Then they meditated on the udgîtha (Om) as speech, but the Asuras pierced it with evil. Therefore we speak both truth and falsehood. For speech is pierced by evil.
The full account, however, of Om is this:‐‐ 2. The essence of all beings is the earth, the essence of the earth is water, the essence of water the plants, the essence of plants man, the essence of man speech, the essence of speech the Rig‐veda, the essence of the Rig‐ veda the Sâma‐veda, the essence of the Sâma‐veda the udgîtha (which is Om).
4. Then they meditated on the udgîtha (Om) as the eye, but the Asuras pierced it with evil. Therefore we see both what is sightly and unsightly. For the eye is pierced by evil. 5. Then they meditated on the udgîtha (Om) as the ear, but the Asuras pierced it with evil. Therefore we hear both what should be heard and what should not be heard. For the car is pierced by evil.
3. That udgîtha (Om) is the best of all essences, the highest, deserving the highest place, the eighth.
6. Then they meditated on the udgîtha (Om) as the mind, but the Asuras pierced it with evil. Therefore we conceive both what should be conceived and what should not be conceived. For the mind is pierced by evil.
4. What then is the Rik? What is the Sâman? What is the udgîtha? 'This is the question. 5. The Rik indeed is speech, Sâman is breath, the udgîtha is the syllable Om. Now speech and breath, or Rik and Sâman, form one couple.
7. Then comes this breath (of life) in the mouth. They meditated on the udgîtha (Om) as that breath. When the Asuras came to it, they were scattered, as (a ball of earth) would be scattered when hitting a solid stone.
6. And that couple is joined together in the syllable Om. When two people come together, they fulfil each other's desire.
8. Thus, as a ball of earth is scattered when hitting on a solid stone, will he be scattered who wishes evil to one who knows this, or who persecutes him; for he is a solid stone.
7. Thus he who knowing this, meditates on the syllable (Om), the udgîtha, becomes indeed a fulfiller of desires. 8. That syllable is a syllable of permission, for whenever we permit anything, we say Om, yes. Now permission is gratification. He who knowing this meditates on the syllable (Om), the udgîtha, becomes indeed a gratifier of desires.
9. By it (the breath in the mouth) he distinguishes neither what is good nor what is bad‐smelling, for that breath is free from evil. What we eat and drink with it supports the other vital breaths (i. e. the senses, such as smell, &c.) When at the time of death he does not find that breath (in the mouth, through which he eats and drinks and lives), then he departs. He opens the mouth at the time of death (as if wishing to eat).
9. By that syllable does the threefold knowledge (the sacrifice, more particularly the Soma‐sacrifice, as founded on the three Vedas) proceed. When the Adhvaryu priest gives an order, he says Om. When the Hotri priest recites, he says Om. When the Udgâtri priest sings, he says Om, ‐‐ all for the glory of that syllable. The threefold knowledge (the sacrifice) proceeds by the greatness of that syllable (the vital breaths), and by its essence (the oblations).
10. Aṅgiras meditated on the udgîtha (Om) as that breath, and people hold it to be Aṅgiras, i. e. the essence of the members (angânâm rasah); 11. Therefore Brihaspati meditated on udgîtha (Om) as that breath, and people hold it to be Brihaspati, for speech is brihatî, and he (that breath) is the lord (pati) of speech;
10. Now therefore it would seem to follow, that both he who knows this (the true meaning of the syllable Om), and he who does not, perform the same sacrifice. But this is not so, for knowledge and ignorance are different. The sacrifice which a man performs with knowledge, faith, and the Upanishad is more powerful. This is the full account of the syllable Om.
12. Therefore Ayâsya meditated on the udgîtha (Om) as that breath, and people hold it to be Ayâsya, because it comes (ayati) from the mouth (âsya); 13. Therefore Vaka Dâlbhya knew it. He was the Udgâtri (singer) of the Naimishîya‐sacrificers, and by singing he obtained for them their wishes.
SECOND KHANDA
14. He who knows this, and meditates on the syllable Om (the imperishable udgîtha) as the breath of life in the mouth, he obtains all wishes by singing. So much for the udgîtha (Om) as meditated on with reference to the body.
1. When the Devas and Asuras struggled together, both of the race of Pragâpati, the Devas took the udgîtha (Om), thinking they would vanquish the Asuras with it.
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Mahabharata and Ramayana
The Mahabharata and Ramayana are the national epics of India. They are likely the longest poems in any language. The Ramayana is a moving love story with moral and spiritual themes that has deep appeal in India to this day. The Mahabharata tells the legends of the Bharatas, a Vedic Aryan group. A key Hindu sacred text, the Bhagavad Gita, is embedded in Book Six of the Mahabharata. It is a dialogue between the god Vishnu (in his avatar form known as Krishna) and a warrior by the name of Arjuna, which takes place on the battlefield just as two great armies are about to go to war. Arjuna is aggrieved because both armies are members of the same clan. He is about to battle with uncles, cousins, and teachers. As if time stops, action is suspended and Arjuna drops his bow, having lost his will to fight. Krishna takes this opportunity to teach this young warrior. Through their dialogue, the reader can obtain a comprehensive portrait of Hindu practices and worldviews. “When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavad-Gita. I find a verse here and a verse there , and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies -- and my life has been full of external tragedies -- and if they have left no visible or indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavad-Gita.” – Mahatma Ghandi BHAGAVAD GITA Translation Commission by the International Gita Society CHAPTER 1 ARJUNA’S DILEMMA The war of Mahabharata has begun after all negotiations by Lord Krishna and others to avoid it failed. The blind King (Dhritarashtra) was never very sure about the victory of his sons (Kauravas) in spite of their superior army. Sage Vyasa, the author of Mahabharata, wanted to give the blind king the boon of eyesight so that the king could see the horrors of the war for which he was primarily responsible. But the king refused the offer. He did not want to see the horrors of the war; but preferred to get the war report through his charioteer, Sanjaya. Sage Vyasa granted the power of clairvoyance to Sanjaya. With this power Sanjaya could see, hear, and recall the events of the past, present, and the future. He was able to give an instant replay of the eye witness war report to the blind King sitting in the palace. Bhishma, the mightiest man and the commander‐in‐chief of the Kaurava’s army, is disabled by Arjuna and is lying on deathbed in the battleground on the tenth day of the eighteen day war. Upon hearing this bad news from Sanjaya, the blind King loses all hopes for victory of his sons. Now the King wants to know the details of the war from the beginning, including how the mightiest man, and the commander‐in‐chief of his superior army who had a boon of dying at his own will was defeated in the battlefield. The teaching of the Gita begins with the inquiry of the blind King, after Sanjaya described how Bhishma was defeated, as follows: The King inquired: Sanjaya, please now tell me, in details, what did my people (the Kauravas) and the Pandavas do in the battlefield before the war started? (1.01)
Sanjaya said: O King, After seeing the battle formation of the Pandava’s army, your son approached his guru and spoke these words: (1.02)
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Arjuna saw his uncles, grandfathers, teachers, maternal uncles, brothers, sons, grandsons, and other comrades in the army. (1.26)
O Master, behold this mighty army of the Pandavas, arranged in battle formation by your other talented disciple! There are many great warriors, valiant men, heroes, and mighty archers. (1.03‐06)
ARJUNA'S DILEMMA INTRODUCTION OF THE ARMY COMMANDERS After seeing fathers‐in‐law, companions, and all his kinsmen standing in the ranks of the two armies, Arjuna was overcome with great compassion and sorrowfully spoke these words: O Krishna, seeing my kinsmen standing with a desire to fight, my limbs fail and my mouth becomes dry. My body quivers and my hairs stand on end. (1.27‐29)
Also there are many heroes on my side who have risked their lives for me. I shall name few distinguished commanders of my army for your information. He named all the officers of his army, and said: They are armed with various weapons, and are skilled in warfare. (1.07‐09) Our army is invincible, while their army is easy to conquer. Therefore all of you, occupying your respective positions, protect our commander‐in‐chief. (1.10‐11)
The bow slips from my hand, and my skin intensely burns. My head turns, I am unable to stand steady, and O Krishna, I see bad omens. I see no use of killing my kinsmen in battle. (1.30‐31)
WAR STARTS WITH THE BLOWING OF CONCH SHELLS
I desire neither victory, nor pleasure nor kingdom, O Krishna. What is the use of the kingdom, or enjoyment, or even life, O Krishna? Because all those for whom we desire kingdom, enjoyments, and pleasures are standing here for the battle, giving up their lives. (1.32‐33)
The mighty commander‐in‐chief and the eldest man of the dynasty, roared as a lion and blew his conch loudly, bringing joy to your son. (1.12) Soon after that; conches, kettledrums, cymbals, drums, and trumpets were sounded together. The commotion was tremendous. (1.13)
I do not wish to kill my teachers, uncles, sons, grandfathers, maternal uncles, fathers‐in‐law, grandsons, brothers‐in‐law, and other relatives who are about to kill us, even for the sovereignty of the three worlds, let alone for this earthly kingdom, O Krishna. (1.34‐35)
After that, Lord Krishna and Arjuna, seated in a grand chariot yoked with white horses, blew their celestial conches. (1.14)
O Lord Krishna, what pleasure shall we find in killing our cousin brothers? Upon killing these felons we shall incur sin only. (1.36)
Krishna blew His conch first, and then Arjuna and all other commanders of various divisions of the army of Pandavas blew their respective conches. The tumultuous uproar, resounding through the earth and sky, tore the hearts of your sons. (1.15‐19)
Therefore, we should not kill our cousin brothers. How can we be happy after killing our relatives, O Krishna? (1.37) Though they are blinded by greed, and do not see evil in the destruction of the family, or sin in being treacherous to friends. Why should not we, who clearly see evil in the destruction of the family, think about turning away from this sin, O Krishna? (1.38‐39)
ARJUNA WANTS TO INSPECT THE ARMY AGAINST WHOM HE IS ABOUT TO FIGHT Seeing your sons standing, and the war about to begin with the hurling of weapons; Arjuna, whose banner bore the emblem of Lord Hanumana, took up his bow and spoke these words to Lord Krishna: O Lord, please stop my chariot between the two armies until I behold those who stand here eager for the battle and with whom I must engage in this act of war. (1.20‐22)
ARJUNA DESCRIBES THE EVILS OF WAR Eternal family traditions and codes of moral conduct are destroyed with the destruction of the family. And immorality prevails in the family due to the destruction of family traditions. (1.40)
I wish to see those who are willing to serve and appease the evil‐minded Kauravas by assembling here to fight the battle. (1.23)
And when immorality prevails, O Krishna, the women of the family become corrupted; when women are corrupted, unwanted progeny is born. (1.41)
Sanjaya said: O King; Lord Krishna, as requested by Arjuna, placed the best of all the chariots in the midst of the two armies facing Arjuna's grandfather, his guru and all other Kings; and said to Arjuna: Behold these assembled soldiers! (1.24‐25)
This brings the family and the slayers of the family to hell, because the spirits of their ancestors are degraded when deprived of ceremonial offerings of love and respect by the unwanted progeny. (1.42)
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The everlasting qualities of social order and family traditions of those who destroy their family are ruined by the sinful act of illegitimacy. (1.43)
It would be far better for me if my cousin brothers kill me with their weapons in battle while I am unarmed and unresisting. (1.46)
We have been told, O Krishna, that people whose family traditions are destroyed necessarily dwell in hell for a long time. (1.44)
WHEN GOING GETS TOUGH, EVEN TOUGH ONES CAN GET DELUDED
Alas! We are ready to commit a great sin by striving to slay our relatives because of greed for the pleasures of the kingdom. (1.45)
Sanjaya said: Having said this in the battlefield and casting aside his bow and arrow, Arjuna sat down on the seat of the chariot with his mind overwhelmed with sorrow. (1.47)
CHAPTER 2 TRANSCENDENTAL KNOWLEDGE Sanjaya said: Lord Krishna spoke these words to Arjuna whose eyes were tearful and downcast, and who was overwhelmed with compassion and despair. (2.01)
THE TEACHINGS OF THE GITA BEGIN WITH THE TRUE KNOWLEDGE OF SPIRIT AND THE PHYSICAL BODY
Lord Krishna said: How has the dejection come to you at this juncture? This is not fit for a person of noble mind and deeds. It is disgraceful, and it does not lead one to heaven, O Arjuna. (2.02)
Lord Krishna said: You grieve for those who are not worthy of grief, and yet speak words of wisdom. The wise grieves neither for the living nor for the dead. (2.11) There was never a time when these monarchs, you, or I did not exist; nor shall we ever cease to exist in the future. (2.12)
Do not become a coward, O Arjuna, because it does not befit you. Shake off this trivial weakness of your heart and get up for the battle, O Arjuna. (2.03)
Just as the soul acquires a childhood body, a youth body, and an old age body during this life; similarly, the soul acquires another body after death. This should not delude the wise. (See also 15.08) (2.13)
ARJUNA CONTINUES HIS REASONING AGAINST THE WAR Arjuna said: How shall I strike my grandfather, my guru, and all other relatives, who are worthy of my respect, with arrows in battle, O Krishna? (2.04)
The contacts of the senses with the sense objects give rise to the feelings of heat and cold, and pain and pleasure. They are transitory and impermanent. Therefore, one should learn to endure them. (2.14)
It would be better, indeed, to live on alms in this world than to slay these noble personalities, because by killing them I would enjoy wealth and pleasures stained with their blood. (2.05)
Because a calm person who is not afflicted by these sense objects, and is steady in pain and pleasure becomes fit for salvation. (2.15)
We do not know which alternative to fight or to quit is better for us. Further, we do not know whether we shall conquer them or they will conquer us. We should not even wish to live after killing our cousin brothers, who are standing in front of us. (2.06)
THE SPIRIT IS ETERNAL, BODY IS TRANSITORY The invisible Spirit (Atma, Atman) is eternal, and the visible physical body, is transitory. The reality of these two is indeed certainly seen by the seers of truth. (2.16)
My senses are overcome by the weakness of pity, and my mind is confused about duty (Dharma). Please tell me what is better for me. I am Your disciple, and I take refuge in You. (2.07)
The Spirit by whom this entire universe is pervaded is indestructible. No one can destroy the imperishable Spirit. (2.17)
I do not perceive that gaining an unrivaled and prosperous kingdom on this earth, or even lordship over all the celestial controllers will remove the sorrow that is drying up my senses. (2.08)
The physical bodies of the eternal, immutable, and incomprehensible Spirit are perishable. Therefore fight, O Arjuna. (2.18)
Sanjaya said: O King, after speaking like this to Lord Krishna, the mighty Arjuna said to Krishna: I shall not fight, and became silent. (2.09)
The one who thinks that the Spirit is a slayer, and the one who thinks the Spirit is slain, both are ignorant. Because the Spirit neither slays nor is slain. (2.19)
O King, Lord Krishna, as if smiling, spoke these words to the distressed Arjuna in the midst of the two armies. (2.10)
The Spirit is neither born nor does it die at any time. It does not come into being, or cease to exist. It is unborn,
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eternal, permanent, and primeval. The Spirit is not destroyed when the body is destroyed. (2.20)
People will talk about your disgrace forever. To the honored, dishonor is worse than death. (2.34)
O Arjuna, how can a person who knows that the Spirit is indestructible, eternal, unborn, and immutable, kill anyone or causes anyone to be killed? (2.21)
The great warriors will think that you have retreated from the battle out of fear. Those who have greatly esteemed you will lose respect for you. (2.35)
DEATH AND TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL
Your enemies will speak many unmentionable words and scorn your ability. What could be more painful to you than this? (2.36)
Just as a person puts on new garments after discarding the old ones; similarly, the living entity or the individual soul acquires new bodies after casting away the old bodies. (2.22)
You will go to heaven if killed on the line of duty, or you will enjoy the kingdom on the earth if victorious. Therefore, get up with a determination to fight, O Arjuna. (2.37)
Weapons do not cut this Spirit, fire does not burn it, water does not make it wet, and the wind does not make it dry. The Spirit cannot be cut, burned, wetted, or dried. It is eternal, all pervading, unchanging, immovable, and primeval. (2.23‐24)
Treating pleasure and pain, gain and loss, and victory and defeat alike, engage yourself in your duty. By doing your duty this way you will not incur sin. (2.38) IMPORTANCE OF KARMA‐YOGA, THE SELFLESS SERVICE
The Spirit is said to be unexplainable, incomprehensible, and unchanging. Knowing the Spirit as such you should not grieve. (2.25)
The science of transcendental knowledge has been imparted to you, O Arjuna. Now listen to the science of selfless service (Seva), endowed with which you will free yourself from all Karmic bondage, or sin. (2.39)
Even if you think that the physical body takes birth and dies perpetually, even then, O Arjuna, you should not grieve like this. Because death is certain for the one who is born, and birth is certain for the one who dies. Therefore, you should not lament over the inevitable. (2.26‐27)
No effort is ever lost in selfless service, and there is no adverse effect. Even a little practice of the discipline of selfless service protects one from the great fear of repeated birth and death. (2.40)
All beings are unmanifest, or invisible to our physical eyes before birth and after death. They manifest between the birth and the death only. What is there to grieve about? (2.28)
A selfless worker has resolute determination for God‐ realization, but the desires of the one who works to enjoy the fruits of work are endless. (2.41)
THE INDESTRUCTIBLE SPIRIT TRANSCENDS MIND AND SPEECH
THE VEDAS DEAL WITH BOTH MATERIAL AND SPIRITUAL ASPECTS OF LIFE
Some look upon this Spirit as a wonder, another describes it as wonderful, and others hear of it as a wonder. Even after hearing about it very few people know what the Spirit is. (See also KaU 2.07) (2.29)
The misguided ones who delight in the melodious chanting of the Veda without understanding the real purpose of the Vedas think, O Arjuna, as if there is nothing else in the Vedas except the rituals for the sole purpose of obtaining heavenly enjoyment. (2.42)
O Arjuna, the Spirit that dwells in the body of all beings is eternally indestructible. Therefore, you should not mourn for anybody. (2.30)
They are dominated by material desires, and consider the attainment of heaven as the highest goal of life. They engage in specific rites for the sake of prosperity and enjoyment. Rebirth is the result of their action. (2.43)
LORD KRISHNA REMINDS ARJUNA OF HIS DUTY AS A WARRIOR
The resolute determination of Self‐realization is not formed in the minds of those who are attached to pleasure and power, and whose judgment is obscured by ritualistic activities. (2.44)
Considering also your duty as a warrior you should not waver like this. Because there is nothing more auspicious for a warrior than a righteous war. (2.31)
A portion of the Vedas deals with three modes — goodness, passion, and ignorance — of material Nature. Become free from pairs of opposites, be ever balanced and unconcerned with the thoughts of acquisition and preservation. Rise above these three modes, and be Self‐ conscious, O Arjuna. (2.45)
Only the fortunate warriors, O Arjuna, get such an opportunity for an unsought war that is like an open door to heaven. (2.32) If you will not fight this righteous war, then you will fail in your duty, lose your reputation, and incur sin. (2.33)
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from attachment, fear, and anger, is called an enlightened sage of steady intellect. (2.56)
To a Self‐realized person the Vedas are as useful as a small reservoir of water when the water of a huge lake becomes available. (2.46)
The mind and intellect of a person become steady who is not attached to anything, who is neither elated by getting desired results, nor perturbed by undesired results. (2.57)
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF KARMA‐YOGA
When one can completely withdraw the senses from the sense objects as a tortoise withdraws its limbs into the shell for protection from calamity, then the intellect of such a person is considered steady. (2.58)
You have control over doing your respective duty only, but no control or claim over the results. The fruits of work should not be your motive, and you should never be inactive. (2.47)
The desire for sensual pleasures fades away if one abstains from sense enjoyment, but the craving for sense enjoyment remains in a very subtle form. This subtle craving also completely disappears from the one who knows the Supreme Being. (2.59)
Do your duty to the best of your ability, O Arjuna, with your mind attached to the Lord, abandoning worry and selfish attachment to the results, and remaining calm in both success and failure. The selfless service is a yogic practice that brings peace and equanimity of mind. (2.48) Work done with selfish motives is inferior by far to the selfless service. Therefore be a selfless worker, O Arjuna. Those who work only to enjoy the fruits of their labor are verily unhappy, because one has no control over the results. (2.49)
DANGERS OF UNRESTRAINED SENSES Restless senses, O Arjuna, forcibly carry away the mind of even a wise person striving for perfection. (2.60) One should fix one’s mind on God with loving contemplation after bringing the senses under control. One’s intellect becomes steady when one’s senses are under complete control. (2.61)
A Karma‐yogi or the selfless person becomes free from both vice and virtue in this life itself. Therefore, strive for selfless service. Working to the best of one’s abilities without becoming selfishly attached to the fruits of work is called Karma‐yoga or Seva. (2.50)
One develops attachment to sense objects by thinking about sense objects. Desire for sense objects comes from attachment to sense objects, and anger comes from unfulfilled desires. (2.62)
Karma‐yogis are freed from the bondage of rebirth due to renouncing the selfish attachment to the fruits of all work, and attain blissful divine state of salvation or Nirvana. (2.51)
Delusion or wild idea arises from anger. The mind is bewildered by delusion. Reasoning is destroyed when the mind is bewildered. One falls down from the right path when reasoning is destroyed. (2.63)
When your intellect will completely pierce the veil of confusion, then you will become indifferent to what has been heard and what is to be heard from the scriptures. (2.52)
ATTAINMENT OF PEACE AND HAPPINESS THROUGH SENSE CONTROL AND KNOWLEDGE
When your intellect, that is confused by the conflicting opinions and the ritualistic doctrine of the Vedas, shall stay steady and firm on concentration of the Supreme Being, then you shall attain union with the Supreme in trance. (2.53)
A disciplined person, enjoying sense objects with senses that are under control and free from attachments and aversions, attains tranquillity. (2.64)
Arjuna said: O Krishna, what are the marks of an enlightened person whose intellect is steady? What does a person of steady intellect think and talk about? How does such a person behave with others, and live in this world? (2.54)
All sorrows are destroyed upon attainment of tranquillity. The intellect of such a tranquil person soon becomes completely steady and united with the Supreme. (2.65) There is neither Self‐knowledge, nor Self‐perception to those who are not united with the Supreme. Without Self‐ perception there is no peace, and without peace there can be no happiness. (2.66)
MARKS OF A SELF‐REALIZED PERSON Lord Krishna said: When one is completely free from all desires of the mind and is satisfied with the Supreme Being by the joy of Supreme Being, then one is called an enlightened person, O Arjuna. (2.55)
Because the mind, when controlled by the roving senses, steals away the intellect as a storm takes away a boat on the sea from its destination the spiritual shore of peace and happiness. (2.67)
A person whose mind is unperturbed by sorrow, who does not crave pleasures, and who is completely free
Therefore, O Arjuna, one’s intellect becomes steady whose senses are completely withdrawn from the sense objects. (2.68)
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A yogi, the person of self‐restraint, remains wakeful when it is night for all others. It is night for the yogi who sees when all others are wakeful. (2.69)
One who abandons all desires, and becomes free from longing and the feeling of 'I' and 'my', attains peace. (2.71) O Arjuna, this is the superconscious state of mind. Attaining this state, one is no longer deluded. Gaining this state, even at the end of one’s life, a person becomes one with the Absolute. (2.72).
One attains peace, within whose mind all desires dissipate without creating any mental disturbance, as river waters enter the full ocean without creating any disturbance. One who desires material objects is never peaceful. (2.70)
CHAPTER 18 SALVATION THROUGH RENUNCIATION Arjuna said: I wish to know the nature of renunciation and sacrifice, and the difference between the two, O Lord Krishna. (18.01)
Human beings cannot completely abstain from work. Therefore, the one who completely renounces the selfish attachment to the fruits of all works is considered a renunciant. (18.11)
DEFINITION OF RENUNCIATION AND SACRIFICE
The threefold fruit of works — desirable, undesirable, and mixed accrues after death to the one who is not a renunciant (Tyagi), but never to a Tyagi. (18.12)
Lord Krishna said: The sages define renunciation as abstaining from all work for personal profit. The wise define sacrifice as the sacrifice of, and the freedom from, the selfish attachment to the fruits of all work. (See also 5.01, 5.05, and 6.01) (18.02)
FIVE CAUSES OF ANY ACTION Learn from Me, O Arjuna, the five causes, as described in the Sankhya doctrine, for the accomplishment of all actions. They are: The physical body, the seat of Karma; the modes of material Nature, the doer; the eleven organs of perception and action, the instruments; various bioimpulses; and the fifth is the presiding deities of the eleven organs. (18.13‐14)
Some philosophers say that all work is full of faults and should be given up, while others say that acts of sacrifice, charity, and austerity should not be abandoned. (18.03) O Arjuna, listen to My conclusion about sacrifice. Sacrifice is said to be of three types. (18.04) Acts of service, charity, and austerity should not be abandoned, but should be performed, because service, charity, and austerity are the purifiers of the wise. (18.05)
Whatever action, whether right or wrong, one performs by thought, word, and deed; these are its five causes. (18.15) Therefore, the ignorant one who considers one’s body or the soul as the sole agent due to imperfect knowledge does not understand. (18.16)
Even these obligatory works should be performed without attachment to the fruits. This is My definite supreme advice, O Arjuna. (18.06)
The one who is free from the notion of doership, and whose intellect is not polluted by the desire to reap the fruit; even after slaying these people, he or she neither slays nor is bound by the act of killing. (18.17)
THREE TYPES OF SACRIFICE Giving up one's duty is not proper. The abandonment of obligatory work is due to delusion, and is declared to be in the mode of ignorance. (18.07)
The subject, the object, and the knowledge of the object are the threefold driving force to an action. The eleven organs; the act, and the agent or the modes of material Nature are the three components of action. (18.18)
One who abandons duty merely because it is difficult, or because of fear of bodily trouble, does not get the benefits of sacrifice by performing such a sacrifice in the mode of passion. (18.08)
THREE TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
Obligatory work performed as duty, renouncing selfish attachment to the fruit, is alone regarded to be sacrifice in the mode of goodness, O Arjuna. (18.09)
Self‐knowledge, action), and agent are said to be of three types according to Sankhya doctrine. Hear duly about these also. (18.19)
The one who neither hates a disagreeable work, nor is attached to an agreeable work, is considered a renunciant (Tyagi), imbued with the mode of goodness, intelligent, and free from all doubts about the Supreme Being. (18.10)
The knowledge by which one sees a single immutable Reality in all beings as undivided in the divided; such knowledge is in the mode of goodness. (See also 11.13, and 13.16) (18.20)
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The knowledge by which one sees different realities of various types among all beings as separate from one another; consider that knowledge to be in the mode of passion. (18.21)
THREE TYPES OF RESOLVE, AND THE FOUR GOALS OF HUMAN LIFE The resolve by which one manipulates the functions of the mind, Prana (bioimpulses), and senses for God‐realization only; that resolve is in the mode of goodness, O Arjuna. (18.33)
The irrational, baseless, and worthless knowledge by which one clings to one single effect (such as the body) as if it is everything; such knowledge is declared to be in the mode of darkness of ignorance (18.22)
The resolve by which a person, craving for the fruits of work, clings to duty, accumulating wealth, and enjoyment with great attachment; that resolve, O Arjuna, is in the mode of passion. (18.34)
THREE TYPES OF ACTION The obligatory duty performed without likes and dislikes, and without selfish motives and attachment to enjoy the fruit, is said to be in the mode of goodness. (18.23)
The resolve by which a dull person does not give up sleep, fear, grief, despair, and carelessness; that resolve is in the mode of ignorance, O Arjuna. (18.35)
Action performed with ego, with selfish motives, and with too much effort; is declared to be in the mode of passion. (18.24)
THREE TYPES OF PLEASURE And now hear from Me, O Arjuna, about the threefold pleasure. The pleasure one enjoys from spiritual practice results in cessation of all sorrows. (18.36)
Action that is undertaken because of delusion; disregarding consequences, loss, injury to others, as well as one’s own ability is said to be in the mode of ignorance. (18.25)
The pleasure that appears as poison in the beginning, but is like nectar in the end, comes by the grace of Self‐ knowledge, and is in the mode of goodness. (18.37)
THREE TYPES OF AGENT
Sensual pleasures appear as nectar in the beginning, but become poison in the end; such pleasures are in the mode of passion. (See also 5.22) (18.38)
The agent who is free from attachment, is non‐egotistic, endowed with resolve and enthusiasm, and unperturbed in success or failure is called good. (18.26) The agent who is impassioned, attached to the fruits of their work, greedy, violent, impure, and is affected by joy and sorrow is called passionate. (18.27)
Pleasure that confuses a person in the beginning and in the end; which comes from sleep, laziness, and carelessness; such pleasure is said to be in the mode of ignorance. (18.39)
The undisciplined, vulgar, stubborn, wicked, malicious, lazy, depressed, and procrastinating agent is called ignorant. (18.28)
There is no being, either on the earth or among the celestial controllers in the heaven, who can remain free from these three modes of material Nature. (18.40)
THREE TYPES OF INTELLECT
DIVISION OF LABOR IS BASED ON ONE’S ABILITY
Now hear the threefold division of intellect and resolve, based on modes of material Nature, as explained by Me fully and separately, O Arjuna. (18.29)
The division of human labor is also based on the qualities inherent in peoples’ nature or their make up. (See also 4.13) (18.41)
O Arjuna, the intellect by which one understands the path of work and the path of renunciation, right and wrong action, fear and fearlessness, bondage and liberation, that intellect is in the mode of goodness. (18.30)
Those who have serenity, self control, austerity, purity, patience, honesty, transcendental knowledge, transcendental experience, and belief in God are labeled as intellectuals (Braahmans). (18.42)
The intellect by which one cannot distinguish between righteousness (Dharma) and unrighteousness (Adharma), and right and wrong action; that intellect is in the mode of passion, O Arjuna. (18.31)
Those having the qualities of heroism, vigor, firmness, dexterity, not fleeing from battle, charity, and administrative skills are called leaders or protectors (Kshatriyas). (18.43)
The intellect when covered by ignorance accepts unrighteousness (Adharma) as righteousness (Dharma), and thinks everything to be that which it is not, is in the mode of ignorance, O Arjuna. (18.32)
Those who are good in cultivation, cattle rearing, business, trade, finance, and industry are known as business men (Vaishyas). Those who are very good in service and labor type work only are classed as workers (Shudras). (18.44)
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THE KARMIC BONDAGE
ATTAINMENT OF SALVATION THROUGH DUTY, DISCIPLINE, AND DEVOTION
If due to ego you think: I shall not fight; this resolve of yours is vain. Because your own nature will compel you to fight. (18.59)
One can attain the highest perfection by devotion to one’s natural work. Listen to Me how one attains perfection while engaged in one’s natural work. (18.45)
O Arjuna, you are controlled by your own nature‐born Karmic impressions. Therefore, you shall do even against your will what you do not wish to do out of delusion. (18.60)
One attains perfection by worshipping the Supreme Being from whom all beings originate, and by whom all this universe is pervaded through performance of one’s natural duty for Him. (See also 9.27, 12.10) (18.46)
WE BECOME THE PUPPETS OF OUR OWN FREEWILL
One’s inferior natural work is better than superior unnatural work even though well performed. One who does the work ordained by one’s inherent nature, without any selfish motive, incurs no sin (or Karmic reaction). (See also 3.35) (18.47)
The Supreme Lord — as the controller abiding in the inner psyche of all beings — causes them to work out their Karma like a puppet (of Karma created by the free will) mounted on a machine. (18.61)
One’s natural work, even though defective, should not be abandoned; because all undertakings are enveloped by defects as fire is covered by smoke, O Arjuna. (18.48)
Seek refuge in the Supreme Lord alone with loving devotion, O Arjuna. By His grace you shall attain supreme peace and the Eternal Abode. (18.62)
The person whose mind is always free from selfish attachment, who has subdued the mind and senses, and who is free from desires attains the supreme perfection of freedom from the bondage of Karma by renouncing selfish attachment to the fruits of work. (18.49)
Thus the knowledge that is more secret than the secret has been explained to you by Me. After fully reflecting on this, do as you wish. (18.63) PATH OF SURRENDER IS THE ULTIMATE PATH TO GOD
Learn from Me briefly, O Arjuna, how one who has attained such perfection, or the freedom from the bondage of Karma, attains Supreme Being, the goal of transcendental knowledge. (18.50)
Hear once again My most secret, supreme word. You are very dear to Me, therefore, I shall tell this for your benefit. (18.64)
Endowed with purified intellect, subduing the mind with firm resolve, turning away from sound and other objects of the senses, giving up likes and dislikes; living in solitude, eating lightly, controlling the mind, speech, and organs of action, ever absorbed in yoga of meditation, taking refuge in detachment; and after relinquishing egotism, violence, pride, lust, anger, and proprietorship; one becomes peaceful, free from the notion of "I, me, and my", and fit for attaining oneness with the Supreme Being. (18.51‐53)
Fix your mind on Me, be devoted to Me, offer service to Me, bow down to Me, and you shall certainly reach Me. I promise you because you are My very dear friend. (18.65) Set aside all meritorious deeds and religious rituals, and just surrender completely to My will with firm faith and loving devotion. I shall liberate you from all sins, the bonds of Karma. Do not grieve. (18.66) This knowledge should never be spoken by you to one who is devoid of austerity, who is without devotion, who does not desire to listen, or who speaks ill of Me. (18.67)
Absorbed in the Supreme Being, the serene one neither grieves nor desires; becoming impartial to all beings, one obtains the highest devotional love for God. (18.54) By devotion one truly understands what and who I am in essence. Having known Me in essence, one immediately merges with Me. (See also 5.19) (18.55)
THE HIGHEST SERVICE TO GOD, AND THE BEST CHARITY The one who shall propagate this supreme secret philosophy the transcendental knowledge of the Gita amongst My devotees, shall be performing the highest devotional service to Me, and shall certainly come to Me. No other person shall do a more pleasing service to Me, and no one on the earth shall be more dear to Me. (18.68‐69)
A Karma‐yogi devotee attains the eternal immutable abode by My grace even while doing all duties just by taking refuge in Me (by surrendering all action to Me with loving devotion). (18.56) Sincerely offer all actions to Me, set Me as your supreme goal, and completely depend on Me. Always fix your mind on Me, and resort to Karma‐yoga. (18.57)
GRACE OF THE GITA
You shall overcome all difficulties by My grace when your mind becomes fixed on Me. But, if you do not listen to Me due to ego, you shall perish. (18.58)
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I promise the study of this sacred dialogue of ours will be equivalent to worshipping Me with knowledge‐sacrifice. (18.70)
By the grace of sage Vyasa, I heard this most secret and supreme yoga directly from Krishna, the Lord of yoga, Himself speaking to Arjuna before my very eyes of clairvoyance granted by sage Vyasa. (18.75)
Whoever hears this sacred dialogue with faith and without cavil becomes free from sin, and attains heaven the higher worlds of those whose actions are pure and virtuous. (18.71)
O King, by repeated remembrance of this marvelous and sacred dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna, I am thrilled at every moment; and (18.76)
O Arjuna, did you listen to this with single‐minded attention? Has your delusion born of ignorance been completely destroyed? (18.72)
Recollecting again and again, O King, that marvelous form of Krishna I am greatly amazed and I rejoice over and over again. (18.77)
Arjuna said: By Your grace my delusion is destroyed, I have gained Self‐knowledge, my confusion with regard to body and Spirit is dispelled and I shall obey Your command. (18.73)
BOTH TRANSCENDENTAL KNOWLEDGE AND ACTION ARE NEEDED FOR A BALANCED LIVING Wherever there will be both Krishna, the Lord of yoga, or Dharma in the form of the scriptures, and Arjuna with the weapons of duty and protection; there will be everlasting prosperity, victory, happiness, and morality. This is my conviction. (18.78)
Sanjaya said: Thus I heard this wonderful dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna, causing my hair to stand on end. (18.74)
Recent Messages from Spiritual Leaders: Swami Vivekananda was an Indian Hindu monk and a key figure in the introduction of Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the western world. Among his many accomplishments, he may best be known for his inspiring speech through which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of World Religions in Chicago in 1893. This meeting was the first attempt to create a global dialogue of faiths.
The World Parliament of Religions, Chicago WELCOME ADDRESS – Chicago, Sept 11, 1893 Sisters and Brothers of America, It fills my heart with joy unspeakable to rise in response to the warm and cordial welcome which you have given us. I thank you in the name of the most ancient order of monks in the world; I thank you in the name of the mother of religions, and I thank you in the name of millions and millions of Hindu people of all classes and sects. My thanks, also, to some of the speakers on this platform who, referring to the delegates from the Orient, have told you that these men from far‐off nations may well claim the honor of bearing to different lands the idea of toleration. I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world both tolerance and universal acceptance. We believe not only in universal toleration, but we accept all religions as true. I am proud to belong to a nation which has sheltered the persecuted and the
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refugees of all religions and all nations of the earth. I am proud to tell you that we have gathered in our bosom the purest remnant of the Israelites, who came to Southern India and took refuge with us in the very year in which their holy temple was shattered to pieces by Roman tyranny. I am proud to belong to the religion which has sheltered and is still fostering the remnant of the grand Zoroastrian nation. I will quote to you, brethren, a few lines from a hymn which I remember to have repeated from my earliest boyhood, which is every day repeated by millions of human beings: “As the different streams having their sources in different paths which men take through different tendencies, various though they appear, crooked or straight, all lead to Thee.” The present convention, which is one of the most august assemblies ever held, is in itself a vindication, a declaration to the world of the wonderful doctrine preached in the Gita: “Whosoever comes to Me, through whatsoever form, I reach him; all men are struggling through paths which in the end lead to me.” Sectarianism, bigotry, and its horrible descendant, fanaticism, have long possessed this beautiful earth. They have filled the earth with violence, drenched it often and often with human blood, destroyed civilization and sent whole nations to despair. Had it not been for these horrible demons, human society would be far more advanced than it is now. But their time is come; and I fervently hope that the bell that tolled this morning in honor of this convention may be the death‐knell of all fanaticism, of all persecutions with the sword or with the pen, and of all uncharitable feelings between persons wending their way to the same goal.
Words to Know: ahimsa atman bhakti brahmin dharma guru karma mantra om samsara tantra varna yoga
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Hopi (Native American) The Hopi have maintained a religious and mythological tradition over centuries. However, a definitive statement of accepted beliefs is difficult for several reasons: 1) as with many other oral traditions, Hopi mythology is not always consistent, 2) each Hopi mesa or village may have particular versions of stories, and 3) the reticence to speak of sacred things to outsiders. Brief History: As with other Native American tribes, the Hopi have passed through periods of trading, attempted conversion to Christianity, assigned to reservations by the US government, and compulsory education in government schools. In the early 20th century they were formally recognized as US citizens and allowed to establish a constitution to create their own tribal government. Basic Beliefs: Hopi legend tells that the current earth is the Fourth World to be inhabited by the Sun Spirit’s creations. In every previous world the people started happy but became disobedient and lived contrary to the Sun Spirit’s plan. The most obedient were lead to the next higher world while the rest were left behind and destroyed. Upon their arrival in the Fourth World, the Hopi divided and migrated. Tradition speaks of a continuous cycle of starting as a unified community, experiencing inevitable disagreement, and splitting into separate clans. As the clans traveled, they would join with other large groups, only to have these associations disband, and then be reformed with other clans. This pattern of alternating periods of harmonious living followed by wickedness, contention, and separation play an important part in the Hopi myths.
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Humanism Humanists disagree on whether or not this worldview is religious. Those who see it as a philosophy are Secular Humanists while those who see it as a religion are Religious Humanists. Humanism is a progressive philosophy of life that affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity. Website: www.americanhumanist.org Brief History: Beginning with the Renaissance, a movement dedicated to human betterment and the spreading of knowledge. With the development of an important split between reason and religion, Humanism grew. The Progressive Era in the United States gave currency to the many liberal causes that Humanism was meant to champion, culminating in the publication of the Humanist Manifesto in 1933. Subsequent wars and conflicts demonstrating the brutality of which humanity is capable made those early statements seem far too optimistic. The Humanist Manifesto II was written in 1973 to offer a renewed vision of hope for the cause. In 2000, a third successor entitled Humanism and Its Aspirations lists six primary beliefs which echo themes from its predecessors. Other manifestos have also been written. Basic Beliefs: Summarized from Humanism and Its Aspirations:
Knowledge of the world is derived through empiricism Unguided evolutionary change Ethical naturalism Personal fulfillment emerges from individual participation in the service of humane ideals Humans are social beings and find meaning in relationships Individual happiness comes from working to benefit society
Central Texts: Humanist Manifesto I (1933) The Manifesto is a product of many minds. It was designed to represent a developing point of view, not a new creed. The individuals whose signatures appear would, had they been writing individual statements, have stated the propositions in differing terms. The importance of the document is that more than thirty men have come to general agreement on matters of final concern and that these men are undoubtedly representative of a large number who are forging a new philosophy out of the materials of the modern world. ‐ Raymond B. Bragg (1933)
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The time has come for widespread recognition of the radical changes in religious beliefs throughout the modern world. The time is past for mere revision of traditional attitudes. Science and economic change have disrupted the old beliefs. Religions the world over are under the necessity of coming to terms with new conditions created by a vastly increased knowledge and experience. In every field of human activity, the vital movement is now in the direction of a candid and explicit humanism. In order that religious humanism may be better understood we, the undersigned, desire to make certain affirmations which we believe the facts of our contemporary life demonstrate. There is great danger of a final, and we believe fatal, identification of the word religion with doctrines and methods which have lost their significance and which are powerless to solve the problem of human living in the Twentieth Century. Religions have always been means for realizing the highest values of life. Their end has been accomplished through the interpretation of the total environing situation (theology or world view), the sense of values resulting therefrom (goal or ideal), and the technique (cult), established for realizing the satisfactory life. A change in any of these factors results in alteration of the outward forms of religion. This fact explains the changefulness of religions through the centuries. But through all changes religion itself remains constant in its quest for abiding values, an inseparable feature of human life. Today man's larger understanding of the universe, his scientific achievements, and deeper appreciation of brotherhood, have created a situation which requires a new statement of the means and purposes of religion. Such a vital, fearless, and frank religion capable of furnishing adequate social goals and personal satisfactions may appear to many people as a complete break with the past. While this age does owe a vast debt to the traditional religions, it is none the less obvious that any religion that can hope to be a synthesizing and dynamic force for today must be shaped for the needs of this age. To establish such a religion is a major necessity of the present. It is a responsibility which rests upon this generation. We therefore affirm the following: FIRST: Religious humanists regard the universe as self‐existing and not created. SECOND: Humanism believes that man is a part of nature and that he has emerged as a result of a continuous process. THIRD: Holding an organic view of life, humanists find that the traditional dualism of mind and body must be rejected. FOURTH: Humanism recognizes that man's religious culture and civilization, as clearly depicted by anthropology and history, are the product of a gradual development due to his interaction with his natural environment and with his social heritage. The individual born into a particular culture is largely molded by that culture. FIFTH: Humanism asserts that the nature of the universe depicted by modern science makes unacceptable any supernatural or cosmic guarantees of human values. Obviously humanism does not deny the possibility of realities as yet undiscovered, but it does insist that the way to determine the existence and value of any and all realities is by means of intelligent inquiry and by the assessment of their relations to human needs. Religion must formulate its hopes and plans in the light of the scientific spirit and method. SIXTH: We are convinced that the time has passed for theism, deism, modernism, and the several varieties of "new thought". SEVENTH: Religion consists of those actions, purposes, and experiences which are humanly significant. Nothing human is alien to the religious. It includes labor, art, science, philosophy, love, friendship, recreation‐‐all that is in its degree expressive of intelligently satisfying human living. The distinction between the sacred and the secular can no longer be maintained. EIGHTH: Religious Humanism considers the complete realization of human personality to be the end of man's life and seeks its development and fulfillment in the here and now. This is the explanation of the humanist's social passion. NINTH: In the place of the old attitudes involved in worship and prayer the humanist finds his religious emotions expressed in a heightened sense of personal life and in a cooperative effort to promote social well‐being. TENTH: It follows that there will be no uniquely religious emotions and attitudes of the kind hitherto associated with belief in the supernatural. ELEVENTH: Man will learn to face the crises of life in terms of his knowledge of their naturalness and probability. Reasonable and manly attitudes will be fostered by education and supported by custom. We assume that humanism will take the path of social and mental hygiene and discourage sentimental and unreal hopes and wishful thinking. TWELFTH: Believing that religion must work increasingly for joy in living, religious humanists aim to foster the creative in man and to encourage achievements that add to the satisfactions of life.
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THIRTEENTH: Religious humanism maintains that all associations and institutions exist for the fulfillment of human life. The intelligent evaluation, transformation, control, and direction of such associations and institutions with a view to the enhancement of human life is the purpose and program of humanism. Certainly religious institutions, their ritualistic forms, ecclesiastical methods, and communal activities must be reconstituted as rapidly as experience allows, in order to function effectively in the modern world. FOURTEENTH: The humanists are firmly convinced that existing acquisitive and profit‐motivated society has shown itself to be inadequate and that a radical change in methods, controls, and motives must be instituted. A socialized and cooperative economic order must be established to the end that the equitable distribution of the means of life be possible. The goal of humanism is a free and universal society in which people voluntarily and intelligently cooperate for the common good. Humanists demand a shared life in a shared world. FIFTEENTH AND LAST: We assert that humanism will: (a) affirm life rather than deny it; (b) seek to elicit the possibilities of life, not flee from them; and (c) endeavor to establish the conditions of a satisfactory life for all, not merely for the few. By this positive morale and intention humanism will be guided, and from this perspective and alignment the techniques and efforts of humanism will flow. So stand the theses of religious humanism. Though we consider the religious forms and ideas of our fathers no longer adequate, the quest for the good life is still the central task for mankind. Man is at last becoming aware that he alone is responsible for the realization of the world of his dreams, that he has within himself the power for its achievement. He must set intelligence and will to the task. (Signed) J.A.C. Fagginger Auer—Parkman Professor of Church History and Theology, Harvard University; Professor of Church History, Tufts College. E. Burdette Backus—Unitarian Minister. Harry Elmer Barnes—General Editorial Department, ScrippsHoward Newspapers. L.M. Birkhead—The Liberal Center, Kansas City, Missouri. Raymond B. Bragg—Secretary, Western Unitarian Conference. Edwin Arthur Burtt—Professor of Philosophy, Sage School of Philosophy, Cornell University. Ernest Caldecott—Minister, First Unitarian Church, Los Angeles, California. A.J. Carlson—Professor of Physiology, University of Chicago. John Dewey—Columbia University. Albert C. Dieffenbach—Formerly Editor of The Christian Register. John H. Dietrich—Minister, First Unitarian Society, Minneapolis. Bernard Fantus—Professor of Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Illinois. William Floyd—Editor of The Arbitrator, New York City. F.H. Hankins—Professor of Economics and Sociology, Smith College. A. Eustace Haydon—Professor of History of Religions, University of Chicago. Llewellyn Jones—Literary critic and author. Robert Morss Lovett—Editor, The New Republic; Professor of English, University of Chicago. Harold P Marley—Minister, The Fellowship of Liberal Religion, Ann Arbor, Michigan. R. Lester Mondale—Minister, Unitarian Church, Evanston, Illinois. Charles Francis Potter—Leader and Founder, the First Humanist Society of New York, Inc. John Herman Randall, Jr.—Department of Philosophy, Columbia University. Curtis W. Reese—Dean, Abraham Lincoln Center, Chicago. Oliver L. Reiser—Associate Professor of Philosophy, University of Pittsburgh. Roy Wood Sellars—Professor of Philosophy, University of Michigan. Clinton Lee Scott—Minister, Universalist Church, Peoria, Illinois. Maynard Shipley—President, The Science League of America. W. Frank Swift—Director, Boston Ethical Society. V.T. Thayer—Educational Director, Ethical Culture Schools. Eldred C. Vanderlaan—Leader of the Free Fellowship, Berkeley, California. Joseph Walker—Attorney, Boston, Massachusetts. Jacob J. Weinstein—Rabbi; Advisor to Jewish Students, Columbia University. Frank S.C. Wicks—All Souls Unitarian Church, Indianapolis. David Rhys Williams—Minister, Unitarian Church, Rochester, New York. Edwin H. Wilson—Managing Editor, The New Humanist, Chicago, IL; Minister, Third Unitarian Church, Chicago, Illinois. Copyright © 1933 by The New Humanist and 1973 by the American Humanist Association
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Humanist Manifesto II (1973) Humanism and Its Aspirations (2000) Humanist Manifesto III, a successor to the Humanist Manifesto of 1933* Humanism is a progressive philosophy of life that, without supernaturalism, affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity. The lifestance of Humanism—guided by reason, inspired by compassion, and informed by experience—encourages us to live life well and fully. It evolved through the ages and continues to develop through the efforts of thoughtful people who recognize that values and ideals, however carefully wrought, are subject to change as our knowledge and understandings advance. This document is part of an ongoing effort to manifest in clear and positive terms the conceptual boundaries of Humanism, not what we must believe but a consensus of what we do believe. It is in this sense that we affirm the following: Knowledge of the world is derived by observation, experimentation, and rational analysis. Humanists find that science is the best method for determining this knowledge as well as for solving problems and developing beneficial technologies. We also recognize the value of new departures in thought, the arts, and inner experience—each subject to analysis by critical intelligence. Humans are an integral part of nature, the result of unguided evolutionary change. Humanists recognize nature as self‐existing. We accept our life as all and enough, distinguishing things as they are from things as we might wish or imagine them to be. We welcome the challenges of the future, and are drawn to and undaunted by the yet to be known. Ethical values are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience. Humanists ground values in human welfare shaped by human circumstances, interests, and concerns and extended to the global ecosystem and beyond. We are committed to treating each person as having inherent worth and dignity, and to making informed choices in a context of freedom consonant with responsibility. Life's fulfillment emerges from individual participation in the service of humane ideals. We aim for our fullest possible development and animate our lives with a deep sense of purpose, finding wonder and awe in the joys and beauties of human existence, its challenges and tragedies, and even in the inevitability and finality of death. Humanists rely on the rich heritage of human culture and the lifestance of Humanism to provide comfort in times of want and encouragement in times of plenty. Humans are social by nature and find meaning in relationships. Humanists long for and strive toward a world of mutual care and concern, free of cruelty and its consequences, where differences are resolved cooperatively without resorting to violence. The joining of individuality with interdependence enriches our lives, encourages us to enrich the lives of others, and inspires hope of attaining peace, justice, and opportunity for all. Working to benefit society maximizes individual happiness. Progressive cultures have worked to free humanity from the brutalities of mere survival and to reduce suffering, improve society, and develop global community. We seek to minimize the inequities of circumstance and ability, and we support a just distribution of nature's resources and the fruits of human effort so that as many as possible can enjoy a good life. Humanists are concerned for the well being of all, are committed to diversity, and respect those of differing yet humane views. We work to uphold the equal enjoyment of human rights and civil liberties in an open, secular society and maintain it is a civic duty to participate in the democratic process and a planetary duty to protect nature's integrity, diversity, and beauty in a secure, sustainable manner. Thus engaged in the flow of life, we aspire to this vision with the informed conviction that humanity has the ability to progress toward its highest ideals. The responsibility for our lives and the kind of world in which we live is ours and ours alone. For historical purposes, see preceding Humanist Manifestos: I and II. Humanist Manifesto is a trademark of the American Humanist Association‐© 2003 American Humanist Association Noteable signers: see http://www.americanhumanist.org/Humanism/Humanist_Manifesto_III/Notable_Signers
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Islam Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in the world and in the United States. Because of its vast geographic expanse, certain cultural practices, interpretations, and realities of Islam vary, though there are certain shared core beliefs. Despite the cultural diversity and wide geographic disperse, myths, stereotypes, and misinformation about Islam and Muslims abound. Many in the West know little about the faith and are familiar only with the actions of a minority of radical extremists. During the dark ages of the West, Islamic culture flourished with vast Islamic empires and a rich and dynamic civilization of arts, architecture, science, and medicine. That ended with the Crusades and European colonialism. Muslims find themselves facing a new millennium in which the old stereotypes of violent religion and people to be feared and fought returned to the spotlight. The future will be a time for deciding how to educate, engage in dialogue with, and find new ways in which to work with and within the West and global civilization. Brief History: The story of Islam begins with a man named Muhammad in Arabia around 600 C.E. At the age of 40 he received his first revelation from God. Eventually, he was able, mainly through military and political means, to gain power in South Arabia. Following his death, a dispute over his successor resulted in a split that exists to this day. Sunni’s believed the rightful successor to be his most loyal companion, Abu Bakr. Shia Muslims believed it should come from Muhammad’s family line. Islam continued to expand through military conquest, conquering Jerusalem in 638 C.E. The high point of Islamic civilization lasted from the 8th to 13th centuries C.E. The Crusades marked the beginning of the end. In the 18th and 19th century, almost every part of the Muslim world was colonized by European powers. Muslims felt humiliated. Three modern day responses have emerged: 1) Decline was due to a departure from Islam; return to true Islam and reject the West, 2) Imitate the West; modernize through secularization and Westernization, and 3) The middle way: Modernize, but in an Islamic way. Estimated Adherents: 1.5 billion Significant Divisions: Sunni, Shi’a Sufi Founder’s Story: Founder: Muhammad
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From the earliest biography of Muhammad by Ibn Ishaq When the apostle of Allah was twenty‐five years old he married Khadija, a rich and noble merchant‐woman who engaged men to sell her merchandise and allowed them part of the profits; the Quraysh was a trading tribe. She had heard of the veracity, honesty, and excellence of the apostle of Allah, and sent for him to propose that he take some of her goods to Syria as a trader. She promised to allow him a larger profit than other merchants, to send with him her male slave, Maysara. The apostle of the offer and departed with the goods and the slave.
concerning the event contained in their sacred books and inherited from their own prophets. One day, according to an Arab tribesman, 'I was lying in the courtyard of our family house and a Jew who conducted business with us told us of the day of judgement, the resurrection, the reckoning, of paradise and of hell. We who were idolaters had no knowledge of the resurrection, and said, "Woe be unto you! Do you think it possible that men will be raised up after death in a place where there is a paradise and a hell, and in which they will be requited according to their acts?" And he assured us, by Him who is sworn by, that he would prefer to be cast into the greatest oven in this world, scorching though it might be and sealed tight, rather than face the torments of hell in the next. My kinsmen said, "What will be the sign?" and he replied, "A prophet will arise in the direction of this country", and pointed towards Mecca and Yemen. They asked, "When will this happen?" and, looking at me, the youngest of the people, he said, "When this boy's life attains maturity he will see him." And by Allah, not a day nor a night passed after that until the time when sent his apostle to live among us during which we did not expect his arrival. But when it came, that refractory and envious Jew refused to become a believer, even after the apostle had promulgated Islam, and we said, "Woe be to you! Did you not yourself inform us about the prophet?" And he replied, "Indeed! But not about this one!" '
On his arrival in Syria the apostle of Allah alighted in the shade of a tree near the hermitage of a monk, who approached Maysara and asked, ‘Who is this man under the tree?’ Maysara replied, ‘This man is one of the Quraysh from the sacred city.’ And the monk said, ‘Under this tree no one ever alighted except a prophet.’ Then the apostle of Allah sold the goods he had, purchased others and returned with Maysara to Mecca. It is said that Maysara saw, at noon during this return journey when the heat was strong, two angels shading the apostle of Allah from the sun while he rode on his camel. When he arrived at Mecca and came to Khadija with his goods, she sold them and found their value doubled or almost so. Maysara, too, informed her of what the monk had said, and what he had seen of the two angels shading the apostle; and Khadija ‐ who was an intelligent, noble and good woman, predestined to great favour by Allah ‐ sent for the apostle of Allah and spoke the following words: 'O son of my uncle! I have taken a liking to you on account of our relationship, your respectability among the people, your honesty, character and veracity.' Then she offered herself to him for a wife. She was at that time the most honoured woman among the Quraysh because of her lineage, the highest in nobility, and the richest in property; for this everybody envied her. When she had made this proposal to the apostle of Allah he mentioned it to his uncles, and his uncle, Hamza, went with him to her father, whom he asked for her; and he married her. The apostle of Allah gave her twenty young camels for a dowry. She was the first wife he married, and he never married another until she died.
There was also a Syrian Jew who paid a visit to the Banu Quraysa,a Jewish tribe, several years before the establishment of Islam and settled down among them; and many later said had never seen a man who did not recite five prayers daily [i.e. was not a Muslim] of a better character than he. He remained with them, and when they suffered from drought they said to him, 'Come, and procure us water!' After being paid with dates and barley, he went out into the fields and prayed to Allah for rain and did not move until clouds came and drenched him. This he did not once, twice or thrice, but many times. As his death approached, he said, 'Why do you think I came away from the land of abundance to the land of misfortune and famine? I have come to this country to await the arrival of a prophet, whose time is near at hand; and it is to this country that he will flee. I hoped he would be sent during my lifetime, that I might follow him. His time is near at hand. Do not allow others to forestall you in believing in his mission; for he will be sent to shed the blood, and to capture the children and women, of those who oppose him; but let not this hinder you from following him.' Years later, when the apostle of Allah besieged the Banu Qurayza, the friends of the dead Jew said, 'By Allah! This is the prophet foretold to us. This is he according to his description!
Khadija bore to the apostle of Allah all his children except Ibrahim. She gave birth to al‐Qasim, and to al‐Tayyib, to al‐ Tahir, to Ruqayya, to Zaynab, to Umm Kulthum and to Fatima. Al‐Qasim, al‐Tayyib and al‐Tahir died during 'ignorance' [before the promulgation of Islam], but all the daughters of the apostle of Allah lived to see the establishment of Islam, made profession of it, and emigrated with him to Medina.
They accordingly came down from their fort, made profession of Islam, and thus preserved their lives, their property and families.
As the time approached for the revelation of the apostle, Jewish priests and Christian monks discussed prophecies
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Like the Jews and Christians, the Arab soothsayers also spoke coming of the coming of an apostle, but their people paid no heed until Allah actually sent him, when, the prophecies made by the soothsayers having been fulfilled, the people became aware of their significance. Whereas the Jews and Christians culled their prophecies from scripture, the Arab soothsayers received their foreknowledge of most events from the djinns, spirits of the air who stole information by listening close to heaven. But when the coming of the apostle was close at hand meteors from heaven were hurled at all the djinns and they were driven away from the places where they used to sit and listen; and they realized that this was by the command of Allah.
them to the coming of Muhammad, to declare him a true apostle, to aid him against every opponent, and to testify to every man who believed in the truth of their own prophetic missions that the mission of Muhammad was still to come. They complied, according to His command, and spread the covenant of Allah to all who believed in them, so that many men who believed in the Old or the New Testament believed also in the truth of this covenant. According to his wife, the first prophetic sign shown by the apostle of Allah ‐ after Allah determined to honour him and, through him, to show mercy to His servants ‐ took the form of true visions. That is to say, the apostle of Allah never had a vision in his sleep; instead, it came like the break of day. She also said that Allah made him love solitude, so that he loved nothing more than to be alone.
The first Arabs to be struck with fear at the sight of the shooting stars ‐ for that was how the meteors thrown at the djinns appeared on earth ‐ went to the wisest man of their tribe and said, 'Have you seen what happened in the sky and the falling of some of the stars?' He replied, 'If the stars thrown down were those which serve as signs and guides by land and sea, those by which the seasons of summer and winter are defined and by which the various affairs of mankind are regulated, then by Allah the world has come to an end with all the people thereof; but if those stars remain in their places and it is others which have been hurled down, then Allah has a different intention and does not mean to destroy creation.'
When Allah had determined on the coming of the apostle of Allah, Muhammad went out on some business at such a distance that he left human habitation behind and came to deep valleys. He did not pass by a stone or a tree but it said 'Salutation to thee, o apostle of Allah!” The apostle turned to his right, to his left, and looked behind, but saw nothing except trees and stones. Thus he remained for some time looking and listening, till Gabriel came to him with that revelation which the grace of Allah was to bestow upon him when he was at Hira during the month of Ramadan.
Afterwards, the apostle of Allah asked some men of Medina what had been said there about the falling stars and was told: 'We said, "A king has died or has begun to reign; a child has been born, or has died." ' The apostle of Allah replied: 'It was not so. When Allah reaches any decision concerning His people He is heard by the bearers of His throne, who praise Him; and this praise is taken up by the angels below them, and by others still further below; and the praise continues to descend until it reaches the sky of this world, where other angels also praise. Then these ask each other why they praise, and the question ascends gradually till it reaches the bearers of the throne. They then, tell of the decree of Allah concerning His people, and the news travels down by degrees until it reaches the heaven of this world, where the angels discuss it. But the evil djinns, who used to listen to such discussions by stealth, sometimes misheard, and what they retailed to soothsayers on earth was sometimes true and sometimes false. The soothsayers also conversed about these matters, some giving true and some false accounts. So, when the coming of the apostle was being discussed by the angels, Allah foiled the evil djinns by hurling meteors, and from that time onwards an end was made to soothsayers.'
Every year the apostle of Allah spent a month praying at Hira and fed the poor who came to him; and when he returned to Mecca he walked round the Kaba seven or more times, as it pleased Allah, before entering his own house. In the month of Ramadan, in the year when Allah designed to bestow grace upon him, the apostle of Allah went to Hira as usual, and his family accompanied him. In the night the angel Gabriel came with the command of Allah. The apostle of Allah later said, 'He came while I was asleep, with a cloth of brocade whereon there was writing, and he said, "Read." I replied, "I cannot read it." Then he pressed the cloth on me till I thought I was dying; he released his hold and said, "Read." I replied, "I cannot read it." And he pressed me again with it, till I thought I was dying. Then he loosed his hold of me and said, "Read." I replied, "I cannot read it." Once more he pressed me and said, "Read." Then I asked, "What shall I read?" And I said this because I feared he would press me again. Then he said, "Read in the name of the Lord thy creator; who created man from a drop of blood. Read, thy Lord is the most bountiful, who taught by means of the pen, taught man what he knew not." Accordingly I read these words, and he had finished his task and departed from me. I awoke from my sleep, and felt as if words had been graven on my heart.'
When Muhammad was forty years old Allah sent him as a prophet of mercy to the people of the visible and of the invisible worlds, and to all mankind.
Afterwards I went out, and when I was on the centre of the mountain, I heard a voice from heaven, saying, "O Muhammad!Thou art the prophet of Allah, and I am Gabriel." I raised my head to look at the sky, and lo! I beheld Gabriel in the shape of a man with extended wings,
With every prophet whom Allah had sent before the time of Muhammad, He had made a covenant, binding each of
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standing in the firmament, with his feet touching the ground. And he said again, "O Muhammad! Thou art the apostle of Allah, and I am Gabriel." I continued to gaze at him, neither advancing nor retreating. Then I turned my face away from him to other parts of the sky, but in whatever direction I looked I saw him in the same form. I remained thus neither advancing nor retreating, and Khadija sent messengers to search for me. They went as far as the highest part of Mecca and again returned to her, while I remained standing on the same spot, until the angel departed from me and I returned to my family.
Mecca, and spurred his heel into the ground towards the valley; a spring gushed forth and Gabriel performed religious ablutions. The apostle of Allah observed how purification for prayers was to be made, and washed himself likewise. Then Gabriel rose and prayed, and the apostle of Allah did so after him, and then Gabriel departed. When the apostle of Allah came to Khadija he performed the religious ablution in her presence to show her how purity was attained, just as Gabriel had done. And she, too, washed as she had been shown. Then the apostle prayed as Gabriel had prayed, and Khadija prayed after him.
When I came to Khadija I narrated to her what I had seen, and she said, "Be of good cheer and comfort thyself! I swear by him whose hand the life of Khadija is, that I hope thou wilt be the prophet of this nation!" Then she rose, collected her garments around her and departed to Waraqa.' She described to him what the apostle of Allah had seen and heard, and Waraqa exclaimed, 'Holy! Holy! I swear to Him in whose hands the life of Waraqa is that the law of Moses has been bestowed on him and he is the prophet of this nation! Tell him to stand firm.' Khadija then returned to the apostle of Allah and informed him of what Waraqa had said.
At his invitation Uthman made profession of Islam, as well as al‐Zubayr, Abdul‐Rahman, Sad b. Abu Waqqas, and Talha. Abu Bakr went with them to the apostle of Allah and they made their profession of Islam and prayed. These eight men preceded all others in Islam; they prayed, they believed in the apostle of Allah, and accepted as true the revelation which had come to him from Allah. Soon several men and women had made their profession of Islam and it was much discussed in Mecca. Then Allah commanded his apostle to make public the revelation and to invite the people to accept it; hitherto, for the three years since his first revelation, it had been kept secret by the apostle. Allah said 'Publish that which thou hast been commanded, and turn away from the idolaters.'
When the apostle of Allah ended his sojourn at Hira he departed to Mecca and went first round the Kaba as was his habit. And he was met by Waraqa, who said, 'Thou wilt be accused of falsehood, thou wilt be persecuted, exiled, and attacked.' Then Waraqa bent his head towards the apostle and kissed him on the crown of the head, and the apostle of Allah departed to his house.
When the apostle began to spread Islam among his people as Allah had commanded him, they did not gainsay him until he began to abuse their idols; but when he had done this, they accused him of seeking power, denied his revelation, and united to injure him. The companions of the apostle of Allah went into the valleys to pray, unknown to the people; and once, whilst Sad and several companions of the apostle were at prayer, they were discovered by idolaters who heaped insults upon them, condemned their deeds, and provoked them to fight. Then Sad struck an idolater with the jawbone of a camel, and wounded him; and this was the first blood shed in Islam.
But the revelations were not continued and the apostle became much downcast, until Gabriel came to him with a message from Allah saying that He had not abandoned Muhammad; 'By brightness, and by the night when it is dark, thy Lord has not forsaken nor hated thee, and the next life will be better for thee than the first. The Lord will give thee victory in this world and reward in the next. Did He not find thee an orphan and procure thee shelter? He found thee erring and guided thee; He found thee needy and enriched thee.' The message to Muhammad continued: 'Declare the goodness of thy Lord; declare what has come to thee from Allah, and declare His bounty and grace in thy mission; mention it, record it, and pray for manifestations of it.' Accordingly the apostle of Allah began, at first in secret to those of his family whom he trusted, to promulgate the gospel bestowed by Allah on him, and on mankind through his agency.
But Abu Talib, uncle of the apostle, defended him. Several nobles of the Quraysh, including Utba and Abu Sufyan, went to Abu Talib and said, 'Your nephew has insulted our gods and condemned our religion. He considers our young men to be fools, and our fathers to have erred. You must either restrain him or allow us free action against him, since your religion is the same as ours, opposed to his.' But the apostle continued to preach the religion of Allah and to seek conversions, and the people hated him. Again they went to Abu Talib and said, 'You are aged, noble, and highly respected among us, and we have already asked you to prohibit your nephew from offending us. But you have not prohibited him, and, by Allah, we shall not overlook his insults unless you guarantee his future good behaviour. Otherwise, we shall fight both him and you.' After this they departed, and Abu Talib was much grieved
Prayer was made an ordinance to Muhammad, and accordingly he prayed. The apostle of Allah was first commanded to make two prayer‐flexions [prostrations] for every prayer, but later Allah commanded four prayer‐flexions for those who were at home, although He confirmed the first ordinance of two prayer flexions for those who were on a journey. When prayer was made obligatory to the apostle of Allah, Gabriel came to him when he was in the highest part of
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by the enmity of his tribe; but he could not surrender or desert the apostle of Allah.
collar bone, and teeth the like of which I have never seen. It rushed to devour me.'
Later, Utba, who was a prince among the Quraysh, said, 'Shall I speak to Muhammad so that he may cease to trouble us?' They said, 'Yes, go and speak to him.' So Utba went to Muhanimad, and said, 'You have disturbed our concord; listen to my proposal and consider it, that you may perchance accept a part thereof. If property be your desire in this affair, we shall collect as much of it as will make you the richest of us; but if dignity be your object, we shall make you our prince so that no affair, will be decided without you; and if you want to be a king, we shall make you our king; but if this be a spirit who visits you and you are unable to repel it, we shall find a physician for you and give him money till he cures you of it.' The apostle of Allah listened and then recited to him a verse from the Koran, and Utba returned to his companions, saying, 'I have heard words the like of which I have never heard. This is neither poetry, nor sorcery, nor soothsaying. Do not interfere with this man or his vocation but let him alone. The words which I have heard will spread far and wide. If others should kill him, you will be rid of him, but if he conquers the Arabs, then his power will be your power, and his glory your glory, so that you will through him become the happiest of people.' But they thought him bewitched.
When Islam began to spread in Mecca, the Quraysh imprisoned its believers or sought to turn them away from Islam. The nobles sent for Muhammad in order to justify themselves, and the apostle of Allah hastened to them in the hope that they had conceived a favourable opinion of what he had told them. But they only accused him once more of seeking riches and power. This he denied, and reaffirmed his mission from Allah. Then they said, 'You know that no people are in greater want of land, of and of food than we are. Ask the Lord who has sent you to take away these mountains which confine us and to level out the country, to cause rivers to gush forth like the rivers of Syria, resurrect our ancestors that we may ask them whether what you say is true or false. If they declare you to be truthful and if you do what we have asked, we shall believe you and shall know that Allah has sent you to be an apostle.' He replied, 'I have not been sent to you with this, but I have brought to you from Allah the revelation He has sent. If you reject it, I appeal in this affair to Allah, that He decide between me and you.' They continued, 'Ask, then, your Lord to send an angel to bear witness to your veracity. Ask Him to give you gardens, and treasures of gold and silver to enrich you; we know you go now to the markets to procure food as we procure it. Then we shall know your rank and station with Allah.' The apostle of Allah said, 'I shall not do this, nor ask for this. I was not sent to you for this; but Allah has sent me as a bearer of glad tidings and a preacher.'
After this, the Quraysh sent al‐Nadr, a bitter enemy of Muhammad, and Uqba to the Jewish priests in Medina with instructions to ask about the apostle, for they said the Jews 'are possessors of the first book [the Pentateuch] and have knowledge about prophets which we have not'. The Jewish priests told them, 'Ask him three questions which we shall give you. If he answers them obey him, for he is a prophet; but if not, then he is a pretender, and you may deal with him as you think proper.”
They went on, 'Then cause the heavens to fall upon us, for we shall not believe you unless you do something miraculous.'
Al‐Nadr and Uqba returned to Mecca and told the people what the priests had said, and they said to the apostle, 'Inform us about the young men who passed away in ancient times, because their case is wonderful; tell us also about the traveller who went from the east to the west of the earth, and tell us about the soul and what it is!' The apostle of Allah replied: 'I shall tell you tomorrow.'
The apostle of Allah replied, 'This is the choice of Allah! If He wishes He will do it.' Then they said, 'We shall not cease to persecute you until we destroy you or you destroy us. We shall not believe you until you come with Allah and all the angels.' So the apostle of Allah returned home, sad and downcast with disappointment in his people and their estrangement from him. When the apostle had left them, Abu Jahl said, 'I now make a vow to Allah, that I shall wait for him tomorrow with a stone as large as I can carry and when he prostrates himself in prayer, I shall smash his head with it! After that you may either surrender me or defend me.' They replied, 'We shall never surrender you!' Next morning, Abu Jahl took a stone as he had said, and waited for the apostle of Allah, who arrived and prayed as usual at Mecca with his face towards the Kaba and Syria beyond. Abu Jahl approached him; but suddenly he turned back and fled, his countenance altered, so frightened that his hands could not hold the stone. 'When I approached,' he said, 'a stallion‐camel appeared before me with a skull, a
Two weeks, however, passed and the apostle received no revelation from Allah and no visit from Gabriel, and the people began to murmur against him. At last Gabriel came and the apostle of Allah said, 'Thou hast remained away from me so long that I became troubled by evil imaginings!' Gabriel 'We descend only by command of thy Lord! To Him belongs the present, the past, and whatever is between them. Nor is thy Lord ever forgetful.' And Gabriel brought a revelation from Allah in the form of the Sura known as The Cave. Part of the revelation contained a warning that 'We will surely reduce whatever is on earth to dust and desolation. To Me you must return, and I shall requite everyone according to his works; do not therefore be distressed or grieved about what thou seest or hearest
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calamities followed in losing his wife the apostle of Allah lost his faithful supporter in Islam, and in losing his uncle he lost his defender against the people. This happened three years before the emigration to Medina. After the death of Abu Talib the Quraysh insults upon the apostle of Allah which they would not attempted during his life, and one of the fools among the Quraysh even went so far as to strew dust on his head. The apostle went with the dust on his head to his own house, and one of his daughters washed it off and wept; but the apostle of Allah said, “Do not weep daughter Allah will protect thy father.' And he added, 'The Quraysh would do nothing disagreeable to me until Abu Talib died.'
on earth.' Then Gabriel told the apostle the answer concerning the young men whose case was wonderful. 'Verily they were young believed in the Lord and We increased our guidance and We fortified their hearts, and they said "Our Lord is the Lord of heaven and earth, we shall invoke no other god him, for that would be to utter sacrilege." And they took refuge in a cave from those who worshipped idols; and thou mightest have seen the sun, when it rose, pass from their cave to the right, and when it went down it left them on the left hand, and they were in the centre thereof. This is one of the signs of Allah that will satisfy thy questioners. An onlooker would have thought the youths to be awake, though they were sleeping; and their rulers said, "We shall build a place of worship over them. " '
The apostle of Allah said, 'While I was asleep within the northern enclosure of the Kaba, Gabriel came and kicked me with his foot. I sat up, but perceived nothing; therefore I again laid myself down. He came again and the same thing happened again, but when he kicked me the third time he took hold of my arm, so that I rose and went with him to the gate of the mosque. And lo! There I saw a beast, white in colour, resembling part mule and part donkey, with two wings covering its hind legs, and with its forelegs placed as far as its sight could reach. [This was Buraq, the animal on which all prophets before Muhammad had been conveyed.] When I approached the beast to mount, it became restive, but Gabriel placed his hand on its mane and said, "Art thou not ashamed, o Buraq? No servant of Allah has yet ridden thee who is more favoured than Muhammad!" Then the beast became steady, and I mounted it.'
'And the men dwelt in their cave three hundred years, and nine more. Say, "Allah knows best how long they remained. He possesses the secret of the heavens and of the earth. How well He sees and hears! They have no other master besides Him, and He makes no one His associate in judgment." ' Gabriel continued by warning Muhammad: 'Say not of any‐ thing "I shall do this tomorrow", without adding "If Allah willeth it". Namely, never say as thou hast done in this instance "I shall inform you tomorrow", but reserve the will of Allah. Remember thy Lord if thou knowest not an answer, and say "Perhaps my Lord will guide me to the information about which you have asked". Thou knowest not what Allah will decide. The apostle, by the orders of Allah, continued patiently, confidently, and lovingly to preach to his people, despite their accusations of falsehood, their insults, and their mockeries. The worst mockers were five in number, and after these men had persisted in their wickedness for some time, and had heaped their mockeries upon the apostle of Allah, the following verse was revealed: 'We shall suffice thee against the mockers who worship another god with Allah; they will know.'
The apostle of Allah, accompanied by Gabriel, was transported to Jerusalem, where he found Abraham and Moses and other prophets. He went to them and prayed with them; then two vessels were brought, one containing wine and the othert milk. The apostle drank of the milk, but touched no wine, and Gabriel said, 'Thou art guided to the fundamentals of religlion and thy people likewise; wine is prohibited to them.' Then the apostle of Allah returned to Mecca, and in the morning he told the Quraysh what had happened to him; but most of them exclaimed, 'This is obviously nonsense! Caravans take a month to travel from Mecca to Jerusalem and another to return! Could Muhammad go there and return in a single night ?' And many believers lapsed from the faith, and others went to Abu Bakr and said, 'What is your view concerning Muhammad, who imagines that he went last night to Jerusalem, where he prayed, and again returned to Mecca?' Abu Bakr replied, 'If he himself has said so, he spoke the truth! What is there to astonish you in this? By Allah, he tells me that revelation comes all the way from heaven to him on earth in a single hour of the night or the day and I believe him! And this is a greater distance than the one which astonishes you.' Then he betook himself to the apostle and said, 'Describe
Gabriel came to the apostle of Allah whilst these five were circumambulating the Kaba, and the apostle of Allah rose and stood by the side of Gabriel. When the first mocker passed by Gabriel threw a green leaf into his face, and he became blind. Then another passed to whose abdomen he pointed, and the man was attacked by dropsy, of which he died. When the third approached he pointed to the scar of a wound on the mocker's heel which had been inflicted years ago, and this wound opened again and killed him. When the fourth passed by he pointed to the sole of his foot, and afterwards a thorn penetrated it and the. man died. When the fifth mocker passed by he pointed to his head and it began to ferment with poison and he died. Khadija, the wife of the apostle, and Abu Talib, his uncle and protector died in the same year, and after that
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cover was in the same state when they awoke, the water was gone. When the second caravan arrived in Mecca they confirmed Muhammad's other story, saying: 'He has spoken the truth. He did indeed scare us in the valley and a camel ran away, but we heard a man's voice calling us to it, and we found it.'
Jerusalem to me; I have been there.' The apostle of Allah said, 'It was lifted up to me so that I might look at it and he described the town in such a manner that Abu Bakr said, 'You have spoken the truth! I testify that you are an apostle of Allah!' And every part of the town Muhammad described, Abu Bakr confirmed, saying, 'You have spoken the truth! I testify that you are an apostle of Allah!' When he had finished his description the apostle said, 'And thou, o Abu Bakr, art also truthful', and on that day he surnamed him Assidiq, The Truthful One.
The apostle of Allah further said: 'When I had ended my visit to Jerusalem a ladder was brought to me, the like of which for beauty I had never seen before. This is the ladder which the dead yearn to see brought forth [that they may mount to heaven on the day of the last judgement]. Gabriel made me ascend this ladder until we arrived at that gate among the gates of heaven which is called The Gate of the Keepers. Over this, an angel of angels presides, whose name is Ismail and who commands 12,000 angels each of whom also commands 12,000. The hosts of Allah are known to Himself alone! When he took me in Ismail asked: "Who is this, o Gabriel? Has a prophetic mission been confered upon him?" Gabriel said: "Yes", and then Ismail congratulated me.
The apostle of Allah was in the habit of saying: 'My eye sleeps while my heart is awake", but Allah knows best whether what was revealed to him took place in waking or sleeping state. The apostle of Allah gave his companions a description of Abraham, Moses and Jesus, as he saw them during that night. 'As to Abraham, I have never seen a man more resembling your companion [Muhammad] than he, nor your companion [Muhammad] resembling any other more than he. But as for Moses, he is a tall, dark, lively man with curled hair and a long nose; the son of Mary, is neither tall nor short, with flowing hair, and a countenance shining as if he had just come out of a bath, and you would imagine that water is dripping from his head although there is none on it.'
'The angels met me when I entered those heavens which are closest to earth, and not one addressed me without smiling and congratulating me, until an angel of the angels met me who spoke to me and invoked happiness for me as they had done, but neither laughed nor was pleased like the others. Therefore I asked, ‘O Gabriel ! Who is this angel who has spoken to me like the others, but neither smiled nor manifested any signs of as they did?" Gabriel replied, "If he had ever laughed before, or was destined ever to laugh in the future, he would have with thee now; but he never laughs; he is Malik, the keeper of fire." Then I asked Gabriel who is empowered by Allah to be obeyed in that heaven I now describe to you and who is, moreover, the faithful servant of Allah, "Wouldst thou order him to show me the fire?" He said, "Show Muhammad the fires of hell!” Accordingly Malik removed the cover thereof, and it raged and ascended in such a manner that I thought it would devour all that I saw. Therefore I cried, "Order him to confine it again and the angel said, "Retire!" Then the fire returned to the place it had issued from, and when he replaced the cover upon it I cannot compare its disappearance with anything but the falling of the shadow of night.
The apostle himself, according to his adopted son, Ali, 'was neither too tall nor too short, he was of a middling stature; his hair was neither too curly nor too flowing, it was like the hair of any other man. He was neither too plump nor too fat, and his complexion was pale, with a tinge of red. His eyes were large and black, his lashes long, his head and shoulder‐bones large, and the hair of his breast was scanty. His hands and feet were strong, he walked as if wading in water, and when he looked at anything he turned his whole person towards the object. Between his shoulders was situated the seal of prophecy, he being the last of the prophets, the most open‐handed of men, the most courageous, truthful in speech, the most faithful in protection, of the mildest disposition, and most gracious in converse. Whoever saw him unawares was awe‐struck, but those who conversed with him loved him.' Ali concluded, 'I have neither before, nor afterwards, seen the like of him.' But neither the description of Jerusalem nor of the prophets convinced the people, so Muhammad continued, 'I passed near a caravan of one tribe in a valley, and the sound of my beast startled them so that a camel ran away; and I found it and directed them to it. And when I was in Dajanan I met a caravan of another tribe, and found the people asleep. They had a covered water vessel which I opened; I drank the contents, and covered it again as it had been. Their caravan is now arriving through the pass, led by a dark camel loaded with two bags, one of which is black and the other reddish‐brown.' The crowd hastened up to the pass, where the first sight they saw was the camel he had described. Then they asked the caravan about the water‐vessel, and were told that the tribe had put it down covered, and full of water, but although the
When I entered the heaven which is next to the earth I beheld a man sitting therein, to whom the souls of men are delivered. With some of these he was pleased, and said, "A good soul issued from a good body." To others, however, he said with a frown on his countenance, "A wicked soul departed from a wicked body." I asked, "Who is this?" and Gabriel replied, “This is thy ancestor Adam, to whom the souls of his progeny are delivered; and if a faithful soul arrives he is pleased, but when an unbeliever’s soul passes he is displeased and grieved." After that I beheld men with lips like the lips of camels, having their hands filled with lumps of fire which they stuffed into their own mouths. The lumps of fire issued
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entered daily by 70,000 angels who will not leave it till the day of the resurrection. I have never seen a man resemble your companion [Muhammad] more closely, nor your companion resemble anyone more than he. I asked, "Who is this, o Gabriel?" and he said, "This is thy ancestor Abraham."
again from the other end of their bodies. I asked, "Who are these, o Gabriel?"and he replied, "These have wrongfully devoured the property of orphans!” Next I observed men with bellies the like of which I had never seen, and on the road were crocodiles rushing upon them like mad camels and driving them into the fire, trampling upon them so that they could never escape from it. I asked, "Wlio are these, o Gabriel?" and he replied, "They are usurers."
Then Gabriel entered paradise with me, where I saw a black houri and asked her, "Who art thou?" because she took my fancy as I perceived her. She said, "I am destined for Zayd b. Haritha.' Zayd, the freedman of the apostle, rejoiced at these glad tidings.
'After that, I beheld men who had before them nice plump meat and at their sides foul and putrid meat, but they ate of the latter and abstained from the former. I asked, "Who are these, o Gabriel?" and he replied, "They are those who abandon the women Allah has permitted to them, and go instead to those whom Allah has prohibited to them." Then I saw women hanging by their breasts and asked, "Who are these?" .,\ml Gabriel replied, "They are women who attribute to their husbands children they did not father." The wrath of Allah is very great towards a woman who introduces into the family one who does not belong to it, to eat up their plunder and to observe their nakedness.
According to tradition, Gabriel did not ascend to a single heaven of the heavens without being asked 'Who is this, o Gabriel’? ' When he replied, 'Muhammad', he was again asked, ‘Has he really been sent as a prophet?' Then he was welcomed with, ‘Allah greet him on the part of his friend and brother.' This lasted till they arrived in the seventh heaven, where the Apostle met his Lord, who made fifty daily prayers incumbent upon him. The apostle of Allah continued his story. 'Then I began my return When I passed near Moses, who was a good friend to man, he asked, "How many prayers have been made incumbent upon thee?" and I replied, "Fifty prayers every day." Moses said prayer is heavy, and thy people are weak. Go to thy Lord and ask Him to lighten it for thee, and for thy people." Accordingly I returned to my Lord and asked Him to alleviate it for me and for my people. And He deducted ten. I went away again and passed near Moses, who repeated what he had said before. So I returned and asked my Lord, who once more deducted ten; and I we nt back to Moses, who sent me many times to Allah with the same injunction, until so many prayers were deducted that only five prayers remained for each day and night. On this last occas ion, when I returned to Moses, he repeated his words once more, but I said to him, "I have gone back to my Lord and asked him so many times that I am ashamed; therefore I shall do it no more." Nevertheless, whosoever among you recites these five prayers, believing wholly in their efficacy and validity, will receive the reward due for the fifty prayers originally prescribed’.
'After this, Gabriel took me up to the second heaven, and it contained the two cousins, Jesus the son of Mary, and John the son of Zakariah. Then he lifted me to the third heaven where I saw a man with a countenance like the full moon, and asked, "Who is this, o Gabriel?" and he replied, "This is thy brother prophet, Joseph son of Jacob." Next he made me ascend to the fourth heaven, where one man appeared, and when I asked, Gabriel said, "This is Idris." Then he raised me to the fifth heaven, which contained an aged man with white hair and flowing beard. I have never seen an old man more beautiful than he, and when I asked Gabriel, he said, "This is the beloved of his nation, Aaron son of Imran." And he raised me to the sixth heaven, where there was a dark man with a long nose. I asked, "Who is this, o Gabriel?" and he replied, "This is thy brother Moses, son of Imran." Then he made me go up to the se\'ciAl heaven, where I beheld an old man seated on a chair near the roof of the heavenly Kaba, which is
Basic Beliefs: The Five Pillars of Islam: 1‐ Shahadah (Witness of Faith) The witness of faith is a two‐part declaration that embodies the central beliefs of Islam. To become a Muslim (one who submits), one must accept the following statement as inviolable and recite it with conviction: “I witness that there is no god but Allah, and I witness that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.” 2‐ Salat (Prayer)
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Ritual prayer is performed five times a day, dawn, midday, late afternoon, sunset, and early evening. In preparation, a Muslim must first have righteous intent and perform a symbolic washing of face, hands, and feet. The call to prayer in Islamic society, always recited in Arabic, is as follows: Allahu akbar (“God is great [than all else]”) [Recited four times] Ashhadu anna la ilaha illa Allah (“I testify that there is no god but Allah”). [Twice] Ashhadu anna Muhammadan rasul Allah (“I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God”). [Twice] Hayya ‘ala al‐salat (“Com to prayer”). [Twice] Hayya ‘ala al‐falah (“Come to salvation and prosperity”). [Twice] Allahu akbar (“God is greater [than all else]”). [Twice] La ilaha illa Allah (“There is no god but Allah”). 3‐ Zakat (Almsgiving) Islam distinguishes between two forms of charitable giving: zakat, a legal duty obligatory for all Muslims, and sadaqa, a spontaneous free‐will offering intended specifically to help the poor and those in need. 4‐ Sawm (Fasting) Fasting plays a central role in the annual Muslim religious festivals, and in individual spirituality. Frequent fasting is a means of achieving islam, complete submission to Allah. 5‐ Hajj (Pilgrimage) Every Muslim who is physically and financially able is required to go on pilgrimage to Mecca at least once. The hajj is the highest act of devotion for a Muslim. It is a time of spiritual reflection, rededication to Allah and to Islam, purification and self‐denial, and peace with one’s fellow beings. Jihad (Effort or Struggle): Some consider this the sixth pillar. It is the effort necessary to live in accordance with what God wills. Some equate the term to holy war. There are strict rules of engagement that govern this type of jihad in the Qur’an and Hadith. Ultimately, however, the kind of jihad that involves fighting is consider the “lesser jihad.” The highest jihad is the inner struggle to keep the worst within is under control so that we can follow the straight path. Shari’a: Often translated as Islamic law, but that’s not quite right. Muslims who say they want to live in accordance with Shari’a often mean that they want to live in accordance with God’s will. Jurisprudence, on the other hand, is conveyed in the word fiqh.
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There are four commonly accept sources of Shari’a: 1‐ 2‐ 3‐ 4‐
Qur’an (revelations of Muhammed) Sunna (practices of Muhammed) Ijma (consensus of the community) Qiyas (reasoning)
Sacred Texts: Some Muslims do not believe that any text other than the actual Arabic text of the Quran (even a transliteration or an Arabic text with vowels) can strictly be called 'the Qur'an'. The Arabic text is considered canonical and there can be no other versions of it. Qu’ran (or Koran) The Qur'an is the primary text of Islam, revealed to the Prophet Muhammed beginning in the year 610 C.E. Qur'an means "The Recital" in Arabic; according to the story, the angel Gabriel commanded Muhammed to "Recite!" It is organized in suras (chapters), ordered from longest to shortest (except for the first sura) SURA 001 – AL‐FATIHAH (The Opening) 1. In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. 2. Praise be to God, The Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds; 3. Most Gracious, Most Merciful; 4. Master of the Day of Judgment. 5. Thee do we worship, And Thine aid we seek. 6. Show us the straight way, 7. The way of those on whom Thou hast bestowed Thy Grace, Those whose (portion) Is not wrath, And who go not astray.
Other quotes from the Qu’ran: “There shall be no compulsion in religion: the right way is now distinct from the wrong way. Anyone who denounces the devil and believes in GOD has grasped the strongest bond; one that never breaks. GOD is Hearer, Omniscient.” (2:256) “O children of Adam, we have provided you with garments to cover your bodies, as well as for luxury. But the best garment is the garment of righteousness. These are some of GOD's signs, that they may take heed.” (7:26) “This Quran guides to the best path, and brings good news to the believers who lead a righteous life, that they have deserved a great recompense.” (17:9)
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“As for those who discard the worship of all idols, and devote themselves totally to GOD alone, they have deserved happiness. Give good news to My servants.” (39:17) “They are the ones who examine all words, then follow the best. These are the ones whom GOD has guided; these are the ones who possess intelligence.” (39:18) “O people, we created you from the same male and female, and rendered you distinct peoples and tribes, that you may recognize one another. The best among you in the sight of GOD is the most righteous. GOD is Omniscient, Cognizant.” (49:13) “He is the One GOD; the Creator, the Initiator, the Designer. To Him belong the most beautiful names. Glorifying Him is everything in the heavens and the earth. He is the Almighty, Most Wise.” (59:24) “Those who believed and led a righteous life are the best creatures.” (98:7) “Their reward at their Lord is the gardens of Eden with flowing streams, wherein they abide forever. GOD is pleased with them, and they are pleased with Him. Such is the reward for those who reverence their Lord.” (98:8) "This Quran guides to the best path, and brings good news to the believers who lead a righteous life, that they have deserved a great recompense." (17:9) "Be quick in the race for forgiveness from your Lord, and for a Garden (paradise) whose width is that of the heavens and of the earth, prepared for the righteous ‐ Those who spend (freely), whether in prosperity or in adversity, who restrain (their) anger and pardon (all) men ‐ for God loves those who do good." (3:133‐134) "And among His signs is this that He created for you mates from among yourselves, that ye may dwell in tranquility with them, and He has put love and mercy between your (hearts); verily in that are signs for those who reflect." (30:21) "Whoever recommends and helps a good cause becomes a partner therein, and whoever recommends and helps an evil cause shares in its burden." (4:85) "Show forgiveness, speak for justice and avoid the ignorant." (7:199) "O mankind! We created you from a male and a female and made you into nations and tribes that you may know and honor each other (not that you should despise one another). Indeed the most honorable of you in the sight of God is the most righteous." (49:13)
Hadith The Hadith are collections of Islamic traditions and laws (Sunna). This includes traditional sayings of Muhammad and later Islamic sages. By the ninth century over 600,000 hadith had been recorded; edits eventually reduced them to about 25,000. From A Manual of Hadith, translated by Maulana Muhammad Ali [1944]: HADITH CHAPTER I HOW DIVINE REVELATION CAME TO THE HOLY PROPHET
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1. "And it is not for any mortal that Allāh should speak to him except by inspiration or from behind a veil or by sending a messenger and revealing by His permission what He pleases" (42:51). 2. "And surely this is a revelation from the Lord of the worlds‐‐the Faithful Spirit has come down with it upon thy heart that thou mayest be of the warners‐‐in plain Arabic language" (26:192‐195). 3. "And thus have We revealed to thee an Arabic Qur'ān" (42:7). 4. "The Holy Spirit has brought it down from thy Lord with truth" (16:102). 5. "Whoever is the enemy of Gabriel, surely he revealed it to thy heart by Allāh's command" (2:97). 6. "We have revealed it, revealing portion by portion" (17:106). Revelation according to the Holy Qur'ān is a universal fact. It speaks of revelation to inanimate objects‐‐heaven and earth (41:11, 12; 99:5)‐‐and of revelation to lower animals (16:68, 69). Revelation to man is undoubtedly of a different nature from these revelations, and it is with this that we are at present concerned. In the first verse quoted above it is stated that Allāh speaks to man‐‐i.e.. revelation to man is granted‐‐in three ways: (1) by infusing an idea into the mind‐‐the word wahy used here carries its original significance of a sudden suggestion; (2) from behind a veil, which includes ru'yā (dream), its higher form kashf (vision) and the still higher form ilhām, when voices are heard or uttered in a state of trance; (3) when a messenger, the angel Gabriel, is sent with the Divine message in clear words to the recipient of the revelation. The third is the highest form of revelation: the Divine message is sent not in the form of a n idea as in the first case or in the form of a vision as in the second but in words through the angel; and it is peculiar to the prophets.* The Holy Qur'ān was revealed to the Prophet in words in the Arabic language (vv. 2, 3) through Gabriel, who is also called the Faithful Spirit and the Holy Spirit (vv. 2. 4, 5), the angel descending upon the heart of the Prophet (vv. 2, 5). The last verse shows that the Holy Qur'ān was revealed in portions. The hadīth narrated in this chapter bear out what has been so clearly established in the Holy Qur'ān. We are told that before the higher revelation, the Prophet received revelation in the form of dreams; that the Prophet's first experience of higher revelation was marked by the appearance of the Angel, who communicated to him the first Divine message in words, contained in the first five verses of ch. 96, and that the Prophet related his existence to Waraqah who believed in him, saying that it was the angel Gabriel who brought the Divine message to Moses (h. 2). The prophet's second experience of the higher revelation was similar to the first (h. 3). It is further shown that the higher revelation of the Holy Qur'ān came in words through Gabriel (hh. 4, 5). He felt a great strain when this revelation came to him: he perspired even on cold days and grew heavier and a change came over him. (hh. 5‐8). It appears that to receive this spiritual experience he was translated to another sphere, and his detachment from the material environment was so real that it brought about a physical change as well. 1. 'Umar ibn al‐Khattāb said, I heard the Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, say: "Actions shall be judged only by intention2, and a man shall have what he intends; so whoever flies from his home for the sake of Allāh and His Messenger, his flight shall be accounted for the sake of Allāh and His Messenger, and whoever flies from his home for the sake of worldly gain which he aims to attain or a woman whom he wants to marry, his flight shall be accounted for that for which he flies." (B. 83:23; 1:1). 2 'Ā'ishah said: The first revelation that was granted to the Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, was the true dream in a state of sleep, so that he never dreamed a dream but the truth of it shone forth like the dawn of the morning. Then solitude became dear to him and he used to seclude himself in the cave of Hirā', and therein he devoted himself to Divine worship for several nights before he came back to his family and took provisions for this (retirement); then he would return to Khadījah and take (more) provisions for a similar (period), until the Truth came to him while he was in the cave of Hirā'; so the angel (Gabriel) came to him and said, Read. He (the Prophet) said, "I said I am not one who can read." And he continued: "Then he (the angel) took hold of me and he pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more, and then he let me go and said, Read. I said, I am not one who can read. Then he took hold of me and pressed me a second time so hard that I could not bear it any more, then he let me go again and said, Read. I said, "I am not one who can read." (The Prophet) continued: "Then he took hold of me and pressed me hard for a third time, then he let me go and said, 'Read in the name of thy Lord Who created‐‐He created man from a clot‐‐Read and thy Lord is most Honourable.'" The Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, returned with this (message) while his heart trembled and he came to Khadījah, daughter of Khuwailid, and said, "Wrap me up, wrap me up," and she wrapped him up until the awe left him. Then he said to Khadījah, while he related to her what had happened: "I fear for myself." Khadījah said, Nay, By Allāh, Allāh will never
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bring thee to disgrace, for thou unitest the ties of relationship and bearest the burden of the weak and earnest for the destitute and honourest the guest and helpest in real distress. Then Khadījah went with him until she brought him to Waraqah ibn Naufal ibn Asad ibn 'Abd al‐'Uzzā, Khadījah's uncle's son, and he was a man who had become a Christian in the time of Ignorance, and he used to write the Hebrew script, and he wrote from the Gospel in Hebrew what it pleased Allāh that he should write, and he was a very old man who had turned blind. Khadījah said to him, O uncle's son! Listen to thy brother's son. Waraqah said to him, My brother's son! What hast thou seen? So the Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, related to him what he had seen. Waraqah said to him, This is the angel Gabriel whom Allāh sent to Moses; would that I were a young man at this time‐would that I were alive when thy people would expel thee! The Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, said, Would they expel me? He said, Yes; never has a man appeared with the like of that which thou hast brought but he has been held in enmity; and if thy time finds me (alive) I shall help thee with the fullest help. After that not much time had passed that Waraqah died, and the revelation broke off temporarily. (B. 1:1.) 3 Jābir said, speaking of the temporary break in the revelation, (The Holy Prophet) said in his narrative: "Whilst I was walking along, I heard a voice from heaven and I raised up my eyes, and lo! the Angel that had appeared to me in Hirā' was sitting on a throne between heaven and earth and I was struck with awe on account of him and returned (home) and said, Wrap me up, wrap me up. Then Allāh revealed: 'O thou who art clothed! Arise and warn, And thy Lord do magnify, And thy garments do purify, And uncleanness do shun'." Then revelation became brisk and came in succession. (B. 1:1.) 4 Ibn 'Abbās . . . said, The Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, used to exert himself hard in receiving Divine revelation and would on this account move his lips…so Allāh revealed: "Move not thy tongue with it to make haste with it. Surely on Us devolves the collecting of it and the reciting of it." (75:16, 17.) . . . . So after this when Gabriel came to him the Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, would listen attentively, and when Gabriel departed, the Prophet, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, recited as he (Gabriel) recited it. (B. 1:1.) 5 'Ā'ishah reported that Hārith ibn Hishām asked the Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, O Messenger of Allāh! How does revelation come to thee? The Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, said: "Sometimes it comes to me like the ringing of a bell and that is the hardest on me, then he departs from me and I retain in memory from him what he says; and sometimes the Angel comes to me in the likeness of a man and speaks to me and I retain in memory what he says." Ā'ishah said, And I saw him when revelation came down upon him on a severely cold day, then it departed from him and his forehead dripped with sweat. (B. 1:1.) 6 Zaid ibn Thābit said, Allāh sent down revelation on His Messenger, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, and his thigh was upon my thigh and it began to make its weight felt to me so much so that I feared that my thigh might be crushed. (B. 8:12) 7 Safwān ibn Ya'lā reported that Ya'lā said to 'Umar, Show me the Prophet, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, when revelation is sent down to him. So when the Prophet, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, was in Ji'rānah and with him a number of his companions…revelation came to him. Thereupon 'Umar made a sign to Ya'lā; so Ya'lā came and over the Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, was a garment with which he was covered and he entered his head under the garment), when (he saw that) the face of the Messenger of Allāh, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, was red and he was snoring; then that condition departed from him. (B. 25:17.)
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8 'Ubādah ibn al‐Sāmit said, The Prophet, peace and blessings of Allāh be on him, felt, when the revelation was sent down upon him, like one in grief and a change came over his face. And according to one report: He hung down his head, and his companions also hung down their heads, and when that state was over, he raised his head. (M‐Msh. 27:5.)
Words to Know: Shari'a muslim Islamic imam fatwa mufti hijab jihad mosque Ramadan Wahabbism The Muslim Brotherhood The Nation of Islam
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Jainism Most scholars believe Jainism originated in India between the 9th and 6th centuries B.C.E. Today it is a small religious minority, but Jains have significantly influenced ethics, politics, and economics in India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship. Their libraries are the oldest in India. Brief History: Jains are not part of the Hindu religion, though they have existed side by side for centuries, influencing each other. Jains believe that Jainism has no founder and that it has always existed and will always exist. Estimated Adherents: 5.5 million Founder: Founder: none known Basic Beliefs: The Five Pillars of Jainism:
Nonviolence (Ahimsa): not to cause harm to any living beings Truthfulness (Satya): to speak the harmless truth only Non‐stealing (Asteya): not to take anything not properly given Chastity (Brahmacharya): not to indulge in sexual pleasures Non‐possession/Non‐attachment (Aparigraha): complete detachment from people, places, and material things
Sacred Texts: Jaina Sutras
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Judaism Judaism adheres to particular beliefs and practices, but many Jews would nevertheless consider the designation of a “religion” as far too narrow. Judaism encompasses geographic, ethnic, national, and religious aspects. As a religion, Judaism is the oldest surviving monotheistic religion. There is a strong emphasis on living according to God’s law and commandments, rather than debating particular nuances of doctrine. Brief History: Judaism traces its roots to the patriarchal family of Abraham as found in the historical account of the Hebrew Bible. The biblical period tells the story of the emergence of the Israelite nation: their liberation by Moses from Egyptian bondage and the eventual establishment of a kingdom in the land promised to their patriarchs. After a period of political consolidation, a monarchy emerged under rule of the house of David. This ended with the fall of the Kingdom of Judah in 586 B.C.E. to the Babylonians. The temple at Jerusalem was destroyed but eventually rebuilt. Ruled by a succession of conquering empires for the next 600 years, the second destruction by the Romans in 70 C.E. signaled a major challenge to its very existence. The diaspora left Judaism without a recognized and unifying center. New systems and contexts for Jewish religious life began to emerge. During the Middle Ages, most Jews were dispersed throughout lands controlled by Moslem or Christian rulers. The attack by intellectual challenges from both religions stimulated an enormous literary output, including philosophical, mystical, polemical, and legal works. Beginning with the Enlightenment of the 18th century and continuing with the political upheavals of the 19th, new challenges initiated a reform movement that questioned traditional Jewish practice and belief. Ultimately an unprecedented split occurred in the ranks of adherents to Judaism. Estimated Adherents: 15 million Significant Divisions: Conservative Reform Orthodox Founder’s Story: Founders: Abraham, Moses, David From the Jewish Publication Society Tanakh
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GENESIS CHAPTER 17
son, and all that were born in his house, and all that were bought with his money, every male among the men of Abraham's house, and circumcised the flesh of their foreskin in the selfsame day, as God had said unto him. 24 And Abraham was ninety years old and nine, when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin. 25 And Ishmael his son was thirteen years old, when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin. 26 In the selfsame day was Abraham circumcised, and Ishmael his son. 27 And all the men of his house, those born in the house, and those bought with money of a foreigner, were circumcised with him.
1 And when Abram was ninety years old and nine, the LORD appeared to Abram, and said unto him: 'I am God Almighty; walk before Me, and be thou whole‐hearted. 2 And I will make My covenant between Me and thee, and will multiply thee exceedingly.' 3 And Abram fell on his face; and God talked with him, saying: 4 'As for Me, behold, My covenant is with thee, and thou shalt be the father of a multitude of nations. 5 Neither shall thy name any more be called Abram, but thy name shall be Abraham; for the father of a multitude of nations have I made thee. 6 And I will make thee exceeding fruitful, and I will make nations of thee, and kings shall come out of thee. 7 And I will establish My covenant between Me and thee and thy seed after thee throughout their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be a God unto thee and to thy seed after thee. 8 And I will give unto thee, and to thy seed after thee, the land of thy sojournings, all the land of Canaan, for an everlasting possession; and I will be their God.' 9 And God said unto Abraham: 'And as for thee, thou shalt keep My covenant, thou, and thy seed after thee throughout their generations. 10 This is My covenant, which ye shall keep, between Me and you and thy seed after thee: every male among you shall be circumcised. 11 And ye shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of a covenant betwixt Me and you. 12 And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every male throughout your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any foreigner, that is not of thy seed. 13 He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must needs be circumcised; and My covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant. 14 And the uncircumcised male who is not circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin, that soul shall be cut off from his people; he hath broken My covenant.'
GENESIS CHAPTER 18 1 And the LORD appeared unto him by the terebinths of Mamre, as he sat in the tent door in the heat of the day; 2 and he lifted up his eyes and looked, and, lo, three men stood over against him; and when he saw them, he ran to meet them from the tent door, and bowed down to the earth, 3 and said: 'My lord, if now I have found favour in thy sight, pass not away, I pray thee, from thy servant. 4 Let now a little water be fetched, and wash your feet, and recline yourselves under the tree. 5 And I will fetch a morsel of bread, and stay ye your heart; after that ye shall pass on; forasmuch as ye are come to your servant.' And they said: 'So do, as thou hast said.' 6 And Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said: 'Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes.' 7 And Abraham ran unto the herd, and fetched a calf tender and good, and gave it unto the servant; and he hastened to dress it. 8 And he took curd, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them; and he stood by them under the tree, and they did eat. 9 And they said unto him: 'Where is Sarah thy wife?' And he said: 'Behold, in the tent.' 10 And He said: 'I will certainly return unto thee when the season cometh round; and, lo, Sarah thy wife shall have a son.' And Sarah heard in the tent door, which was behind him.—11 Now Abraham and Sarah were old, and well stricken in age; it had ceased to be with Sarah after the manner of women.—12 And Sarah laughed within herself, saying: 'After I am waxed old shall I have pleasure, my lord being old also?' 13 And the LORD said unto Abraham: 'Wherefore did Sarah laugh, saying: Shall I of a surety bear a child, who am old? 14 Is any thing too hard for the LORD? At the set time I will return unto thee, when the season cometh round, and Sarah shall have a son.' 15 Then Sarah denied, saying: 'I laughed not'; for she was afraid. And He said: 'Nay; but thou didst laugh.'
15 And God said unto Abraham: 'As for Sarai thy wife, thou shalt not call her name Sarai, but Sarah shall her name be. 16 And I will bless her, and moreover I will give thee a son of her; yea, I will bless her, and she shall be a mother of nations; kings of peoples shall be of her.' 17 Then Abraham fell upon his face, and laughed, and said in his heart: 'Shall a child be born unto him that is a hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?' 18 And Abraham said unto God: 'Oh that Ishmael might live before Thee!' 19 And God said: 'Nay, but Sarah thy wife shall bear thee a son; and thou shalt call his name c Isaac; and I will establish My covenant with him for an everlasting covenant for his seed after him. 20 And as for Ishmael, I have heard thee; behold, I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and will multiply him exceedingly; twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make him a great nation. 21 But My covenant will I establish with Isaac, whom Sarah shall bear unto thee at this set time in the next year.' 22 And He left off talking with him, and God went up from Abraham. 23 And Abraham took Ishmael his
GENESIS CHAPTER 21 1 And the LORD remembered Sarah as He had said, and the LORD did unto Sarah as He had spoken. 2 And Sarah conceived, and bore Abraham a son in his old age, at the set time of which God had spoken to him. 3 And Abraham
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gave them unto Abimelech; and they two made a covenant. 28 And Abraham set seven ewe‐lambs of the flock by themselves. 29 And Abimelech said unto Abraham: 'What mean these seven ewe‐lambs which thou hast set by themselves?' 30 And he said: 'Verily, these seven ewe‐lambs shalt thou take of my hand, that it may be a witness unto me, that I have digged this well.' 31 Wherefore that place was called Beer‐sheba; because there they swore both of them. 32 So they made a covenant at Beer‐sheba; and Abimelech rose up, and Phicol the captain of his host, and they returned into the land of the Philistines. 33 And Abraham planted a tamarisk‐tree in Beer‐sheba, and called there on the name of the LORD, the Everlasting God. 34 And Abraham sojourned in the land of the Philistines many days.
called the name of his son that was born unto him, whom Sarah bore to him, Isaac. 4 And Abraham circumcised his son Isaac when he was eight days old, as God had commanded him. 5 And Abraham was a hundred years old, when his son Isaac was' born unto him. 6 And Sarah said: 'God hath made laughter for me; every one that heareth will laugh on account of me.' 7 And she said: 'Who would have said unto Abraham, that Sarah should give children suck? for I have borne him a son in his old age.' 8 And the child grew, and was weaned. And Abraham made a great feast on the day that Isaac was weaned. 9 And Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, whom she had borne unto Abraham, making sport. 10 Wherefore she said unto Abraham: 'Cast out this bondwoman and her son; for the son of this bondwoman shall not be heir with my son, even with Isaac.' 11 And the thing was very grievous in Abraham's sight on account of his son. 12 And God said unto Abraham: 'Let it not be grievous in thy sight because of the lad, and because of thy bondwoman; in all that Sarah saith unto thee, hearken unto her voice; for in Isaac shall seed be called to thee. 13 And also of the son of the bondwoman will I make a nation, because he is thy seed.' 14 And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and took bread and a bottle of water, and gave it unto Hagar, putting it on her shoulder, and the child, and sent her away; and she departed, and strayed in the wilderness of Beer‐sheba. 15 And the water in the bottle was spent, and she cast the child under one of the shrubs. 16 And she went, and sat her down over against him a good way off, as it were a bowshot; for she said: 'Let me not look upon the death of the child.' And she sat over against him, and lifted up her voice, and wept. 17 And God heard the voice of the lad; and the angel of God called to Hagar out of heaven, and said unto her: 'What aileth thee, Hagar? fear not; for God hath heard the voice of the lad where he is. 18 Arise, lift up the lad, and hold him fast by thy hand; for I will make him a great nation.' 19 And God opened her eyes, and she saw a well of water; and she went, and filled the bottle with water, and gave the lad drink. 20 And God was with the lad, and he grew; and he dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer. 21 And he dwelt in the wilderness of Paran; and his mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt.
GENESIS CHAPTER 22 1 And it came to pass after these things, that God did prove Abraham, and said unto him: 'Abraham'; and he said: 'Here am I.' 2 And He said: 'Take now thy son, thine only son, whom thou lovest, even Isaac, and get thee into the land of Moriah; and offer him there for a burnt‐ offering upon one of the mountains which I will tell thee of.' 3 And Abraham rose early in the morning, and saddled his ass, and took two of his young men with him, and Isaac his son; and he cleaved the wood for the burnt‐offering, and rose up, and went unto the place of which God had told him. 4 On the third day Abraham lifted up his eyes, and saw the place afar off. 5 And Abraham said unto his young men: 'Abide ye here with the ass, and I and the lad will go yonder; and we will worship, and come back to you.' 6 And Abraham took the wood of the burnt‐offering, and laid it upon Isaac his son; and he took in his hand the fire and the knife; and they went both of them together. 7 And Isaac spoke unto Abraham his father, and said: 'My father.' And he said: 'Here am I, my son.' And he said: 'Behold the fire and the wood; but where is the lamb for a burnt‐offering?' 8 And Abraham said: 'God will provide Himself the lamb for a burnt‐offering, my son.' So they went both of them together. 9 And they came to the place which God had told him of; and Abraham built the altar there, and laid the wood in order, and bound Isaac his son, and laid him on the altar, upon the wood. 10 And Abraham stretched forth his hand, and took the knife to slay his son. 11 And the angel of the LORD called unto him out of heaven, and said: 'Abraham, Abraham.' And he said: 'Here am I.' 12 And he said: 'Lay not thy hand upon the lad, neither do thou any thing unto him; for now I know that thou art a God‐fearing man, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son, from Me.' 13 And Abraham lifted up his eyes, and looked, and behold behind him a ram caught in the thicket by his horns. And Abraham went and took the ram, and offered him up for a burnt‐offering in the stead of his son. 14 And Abraham called the name of that place Adonai‐jireh; as it is said to this day: 'In the mount where the LORD is seen.' 15 And the angel of the LORD called unto Abraham a second time out of heaven,
22 And it came to pass at that time, that Abimelech and Phicol the captain of his host spoke unto Abraham, saying: 'God is with thee in all that thou doest. 23 Now therefore swear unto me here by God that thou wilt not deal falsely with me, nor with my son, nor with my son's son; but according to the kindness that I have done unto thee, thou shalt do unto me, and to the land wherein thou hast sojourned.' 24 And Abraham said: 'I will swear.' 25 And Abraham reproved Abimelech because of the well of water, which Abimelech's servants had violently taken away. 26 And Abimelech said: 'I know not who hath done this thing; neither didst thou tell me, neither yet heard I of it, but to‐day.' 27 And Abraham took sheep and oxen, and
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20 And it came to pass after these things, that it was told Abraham, saying: 'Behold, Milcah, she also hath borne children unto thy brother Nahor: 21 Uz his first‐born, and Buz his brother, and Kemuel the father of Aram; 22 and Chesed, and Hazo, and Pildash, and Jidlaph, and Bethuel.' 23 And Bethuel begot Rebekah; these eight did Milcah bear to Nahor, Abraham's brother. 24 And his concubine, whose name was Reumah, she also bore Tehah, and Gaham, and Tahash, and Maacah.
16 and said: 'By Myself have I sworn, saith the LORD, because thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only son, 17 that in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will multiply thy seed as the stars of the heaven, and as the sand which is upon the seashore; and thy seed shall possess the gate of his enemies; 18 and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed; because thou hast hearkened to My voice.' 19 So Abraham returned unto his young men, and they rose up and went together to Beersheba; and Abraham dwelt at Beersheba.
Basic Beliefs: Over the centuries, various attempts at defining the essence of Judaism have been made. Some have designated portions of the biblical scripture. Decalogue: Comprise the dual foci of the Jewish religion: 1‐
Between man and God 3 Thou shalt have no other gods before Me. 4 Thou shalt not make unto, thee a graven image, nor any manner of likeness, of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; 5 thou shalt not bow down unto them, nor serve them; for I the LORD thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate Me; 6 and showing mercy unto the thousandth generation of them that love Me and keep My commandments. 7 Thou shalt not take the name of the LORD thy God in vain; for the LORD will not hold him guiltless that taketh His name in vain. 8 Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. 9 Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work; 10 but the seventh day is a sabbath unto the LORD thy God, in it thou shalt not do any manner of work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy man‐servant, nor thy maid‐servant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates; 11 for in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested on the seventh day; wherefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it. 12 Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long upon the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee.
2‐
Between man and man 13 Thou shalt not murder. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour. 14 Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house; thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maid‐servant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neighbour's.
Not a universally accepted creed, but another famous attempt at formulating a list of “principles” was made by the Jewish philosopher, Maimonides: 1. The existence of God. 2. God’s unity. 3. God has no corporeal aspect.
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4. God is eternal. 5. God alone (and no intermediaries) should be worshipped. 6. Belief in prophecy. 7. Moses was the greatest of prophets. 8. All of the Torah in our possession is divine and was given through Moses. 9. The Torah will not be changed or superseded. 10. God knows the actions of man. 11. God rewards those who keep the Torah and punishes those who transgress it. 12. Belief that the Messiah will come. 13. Belief in the resurrection of the dead.
Sacred Texts: Tanakh The Tanakh is an acronym for the three components of the Hebrew Bible. The Torah is supreme in terms of prestige and sanctity. Torah (Law): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy Nevi’im (Prophets): Joshua, Judges, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi Ketuvim (Writings): Psalms, Proverbs, Job, The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles The second major corpus of Jewish literature was produced during the rabbinic Judaism period (first six centuries C.E.) The rabbinic corpus contains two major genres: 1‐ Commentary on the Torah: Midrash From Tales and Maxims from the Midrash, by Samuel Rapaport, [1907] GENESIS RABBA IT is forbidden to inquire what existed before creation, as Moses distinctly tells us (Deut. 4. 32): 'Ask now of the days that are past which were before thee, since the day God created man upon earth.' Thus the scope of inquiry is limited to the time since the Creation.‐‐Gen. Rabba 1. The unity of God is at once set before us in the history of creation, where we are told He, not they, created.‐‐Gen. Rabba 1. The Torah was to God, when He created the world, what the plan is to an architect when he erects a building.‐‐Gen. Rabba 1. The ''א, being the first letter of the Hebrew Alphabet, demurred at her place being usurped by the letter ב, which is second to her, at the creation; the history of which commences with the latter instead of with the former. She was, however, quite satisfied when told that in the history of giving the Decalogue, she would be placed at the beginning in the word אנכי, for the world has only been created on account of the Torah, which, indeed, existed anterior to
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creation; and had the Creator not foreseen that Israel would consent to receive and diffuse the Torah, creation would not have taken place.‐‐Gen. Rabba 1. There is a difference of opinion as to the day on which angels were created; one authority decides for the second day, on the ground that they are mentioned in connexion with water (Ps. 104. 3, 4), which was created on that day; while another, arguing from the fact that they are said to fly (Isa. 6.), assigns their creation to the fifth day, on which all other flying things were created. But all authorities are agreed that they did not exist on the first day of creation, so that sceptics cannot say that they were helpers in the work of creation.‐‐Gen. Rabba 1. The title of an earthly king precedes his name, for instance, Emperor Augustus, etc. Not so was the will of the King of kings; He is only known as God after creating heaven and earth. Thus it is not said ברא אלהים (God created), but ברא אלהים. 'In the beginning created God heavens and earth'; He is not mentioned as God before He created.‐‐Gen. Rabba 1. Even the new heavens and earth, spoken of by the Prophet Isaiah (65. 17), were created in the six days of creation.‐‐ Gen. Rabba 1. When any divergence is found in the Scriptures, it must not be thought that it is by mere accident, for it is done advisedly. Thus, for instance, we invariably find Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; but once, as an exception, Jacob is mentioned before the other Patriarchs (Levit. 26. 42). Again, whilst Moses has always precedence over Aaron, in one instance we find Aaron's name placed before that of Moses (Exod. 6. 26). This is also the case with Joshua and Caleb; whilst the former normally precedes the name of Caleb, there is one exception (Numb. 14. 30). This is to show us that these men were equally beloved by God. The same is the case with the love and honour due to parents; whilst the father is as a rule mentioned first in this connexion, once (in Levit. 19. 3) the mother is mentioned before the father. This is also intended to indicate that children owe the same love and honour to the mother as to the father.‐‐Gen. Rabba 1. The man that gloats over another man's disgrace and thinks himself raised in dignity by it, is unworthy of future bliss.‐ ‐Gen. Rabba 1. Light is mentioned five times in the opening chapter of the Bible. This points to the five books of Moses. 'God said let there be light' refers to the book of Genesis, which enlightens us as to how creation was carried out. The words 'And there was light' bear reference to the book of Exodus, which contains the history of the transition of Israel from darkness to light. 'And God saw the light that it was good': this alludes to the book of Leviticus, which contains numerous statutes. 'And God divided between the light and between the darkness': this refers to the book of Numbers, divided as that book is between the history of those who came out of Egypt and that of those who were on their way to possess the promised land. 'And God called the light day': this bears reference to the book of Deuteronomy, which is not only a rehearsal of the four earlier books, but contains Moses' eloquent dying charge to Israel and many laws not mentioned in the preceding books.‐‐Gen. Rabba 3. 'And the earth was without form and void.' There seems to be some reason for the earth's despondency, as though she was aware of her lot beforehand. This may be illustrated by the following parable: A king acquired two servants on precisely the same conditions, but made a distinction in their treatment. Regarding the one, he decreed that she should be fed and maintained at the expense of the king. For the other, he decided that she must maintain herself by her own labour. In the same way, the earth was sad because she saw that the heavens and the earth were equally and at the same time called into being by the same 'let there be' or will of God, and yet the heavenly bodies feast on and are maintained by Divine Glory; whilst earthly bodies, unless they labour and produce their own sustenance, are not sustained. Or, again, it is as though the king decreed that the one servant should be a constant dweller in his palace, whilst the other should be a fugitive and a wanderer; or gave to the one perpetuity or eternity, and to the other, death. Thus, the earth knowing‐‐as though by inspiration‐‐God's words spoken afterwards to Adam (Gen. 3. 17): 'Cursed is the ground for thy sake,' put on mourning, and thus was 'without form and void.'‐‐Gen. Rabba 2. In the words 'and there was evening and there was morning one day,' the 'one day' referred to is the Day of Atonement‐‐the day of expiation.‐‐Gen. Rabba 2.
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There seems to be a covenant made with the waters that whenever the heat is excessive and there is scarcely a breath of air moving on land, there is always some breeze, however slight, on the waters.‐‐Gen. Rabba 2. God knew beforehand that the world would contain both righteous and wicked men, and there is an allusion to this in the story of creation. 'The earth without form,' means the wicked, and the words 'and there was light' refers to the righteous.‐‐Gen. Rabba
2‐ Legal Texts: Mishna, Babylonian Talmud, Palestinian Talmud From Eighteen Treatises from the Mishna, by D. A. Sola and M. J. Raphall, [1843] I. TREATISE BERACHOTH CONTAINS LAWS FOR REGULATING THE DAILY PRAYERS AND THE RITUAL OF DIVINE WORSHIP CHAPTER I 1. From what time is the שמע to be said in the evening? From the time the priests again enter [the sanctuary] to eat their heave offerings, until the close of the first watch [of the night]. Such is the dictum of R. Eleazar; but the sages say, "until midnight." Rabbon Gamaliel saith, "until the break of dawn." It happened [once] that his sons returned from a banquet [after midnight]. They said to him, "We have not yet said the שמע ." He replied, "If the day is not yet dawned, ye are bound to say it: and," added he, "not only in this [instance], but every [duty the performance of which] the sages say [is limited] to midnight only, the legal obligation does not cease until the break of dawn. [Thus in] the burning of the fat and members [of sacrifices] the legal obligation [is in force] till break of dawn. And all [offerings] which must be eaten the slime day [they have been brought] the legal obligation [extends] until the break of dawn." Such being the case, why do the sages say "until midnight" only? To withhold man from transgression. 2. From what time is the שמע to be said in the morning? From the time man can distinguish between blue and white. R. Eleazar saith, "between blue and leek‐green." And it may be said, "until the sun shines forth [over the mountain tops]." R. Joshua saith, "until the third hour," for such is the habit of royal princes who rise at the third hour. He who says the שמע after that time loses nothing, [but is] like any man who reads in the Torah. 3. Beth [the school of] Shammai hold, that in the evening, men are to recline when they say the שמע , and in the morning, they are to stand upright; for it is said, "when thou liest down, and when thou risest up." But Beth Hillel hold, that every man is to say it his own way, [in what posture] he pleases, for it is said, "when thou walkest by the way." Such being the case, why [then] is it said, "when thou liest down, and when thou risest up"? The meaning is, at the time when mankind is in the habit to lie down, and at the time when mankind is in the habit to rise. R. Tarphon said, "Once I came along the road, and reclined, in order to say the שמע , according to the dictum of Beth Shammai; but I exposed myself to danger from robbers." They [the sages] answered him, "Thou wast guilty against thyself [deserving of death] because thou didst violate the decision of Beth Hillel." 4. In the morning, two benedictions are said before [the שמע ] and one after it; and in the evening, two benedictions before and two after it, one long and one short. Where they, the sages, have adopted the long [form] no man is authorised to shorten [use the short form]; and where they have adopted the short form no man is authorised to lengthen [use the long form]. [Where they] close [with a benediction] no man is authorised not [so] to close: and [where they do] not close [with a benediction] no man is authorised [so] to close. 5. The exit from Egypt is to be mentioned at night. R. Eleazar ben Azariah saith, "Verily I am as a man of 70 years, [almost 70 years of age], but have not succeeded [to prove] that the exit from Egypt ought to be mentioned at night, until Ben Zoma [thus] expounded [the law]: 'that thou mayest remember the day of thy going forth from the land of Egypt all the days of thy life.' 'The days of thy life,' would denote the days only; but [the expression] 'all the days of thy life' [includes] the nights [likewise]. But the sages say, 'the days of thy life,' [denote] the world [in its present state], whereas 'all the days of thy life' [include] the future days of Messiah [likewise]."
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Many other subsequent commentaries on the Torah and the Talmud Mystic Tradition: Kabbalah (Kabala or Cabala) Kabbalah is considered by its followers as a necessary part of the study of Torah. It is an esoteric method, discipline, and school of thought. According to tradition, Kabbalah dates from Eden. It came from the past as revelation to the elect holy ones and was preserved only by a privileged few. Its origins begin with secrets that God revealed to Adam. The primary texts are the Sefer Yetzirah and the Zohar. Words to Know: kabbala zionism tefilin tallit passover rabbi
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Mormonism The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‐day Saints, more commonly known as the Mormon Church, claim part of Christianity, but many of their beliefs and practices differ so significantly from mainstream Christianity that they are often excluded from that group. Though relatively small in comparison to the other world religions included in this study, it has been included here because it has become a prominent topic of discussion with the presidential election campaign of Mitt Romney, a practicing member of the religion. Website: www.mormon.org www.lds.org Brief History: Accepts the Christian history from Adam to Jesus Christ. Upon the death of the Apostles, the original Church of Jesus Christ was lost due to apostasy. It was restored through Joseph Smith in 1830 and has continued through prophetic succession since that time. Estimated Adherents: 14 million Founder’s Story: Founder: Joseph Smith, Jr., New York, USA Excerpts from the Pearl of Great Price, by Joseph Smith, Jr. 1 Owing to the many reports which have been put in circulation by evil‐disposed and designing persons, in relation to the rise and progress of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‐day Saints, all of which have been designed by the authors thereof to militate against its character as a Church and its progress in the world, I have been induced to write this history, to disabuse the public mind, and put all inquirers after truth in possession of the facts, as they have transpired, in relation both to myself and the Church, so far as I have such facts in my possession. 2 In this history I shall present the various events in relation to this Church, in truth and righteousness, as they have transpired, or as they at present exist, being now [1838] the eighth year since the organization of the said Church. 3 I was born in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and five, on the twenty‐third day of December, in
the town of Sharon, Windsor county, State of Vermont . . . My father, Joseph Smith, Sen., left the State of Vermont, and moved to Palmyra, Ontario (now Wayne) county, in the State of New York, when I was in my tenth year, or thereabouts. In about four years after my father's arrival in Palmyra, he moved with his family into Manchester in the same county of Ontario. 5 Some time in the second year after our removal to Manchester, there was in the place where we lived an unusual excitement on the subject of religion. It commenced with the Methodists, but soon became general among all the sects in that region of country. Indeed, the whole district of country seemed affected by it, and great multitudes united themselves to the different religious parties, which created no small stir and division
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amongst the people, some crying, "Lo, here!" and others, "Lo, there!" Some were contending for the Methodist faith, some for the Presbyterian, and some for the Baptist. 6 For, notwithstanding the great love which the converts to these different faiths expressed at the time of their conversion, and the great zeal manifested by the respective clergy, who were active in getting up and promoting this extraordinary scene of religious feeling, in order to have everybody converted, as they were pleased to call it, let them join what sect they pleased; yet when the converts began to file off, some to one party and some to another, it was seen that the seemingly good feelings of both the priests and the converts were more pretended than real; for a scene of great confusion and bad feeling ensued, priest contending against priest, and convert against convert; so that all their good feelings one for another, if they ever had any, were entirely lost in a strife of words and a contest about opinions. 7 I was at this time in my fifteenth year. My father's family was proselyted to the Presbyterian faith, and four of them joined that church, namely, my mother, Lucy; my brothers Hyrum and Samuel Harrison; and my sister Sophronia. 8 During this time of great excitement my mind was called up to serious reflection and great uneasiness; but though my feelings were deep and often poignant, still I kept myself aloof from all these parties, though I attended their several meetings as often as occasion would permit. In process of time my mind became somewhat partial to the Methodist sect, and I felt some desire to be united with them; but so great were the confusion and strife among the different denominations, that it was impossible for a person young as I was, and so unacquainted with men and things, to come to any certain conclusion who was right and who was wrong. 9 My mind at times was greatly excited, the cry and tumult were so great and incessant. The Presbyterians were most decided against the Baptists and Methodists, and used all the powers of both reason and sophistry to prove their errors, or, at least, to make the people think they were in error. On the other hand, the Baptists and Methodists in their turn were equally zealous in endeavoring to establish their own tenets and disprove all others. 10 In the midst of this war of words and tumult of opinions, I often said to myself: What is to be done? Who of all these parties are right; or, are they all wrong together? If any one of them be right, which is it, and how shall I know it? 11 While I was laboring under the extreme difficulties caused by the contests of these parties of religionists, I
was one day reading the Epistle of James, first chapter and fifth verse, which reads: If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not; and it shall be given him. 12 Never did any passage of scripture come with more power to the heart of man than this did at this time to mine. It seemed to enter with great force into every feeling of my heart. I reflected on it again and again, knowing that if any person needed wisdom from God, I did; for how to act I did not know, and unless I could get more wisdom than I then had, I would never know; for the teachers of religion of the different sects understood the same passages of scripture so differently as to destroy all confidence in settling the question by an appeal to the Bible. 13 At length I came to the conclusion that I must either remain in darkness and confusion, or else I must do as James directs, that is, ask of God. I at length came to the determination to "ask of God," concluding that if he gave wisdom to them that lacked wisdom, and would give liberally, and not upbraid, I might venture. 14 So, in accordance with this, my determination to ask of God, I retired to the woods to make the attempt. It was on the morning of a beautiful, clear day, early in the spring of eighteen hundred and twenty. It was the first time in my life that I had made such an attempt, for amidst all my anxieties I had never as yet made the attempt to pray vocally. 15 After I had retired to the place where I had previously designed to go, having looked around me, and finding myself alone, I kneeled down and began to offer up the desires of my heart to God. I had scarcely done so, when immediately I was seized upon by some power which entirely overcame me, and had such an astonishing influence over me as to bind my tongue so that I could not speak. Thick darkness gathered around me, and it seemed to me for a time as if I were doomed to sudden destruction. 16 But, exerting all my powers to call upon God to deliver me out of the power of this enemy which had seized upon me, and at the very moment when I was ready to sink into despair and abandon myself to destruction, not to an imaginary ruin, but to the power of some actual being from the unseen world, who had such marvelous power as I had never before felt in any being, just at this moment of great alarm, I saw a pillar of light exactly over my head, above the brightness of the sun, which descended gradually until it fell upon me. 17 It no sooner appeared than I found myself delivered from the enemy which held me bound. When the light rested upon me I saw two Personages, whose brightness
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and glory defy all description, standing above me in the air. One of them spake unto me, calling me by name and said, pointing to the other, This is My Beloved Son. Hear Him! 18 My object in going to inquire of the Lord was to know which of all the sects was right, that I might know which to join. No sooner, therefore, did I get possession of myself, so as to be able to speak, than I asked the Personages who stood above me in the light, which of all the sects was right (for at this time it had never entered into my heart that all were wrong), and which I should join. 19 I was answered that I must join none of them, for they were all wrong; and the Personage who addressed me said that all their creeds were an abomination in his sight; that those professors were all corrupt; that: "they draw near to me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me, they teach for doctrines the commandments of men, having a form of godliness, but they deny the power thereof." 20 He again forbade me to join with any of them; and many other things did he say unto me, which I cannot write at this time. When I came to myself again, I found myself lying on my back, looking up into heaven. When the light had departed, I had no strength; but soon recovering in some degree, I went home. And as I leaned up to the fireplace, mother inquired what the matter was. I replied, "Never mind, all is well, I am well enough off." I then said to my mother, "I have learned for myself that Presbyterianism is not true." It seems as though the adversary was aware, at a very early period of my life, that I was destined to prove a disturber and an annoyer of his kingdom; else why should the powers of darkness combine against me? Why the opposition and persecution that arose against me, almost in my infancy? 21 Some few days after I had this vision, I happened to be in company with one of the Methodist preachers, who was very active in the before mentioned religious excitement; and, conversing with him on the subject of religion, I took occasion to give him an account of the vision which I had had. I was greatly surprised at his behavior; he treated my communication not only lightly, but with great contempt, saying it was all of the devil, that there were no such things as visions or revelations in these days; that all such things had ceased with the apostles, and that there would never be any more of them. 22 I soon found, however, that my telling the story had excited a great deal of prejudice against me among professors of religion, and was the cause of great persecution, which continued to increase; and though I was an obscure boy, only between fourteen and fifteen years of age, and my circumstances in life such as to make a boy of no consequence in the world, yet men of high
standing would take notice sufficient to excite the public mind against me, and create a bitter persecution; and this was common among all the sects, all united to persecute me. 23 It caused me serious reflection then, and often has since, how very strange it was that an obscure boy, of a little over fourteen years of age, and one, too, who was doomed to the necessity of obtaining a scanty maintenance by his daily labor, should be thought a character of sufficient importance to attract the attention of the great ones of the most popular sects of the day, and in a manner to create in them a spirit of the most bitter persecution and reviling. But strange or not, so it was, and it was often the cause of great sorrow to myself. 24 However, it was nevertheless a fact that I had beheld a vision. I have thought since, that I felt much like Paul, when he made his defense before King Agrippa, and related the account of the vision he had when he saw a light, and heard a voice; but still there were but few who believed him; some said he was dishonest, others said he was mad; and he was ridiculed and reviled. But all this did not destroy the reality of his vision. He had seen a vision, he knew he had, and all the persecution under heaven could not make it otherwise; and though they should persecute him unto death, yet he knew, and would know to his latest breath, that he had both seen a light and heard a voice speaking unto him, and all the world could not make him think or believe otherwise. 25 So it was with me. I had actually seen a light, and in the midst of that light I saw two Personages, and they did in reality speak to me; and though I was hated and persecuted for saying that I had seen a vision, yet it was true; and while they were persecuting me, reviling me, and speaking all manner of evil against me falsely for so saying, I was led to say in my heart: Why persecute me for telling the truth? I have actually seen a vision; and who am I that I can withstand God, or why does the world think to make me deny what I have actually seen? For I had seen a vision; I knew it, and I knew that God knew it, and I could not deny it, neither dared I do it; at least I knew that by so doing I would offend God, and come under condemnation. 26 I had now got my mind satisfied so far as the sectarian world was concerned, that it was not my duty to join with any of them, but to continue as I was until further directed. I had found the testimony of James to be true, that a man who lacked wisdom might ask of God, and obtain, and not be upbraided.
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[He continues with the story of an angelic visitation directing him to go to a nearby hill to unearth ancient records.]
60 I soon found out the reason why I had received such strict charges to keep them safe, and why it was that the messenger had said that when I had done what was required at my hand, he would call for them. For no sooner was it known that I had them, than the most strenuous exertions were used to get them from me. Every stratagem that could be invented was resorted to for that purpose. The persecution became more bitter and severe than before, and multitudes were on the alert continually to get them from me if possible. But by the wisdom of God, they remained safe in my hands, until I had accomplished by them what was required at my hand. When, according to arrangements, the messenger called for them, I delivered them up to him; and he has them in his charge until this day, being the second day of May, one thousand eight hundred and thirty‐eight.
51 Convenient to the village of Manchester, Ontario county, New York, stands a hill of considerable size, and the most elevated of any in the neighborhood. On the west side of this hill, not far from the top, under a stone of considerable size, lay the plates, deposited in a stone box. This stone was thick and rounding in the middle on the upper side, and thinner towards the edges, so that the middle part of it was visible above the ground, but the edge all around was covered with earth. 52 Having removed the earth, I obtained a lever, which I got fixed under the edge of the stone, and with a little exertion raised it up. I looked in, and there indeed did I behold the plates, the Urim and Thummim, and the breastplate, as stated by the messenger. The box in which they lay was formed by laying stones together in some kind of cement. In the bottom of the box were laid two stones crossways of the box, and on these stones lay the plates and the other things with them. 53 I made an attempt to take them out, but was forbidden by the messenger, and was again informed that the time for bringing them forth had not yet arrived, neither would it, until four years from that time; but he told me that I should come to that place precisely in one year from that time, and that he would there meet with me, and that I should continue to do so until the time should come for obtaining the plates. 54 Accordingly, as I had been commanded, I went at the end of each year, and at each time I found the same messenger there, and received instruction and intelligence from him at each of our interviews, respecting what the Lord was going to do, and how and in what manner his kingdom was to be conducted in the last days.
66 On the 5th day of April, 1829, Oliver Cowdery came to my house, until which time I had never seen him. He stated to me that having been teaching school in the neighborhood where my father resided, and my father being one of those who sent to the school, he went to board for a season at his house, and while there the family related to him the circumstances of my having received the plates, and accordingly he had come to make inquiries of me. 67 Two days after the arrival of Mr. Cowdery (being the 7th of April) I commenced to translate the Book of Mormon, and he began to write for me. 74 Our minds being now enlightened, we began to have the scriptures laid open to our understandings, and the true meaning and intention of their more mysterious passages revealed unto us in a manner which we never could attain to previously, nor ever before had thought of. In the meantime we were forced to keep secret the circumstances of having received the Priesthood and our having been baptized, owing to a spirit of persecution which had already manifested itself in the neighborhood. 75 We had been threatened with being mobbed, from time to time, and this, too, by professors of religion. And their intentions of mobbing us were only counteracted by the influence of my wife's father's family (under Divine providence), who had become very friendly to me, and who were opposed to mobs, and were willing that I should be allowed to continue the work of translation without interruption; and therefore offered and promised us protection from all unlawful proceedings, as far as in them lay.
59 At length the time arrived for obtaining the plates, the Urim and Thummim, and the breastplate. On the twenty‐ second day of September, one thousand eight hundred and twenty‐seven, having gone as usual at the end of another year to the place where they were deposited, the same heavenly messenger delivered them up to me with this charge: that I should be responsible for them; that if I should let them go carelessly, or through any neglect of mine, I should be cut off; but that if I would use all my endeavors to preserve them, until he, the messenger, should call for them, they should be protected.
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Basic Beliefs: The Articles of Faith 1. We believe in God, the Eternal Father, and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost. 2. We believe that men will be punished for their own sins, and not for Adam's transgression. 3. We believe that through the Atonement of Christ, all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel. 4. We believe that the first principles and ordinances of the Gospel are: first, Faith in the Lord Jesus Christ; second, Repentance; third, Baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; fourth, Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost. 5. We believe that a man must be called by God, by prophecy, and by the laying on of hands by those who are in authority, to preach the Gospel and administer in the ordinances thereof. 6. We believe in the same organization that existed in the Primitive Church, namely, apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, evangelists, and so forth. 7. We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revelation, visions, healing, interpretation of tongues, and so forth. 8. We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly; we also believe the Book of Mormon to be the word of God. 9. We believe all that God has revealed, all that He does now reveal, and we believe that He will yet reveal many great and important things pertaining to the Kingdom of God. 10. We believe in the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of the Ten Tribes; that Zion (the New Jerusalem) will be built upon the American continent; that Christ will reign personally upon the earth; and, that the earth will be renewed and receive its paradisiacal glory. 11. We claim the privilege of worshiping Almighty God according to the dictates of our own conscience, and allow all men the same privilege, let them worship how, where, or what they may. 12. We believe in being subject to kings, presidents, rulers, and magistrates, in obeying, honoring, and sustaining the law. 13. We believe in being honest, true, chaste, benevolent, virtuous, and in doing good to all men; indeed, we may say that we follow the admonition of Paul ‐‐ We believe all things, we hope all things, we have endured many things, and hope to be able to endure all things. If there is anything virtuous, lovely, or of good report or praiseworthy, we seek after these things.
Sacred Texts: Holy Bible (King James Version) Book of Mormon Doctrine and Covenants Pearl of Great Price Excerpts: THE BOOK OF MORMON An Account Written by THE HAND OF MORMON UPON PLATES TAKEN FROM THE PLATES OF NEPHI Wherefore, it is an abridgment of the record of the people of Nephi, and also of the Lamanites‐‐Written to the Lamanites, who are a remnant of the house of Israel; and also to Jew and Gentile‐‐Written by way of commandment, and also by the spirit of prophecy and of revelation‐‐Written and sealed up, and hid up unto the Lord, that they might not be destroyed‐‐To come forth by the gift and power of God unto the interpretation thereof—Sealed by the hand of Moroni, and hid up unto the Lord, to come forth in due time by way of the Gentile‐‐The interpretation thereof by the gift of God.
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An abridgment taken from the Book of Ether also, which is a record of the people of Jared, who were scattered at the time the Lord confounded the language of the people, when they were building a tower to get to heaven‐‐Which is to show unto the remnant of the House of Israel what great things the Lord hath done for their fathers; and that they may know the covenants of the Lord, that they are not cast off forever‐‐ And also to the convincing of the Jew and Gentile that JESUS is the CHRIST, the ETERNAL GOD, manifesting himself unto all nations‐‐And now, if there are faults they are the mistakes of men; wherefore, condemn not the things of God, that ye may be found spotless at the judgment‐seat of Christ. TRANSLATED BY JOSEPH SMITH, JUN. THE TESTIMONY OF THREE WITNESSES Be it known unto all nations, kindreds, tongues, and people, unto whom this work shall come: That we, through the grace of God the Father, and our Lord Jesus Christ, have seen the plates which contain this record, which is a record of the people of Nephi, and also of the Lamanites, their brethren, and also of the people of Jared, who came from the tower of which hath been spoken. And we also know that they have been translated by the gift and power of God, for his voice hath declared it unto us; wherefore we know of a surety that the work is true. And we also testify that we have seen the engravings which are upon the plates; and they have been shown unto us by the power of God, and not of man. And we declare with words of soberness, that an angel of God came down from heaven, and he brought and laid before our eyes, that we beheld and saw the plates, and the engravings thereon; and we know that it is by the grace of God the Father, and our Lord Jesus Christ, that we beheld and bear record that these things are true. And it is marvelous in our eyes. Nevertheless, the voice of the Lord commanded us that we should bear record of it; wherefore, to be obedient unto the commandments of God, we bear testimony of these things. And we know that if we are faithful in Christ, we shall rid our garments of the blood of all men, and be found spotless before the judgment‐seat of Christ, and shall dwell with him eternally in the heavens. And the honor be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, which is one God. Amen. OLIVER COWDERY DAVID WHITMER MARTIN HARRIS THE TESTIMONY OF EIGHT WITNESSES Be it known unto all nations, kindreds, tongues, and people, unto whom this work shall come: That Joseph Smith, Jun., the translator of this work, has shown unto us the plates of which hath been spoken, which have the appearance of gold; and as many of the leaves as the said Smith has translated we did handle with our hands; and we also saw the engravings thereon, all of which has the appearance of ancient work, and of curious workmanship. And this we bear record with words of soberness, that the said Smith has shown unto us, for we have seen and hefted, and know of a surety that the said Smith has got the plates of which we have spoken. And we give our names unto the world, to witness unto the world that which we have seen. And we lie not, God bearing witness of it. CHRISTIAN WHITMER JACOB WHITMER PETER WHITMER, JUN. JOHN WHITMER HIRAM PAGE JOSEPH SMITH, SEN. HYRUM SMITH SAMUEL H. SMITH 1 NEPHI THE FIRST BOOK OF NEPHI HIS REIGN AND MINISTRY
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An account of Lehi and his wife Sariah and his four sons, being called, (beginning at the eldest) Laman, Lemuel, Sam, and Nephi. The Lord warns Lehi to depart out of the land of Jerusalem, because he prophesieth unto the people concerning their iniquity and they seek to destroy his life. He taketh three days' journey into the wilderness with his family. Nephi taketh his brethren and returneth to the land of Jerusalem after the record of the Jews. The account of their sufferings. They take the daughters of Ishmael to wife. They take their families and depart into the wilderness. Their sufferings and afflictions in the wilderness. The course of their travels. They come to the large waters. Nephi's brethren rebel against him. He confoundeth them, and buildeth a ship. They call the name of the place Bountiful. They cross the large waters into the promised land, and so forth. This is according to the account of Nephi; or in other words, I, Nephi, wrote this record. CHAPTER 1 1 I, Nephi, having been born of goodly parents, therefore I 13 And he read, saying: Wo, wo, unto Jerusalem, for I was taught somewhat in all the learning of my father; and have seen thine abominations! Yea, and many things did having seen many afflictions in the course of my days, my father read concerning Jerusalem‐‐that it should be nevertheless, having been highly favored of the Lord in all destroyed, and the inhabitants thereof; many should perish by the sword, and many should be carried away my days; yea, having had a great knowledge of the captive into Babylon. goodness and the mysteries of God, therefore I make a 14 And it came to pass that when my father had read and record of my proceedings in my days. seen many great and marvelous things, he did exclaim 2 Yea, I make a record in the language of my father, which many things unto the Lord; such as: Great and marvelous consists of the learning of the Jews and the language of the Egyptians. are thy works, O Lord God Almighty! Thy throne is high in 3 And I know that the record which I make is true; and I the heavens, and thy power, and goodness, and mercy are make it with mine own hand; and I make it according to over all the inhabitants of the earth, and, because thou art my knowledge. merciful, thou wilt not suffer those who come unto thee 4 For it came to pass in the commencement of the first that they shall perish! year of the reign of Zedekiah, king of Judah, (my father, 15 And after this manner was the language of my father in Lehi, having dwelt at Jerusalem in all his days); and in that the praising of his God; for his soul did rejoice, and his same year there came many prophets, prophesying unto whole heart was filled, because of the things which he had the people that they must repent, or the great city seen, yea, which the Lord had shown unto him. Jerusalem must be destroyed. 16 And now I, Nephi, do not make a full account of the 5 Wherefore it came to pass that my father, Lehi, as he things which my father hath written, for he hath written went forth prayed unto the Lord, yea, even with all his many things which he saw in visions and in dreams; and he heart, in behalf of his people. also hath written many things which he prophesied and 6 And it came to pass as he prayed unto the Lord, there spake unto his children, of which I shall not make a full came a pillar of fire and dwelt upon a rock before him; and account. he saw and heard much; and because of the things which 17 But I shall make an account of my proceedings in my he saw and heard he did quake and tremble exceedingly. days. Behold, I make an abridgment of the record of my 7 And it came to pass that he returned to his own house father, upon plates which I have made with mine own at Jerusalem; and he cast himself upon his bed, being hands; wherefore, after I have abridged the record of my overcome with the Spirit and the things which he had father then will I make an account of mine own life. seen. 18 Therefore, I would that ye should know, that after the Lord had shown so many marvelous things unto my father, 8 And being thus overcome with the Spirit, he was carried Lehi, yea, concerning the destruction of Jerusalem, behold away in a vision, even that he saw the heavens open, and he went forth among the people, and began to prophesy he thought he saw God sitting upon his throne, and to declare unto them concerning the things which he surrounded with numberless concourses of angels in the had both seen and heard. attitude of singing and praising their God. 19 And it came to pass that the Jews did mock him 9 And it came to pass that he saw One descending out of the midst of heaven, and he beheld that his luster was because of the things which he testified of them; for he above that of the sun at noon‐day. truly testified of their wickedness and their abominations; 10 And he also saw twelve others following him, and their and he testified that the things which he saw and heard, brightness did exceed that of the stars in the firmament. and also the things which he read in the book, manifested 11 And they came down and went forth upon the face of plainly of the coming of the Messiah, and also the the earth; and the first came and stood before my father, redemption of the world. and gave unto him a book, and bade him that he should 20 And when the Jews heard these things they were angry read. with him; yea, even as with the prophets of old, whom 12 And it came to pass that as he read, he was filled with they had cast out, and stoned, and slain; and they also the Spirit of the Lord. sought his life, that they might take it away. But behold, I,
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Nephi, will show unto you that the tender mercies of the Lord are over all those whom he hath chosen, because of
their faith, to make them mighty even unto the power of deliverance.
Recent Messages from Current Leadership: Twice a year the church members meet in a general conference to listen to messages from the general authorities of the church. The 2‐day conference is held in Salt Lake City, UT and broadcast to church buildings worldwide. The following talk was given by the current prophet and president of the church, President Thomas S. Monson, at the April 2012 General Conference.
The Race of Life Where did we come from? Why are we here? Where do we go after this life? No longer need these universal questions remain unanswered. My beloved brothers and sisters, this morning I wish to speak to you of eternal truths—those truths which will enrich our lives and see us safely home. Everywhere people are in a hurry. Jet‐powered aircraft speed their precious human cargo across broad continents and vast oceans so that business meetings might be attended, obligations met, vacations enjoyed, or families visited. Roadways everywhere—including freeways, thruways, and motorways—carry millions of automobiles, occupied by more millions of people, in a seemingly endless stream and for a multitude of reasons as we rush about the business of each day. In this fast‐paced life, do we ever pause for moments of meditation—even thoughts of timeless truths? When compared to eternal verities, most of the questions and concerns of daily living are really rather trivial. What should we have for dinner? What color should we paint the living room? Should we sign Johnny up for soccer? These questions and countless others like them lose their significance when times of crisis arise, when loved ones are hurt or injured, when sickness enters the house of good health, when life’s candle dims and darkness threatens. Our thoughts become focused, and we are easily able to determine what is really important and what is merely trivial. I recently visited with a woman who has been battling a life‐threatening disease for over two years. She indicated that prior to her illness, her days were filled with activities such as cleaning her house to perfection and filling it with beautiful furnishings. She visited her hairdresser twice a week and spent money and time each month adding to her wardrobe. Her grandchildren were invited to visit infrequently, for she was always concerned that what she considered her precious possessions might be broken or otherwise ruined by tiny and careless hands. And then she received the shocking news that her mortal life was in jeopardy and that she might have very limited time left here. She said that at the moment she heard the doctor’s diagnosis, she knew immediately that she
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would spend whatever time she had remaining with her family and friends and with the gospel at the center of her life, for these represented what was most precious to her. Such moments of clarity come to all of us at one time or another, although not always through so dramatic a circumstance. We see clearly what it is that really matters in our lives and how we should be living. Said the Savior: “Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal: “But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal: “For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.”1 In our times of deepest reflection or greatest need, the soul of man reaches heavenward, seeking a divine response to life’s greatest questions: Where did we come from? Why are we here? Where do we go after we leave this life? Answers to these questions are not discovered within the covers of academia’s textbooks or by checking the Internet. These questions transcend mortality. They embrace eternity. Where did we come from? This query is inevitably thought, if not spoken, by every human being. The Apostle Paul told the Athenians on Mars’ Hill that “we are the offspring of God.”2 Since we know that our physical bodies are the offspring of our mortal parents, we must probe for the meaning of Paul’s statement. The Lord has declared that “the spirit and the body are the soul of man.”3 Thus it is the spirit which is the offspring of God. The writer of Hebrews refers to Him as “the Father of spirits.”4 The spirits of all men are literally His “begotten sons and daughters.”5 We note that inspired poets have, for our contemplation of this subject, written moving messages and recorded transcendent thoughts. William Wordsworth penned the truth: Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: The soul that rises with us, our life’s Star, Hath had elsewhere its setting, And cometh from afar: Not in entire forgetfulness, And not in utter nakedness, But trailing clouds of glory do we come From God, who is our home: Heaven lies about us in our infancy! 6 Parents ponder their responsibility to teach, to inspire, and to provide guidance, direction, and example. And while parents ponder, children—and particularly youth—ask the penetrating question, why are we here? Usually it is spoken silently to the soul and phrased, why am I here? How grateful we should be that a wise Creator fashioned an earth and placed us here, with a veil of forgetfulness of our previous existence so that we might experience a time of testing, an opportunity to prove ourselves in order to qualify for all that God has prepared for us to receive. Clearly, one primary purpose of our existence upon the earth is to obtain a body of flesh and bones. We have also been given the gift of agency. In a thousand ways we are privileged to choose for ourselves. Here we learn from
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the hard taskmaster of experience. We discern between good and evil. We differentiate as to the bitter and the sweet. We discover that there are consequences attached to our actions. By obedience to God’s commandments, we can qualify for that “house” spoken of by Jesus when He declared: “In my Father’s house are many mansions. … I go to prepare a place for you … that where I am, there ye may be also.”7 Although we come into mortality “trailing clouds of glory,” life moves relentlessly forward. Youth follows childhood, and maturity comes ever so imperceptibly. From experience we learn the need to reach heavenward for assistance as we make our way along life’s pathway. God, our Father, and Jesus Christ, our Lord, have marked the way to perfection. They beckon us to follow eternal verities and to become perfect, as They are perfect.8 The Apostle Paul likened life to a race. To the Hebrews he urged, “Let us lay aside … the sin which doth so easily beset us, and let us run with patience the race that is set before us.”9 In our zeal, let us not overlook the sage counsel from Ecclesiastes: “The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong.”10 Actually, the prize belongs to him or her who endures to the end. When I reflect on the race of life, I remember another type of race, even from childhood days. My friends and I would take pocketknives in hand and, from the soft wood of a willow tree, fashion small toy boats. With a triangular‐shaped cotton sail in place, each would launch his crude craft in the race down the relatively turbulent waters of Utah’s Provo River. We would run along the river’s bank and watch the tiny vessels sometimes bobbing violently in the swift current and at other times sailing serenely as the water deepened. During a particular race we noted that one boat led all the rest toward the appointed finish line. Suddenly, the current carried it too close to a large whirlpool, and the boat heaved to its side and capsized. Around and around it was carried, unable to make its way back into the main current. At last it came to an uneasy rest amid the flotsam and jetsam that surrounded it, held fast by the tentacles of the grasping green moss. The toy boats of childhood had no keel for stability, no rudder to provide direction, and no source of power. Inevitably, their destination was downstream—the path of least resistance. Unlike toy boats, we have been provided divine attributes to guide our journey. We enter mortality not to float with the moving currents of life but with the power to think, to reason, and to achieve. Our Heavenly Father did not launch us on our eternal voyage without providing the means whereby we could receive from Him guidance to ensure our safe return. I speak of prayer. I speak too of the whisperings from that still, small voice; and I do not overlook the holy scriptures, which contain the word of the Lord and the words of the prophets—provided to us to help us successfully cross the finish line. At some period in our mortal mission, there appears the faltering step, the wan smile, the pain of sickness—even the fading of summer, the approach of autumn, the chill of winter, and the experience we call death. Every thoughtful person has asked himself the question best phrased by Job of old: “If a man die, shall he live again?”11 Try as we might to put the question out of our thoughts, it always returns. Death comes to all mankind. It comes to the aged as they walk on faltering feet. Its summons is heard by those who have scarcely reached midway in life’s journey. At times it hushes the laughter of little children. But what of an existence beyond death? Is death the end of all? Robert Blatchford, in his book God and My Neighbor, attacked with vigor accepted Christian beliefs such as God, Christ, prayer, and particularly immortality. He boldly asserted that death was the end of our existence and that no one could prove otherwise. Then a surprising thing happened. His wall of skepticism suddenly crumbled to dust. He was left exposed and undefended.
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Slowly he began to feel his way back to the faith he had ridiculed and abandoned. What had caused this profound change in his outlook? His wife died. With a broken heart he went into the room where lay all that was mortal of her. He looked again at the face he loved so well. Coming out, he said to a friend: “It is she, and yet it is not she. Everything is changed. Something that was there before is taken away. She is not the same. What can be gone if it be not the soul?” Later he wrote: “Death is not what some people imagine. It is only like going into another room. In that other room we shall find … the dear women and men and the sweet children we have loved and lost.”12 My brothers and sisters, we know that death is not the end. This truth has been taught by living prophets throughout the ages. It is also found in our holy scriptures. In the Book of Mormon we read specific and comforting words: “Now, concerning the state of the soul between death and the resurrection—Behold, it has been made known unto me by an angel, that the spirits of all men, as soon as they are departed from this mortal body, yea, the spirits of all men, whether they be good or evil, are taken home to that God who gave them life. “And then shall it come to pass, that the spirits of those who are righteous are received into a state of happiness, which is called paradise, a state of rest, a state of peace, where they shall rest from all their troubles and from all care, and sorrow.”13 After the Savior was crucified and His body had lain in the tomb for three days, the spirit again entered. The stone was rolled away, and the resurrected Redeemer walked forth, clothed with an immortal body of flesh and bones. The answer to Job’s question, “If a man die, shall he live again?” came when Mary and others approached the tomb and saw two men in shining garments who spoke to them: “Why seek ye the living among the dead? He is not here, but is risen.”14 As the result of Christ’s victory over the grave, we shall all be resurrected. This is the redemption of the soul. Paul wrote: “There are … celestial bodies, and bodies terrestrial: but the glory of the celestial is one, and the glory of the terrestrial is another.”15 It is the celestial glory which we seek. It is in the presence of God we desire to dwell. It is a forever family in which we want membership. Such blessings are earned through a lifetime of striving, seeking, repenting, and finally succeeding. Where did we come from? Why are we here? Where do we go after this life? No longer need these universal questions remain unanswered. From the very depths of my soul and in all humility, I testify that those things of which I have spoken are true. Our Heavenly Father rejoices for those who keep His commandments. He is concerned also for the lost child, the tardy teenager, the wayward youth, the delinquent parent. Tenderly the Master speaks to these and indeed to all: “Come back. Come up. Come in. Come home. Come unto me.” In one week we will celebrate Easter. Our thoughts will turn to the Savior’s life, His death, and His Resurrection. As His special witness, I testify to you that He lives and that He awaits our triumphant return. That such a return will be ours, I pray humbly in His holy name—even Jesus Christ, our Savior and our Redeemer, amen. Notes 1. Matthew 6:19–21. 2. Acts 17:29. 3. Doctrine and Covenants 88:15. 4. Hebrews 12:9. 5. Doctrine and Covenants 76:24.
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6. William Wordsworth, Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood (1884), 23–24. 7. John 14:2–3. 8. See Matthew 5:48; 3 Nephi 12:48. 9. Hebrews 12:1. 10. Ecclesiastes 9:11. 11. Job 14:14. 12. See Robert Blatchford, More Things in Heaven and Earth: Adventures in Quest of a Soul (1925), 11. 13. Alma 40:11–12. 14. Luke 24:5–6. 15. 1 Corinthians 15:40.
Words to Know: Mormon priesthood revelation temple chapel agency apostasy apostle saints ward covenant
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Shinto Shinto is the oldest organized Japanese religious tradition. Prior to Confucian and Buddhist influence in the 6th century C.E., religion in Japan was mostly a local affair, decentralized and with a variety of practices. It is now a far more organized tradition, though many practices are still observed in a non‐ organized, local way. Shinto is a tradition that is very much centered on the land and people of Japan. It does not aspire to universality in the way that Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity do. Virtually all adherents are of Japanese ancestry. Brief History: Early Shinto roots are found in the Japanese islands. The main source for clues into the history is modern archeology. No unified set of beliefs existed prior to the introduction of writing from China and Buddhism from Korea in the 6th century C.E. Buddhism and Shinto coexisted and were eventually combined until the 19th century when they were separated and Shinto became the state religion of Japan. With the defeat of World War II, foreign influence forced the separation of church and state. Estimated Adherents: 4 million Founder: Founder: unknown Basic Beliefs:
Certain deeds create a ritual impurity that one can be cleansed of for peace of mind and good fortune. Purification rites Everything has a spiritual essence (kami)
Sacred Texts: No sacred text, but books of lore and history provide stories and background for beliefs: Kojiki Shoku Nihongi, Nihon Shoki Rikkokushi Jinnō Shōtōki
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Sikhism Sikhs make up only about 2 percent of the Indian population, but they are far more influential than their size might indicate. The most concentrated population is in the Punjab region of India. Brief History: The Sikh tradition began with a line of 10 gurus who lived from 1469 to 1708. Collectively they laid the foundation for the Sikh religion. The tenth guru created the Khalsa whose function was the protection and safeguarding of all the peoples of God regardless of relgion, color, race or creed. This “Army of God” fought against Muslim and Mughal. Eventually, after two Anglo‐Sikh Wars the Sikh empire fell to the British Empire but not until heavy losses were incurred on both sides. Estimated Adherents: 30 million Founder: Founder: Guru Nanak (1469‐1539), born in present‐day Pakistan Basic Beliefs: From www.sikhs.org:
There is only One God. He is the same God for all people of all religions. The soul goes through cycles of births and deaths before it reaches the human form. The goal of our life is to lead an exemplary existence so that one may merge with God. Sikhs should remember God at all times and practice living a virtuous and truthful life while maintaining a balance between their spiritual obligations and temporal obligations. The true path to achieving salvation and merging with God does not require renunciation of the world or celibacy, but living the life of a householder, earning a honest living and avoiding worldly temptations and sins. Sikhism condemns blind rituals such as fasting, visiting places of pilgrimage, superstitions, worship of the dead, idol worship etc. Sikhism preaches that people of different races, religions, or sex are all equal in the eyes of God. It teaches the full equality of men and women. Women can participate in any religious function or perform any Sikh ceremony or lead the congregation in prayer.
Sacred Texts: Gurū Granth Sāhib
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Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism is the ancient religion of Persia. In spite of it small number of current adherents, it has played a significant role in the study of comparative religion. It is believed to be contemporary with Vedic Hinduism, as well as to have had an influence on Judaism and Christianity. Brief History: Arising out of the polytheistic traditions of ancient India and Iran, the founding prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) is one of the first monotheists in recorded human history. It is not clear when Zoroaster lived. Tradition places him around 600 B.C.E., but many scholars feel this date is far too late, alternatively estimating anywhere from 1500 to 1000 B.C.E. Zoroastrianism was formerly one of the world’s largest religions, serving as the state religion of ancient Persia for many centuries. Foreign conquest collapsed and eventually disintegrated it. Estimated Adherents: 200 thousand Founder: Founder: Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) Basic Beliefs: Among others:
Ahura Mazda is the creator, the Eternal, the Pure and the Truth Eternal law was revealed to mankind through holy words All physical creation runs according to Ahura Mazda’s master plan Mortal beings play an active role in the battle between order and chaos Man will be individually judged according to moral choices made through free will Reward, punishment, happiness, and grief depend on how an individual lives
Sacred Texts: Avesta
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