WOMEN IN AFRICAN DRAMA: REPRESENTATION AND ROLE
by
CIARINJI
CHESAINA
Ph. D. Thesis Workshop Theatre School of English University of Leeds
1987
w
ýý
DEDICA I ON
This
late
I
thesis
i! ý dedicated
father
Mr Rowland
to
N.
my mother
Geteria
Mrs
Sarah
who taught
N.
Geteria
me how to
hold
and. my
a pen.
ENTS AC}VOWLEDGEM.
I wish to express in any to everyone who contributed my gratitude it is impossible While this thesis. to way to the completion of by name, I would like to convey my sincere thanks mention every person individuals. institutions to the following and I
to the Association for am grateful of Commonwealth Universities giving me a scholarship, without which my studies at Leeds University I an grateful would have been impossible. also to my employer, (Kenya) Kenyatta University for granting years' study leave me three to pursue this Thanks go to Benjamin research. arap Kipkulei and Mr Wasambo Were of the Ministry for assistance with research of Education materials. Special ment while tremendously
thanks
Banham whose patience and encouragego to Martin thesis for this the research contributed supervising to its completion.
Leeds University for I am indebted to research at colleagues I In discussions particular, provocative criticism. and constructive University Dar-es-Salaam to Amandina Dr Lihamba thank of wish (anzania) Agriculture College Kenyatta Jomo Joel Mberia Mr of of and (Kenya). for typing Torode Annette Mrs to Technology Many thanks and thesis technical this advice. and offering brothers, to thank my mother, I would like the kept University Kenyatta on eye an who sisters at and colleagues Lizzie Mrs thank I to family then. especially wish every now and Mrs Rosemary Ndegwa and Kibera, Mrs Murugi 1"^ugo, Mrs Valerie Wangethi, Torre. duties Dr Jennifer for performing Riria-Ouko at some of my On the
home front,
Thanks
to
I children
am most while
my elder
brother, to
grateful I was away.
Elijah
Benjamin arap
for
Geteria,
Chesaina
for
encouragement.
looking
after
to heart-felt I to my gratitude wish my all, express bore the Babu Kimulwon, Kaptuiya, Chebet strains who and children, Their Leeds. being throughout stay at of stresses motherless my inspiration to me. patience and courage acted as a great source of 'Thank you very much and may God bless them I say, you'.
our
Above
and To
ABSTRACT
Women in
Title:
The purpose of
in women
this
of
African
unpublished
is
study
to
the
examine
is
The discussion
theatre. by African
plays
Representation
Drama:
African
writers
and Role
based
from
selected
and role
representation on published
and
a pan-African
perspective. is
The thesis Portrayal
discusses
part
but
playwrights issues. Major
also
Playwrights
the
only
these
here
Examined Male
the
in
different
three
attitude are of
II
Part
Politics.
Portrayal The and
a thematic
Social and
Tradition Women, :
part
chapters
in
of
The
Society;
follows
women
the
of
thesis
women characters. women by major
of
characterization
writers' two
I
presentation
playwrights' not
of
position
for
chapters
African
major
analyses
the
Women in
parts: Part
Woman and Women in
The Urban
Change;
This
formthe
which
two major
Playwrights.
Major
examining
at
aimed
approach
areas
Women by
of
into
divided
towards
women and women's of Women by
The Portrayal
Female
Women by Major
Playwrights. Chapter
African
socio-political board
of
'Women,
examination
playwrights' tional
1,
the
From the
setting situation
Tradition
and Social
of African as a major of
the
women's foundation continent;
Change'
discusses
experiences
in
of this
the
present
selected
the
and future
is
the
on to
the
chapter
study. traditiona-l
milieu
the
study
then
moves
tradi-
spring-
relatively
new urban in
ments
in
survive
the
African
and even
to
that
in
the
is
for
Very in
is
recognition
chapter
reflected examines
only
to
examined
3"
of
of
this
their
thesis portrayal
major alongside
female the
in
the
this
unfortunate dedicated
in
myth
the
to
role
is
kitchen in
a is
Africa disaster.
social
in women
of African
of women by major is
done
Chapter
that
to
the
women's in minor
appropriate
of women.
affecting these
male
5.
African by drama on
situation
male
attitude
made between
are in
the
issues
towards
fellow-women
playwrights; male
satisfy
meet the
found
analysis
examined
has been
of
of
case
movements
to to
autonomy
the
her
one.
periods.
cross-references
is
of
in
trying
portrayal
in
playwrights
this
failing
leads
the
women and also
research
negligible
in
are
female
for
affairs
the
significance
that
reason
and the
writers
last
this
censure
exclusively
and contemporary
towards
writers
male
is
examines
discusses
Of great
degree
to
genuinely
public
study
traditional chapter
playwrights. these
of
chapter
traditional
Yet
A more negative
over.
this
to
towns.
place
in women
of
The fourth
It
world
participation
The third
It
a woman's
one the
widespread
in
the
a certain
at her
is when she by life
from
hesitate
finger
predica-
as she struggles
individual.
the
of
does not
society
presented
The myth
part
an accusing
point
herself
demands
the
examines
significantly
environment
expectations
challenges
politics
differs
on the
woman,
traditional
that
urban
Chapter
woman finds
which
ties
communal
the
African
a world
in
Survival from
the
which
This
environment.
the
women.
fifth
and as
self-perception
theatre. female areas
This
chapter
playwrights in
Chapters
1
r-l nTT mZmTm
e
Page
INTRODUCTION Notes
PART I:
1
........................... to Introduction
WOMEN IN SOCIETY
....................
to
CHAPTER 2: Notes
Notes
PART II:
The Urban to
CHAPTER 3:
Chapter
to
and Social
Change.
..........
57
Woman
60
.................... 2......................
Politics
Chapter
3.
91 94
...................
173
.....................
THE PORTRAYAL OF WOMENBY MAJOR PLAYWRIGHTS
CHAPTER 4: Notes CHAPTER 5: Notes
The Portrayal to
Chapter
of
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chapter
Women by Major
Male
.......
181
Playwrights
..
182
..
231
..
236
4....................
The Portrayal to
8
1......................
Chapter
Women in
7
.....................
CHAPTER 1: Women, Tradition Notes
6
of
Women by Major
5......................
............................
...........................
Female
Playwrights.
..
296
301
306
INTRODUCTION
The first emotional
in
position
the
statement
about
but
more
take
in
plays
significantly the
to
in
the
as a theatre
kind
attitudes
African and the
nurtur,
turn
the
was
found
that
the
only
to
clarify
my
direction
a brief
study,
I take
explicit
introductory an
as
the
elucidate
is
of
very
remark,
I
approach
in
Fourth
United
that
African
am
am an educationist it see
I
and an actress towards
African
societies
crucial
role
in
in
the
as as my
developing in
building
up
women.
played their
a very
foundation their
Nations
both
societies
As mothers,
of
I
and I
woman,
contributing
influence can
of ý-. _._..
feeders
Secondly,
women.
is
Africa
of women of
an African
As a teacher
towards
the
position
am a woman,
use my talents
the
women are for
plight
period-.
contemporary
which
I
women have
general
in
that
drama which
of
positive
to
on the
artist. to
responsibility the
a topic
fact
the
sensitive
not
as a pointer
I recognize from
this
serves,
is
an
discussion.
bey interest in
for
politics
as gender
implicit
in
a researcher
Although
is
selected
my position
of
such
issue.
the
woman question
the
analysing
well
field
in
own position
rooted
responsibility
and controversial
his/her
in
and foremost
of
they the
nations. World
are
In
nation. In
the
women contributed
traditional
core terms
about
and family
the
of of
work
input,
done recently
a research
Food Day on 16th
development
the
October,
two-thirds
of
1984, all
the
it
2
hours
spent in
spent
they of
in
traditional
Yet,
in
spite
of
are
not
given
the
oppression
discrimination
had to
It
tackled
way
gain
if
African is
perception
in
issues
which
the
and poetry, This
is
the
is
of
that
to
the
to
order
be liberated
victims
have
they
inferior
move from
as well
same token
made by Henrik
are
it
On a
as well.
handled
when
provokes
Sjogren
attitudes
art,
as a performed than people
the are
policies
influencing
clearly
reflect
which
women determine
for
made.
and
drama
prose more
be
of
towards
more
a situation
attitudes
are
to
needs
forms
all
self-perception
tool
powerful
which
from
These
attitudes.
women
and by the
often
autonomy,
problem
major
affecting
of
are
societies,
2
attitudes
a very
their
Where women occupy
in men
the
instance,
picture
point
time
exploitation,
significant
women and women's
As a written
change.
presents
of for
level,
The theatre social
belief
area
and they
prejudice.
than
women are
the
deserve
gained
independence.
my strong
national
social
to
contributions
manifestations:
have
or
is
oppression
they
credit
much harder
struggle or
women's
various
positions
positions
men's
its
African
and general
prestigious
the
of
'
marketing.
in
and three-fifths
agriculture
fiction sensitively.
when he argues:
It forms. is the most direct /drama/ confronts of all artistic immediate in this beings living beings living and with other its its between recipients and practitioners correspondence 3 forms. the theatre's lies art other over all superiority In Unlike
Africa, the
novel
especially, which
is
drama a foreign
occupies literary
a very genre,
special drama
place. has been
an
indigenous is
significant
Africa
and heard
population
of
in
the
African
and therefore
it.
This
the
African
continent
this
is
appreciate
immemorial.
time
since
drama
about
can be seen to
in
art
is
context
the
one does
not
need to
because
the
majority
important
is
A second
those
are
that
point fact
it
that
be literate the
of
who cannot
read
and
write. The purpose role
of
in women is
literature
area
seem to drama
literature.
But
women's
in
comprise ing
role this even
playwright
is
story
writer.
given In
Eldred
awareness
the
of
The only to
on the give
Ama Ata
like space
in
this
The Writing Jones
important
role
African
of
of
and Oyin role works in women
role
of
a token
the
twenty-two
only
Ogunba,
of
is who
African
of
women
on
women. is
one of the
in women
African of
recognition
which
essays It
best
is
surpris-
known
as a novelist
as a
and a short-
and Movement
of
show negligible
respectively, Wole
criticism drama
in
criticism
works.
by women in literary
subject
Literature4
Wole Soyinka6
played
of
of
subject
extensive
only
Aidoo
work
the
subject
interest
the
on this
in
dramatic
one examines
only
done
done
the
Out of
drama.
comprehensive the
here
critics
African
Transition?
importance
researched
studies
a writer
5
to
of
the
been
and
African
attracting
who have
Women in
work,
that
those
representation
women in
of
interested
are
due attention
Studies
extensively
has
who
the
examine
increasingly
research
while
given
Ngambika. most
which
to
The role
is
Critics
drama
not
drama.
little
very
avoid
have
area
drama.
of
study
African
an
Yet
critics. the
of
so far
Soyinka's which are
give
Michael
drama. some
Etherton's
The Development
Writers
in left
a vacuum
male
Black
position
this
'feminism'
is
deals
with
the
role
and Lloyd
these of
Brown's
two
Women is
there
works,
in
women
to
the
fact
particular
African
use
drama
by
the
position'. to
this
Chinua
works
It
is
not
the
Achebe's
also
been
in
feminism.
from
is
This 'Africa
English
restrict
in
recognition
is
not
the
only
it -
landscape
that but
a pan-
not
from
cosmos perceived
spirit
the
theatre
with
does
a metaphysical
this
African
selected
research
whole
includes
Secondly,
concerned
words,
term
embraces
which
barriers.
in
written
in way
use of the
the
context.
have
study
and the is
sphere
is
continent;
world 10
it
the
place, it
and the
politics
avoids
first
the
with
women;
it
gender
African
the
linguistic
or
to
of
itself
French
the
of
expression,
a view
limited
in
examined
that,
geographical
in
of
the
and the
concept
geographical
fact
in
reasons:
situation
with
deliberately
concerned
perspective
itself
concerned
it
irrelevant
essentially
The plays African
two
are
the
is
Africa,
a western
which
study
a
has not
study
has included
cultural
articulates
development.
social
observed
looks
study
that
contrary,
African it
is
at
literature
values
as a creative
and subsequently
in some
Many critics literature creative
is writing
and creative not
art
which
medium which contributor
as a great
for has
writers
a
is,
and Kiswahili. This
the
in
even
of
research
for
is
elements
to
However,
omission
women in
of
'feminism'
term
in
the
Drama8
playwrights. Although
of
Africa-9
by
African
of
have
art's
but, sake
specific
social
on
5
functions
to
creative
writer
as
the
voice
record of
creative
the
of
in
vision
critic
the
cannot of
for
his
articulated
considered
is
values
a pertinent
to
the
experience
of
11
that and
Chinua
for
role of
of
question
exposed
in one
negative
this
study.
is
even
how far attitudes
extent
social
has
as the
more
blunt
an African 12 in
literature the
African
artist and
justice.
social
African
of
society
To him,
towards
contributes
the
his Achebe
evaluating
of the
role African
literature.
struggle
duty
the
traditional
African
of the
writing
reason
of
Soyinka,
as the
own time'.
role
escape
and
mores
function
creative
this
function
duty
writer's
With
is
'to
fundamental
on this
piece
is
Wole
to
According
play.
to
mind,
which
a a
development.
playwrights towards
have is women
It
6
NOTES TO INTRODUCTION
1
'Women: The Missing (Nairobi, Magazine
2
See, for example, Christine for Economic Independence,
3
Henrik Sjogren, Stage and Society Bohuslanigens A B, 1979, p. 25. Carole B. Davies Women in African Press, 1986.
Link in November
& Anne A. Literature,
Development Programmes' 1984), pp. 1)+-15 & 59.
Viva
Obbo, African Women in their London, Zed Press, 1980. in
Sweden,
Struggle
Uddevalla,
Graves (ed. ), Ngambika, Studies of Trenton, New Jersey, Africa World
5
See Chinalum 'The Feminist Nwankwo, Impulse Realism and Social in Ama Ata Aidoo's Here and Our Sister No Sweetness Killjoy', Ibid., pp. 151-160.
6
Eldred 1975.
7
Oyin Wole
8
Michael Anchor
9
Lloyd Brown, Connecticut,
D. Jones,
Ogunba, Soyinka,
The Writing
of Wole Soyinka,
A Movement of Transition, Ibadan, Ibadan University
Etherton, The Development Press, 1982. in Women Writers Press, Greenwood
Black 1981.
of
London,
A Study Press, African
Africa,
of the 1975.
Drama,
Heinemann,
Plays
of
London,
Westport,
10
in Morning Novel', 'Thoughts African the Chinua Achebe, on 1975. Heinemann, London, Day by C. Achebe, Creation
11
in The in a Modern African State', 'The Writer Wole Soyinka, (ed. ) by Per Wastberg, The Uppsala, in Modern Africa, Writer 1968. Studies, Institute African Scandinavian of
12
two essays by the novelist: See, for example in the following Vol. 31, No. 59, Africaine, 'The Black Writer's Presence Burden', (196 5), pp. 135-1l. 8, and 'The African Writer 3rd Quarterly, and (84) 78-84 Cause', Day, Creation Biafran Morning Yet on the PP. op., cit
Yet
on
PART
WOMENINSOCIETY
8
CHAPTER 1
WOMEN TRADITION ,
is
Literature develop
as progressively
literature
and
longest
of
upon to
called
cultural
of
tackled
a look
contemporary
between
cultures.
the
traditional
Critics
E=anuel
Obiechina
of
African
cultures looks
at
Africa's
Africa
still
have the
play
literature as a basis traditional
in
for
this
important
a very
some of the in
cultures,
recognize literary
cultures
West
the
task
roots.
roots
for
Africa
which
the
importance
Indeed,
their
Western
in
of blaming
cultural
context.
Africa and
of
at
Criticism
colonialism.
Of great
continent.
social
of
upheavals
traditional
African
basis.
is
African
instead
African the
phases,
by themes
superseded
herself
a few
with
has to
Written
articulates.
through
connected
now been
the
cultures
moved
it and
culture
it
culture
have
in
Traditional
and social
the
re-examine
confusion
articulating
themes
has
self-evaluation
the
as
criticism
colonialism
against
is
its
which
for
a vehicle
AND SOCIAL CHANGE
the or
part political
antagonism
so-called
the
'modern'
importance criticism.
ideological as an
He says: his derive signposts Where the modern Western might novelist dialectics Marxian or existentialist from Freudian psychology, in traditional African finds the cues novelist philosophy, the psychological beliefs responses and values which determine traditional born and bred within society. of the characters
of
in
9
The question to
ignore
is
transitional
Dr Hannah
traditional
scholars
Kinoti
the
at
for
women's
dissatisfied
End of
cannot
the
as
present
sentiments
Women's Decade
afford
ideal was as
with
the
example,
affairs
of Africa
period
who are
Note,
period.
in
a researcher
the
whether
by those
claimed
July
which
by
expressed
in
Conference
in
Nairobi
1985: In
traditional individual Kenya every in total lived harmony the members the husband with the of his/her community; with (or the his/her wife wives), son or daughter with parents, the brother the the sister the brother with sister, with and The traditional in Kenyan so on. cultures were organized facilities for bringing such a way as to provide up a 2 individual. socially-integrated Traditional the
African
individual
members
of
but
various
traditions,
effects
on certain
culture
affected
both
were
a given
there
members
one sex,
affected
cultures
men
one group
also
a given
and
There
however,
or
people
had
which
Various
there
satisfying
were
in
strengths
were
weaknesses
community.
women;
of
all-embracing
community.
were
of
not
in
adverse
of
aspects those
individual even one
which
more than
others.
is
It
in
weaker cope
our terms than
with
in and
Africa
of
the
between
traditionalism
between
Africa
There
are
social
those This
hierarchies.
that
contention
certainly
subsequent
and the a number
who find the
case
community
a given
themselves
transitional
and modernism
of
have more
recognition
members is
members
with
the
period; introduced
higher
in women
during
to
problems
cultural in
who are
social
traditional transition the
contact
West. of
questions
connected
with
traditional
African
It ý
cultures the
which
drama
given
exnrnined
based
on the
social
status.
Africa,
patriarchal
l, y- liberated
from
blood
behalf
women.
Details
since
broad
to
in women
changing
the
social
from at those
consider
of of
respond
playwrights
and
looks
ethnic
this to
traditional values.
or
in
yet
beliefs
and therefore social The pillar
social
to
represent
on which
of
community
to
another.
a pan-Africa. which
prevalent
are
in most
of
setting.
examine
context
status
from
and practices
geographical is
not
traditional
from
were
a. ong
were rLaüe
region
continent
complete-
women did
decisions
one geographical the
not lived
here
low
low
patriarchal
differed
practices
and which
chapter
the
various
the
those
a very
they
even
were
maintain
human relations
regardless The purpose
of
study
we shall
perspective,
Africa,
this
There
helped
some cases
true
important men as
the
beliefs
these
in and
community
connected
of
in-laws;
brothers.
which
is
It
scc-ety
and especially
women were
counterparts
their
from
by their
and practices
However,
among
independence
total
communities
their
unlike
How do
communities?
women occupied
discrimination.
relatives
beliefs
to
matriarchal
social
who lived
communities
on their
in
Even
systems,
their
to
in of women
among many communities social
a
their
communities?
their
within
of
regard
status
to
in women
members of with
the
affect
background
role
particular
individuals as
traditional
the
themselves
and practices
existence
is
by other
their
of
fundamental
What
women viewed
affairs
beliefs
and women's In
the
as the
chapter.
How are
in
various
enjoy
take
and how do women perceive
participation
their
to
this
in
community?
community
the
like
we would
how selected
African
the
and role
in and our
position the
context
discussion
of stands
is
11
comprised view
those
of
as affecting
the
This
is
chapter
selected
playwrights'
particular
beliefs those
examined
beliefs
traditional position
into
handling
beliefs
and
'Women and Initiation'
during
with
the
in
influenced
polygamous
considered
Africa,
tradition
the
is
marriages
that
as the is,
the
under
most role
of
role
and Bride
of
entitled
women
'Women,
examines
chapter
in women
Price'
attitudes of
plight
section the
The
particularly
The
of
section
life,
sex
how these
and
the
are
problems
Marriage
bride-price.
examined
important
social
and wives
of
The last
and Polygamy'.
Marriage is
daughters
to
marriage.
adolescence
'Women,
change.
towards by
the
of women at
social
of
attitudes
examines are
period
examines
relation
women's
for
eligibility examines
initiation
the
phases.
of which
in women
to
connected
their
affect
these
of
each
of
playwrights
'Women and Chastity'
Under
practices
section
which
place
which
both
sections
the
and practices.
those
connected
five
of
especially on
women during
of
divided
and practices
what
traditional
women as mothers.
Women and Chastity
Lusigi
Ayodi
(M) Kenya:
Ruth
Kamau (F)
Kenya:
Florentine Grace Ogot Elvania In censored
(F)
Zirimu
according
to
The White
Kenya:
The Family
Uganda: African
many traditional the
Pumpkins
The Purity )
(F)
Orwa (F)
The
of
1982
Test Veil
the
1982
1968;
Spear
1973
a woman's
communities
expectations
1980
community
is
behaviour about
her
role
12
as a future in
role
wife
to
crucial woman
to
prior
to
whereby
some
after
that
bride
the
for
Uganda, bride's
a specially
so that
(engagement Nigeria
the
are
particularly
the
of
root
relations
as a prerequisite
is
on the
wedding
marriage
to
provide
Among
the
marriage.
hours
long
for
aganda
that
of
if
a in
sit
I. o the
prior
the
she can provide
of marriage
to
evidence
make her
they
a virgin
not
has
night
important so
is
the
from is
This her up
is
demand part bride
strict
bride
price
in
stage given
not
of to
of the
the
recognition
an upright
manner.
te
lobola
The Ibo
of
all
altogether.
issue
t3 be a
prove
of or
virginity
a woman's
negzk'iations,
marriage
the
father, of
as an acknowledgement
an honourable
daughter
to
on the last
does
a bride
reject
a token
given
if
the
the
During
marriage.
bride
brought
sexual
required
the
solution
allowed
or to
price)
apart
virginity.
she
Zambia,
is
bridegroom
the
quite
prior
to
consummation
Bemba of
Among the
before
have
of
required.
evidence
virgin
is
used
sheet of
that
the
at
This
to
is
jr.. a young
ingrained
discipline.
is
rmation
herbal
prepared
is
sense
of virginity
proof
know
relatives
wedding
cons
example,
and mother,
this
forbidden
the
a virgin
was
it
bride.
communities, the
sexual
are
wife
major
a woman's
communities,
of virginity
as a worthy
acceptance
exposed
women
and proof
marriage
In be
ensured
of
since
commitment
Among many
through
that,
that
of
a sense
marriage.
is
practice
before
that
felt
is
communities
ensure
coiitment the
and mother.
traditional
is
It
that If,
the the
mother
dai mother
however,
titer's has after
of
13
this
token
she
and her
when
has been family
is
she
that
is
which a sheet
a big
with
African
are
who
merely
use
issue
of is
of
the
play
and the
after
pain
This
arouses
anxious in
live tender
to
our follow
her
a traditional age.
society
However,
concentrating
to
the
parents:
of
having
boys of
plight to
lost
father,
playwrights
for
their
at
given
play
from
this
the
virginity
village. and we are
at
such
us by deserting instead.
we
opens,
and crying
her
girl
than Africa.
traditional
see how she manages
her
drama
a young
rather
play
staggering
costume,
regard
are
of
When the
disappoints her
his
we are
the
which as with
defilement
drama.
the play
There
play.
women characters.
in women
by three the
to
there
their
off
picture
playwright
on Khanasimba,
her
virginity
as well
the
start
plight
of
in way
the
for
uses
ensuing
throughout
a symbol
in
a springboard
as
raped
to
or
The
shame.
play
hand
sympathies
about
curiosity
from
about
a blood-stained
she has been
back
issue
the
other
the
given
take
On the
the
between
through
as
event of
an examination
is
individuals
Ayodi
Lusigi
shown Ameyo wearing
with
any
in
differ
virginity
showing
a discrepancy
beginning
of
demanded back
own home
to
concern
women
is
be a virgin,
middle.
emphasis
as a spectacular
merely
There
and
the
bride
approached
society.
The Pumpkins3,
as part
are
in
necessarily In
girl
affects
her
to
not
token
a virgin
the
who show great
position
without
have of
to
the in
cut
areas
virginity
their
for
hole
and
playwrights of
was not
playwrights ways
issue to
a bride
found
when the
back
sent
humiliating
very
differing
and
is
daughter
humiliated
are
rejected
explanation
the
given
Ameyo's
to a Ameyo
14
defilement
then is
It Ameyo but the
not
clear
also
from
problem
the
problem
in
of
problem,
more than
from
their
it
addition,
affecting
since daughters'
if
communities failure
victim
to
relate the
minimizes
has such terrible
which In
the
consider
their
of
from
only to
Ayodi's
to
closely
not
father
the
guardians
as expected.
virginity
see a problem
the
to
sensitivity Kamau's who has
to
Ruth
of
the
major
repercussions
appears
in
women only
experiences inflicted
The
in the the of
of
the
the
course
important agony her
the
on
somewhat
male-
terms
its
of
is
focus
traditional from
in
love of
thing
her
their is
she undergoes
love not
girls
during
of
her
the
test
purity owing
to
woman
yet
she
a strong
son and she has But
relationship. loss
heroine's the
The playwright rite;
and
a young
of
chief's
as she watches
the
of
Africa.
community the
with
emphasis
predicament
rite
issue
A significant
traditional the
the
places
two playwrights'
fellow-initiates.
on the
Test
rite.
in women
break is
Purity
initiation an
of
point
Harisha
virginity
se but
of
plight
go against
love.
playwright,
in
Kamau
context
make a permanent
cannot
pain
out
many problems.
more realistic
as the
can be made as regards
comparison
per
is
criticism
Africa.
Ayodi, .
in
virginity
her
severe
it
Yet
Khanasimba's
on men. Unlike
bond
this
mother
an experience
to
distances
regarded
turn
of
traditional
chauvinistic effect
are
face
loss
of
to
mother. the
do not
implications women
her
and often daughters
appendage
why Ayodi
mothers
morality
a mere
as affecting
traditionally
their
becomes
a man's
of
for
lost
the
virginity
painful emphasizes hand
is
the
used
to
15
check
whether
dramatic makes
to
trick us
run
to
avoid
understand
the
Ayodi,
untraditional
from
home.
Her
playwright
and Harisha's
uses
the
ceremony,
little
a we see
decision
subsequent
when
she
her
heroine's
emphasize
the
effect
its
not
but
also
the
bush,
in
the
needs
audience
about
it
that
most,
family
on the
effect
emphasized
suffering to
distance
sex on her
ceremony,
reminder
a time
than
pre-marital
is
test
purity
not
emphasizes
suffering
constant at
of
Kamau
Harisha's the
the
whole
fear
girls'
Rather
act
heroine,
at
the
showing
Kaurau does
herself.
victims.
his
Although
a virgin.
away.
Unlike the
is
a girl
in
only during
as Ayodi
her
with
period
she
somewhat
Harisha's
does with
herself.
connection
though
is,
Harisha's
of
heroine
the
agony
spends
romantic,
her
away is
deprivation
during
from
problem
a
love
of
pre-marital
pregnancy. The tradition. in
the
by her his
between
love
Just
as Harisha by
community
flight
from
prestigious
position
symbolic
overtones;
as cruel
traditionalism.
she
is
the
that
and
village, as the part, is
the
able
to
way which
difficult
son
so does the
chief's
reunion triumph
school
so closely for
to
Ayodi
with to
the
between of
put
reputation
chief's
Kamau is
when she was a high
is
the
is
son
her
successor
the
Ruth
chief's
losing
with
Test
identify
the
risks
sleeping
on Kamau's
unconscious
Purity
Harisha
love
above and
before
the over
two what
student. her do.
heroine's
and
losing
Though
perhaps
lovers
has
she presents
a woman and she wrote Perhaps
place
marriage
son risk chief.
her
this
The is
experiences
why in
a
16
p
During
the
introduction
because
traditional
forbade
would
leave
the
independence
Ogot's'The
tradition
and
in
believes woman's
had
face
Veil'
tradition
the
freedom For
but
on their
As a
and their
maintain is
the into
dramatized
they
own.
stubbornness
This
example,
tradition
marriage,
to
from
dignity
basis
of
a play
of
S between
conflict
Dolly
virginity
Dolly's
attitude
fashion
which
for
respect
modernism.
regards
with
towards
of
the
at
a predicament.
the
go against
were
been
shallow
which
Contrasted
to
deal
has
the
into
gain.
communities.
Veil
conversion
to
they
which
examines
something
consequences
if
their
within
the
before
a great
in
of
relations
fiances
themselves
advantage
eager
the
Africa
across
strongly
as a symbol is
her
regards
a firm
of
a
fiance
anything
as outmoded. is
as a principled
presented
is who
as a character
conviction
that
he is
admits,
sex
exercise
inclination
Dolly through
they
Orwa.
the
traditional
take
by Florentine
honour.
Curtis's
have
to
White
same title
to
men were
their
standing
The White
of
latter
from
social
Grace
the
to
swept
women found
where
educated women
which
values,
men wanted
women had to
result,
modernism
codes
young
which
and
the
moral
misguided
of
Western
of
is
This
wave
from
pre-marital
with
his
influenced sex
fiancee
Although
the
she
is
man wants friend
old-fashioned. to
join
the
Western-educated
Curtis
swayed by friends.
easily
by his
merely is
young
where
character
to
with
sleep
current like
Dolly
him that
who tells Curtis
It
therefore
is but,
comes not
as he
refraining wants
to
fashion. Curtis,
Dolly
out
has been
sleep
17
brought
traditional
up on strict as an honour
regarded Dolly's
to
stubbornness
lines
her
husband
where
virginity as her
as well her
as she rejects
fiance's
a woman is
of
Notice
parents.
suggestion:
Tradition that MUST be a virgin strongly states a girl on the day of her marriage. This is the greatest honour she can bestow upon her future husband and her parents. Recently my Apiyo brought in our family sister great rejoicing when a blood-stained bed-sheet brought back wrapped in a goatwas 6 skin. intention
The
is
character
What is
admirable *ton to
follow
As women
choice. create
for in
Birungi
plight
in
appropriate
has
basis
changing
this
cultural
a sexual ritual
to
used
to
her
play,
Spear.?
The Family
Spear,
issue
the
since
section
type
of the
with
of
independent own
not
traditional
are is
is
custom
sometimes
seen
it
in
women's is
which
commitment
sexual
to
able
examine
However
chastity.
a woman's
which
character
does
but
tradition
of
Orwa
a task
Family
The
support
Florentine
and
to
circumstances.
and make her
character,
A similar
se but
per
changing
not
female
a strong
forms in
circumstances.
sleep
mate
Ogot
female
some connection
The Family a bride
Grace
with
connection
with
own convictions
Zirimu's
Zirimu's
is
tradition
of
coping
here
writers.
Elvania
in
her
strong
male
Elvania
Dolly
writers,
a convincing
difficult
in
such
creating
support
strength
about
in
Orwa
and
their
show
women's
her te4.ol
its
to
not
demonstrate
Ogot
of
for
Spear
is
with
her
the
determine
based
on the
traditional as a test
father-in-law
bridegroom. a woman's
custom of
The father-in-law sexual
worth
her
which
suitability
performs it and
is
requires
within
as
an erotic his
18
jurisdiction ments
to the
of
test.
from
commodity common
among
Bakiga
of
is
but
after
decides not
to
tradition wife. wishes
are,
she
stand
to
a woman is is
This as the
as well
the
satisfy
that
about
her
tradition
her
husband's
and have
require-
a sexual
a ritual
to
not is
he appears
he
willing
not
once it
go through
not
to
have
all
the
in-laws,
her
fact
his to
have
father
her.
with
wishes,
But
this
state
who
with
his
true
hand,
is
what other
that
all
give
sleep
a traditional
She therefore
way.
contemp-
Muweesi to
on the
to
her
many of
When Birungi and son
sleeps come into
each
other
with
her
father-in-law
loggerheads in
the
context
with
She tells
of
one another a firmly
his
very
wedding cannot
as custom
need
bride.
as a worthy
prepared
enough
agrees
in
the
and
wedding.
is
Birungi,
be angry
should
and
is
she
modernity
like
it
strong
ambivalent.
wishes;
husband
why her
appreciating
the
and
under-
him:
for because brought here I thought you were anxious me you in You wanted to please your to accept you your own home. We to them quarrelled please and you wanted me parents ... I did not want your parents because watching around and ... had little before first during days together, we a our me 8 But I agreed to go your way. time to ourselves.
father
is
which
Banyankore
acceptance
a traditional
Although
wedding,
he is
of
and gain
husband.
Muweesi
her
appreciation
go against
compromise
demands; However,
her
expectations
on a traditional
decides
not
ritual.
Tanzania
of
considering
satisfy
insists
the
of
between
she wants
oraries
clear
torn
communal
Initially,
does
Baziba
implication
the
overtones
she does
Uganda.
satisfy
she
the
if
bride
Notice
the
Birungi
to
the
reject
me
demands,
instead
established
of custom.
19
The
between
conflict
Zirimu's
scepticism it
For
concerned.
becomes
But,
in in
caught
tradition
per
by her
educated
men who
wives
the
that
she
makes
of
Veil,
husband,
Muweesi
is
Zirimu for
and
but
so,
her
are
implicit
are
sympathies
as a representative
of
up their
minds
cultures
and end up sacrificing
as to
not
women who
modernity
More
which
it
would
women writers
in women
the
the
wake
of
of
her
about
within, that
recording cultural
with
weakness.
heroine
makes her
father-in-law, This
own accord.
appear are
her with
play
do from
to
do I have
her
of in
earlier
that
sleeping
it
and sleep
as a sign
audience
After did
tradition
is
is woman
as a strong-minded
satisfy
playwright
Hence the
to
a modern
decision.
I
treatment
portrayal
decision
strike for
tradition.
between
those
tradition
with
and her
sympathies
this
make
between
terms
her
cementing
are
those they
side
their
as a result. Birungi's
Her
Her
se.
about
battle
the
The White
tradition
cannot
come to
of
father.
between
conflict
scepticism
in
and his
barriers
creates
between
only
and Orwa in
indicated
belong
latter
not
Instead
question.
to
attempt
Ogot
the
her
factor,
the
like
interested
her
which
indicates
Birungi
over
in
custom
a custom
Birungi,
a dividing
between
from
is
and Seekisa
the
about
human relations,
also
Muweesi
is
in their
change;
father-in-law
But
what
is
out
Veil
may
important
independent own
to
connected
there's
The White
her
accidental.
Muweesi
she tells
how she carries otherwise
not
her
a remark
'What
actions:
no point'.
9
Family The and the
admiration
of
women who,
unlike
she
Spear
birth
of
their
mothers
new
ný L ý_'
who survived
by submissiveness,
and
prepared
are
even
to
own independent
make their the
challenge
the
men at
point
decisions of
cultural
conflict.
Women and Initiation
Austin
(M) Uganda:
Bukenya
B. M. Kenyago (F) Ngugi wa Thiong'o Rebeka
(F)
Njau
Among African it
adolescence,
) (M))
is
Kenya:
her
to
important.,
as a condition
woman
for
accepted which
she lives.
women
to
have
It sexual
Initiation
of
based
on the
arising
from
communities
Other
which
of
her
has
not
as a full
is
considered
is
gone
the
peer
this
the
conflicts
during
the
Austin
Bukenya
cultural
this
The Bride10
rite
more
ceremony
cultural
be
cannot
community
in
men and
uninitiated. in
East
the
African
examine
between
women
which contact
drama
and
those
arose
in
between
problems
those who do not.
the
area
Africa
of and
West . In
at
I young
initiated any
for
interraction of
but
marriage.
through
girls
undergo
group,
for
issue
initiation
of
woman to
Some playwrights of
the
initiation
member of taboo
1982
1965
readiness
a major
setting.
practise
1968;
young
by her
with
relations
inevitability
women
every
or
examine
playwrights
initiation
for
women
Trial
practise
acceptance
traditional the
which for
reason,
as an adult
1984
'The Scar
paramount
any
The
Kenya:
communities
as a prerequisite
who,
The Bride
examines
the
in way
which
rigid
the
21
conservatism
connected
Namvua
is
father In
is
as well
of
Namvua's
her
in
having
lived
yell
out
rightly
Kitavi:
Is
Kajiru:
But
Let
that
did that foreign A peeling knife?
where
it
is
fault
the
which
culture,
is
the
is
it
ancestors. be
in
accepted
spirit
initiation
therefore
at
as they
do not
if
culture
been
more
fault
their
age group:
girl
the
elders is of
elders
spirits flexible
circumcised?
if us
to
lies,
Mtuta Kuye?
lies. ...
of our courage fr? m those
that
a girl
father
the
to
and refuse
reborn.
for
world
know which were
brew
the
order for
her
peers
ordeal.
the
claim
not
culture
invoke
people that
invoke
been
be initiated
to to
has
a foreigner
the
to
she of
conservatism
Namvua's
the
sense
your
some respect
necessary
Since
all
drink
rigid
In
she lives.
legs
Namvua's
not
of
open her
the
not
her
and encouragement)
her
we faced
not
her
initiated.
with
a member of
it I will say again: in whose courtyard was Namvua On what day? In what season?
Yes.
she is
reject
Mtuta:
Kuye:
Merio
relationship
adamantly
she is
human
affects
because
because
Mtuta!
However,
this
close
very
just
Lekindo:
who have
in
in
approval
We should and expect
It
but
women
levels.
not
plains,
And which knife face? of yours
(Girls
peers,
peers
that
any argument
Mtuta:
the
of
as communal
her
initiated
recently to
by
ostracised
a foreigner
spite
listen
with
individual on
relations
initiation
the
of
the
of
the
in
this
spirits
his
ancestors
the
plains
they
cannot
on her
behalf.
and more concerned
initiated.
about
plains
her
of
cannot and
include
her
Notice the
that
welfare
22
of
individual
the
Iüamvua's the
maternal
recognition between
of the
latter
the
towards individual
disturbance
the
Wanga's
to
the
her of
god
the
is
the
community, attitude the level.
communal
initiates'
the
father
conflict
priest's
on the
of
negligible
sacrifice
and
of
that
the
girl
through
plains,
marrying
Merio:
He tells
son.
to
the
of
from
gained
advantage
proposes
Wanga,
be
is
when there
culture
to
takes
and
of
twist
something
Namvua
dead
is
priest,
handmaid
priest's
is
there
over the
it
easy
however,
a daughter
there
and those
invoke
not
is
mother
and moreover,
Notice,
priority. how
when
Lerema,
of
could
society,
individual
the
elders
her
since
a patriarchal
importance
interests takes
spirits
being
women's
Namvua,
becomes
this
why the
no reason
ancestors'
But
plains.
is
there
That
could she-goat of yours become a handmaid of Wanga ... well, Wanga's: become And you, Merio, one of will the father be though foreigner, shrine. of a you'll a distracted these But, plains save you may above all, initiates. the from by removing new among she-goat your
Being
uninitiated,
handmaid plains
of will
now twists is or
but
Wanga;
their
give the
and takes the
in way
to
happiness
individual as an her
consent
in
this
woman to
knows in
that
be chosen no parent
marriage
sacrifice. on the
Namvua's-opinion She is
disregarded. arrangement
is
not
as a of
the
he dead man, a
to
Namvua as a worthy
which
are
last
priest hand
daughter's
situation note
the
because
important
therefore and
be the
Namvua should
12
It matter
a mere woman
considered
necessary. Through argues
that
Lekindo, rigid
the
chief's
conservatism
son who loves can only
build
Namvua, a decadent
the
playwright
culture
and
23
that
a valid
culture
inttrinsic
qualities
father's
conservatism
that
Namvua is
foreigner.
one which
of
the
individual.
and
Lekindo
as a woman just
Shundu's defend
a human being
his
than
that
position
other
defend
the
Lekindo
his
elders'
she is
position
an uninitiated him to
challenges this
just
girls
is
girl
less
she is
because
Namvua's
His
marriage
becomes
the
prepared
uncircumcised in
of
decadent accept
Wanga in is
culture
and conservative changes
to
for
cater
plains'
culture. a step
matters
and
greater
Namvua
light
a more promising
concerned.
Wanga's
is
worth.
She is
next
therefore,
cultural
intrinsic
As the
son of the
of
girl
ý3
symbolic.
adopted
keeper
potential
individual's
development
to
and now the
flexibility
of
era
a handmaid
elders'
the
a foreign
to
of
cultural
is
becomes
a new
recognition
Council
is
Lekindo
to
marriage
Elders'
Lekindo
ushers
the
subsequent
the
of
in
a
an
Look at this Look at her black hair, girl. look her one nose; at her two eyes, look her one chin; at her two lips, look at her two hands and her two breasts ... What is it have? she hasn't got you non-foreigners How many ancestors do you want to come and tell you that Namvua is a woman, a human being, like any other?
priest,
of
foreigner:
uncircumcised
Leader
and the
challenges
because
disgust,
interests
the
recognizes
him to
calling
unworthy
Namvua
woman or i
the
by
Much to
examine
is
therefore
as far
a handmaid
not
but
in
individual
that
of
as Wanga in
a culture
which
differences
and
needs . Although traditional
in
The Bride
conflicts,
it
Bukenya must
is
sympathetic
be noted,
however,
towards that
the
women in play
is
too
24
Namvua is
male-oriented. the
also is
It
character
not
whom the
around
disappointing,
therefore,
role
in
weaving
society,
it
is
understandable
lead
to
her
active
her
Nevertheless
is
is
as though
the
without
men and
possible
through is
There
in
Muthoni
Namvua is
her
convictions
at is
the
most
vital
whole
christian
and that
Christian,
he is
father,
determination,
of
the
the
therefore, courage
playing
a more
to
revolve.
play
a more
a patriarchal
elders
who almost
to
dead Letie.
the
depend
should
Namvua's
and B. M. Kenyago's is and
to
ready is
her
her
roots
active
in
role
it.
impotent
social
is
change
only
and that
portrayal
The Tria1.1
of
Where
a dead mar and be
marry
and determined
rebellious
the
must most
in
belief
to
follow
that
teaching
Joshua
church
emerges
and strong
integrated
individual
Muthoni's
Christianity..
to
be uprooted.
Muthoni
as a cultural
Christianity.
new converts
renowned
initiation
as a socially
uncompromising
missionaries' it
salvation
between
between to
fanatic
off
r1ay
to
allowed
male
her
marry
the
costs.
caught
swallowed
her
all
the
contribution
Muthoni
will,
in
is
is she
on men.
fate
Joshua's
father
and her is
is
that
their
contrast
to
this
but
play
sees women as completely
wa Thiong'o
against
aspect
playwright
resigned
Muthoni
her
without
a sharp
Since is
why her
clear
dependence
Ngugi
to
the
conflicts not
it
that
of
she is
own fate.
as though
her
wasted
not
on Lekindo
exclusively It
her
heroine
major
that
doom by planning
it
the
only
leader.
not In
as a woman of
convictions.
He has is
initiation is
Notice
father
just
un-
a fanatical
rebelling
against
tremendous this
aspect
of
25
her
from
character
defends
her
her
to
approach
issue
the
initiation
of
as she
decision:
Muthoni:
Look, please, to be a real of the hills
Nyambura:
But
Muthoni:
Why,
father,
I
I to be I want a woman. want ... girl, a real woman knowing the ways and the ridges. him.
remember we fools?
are
(Shakes
Nyambura
by the
shoulders)
Father Are they not and mother are circumcised. Christians? is I, too, But that am a Christian. in My life life here the not enough. and your are 15 in hills, the hills that you and I know. Muthoni the
respects
her
set
to
wound,
but
decision
even
'As
old
and the
tradition women rebel see
tradition
young
she
mission
she died,
is
of
this
new approach
from
father's
her
circumcision her
that
she sees herself
tradition
16
Muthoni
to
culture
as
with
she was now a Christian
that
she said
who still
dissuaded
convinced
dying,
synthesizing
she saw Jesus'.
said
still
Though
aunt
or her from
dies
her
not
gossip
Muthoni
moment
is
girl
community's
was right.
from
effect
Unlike
dying
her
She even
liberating the
her
accomplished
tribe.
the
be initiated
Christianity. the
at
The
Eventually
her.
away to
and runs
rite.
by either
disown
to
initiative
the
initiation
purpose
threat
having
takes
senses where
a kind
in of
she mixes
new.
Muthoni,
Mariana
imprisoning as an against
it.
as having
in
Rebeka
is and
element Mariana
been used
Njau's
is to
The Scar17
determined
western-educated relegate
sees
to
help
and has
women to
inferior
young come to
26
and to
positions to
help
liberate
girls
imprisoned
make them beasts
their
First
Woman:
Second
themselves
fore-mothers
burden
of
from
for
the
You
Mariana:
the
yoke
of
have
taught
Mariana's
strategies
tradition
is
idea
are
why
used
issue
to
Mariana she
to
leave
to not
it and
that
would
subservience?
still It
as an enemy rather liberate
to
talk
remain
that
has
you
know
and
laugh
unmarried
themselves.
is
who want
is
hamper
have
their
a person
then
of
as
rite
of
on the have
seem to
those
sees
the
conviction
an
traditions
Her words
position.
on
as a cave; initiation
the
to
she
so
She says:
the
the
is who
to
in women genuinely
it
would
her the
new teaching village
trying
to
nothing then
have
can still
operation
openness
has
operation
development,
personality
no wonder
than
one
as
a subservient
that
what
through
going
a specific
as empty
a girl's
not
from
initiation
is
from
girls
She does not
unanswered.
means here
those
them
none.
in women
place
towards
contribute imply
them
who has
has
considers
a question
Mariana
what
to
girls
saving
prevent
A 'physical operation' 9 It is meaningless. If
woman like
our
in
Muthoni
unlike
initiation, to
as
which the
But
of
life
of
is
I want them to free themselves from slavery; I want them to respect their bodies and minds I want them to br ° ak away the shackles have that 1 Long bound them.
initiation. issue
type
What does an unmarried to teach others?
Woman:
Her mission
men.
years:
and argue with Men! Do you want like you?
One of
for
it
against
see Mariana help
them
27
As the
play
We come to
obscure.
by Pastor
seduced traditional
and of
is
among
the
it
is
important
or
whether
women
in
Njau
to
attributed
of
at
early
influencing
Marriage
Bertha
social
and Bride
Msora
(F)
In as
a
shameful
In
promiscuity.
her
view
up her
gives
her
whether
of
imprisoning
from
is
work that
conviction
tradition
of
aspects
in
the which
major is
in
Kenya This
herself The
lies
shaping
crucial
in
in
creating
Price
Wait
the
1984
play
much
very be
can
whereby
weakness
it
is
Rebeka
that
weakness
without
fault
I Will
lose
who were
change.
Zimbabwe:
impression
considering
an artistic
data
the
past.
a shameful
society. is
to
a desire
of
educators
women
with
audience
surprising
much biographical
maturity
she was
taken
clear
a result
out
escape
There
But
not
the
merely
position
factors.
play.
is is
leaves
This
too
political
of
Wogen,
the
it
and more
motive.
Scar
her
is
Mariana
which
women from
working
help
the
two
uses
playwright
aimed
been
women's
with
concerned
lack
of
youth child.
a woman's
wi
village
The
her
baby
of
swiftness
some ulterior
will
of
one
sign
revealed,
ideologically.
weak
concerns
liberate
has that
was
to
P
a life
very
of
Kanyariri
denoument
Mariana
is
past
has
she
The
and the
this
illegitimate
as a sure
in
that
illegitimate an
to
an
become more
objectives
example,
birth
having
interpreted
once
mission
for
and gave
background
this
that
learn,
setting,
it
Mariana's
progresses,
into
playwright's literature
the
the
2ý
Guillaume
In
traditional
Africa,
mother.
Daughters
grooming
them
her
marriage
oral
for
narrative
who delays
her
when
causing
or
serious
ularly
I Will
Wait20,
of
but
their
her two
request
owing
against
the
want
traditional
two
that
requests after
Leo,
Her parents
her.
because
to
traditional
boyfriend
on her for
Msora
Bertha
of
out
marry
from
transition
to
wishes
the of
to
modern
the love
of
Rudo's
her
her know she
does
little to
should
her
marry
Prior
to
parents traditional
cannot belief
disastrous
In
death, the
her
hopes
are
intentions husband Tambudzayi can look
latter
go against that
want
parents
parents'
ends.
partic-
by a young
sister's
her
as of
amount
cultures.
marriage
Rudo so that
marry
dead meets
late
view
live,
they
her
while
to
girls
some
faced
problem
getting
playwrights
tradition
the
of
against
women who have
considerations.
widespread the
that
which
out
Rudo's
children.
issue an
the
by a girl
their
community
reasons.
husband
allow
by
specific
rebel
in
discusses
marry
not
did
those
traditional
woman who wants
modern to
the
not
delays or
faced
and of
prevalence
with
did
women
is
between
a suitor
wife
family
consequences
find
This
marry.
and the
during
tragic
1969
pas
woman who
the
of
of
1968
objective
immediate
her
the
that
conflicts
individuality
by
communities
whonto
A young
explanation
ensure
that
the
up with
the
to
is
role
motherhood.
waiting
traditional
many
choose
is
to
order
major
either
relates
marriage
In
and
This
Suitors One Husband fille ne se mariera
brought
tolerated
not
which
qualities. married,
marriage
large.
at
a woman's
therefore
are
is
community
(M) Cameroon: Three Notre
Oyono-Mbia
this
one who goes Secondly
by the
29
time
Rudo is
have
accepted
old
and therefore
latter's
property.
for
tradition
and the
either conflict
of
the
ideas
which
example
feelings
would is
The major
the of
manipulated
conflict her
play
This
between is
basis
their
the
attitude
for
parents
brother-in-law
become the how in
services
turmoil
our
interest
of
than
rather
her
play
for
examining
does for
enough
us
the
to
The
Rudo.
pace
of For
examined.
problems
to
a chance
we get
the
see
development
and dramatic in
the
develop
not
for
sympathies
are
between
conflicts
however,
before
Togara
for
potential
gradual
allow
to
of
creatively
our
her
see
predicament. Wait
I Will
with
deal
a great
plays. a male
It
playwright
portrayal
and her
emerging
fully
and modernism. it
is
a factor use
have been and that
Rudo.
feelings
are with of
as a victim Msora's
which cultural
interesting of
of
as a character
can appreciate
and Oyono-Mbia would
the
from
traditionalism
Msora
in
author
audience
because
is
by her
her
prevents
discussed
comparison.
of
to
whom the
useful
for
having
their
playwright,
calls
maintain
problem
and blood
flesh
that
her
the
heroine
married
developed.
not
for
as a base
deal
in The
fast
too
towards
Rudo is
her
or
a manner
Rudo
her
illustrates
attitude
valued
a great
modernism.
is
play
of
from
wealth
as already
chooses
a woman caught
play in
Msora have
which of
kind
women were
The experiences
struggles
her
her
arrangement,
as human beings.
value
experiences
material
view
This
Africa,
their
of
they
this
understand
deal
a great
Togara
traditional
to
enough
a female
handling
hinders
a as a
conflict here
to
playwright
compare on
30
the
social
in
experienced tackles the
the
in
the
second
part
the
in Nomen
connection
with
theories
on African
traditions,
future
not
son-in-law
to
reference
the
when
Sonia
payment.
the
According
the
tradition
appear
Bride
of material
male,
more
to
sensitive
attempts
on the
Price.
of to
a man by his is
daughter
to
make this
distinction
of
the
of
Masai
plight
According
to
given his
marries
traditions
marriage
more
though
we now focus
section,
latter
being
playwright.
the
Bleeker
Oyono-Mbia,
makes him
female
this
of
be seen below,
Msora,
a way which
women than
of
As will than
playwriting
problems
plight In
involved.
problems
a gift
and
with
Kenya:
to
the parents custom of a marriageable girl head of cattle from her future receive a gift of four husband to make up for the loss One of these of a daughter. This the people must be a milch cow with a calf. gift call is bride It to use the term bride wealth. more correct is than bride by her wealth price, since a girl not bought husband ...
If the father-in-law the groom will asks for more bullocks, is understood bring them to him. But this to be a loan. it it The father-in-law back. However, will eventually pay between son-in-law establishes cordial relationship and 21 father-in-law. informants
Bleeker's
and the
established in
lurks the the
the
bullocks
mere Notice
the
of
bride
quotation.
given
'loan' as a
the
in way
have
There should
father-in-law
marital
union the
of
feelings
at
pains
to
The difference,
towards
between
which
been
price.
attitude
above
relationship fact
of
aspects
commercial
must
tone
is
however,
not
women as property
owned by men
is
for
no reason
play
why,
a greater
role
daughter and the
and the future
example, in
cementing the
more than
and son-in-law the
down the
son-in-law.
happiness
of
the
31
bride
to
significant these
note
between
that
also
Oyono-Mbia
traditionalism
marriage the
is
is
It
negotiations.
mother
is
a commercial
Although
in
serious
conveying with
serious
In
Three
criticism
husbands
their
they
can
Cosmo Pieterse) actual
situation
parents
messages
in
the
the
excluded
to
way
of
the
from
completely
Oyono-Mbia involving
her
mode,
his
drama
when
the
audience
parents'
for
their
explains a close
Oyono-Mbia
as he has
his
of
Oyono-Mbia
women
major
that female
had never she man a
forced
is
very the
interest
the
is
In
daughters. play
that
from
that
a
direct
very of
to
blending in
engage
direct freedom how much
interview an inspired was
relative
r n. his to
choose
dowry
with by an
who was forced
seen before:
to happened one of my something stems story in described the way same as exactly who got married cousins, happened to attend I just in Three Suitors One Husband. a in interested I this they decided was and all where palava When her had that she the fact at all. nobody consulted 'well! here's back, and saying; everyone was sighing came in but this ' Of husband! case she protested course your to I tried to fellow. the had argue with my marry she been have to and consulted saying my cousin ought relatives that they were really a woman should amazed at the thought After they were only be consulted about her marriage. all it for her own good. So my first doing as a started play 23 the palava. down of all that taking was said during The
of
a free
is
a way
plight
characters.
denied
are
the
than
rather
-. s
transition
of
believes
still
father
comic
period
and examines
which
in
which
the
exchange
marry
a society
predicaments
in
on the
plays
modernism
One Husband22
because
in
get
he uses
Suitors
about
his
property
moments
involvement
serious
in
woman
individual.
comedy
bases
and Western
western-educated
daughter
her
these
transactions. Guillaume
the
in
disregarded
are
by
32
Although it
is
is
using
of
course
one
in
daughter parents
other
love
fcr
large.
the
of
her
to
have
to
wants
view
a
is
owned
by
married
the
important
thing
herself
she on the
should On
western
whose
outlook,
her
41ofrdowry.
form
the
independence
her
parents
sense
a different
concerned.
and the
parents
in
different
individuals
she
Juliette
Oyono-? bia
when two
arise the
family
situation,
ocmleflC2.
whereby
the
is
conflict
exposed she
and
she
gets to
this
and Juliette's
traditional
brings
of
on an actual
Juliette's
are
she
based
affect
conflicts
when
is
which
conflicts
The community
wealth
has
account
conflict
African
side
eý-.: cation
the
this
therefore
much
a mere
discuss
of
the
and
how
the
side at
co=unity
just
and how these
meet
On the
to
One Husband
Suitors
not
drama
cultures
be
Three
to
wants
marry her
of
choice
spouse. beginning
From the traditional h=an to
have
towards
who have
been It
f=ily.
of
attitudes
beings
sent is
the
women as commodities feelings
particular
to
this
play,
as a kind
school
her
which
point
is
Oyono-Mbia
critical
of
for
rather
of father
investment
Atangana
than
is
Juliette
and needs. future
sale
for
emphasizes
said
her when he
says: I must ... like man wise to saying was
Er
Now that therefore, reap
the
has
Juliette her
for is daughter the a Juliette right admit, I her to I school, When secondary sent me! from that! benefit I'll 'Some day, everybody:
benefits
The playwright
completed is
family they
her
very
have
creates
eager been
secondary to
get
her
education,
school married
off
expecting.
a somewhat
farcical
but
'
24
plausitle
in
order
to
33
situation
Juliette's
family
and a little
later
whereby
who comes along, is who
a suitor
likely
to
without
any
consultation
it
she
arrives
when
Oyono-Mbia regarded the
not
entire is
the
not
daughter's dowry
has
his
in
in
harassment liquor!
for
order for
his
The playwright the
of
property Juliette's fruits
her
enough a clash
her
organising
characters
to
be happy
to
likely
be her
between
father the
and that
operating for
Juliette
happiness
value from from
in
for
is
the
not
her
about
from
drunken
Uncle
civil
the
in man to
reap
servant. by any of
and from
she
is he as
servant already!
the that
anyway,
operating.
view
Ondua
police
becomes
a bid
Juliette's is
of
illicit
a girl
civil
wives
the
marry
of
every
of
his
a share
obvious,
which
of
in like
in
civil
the
she herself own point
which
is
property
against
where
is
and has many other
which
learn
large.
to
considered
(It
at
would
drinks
she marries
system
done
as the
business
in way
with
but
protection
a scene
marriage. if
from
a daughter
Juliette
wife's
the
marriage
expected
of
scrambling
seen
future
Juliette's
not
is
comes to
Even
like
and his
community
suitor
offer
is
interests
vested
own bride.
be assured
satirizes
entire
village from
his
drunkenness
this
community
Oyono
he would
him to
All
parents
brother
for
pay
her
who has
interests;
own vested
servant
suitor
to
order
another
first
traditionally
which
as the
as well person
the
yet
she only
of
Juliette's
marriage.
her
is
only
from
school.
property
family
dowry.
way it
the
as the
only
extended
Atangana
secondary
criticizes
accept
Juliette;
with
from
they
a higher
give
dowry X.
accepts
) family
There
is
is
The best her
aspirations
old
34
is
on marriage the this
best
the
man she loves is
contender in
clash
the
the
from
her
one who can pay the
family's
highest
point dowry.
(stubbornly)
Matalina:
(incredulously)
I love
someone else!
A mere schoolboy! dresses? If at
National
of
School
(who thinks
there You
Administration! has been
say
enough uite young man hasn't
that
nonsense got any
Juliette:
Not
Atangana:
(with Then you'll triumphant marry sneer) (clapping final!! And that's his hands)
a franc!
(He goes Juliette:
(bursts
Atangana:
(from
(He
towards into
the
insolent! goes
the
tears)
doorstep) You're in.
kitchen.
)
I
love
don't
You'll to going
love make
him! me miss
Don't You're
Juliette:
(still
You don't even listen loves Nobody me here!
Neither speaking
at
How a medal!
)
Makrita:
don't
Nrbia!
him!
(comfortingly) Do as he says! medal !
Oyono:
view
Notice
How could Juliette? you do that, Will he ever buy you expensive least he was studying at the
already) money?
Abessolo:
of
below:
excerpt
Juliette:
Atangana:
while
sobbing) love me!
Juliette! father your annoy him to miss a make going
to
me!
You
(who was moving to the kitchen) Shut up, you demanding think Why do thing! we're you stupid that Doesn't for high bride you? price such a You're the how love dearly one who you? we show love your brother You don't love us! doesn't ... Yes! side
You don't
can understand
cross-purposes,
want the
especially
me to other. in
get
married! The two
connection
25
sides with
are love.
clearly
35
Juliette their
is
It
attitude
most
Juliette
is
for
see love
in
Abessolo,
demonstrated
her
that
family,
isolation
family's
this
love
an ex orbit
by
material
who reveals
the
demand of
blinded
from
particularly,
by their
her
'I
ly.
a human
as to
fille
girls
traditional
regard where
they
increases
and gets
for bride
ant
price
in
Africa
their
The exaggerated
uneducated
girls. Her
impossible. payndowry
for
his
is
her
higher
on her
further
attitudes
western
have
education
not
yet
reconciled
life.
Charlotte's
introduction
of
of money for
her
naturally
They
therefore
of
from
benefits
develops
her.
parents
an education
her
when she completes
education
job.
a salaried
being
the deal
a great
demands
by
mobilized
and western
and parents
sale;
of
suitors
her
This
object.
Oyono-Mbia
when
new ways
for
expectations
financial
a time
the
pay
the
of
attitudes
a new thing
had to
a commercial
pas27
at
with
and demands that
she proclaims.
is
have
is she
126,
This
as a commodity
make great
any
traditional
attitudes
her
to
ne se mariera
daughters.
is
than
rather
person
between
conflict
as a human being
'sold'
be
am a free
Notre
towards
herself
evaluates
refuses
In
°that
whereas
when he implies
clearly
treat
why- she
for
cannot
feelings
her.
family
the
of
grandfather
Juliette
fay
terms
interests,
vested
gains.
in
love
sees
amount evaluated
of
as a more
The material father latest
0
expects bride.
expected
material
expensive
she is
expected
her
build
to
He also
him
expects
from
Charlotte
commodity to
bring
a stone her
to
than in
implies the
is
house educate
and to all
36
her
brothers,
ties,
sisters
Charlotte
lack
of
is
the
of
Charlotte's
with
insist
from
amount
them
and
It
is
meet
fulfil
not
for
his
latest
too
old
to
One of
in
which
between
get
wife
and
her
that
Charlotte's
case
she breaks
by these
set
father
things,
among other has
seven
in
role by
denying
are
away is
This
Therefore
Charlotte's
he already
major
people
is
educated.
expectations.
mother.
standards
that
in
it
towards not
A woman's
married
so that, while
very
the
insisting
her
the
people. his
expects
she can pay dowry other
wives
whom he is
manage ! the
two
Notre
the
presents different
The playwright
an educated his
of
strengths
individuals.
to
of
are
material
and sisters' that
contribute
married
values.
example,
bride
get
responsibili-
claim
interests
their
by the
marry
between
mouthpiece explains
for
Oyono-Mbia
a conflict
not
herself
to
not all
that
should
had to
family
brothers'
co-wives
vested
traditional is
her
own children
their
not
ironical,
daughter
to
does
context
to
chance
their
should
Charlotte
that
that
she
of
mother's
money they
that
a contradiction traditional
her
these
for
as a scapegoat
of
regard
Besides
cousins.
some of
education is
It family
used
education;
because
and
wife
fille
ne
issues
parents
cultures
than
rather
achieves
are
in
he examines
man who appreciates whose
se mariera
too
both
this
pas
is
the
way
the
context
of
as clashes
by using
cultures.
as his Atangana
westernized:
ä etudier tont France Tes parents peut-etre envoyee en frais t'assurer le bel avenir dont tu nous parles. pour grands ä de Charlotte, bonnement Les parents tout eux, s'attendent leur tout l'argent depense pour rembourse ce que leur26ille etudes. ses
37
is
This
the
brought their
core
up to
issue
bride
Unlike
play.
treatment
as a commodity
which
to
would
Marriage
James
change
Chacha
The Banana
This
(M)
Oyono-Mbia
and
from
Although attempt
to
related
the
among many ethnic has been
practice the
whole
scholars to
avoid
much to
her
Even when a trick
uses
her
the
or
of
stating
issue
of
groups
fille
payment
1982
the
cultures
explicitly
UNIVERSII LIBRARY LEEDS
of is
of
bride
price
the
custom
from
originated
that
often the
1969
and as of
economic
polygamy. roots
of women.
commercialization are
pas
se mariera
ne
Africa
as having of
African
(My co-wife)
Cameroon:
traced
question
1976
Tree
(M) Kenya: Nice Mwenza
Notre
widespread
is
general.
(M) Malawi:
Nyaigoti
Closely
Charlotte
this
Polygamy
and
Guillaume
in
writer
she
towards
to
relation
very
parents
attitudes
hand,
other
up any resistance. her
up for
in
as a male
She contributes
putting
their
in women
One Husband,
informing
daughters
Ng'ombe
Chacha
Suitors
by not
help
a weakness
be true.
on the
are
parents.
towards
sympathetic
to
without
towards
attitudes
Women,
docile
the
brought
are
culture for
daughters
culture they
traditional
Three
marry
not
western
future;
a good
he shows in
Juliette
as too
she
is
price,
presented
decides
the
up as investments
Oyono-Mbia
of
for
African
the
brought
are
Although the
In
in
problem:
them
prepare
own sake.
daughters
the
of
defensive
system
and as such
depen,; s on the
ýý
attitude fundamental her
women
whereby bases
of
following
viewed is
polygamy
among the
study
are
economic
(Chiga)
Kiga
as economic
of
objects, for
prestige Uganda,
western
the
one of the
From
men.
May Edel
makes the
observation:
Having
many wives had, the usually means having, or having for the bride-price. However, cattle this does necessary not mean that I never heard wives are counted as property; 29 such an equation explicitly made.
It
is
implied to
objects
here prove
A related
k:asai
of
labour
that
among the
a man's
economic
point
is
Kenya
besides
which
that
women are in
standing from
emerges
polygamy them
using
Kiga,
Bleeker's
as commercial
community. research
men to
enables
as economic
his
used
the
among
use women as cheap Bleeker
assets.
observes:
if he is the has three, four or five usually wives, herd of cattle. Several owner of a large wives are needed A man does not to help tend the herd and to milk the36ows. is It his a woman's work. milk cows. A Masai
In
that
a more
is
polygamy
a situation
recent
study
beneficial women
where
the
among
to
society
outnumber
Akamba
of
by helping
Kenya,
Ndeti
concludes
cope with
communities
He says:
men.
in indicate born that any are more males studies is infant higher the but the among mortality population is in there that number of a greater so adulthood males longer Studies have also females. women live shown that be Thus, than principle would an adaptive polygamy men. tensions sex unnecessary waste and natural eliminates which 31 in the society. Recent
these
Although ground the
material
effect
Ndeti's
of
they
sociological are
polygamous
SUýsý,2tivn
that
limited
as back-
are
in
exclude
an assessment
parties
involved.
relationships polygamy
relevant
observations that
they on the
prevents
women from
suffering
of
sexual
39
frustration exact of
would
opposite
the
most
based
to
recurrent
from
share
literature
sensitivity
traditional
in
the
that
some
in
the
establishment
his
is
used
oral
is
Tree
Banana
the of
based
origins
is
their
a dramatization
values
and
recognition
of on oral
creative
works
the
Malawian
of
the
polygamy
The
in
into came
how death
explains
of
male
myth
the
world,
behind
attitudes
polygamy. is
Mwambi,
having as
it and
works.
creative
inculcate
to
has highlighted
author
introduced later
created
women as servants
recalls
have
creative
of
by
reflected
literature.
on oral
society
of
is
these
the
been
of said
the to
as the
first
and given
is man
spelt
him by Mlengi
to
creation
of Mlengi
Mwambi.
The role
clearly
in
when the
latter
out
what
remember
well
the
words
you
spoke
when you
gave
gave
them to
of
Mwambi
him: I
of
creative
turn
a work
literature
writers
in
explaining
based
of his/her
Two women are
these
as it
is
Tree32 for
and Mangepo which
play
The man,
Banana
fact arises
sensitivity
who populate
drama
obviously
of
which
the
by the
distinguish
aspect
condition
appropriate
African
The
but
to
is
the
characters
The
members
Mkundikana
(God).
the
man/woman
narratives.
of
human
the
Africa
traditional
this
to
from
frustrated
which
One
situation.
an observation
factors
sciences;
Ng'ombe's that
Such
mate.
real
come through
bitterly
women are
The
credible.
may be the
which
social
of
literature
norms
that
fundamental
writers
James
in
is
from
creative
sentiments
make it
to
observation
a sexual
the
one of
data
supportive
Ndeti's
of
on polygamy
having
the
need
me.
them
J0
"They will You said: When you need water, make you happy. Mangepo will be there her pot always filled with for your In a pot she will use. prepare your food and from other pots for warm baths". she will pour water All this you said about (Pause) Mangepo. "When harvest And then you said: time be there comes Mkundikana to carry the fruits in a will basket balanced On long journeys on her head. she will carry the loads in beautiful baskets, for I have made baskether craft just weaving All as I have made Mangepo a potter". this you said to me and I do not have the3ýouth with which to the joy which I felt recount day. on that The myth is
originates traditional
From the
From
the
women are
this
artistic
Their
involvement of
is
ignoring
Mwambi :
in
kind to
enters,
it
is
art
part
in
the
a dispute
and speaks
is
the
of
with
only
service
their
in
of
what
ensuing
in
of
slavery
man and each Notice
this
between
the
authority.
view women. in
this
play,
(represented
art
which
of God.
drama
credit
practice by
on the
no
the
ordered
has
traditional
an art
relationship.
settle
the
there
not
between of
effect from
the
Tree
that
observe
a practice
the
in
or
relationship
trying
(Mwambi
is
It
is
rationalized
and
making).
The Banana
which
rationalize
is
But
gratification
master-servant Mwambi
quotation, polygamy
prowess.
personal
it
as proficient
basket
to
religion
quotation
presented
and
kind
and
above
their
the
above
from
One can therefore
myth.
which
it
from
and Mangepo
man used
the in
way
men profit
pottery
a religious
African
polygamy. Notice
Mkundikana
of
to
given
they
them
society
to
the
of
the
from
for
for
engage in
by
general.
man.
Indeed
wives
is
a scene
two wives: )
(Akundikana Mkundikana! timidly adjusting enters, her chirundu, She faces she kneels at his left. (No answer. ) ) Mangepo! him respectfully. Mangepo, don't you hear me? Mangepo!
a
where
41
(Approaching in from just behind
Mangepo:
the
(timidly)
image
whole
qualities
as petty,
the
excerpt tear
ready saves
the
is
that
the
jealousy
Nkundikana's that
embodies
hope
of
In
contrast
her
to
cut
or
quarrel
Mwambi's
up the
about
women are
one another
in
Later
a time.
Mangepo
for
reincarnation
is
It
bringing
thus
at
the
the
and they
are that
play, banana
tree
and destroying
all
who dies
human being
any other
by
concluded
intervention
beautiful
death
and
and bearing
man, the
In
me.
excerpt
above
serious
the
insults
for
only
leads
Mangepo,
to
pieces.
the
being,
and vicious.
to
but
in
34
forgive
please
reflected
a superior
women hurl
other
situation,
is
my lord,
of
jealous
each
Mwambi,
man which
leadership.
presented
to
But
the
of play
of
above
Wee-Ngozo.
Mangepo) Stop treating me like your equal. From now on, know this: You can shout at Mkundikana, but you can't (Mangepo shout at me. kneels ) Mwambi's left. What's at wrong with you Do I have to shout women? time I want some every When Mlengi peace? gave you to me he meant to for me. make life But instead more bearable you two are always trouble. I am tired making of arguments, squabbles, quarrels and complaints and I have decided to bring this some peace into compound.
Mangepo:
in
She answers
r silence.
(facing
Mwambi:
The
an ax. him.
hereafter. The tragedy from
experienced aggression of
having
is man
of to
the share
completely
in
the
arises
play
polygamous
one another
one man between of
the
this
women's
The extreme
conditions.
women against
oblivious
from
them. fact
is Notice
since
frustrations anger
motivated the
and
by the
in way
he relates
to
problen
which them
the
42
to
according themselves
he can
what
from
get
the
from
get
them,
without
considering
Consider,
relationship.
for
they
what
example:
What's I want
wrong with Do I have to shout you women? time every When Mlengi some peace? gave you to me he meant to make life for instead more bearable But me. you two are trouble. always I am tired making of arguments, squabbles, 35 quarrels and complaints ...
One problem one cannot
detect
his
characters.
female
and Mangepo
to
to
necessity
take
Nyaigoti
Chacha's
point which
the
needs
and desires
these
arrangements
Chahe failed
to Chahe:
on the is
The Banana
are
all
satisfied
a woman who will
bear
to him
play
Mkundikana
of
seen the The
raises.
problem
of
Chacha
with
(My co-wife). Chacha's
do not
Chahe
towards when there
tell
the
that
predicament
he has not
a major
is
without
try
dares
the
myth
is
Tree
Mke Mwenza raises
VA con
of
considered, giving
the in
relationships the
only
any regard
man's
as to
how
women. why
attitude
the
perhaps
problems
involved
affect
blamed
but
Tree,
marriages of
towards
reworked
similarly
reasons
women are even
drama,
the
discriminating
has
Mke Mwenza36
play
happiness
to
into
a stand
polygamous
One of
which
it
The Banana
attitude
Ng'ombe
Ng'ombe's
that
James Ng'ombe's
playwright's
a stand
taking
of
he wants
the
shape
question
Like
in
we find
his
wife
wants
bear
to
him
female
marry
a second
a son.
Notice
children
are
no male
right
to
her
face
the in
that
is
way in
a marriage. she has
a son:
(Anamjongelea
mkewe) bali yote nayafahamu, mpaka sasa hatujapata
that
the
and also children
wife
Tulia
hayo mke wangu ... iliyopita ni miaka mingi mtoto wa kiume; vile vile
na
43
kama kuna tamaa sioni Niruhusu Boke nijaribu
huko ya kufanikiwa karata nyingine.
mbeeni.
(Kicheko
Boke:
Unasemaje? Ati karata cha uchungu) Maanake mie nimekuwa karata nyingine! mbovu sasa, Tangu hapo umeishadhamiria sio? kuoa mke mwengine kumbe huoni haya kuja wala niJ aghai mie nazi ... Karata wazi? mpya! ... ...
Chahe:
(Akimkabili
Boke kwa hasira na macho makavu) kamwe kuwa wa kipumbavu. wetu hauwezi kukupa haki kuafikiana yako na kama hutaki
Utamaduni Nime j aribu nami hii.
nitatumia madaraka yangu nikiwa mkuu wa nyumba Nimeshawaambia wazazi wangu mambo haya, nao Si kwa sababu hiyo wamenishauri nioe mke wa pili. tu, kunizalia bali ati umeshindwa mvulana, pia kama kura uj uavyo ni mwaka uj ao . (Chahe:
Be calm my wife moves near his wife) all ... that I understand, have passed many years and we haven't think yet got a son; and I don't we have blessed Allow any hope of being with a son later. me Boke to try another card.
Boke:
(Laughs
What are you saying? Did you Oh! so I have become a very bad say another card? And now you have decided to marry card? another And you don't feel wife saying even ashamed ... this to me openly? Another card ... ...
Chahe:
(Looking Our traditions cannot at Boke angrily) I have tried to give you your be nonsensical. if kith me you don't want to co-operate rights and I shall as the hea of rights use my traditional informed I have already house. this my parents problem and they have told me to marry about this is It not only because you have wife. another failed to bear me a son, as you know (parliamentary) )3ö take will elections place next year.
(He
The man's shows
his
wives
intends
his
Chahe wants
towards
Boke
as commodities to
play.
marry
wife
and his
intended
women as commodities. is
second to
to
reference
attitude
towards
bitterly)
illustrated
a woman who comes from
as
This
attitude
further
As he explains the
'cards'
wife
by the to
his
role
later,
friend
constituency
Chahe
in
which
4"
he hopes
to is
family
or
in
family the
of
is In
area.
Chahe wants
parliamentary
symbolic
an area
given
ate
for
stand
to
towards
attitude in
discussed
is
point
in
Mke Mwenza
polygamous to
a younger
man and eventually
of
towards woman
drama
his
heroine.
who has
murders is
the
her
her
a way that
moral
from
desperation audience
the
to
sensitive
to
sympathise
character.
30 Ghost ' goes
through
she
appears
of
anti-social
is
money.
is
seen
Eulalie
in
towards
desperation those
the
character it
of
money. latter
a prosecutor of
an evil
and who
where
the
would
develop
in
as a direct would
condoning
Ama Ata
his
in of
a younger
a play
This
necessarily
of
In
heroine
not
a period
fun
Chahe's
inherit
that
in men
of
with
position
the
relationship.
though
affair
to
Aidoo's
result
author such
of the
persuade the
actions
Dilemma
and hopelessness
into who come
the
manner,
Following
assume the
women the
disintegration
example,
elector-
ambitions
attitudes
a bid
the
for
for
greed
selfish
in
shown to
of
plight
to
latter.
the
a convincing
Mke Mwenza is
relations
out
and the
to
a
therefore,
political
a love
takes
is
Boke
of
attachment
him
desperation.
husband
playwright
in
starts
about
a frustrating
For
the
her
extra-marital
husband
to
Boke
thing
the
men's
the
which
women
murders
form
constituency-,
commitment
in
the
a man's
between
develop
not
woman,
The disappointing part
does
lead
situations
marriage
of
a home
3.
way in
the
made about
on an air
Chapter
this
stone
women as objects
detail
Although
as a stepping
putting
of
from
a woman
in
a home
a reflection
marrying
use her
building
roots;
considered
and as a way of
This
one's
Traditionally,
elections.
contact
of
of
a
where with
her.
45
But
to
owing
her,
condemn traditions
playwright's
the
audience
which
Unlike
mariera
are
Ng'ombe
in
polygamy
issue
the
41
pas
polygamous
marriages
commodities,
are
the
and
as a victim
Oyono-Mbia
criticizes
In
fille
manner.
Notre
in
discussed the
satirizes
regarded
than
rather
of
women.
been
Oyono-Mbia
price,
see her
Guillaume
already
her,
40
towards
and Chacha,
has
to
persuaded
and unambiguous
which
of bride
are
unfair
a direct
towards
sensitivity
to
which
in
the
village
their
to
relation
in way
as non-entities
extent
ne se
which
as well
personal
the
wives
of
as mere
needs
are
disregarded. The
proverb in
his
place
of
women
by one of
used
his
to
advice
the
of
in
characters
male
companions
is
Mvoutessi
Notre
fille
on how to
in summed up
ne se mariera to
relate
a
pas He
women.
says: ä une picore,
'Une Comme disaient femme est semblable nos ancetres: poule: si tu fais aux mille attention cho es quelle 2 jamais v tu ne voudra le en manger gesier!
Just its
as one does one
gizzard,
implication
is
thing
about
her
her.
This
is
Mbarga's and his only
latest
because
Matalina
not
acts
should
wives
are
bride
concerned
! ibarga
special
head
of
roles the
complaints
some kind to
harem
is
play
his of for
important
only
his
eldest
seven
but
personal for
from
wives.
Matalina
wife
identity;
and deputises
The
he can get
what
his
when eating
seriously.
the
has towards Only
have
pecks
a human being;
non-entities.
Delphina
have
as the
not
Chief
attitude
a chicken
a woman's
is as a man
as far
they
take
not
is a woman
that
the
everything
consider
this
is
comfort.
Mbarga
in
the
46
organisation
the
of
correctly
homestead. it
observes,
In
the
scene
is
he intends
to
Oyono-Mbia
dramatizes
the
treated
non
the
entities.
besides
Abesso-Zang:
O.
Mbarga:
Est-ce
les
je
sais,
que
de Martha:
(D'une
(Mime
is
fact,
has
to
be
city,
homes are
polygamous
reminded
about
femmes?
autres
Aaa
jeu)
oh!
00ö
lointaine)
cuisine
jeu)
(D'une
de Juliana:
ah Ma'atha
d'une J'entends!
lointaine)
cuisine
As a ah Yöloyana autre
oh!
aaaoo
cuisine
ah!
000
lointaine)
(Tonne)
Vous Vous dormez Na ya? encore? de ces gens qui reviennent pas tous n'entendez Oü sont les de la priere regimes matinale? ä tre voulez envoyer vows que pl a ntains Quand me les fille? apporterez-vous?
out
There
the
oh!
(Impatiente, Ee ee hie!
wives
Mbarga
toutes
Voix
calling
in
the
and Delphina:
(Mime
The picture
mere
that
Mbarga:
Ibarga:
In
Notice
in women
to
contribute
Charlotte
mate.
Quand je to mon fils? dans dis que personne m'ecoute ce village! ne (Iieleve Aaa la voix) ah Tsesilia aaa
rbarga:
the
which
as a conjugal
to
wives
daughter
in way
sont
de Cecilia:
Voix
his
Matalina
oo Voix
to
Abesso-Zang,
nephew,
who acts
his
asks
take
wives
other
Delphina
only
Mbarga
where
provisions
as
As Nbarga's
the
here
we get roll
commodities
in
been
relationship the
for
play,
under
prisoners
have
Mbarga
whom he paid
is
incident
this
those
may as well
no personal later
of
from
numbers
his like
Mbarga
between
to
of
warder
a prison
The names of
guard. those
of
and each
to
him these
acquire.
Notice
that
aä=its dowry
that
prisoners! of
the
wives.
women are this
from
47
his
complaints
Quoi? Quelle t'a fait venir dot suffisante
A criticism Notre
fille
against
in
This
wives
when
they
garder
le
village
named
in woman
her
the
speech
to
as
a polygamous is
a very
outspoken and
also
on this
needs
verse
implied
of
woman are
sont
social
Her
frustrations
not
ici
venues in
bitterness
the
a
of Mbarga's
frustration the
in
as being
practice
each
ignore
to
afford
qui
especially
illustration
e qui une
complaints
'celles
is
examines
of
constant
as
There
1'ho.
quand J'ai
one cannot
an attack
themselves
pour
this the
of
deprivation
of
a
marriage. frustrated
manner
Her marital quoted
an
which
by the
de Mbarga'.
Martha
co-wives
husband.
refer
de repondre t'appelle? ý+i+ non?
individual
indicated
playwright
Martha from
is
is
pas
which
The
complaint.
wife:
polygamy
ne se mariera
considered.
wife
second
facon est cette dans ce village ä tes parents,
institution
social
his
about
from
in
wife. which
her
frustrations
open
she
expresses
anger
are
best
and
her
can be jealousy
expressed
towards
towards
antagonism
in
her
detected
her
long
below:
Je dans bouche de Moi je n'ai ce village! parler pour pas je jour j'attends le dirai parlerai oü mais rien maintenant, ä Charlotte Tous nos enfants face ä face! au n'ont pu aller l'argent tout faute d'argent, qui provenait que parce college ä etudes de les Mbarga devait de des cacaoyeres payer servir On Yaounde! de les Charlotte soeurs catholiques chez dams d'autre de ce village: r_ en plus parler n'entendait "Charlotte de nouveiles vends robes: ah Ma'atha, a besoin de lui de envoie qu'on pour regimes pla ratans quelques des blancs: Charlotte froid l'argent! que pays au a ... les macabos dans leurs les femmes de Mbarga aillent toutes chercher ä l'argent de les huttes et qu'elles envoie wende--t pour qu'on " ici Et si celles Charlotte! que pour qui ne sont venues ... "Et les le demander: enfants? village osaient autres garder " Tout le monde se Quand les enverra-t-on au college? ...
`.
fächait et tous quand We have the
helps
elucidate
but
expect
a woman
co-wives'
very
be
her
as
true
Martha's which
their
She cannot through improve
his
in women
-
her
fight
nullify at
preventing
his
be
her
her
own children
is
is
here
On the
circumstances,
the
co-wife's fair
not
for
to that
it
that
from
children but
a
exaggerating
It
his
discriminate.
is
educating
raised
it
because
ignored. of
us under-
in a woman
Martha
homestead;
is
of all
his
all
themselves
wives
level,
emotional
biological
a woman's
child
scapegoats
but,
daughter
forced
to
against
the
victimize
whom to
vent
is
misdirected
and therefore
she hits
at
does not
help
Charlotte
directly
illustrates
addition,
are
marriages for
looking
husband
in
Charlotte,
venom against
favourite
of
course,
this
anger. him
situation.
The experiences the
helps but
of
towards
welfare
polygamous
Martha's
her
that
regard
towards
attitude
anger.
doubt
enrichera
child.
women as a way of
other
no
situation
man to of
to
the
being
children not
of
point
frustrating
under only
in way
The
it
and antagonism,
cannot the
nous
because
only
contribute
complaint
sacrifice
expected
especially
to
a polygamous
wholesale
cannot
had
children. for
well
wives
is
basic to
is
There has
not
jealousy
unfairness
she
her
speech,
anger,
marriage.
child,
her
this
the
how much
Charlotte "45 de France! ...
reviendra
speaker's
polygamous about
eile
quoted
stand
"Taisez-vous!
disait:
theory social
of which
the
female
looks
tension
at for
characters polygamy women.
examined as an adaptive
Women are
in
this system
human beings
section aimed and
49
each
one has
these
needs is,
that social
her
own personal
by looking
Polygamy
needs.
aimed
boosting
men's
The Bride
1984
at
for
cater
foundation,
very
economic
and
positions.
Austin
and Procreation
(M) Uganda:
Bukenya
David
(M) Kenya:
Mulwa
Shimane
(M)
Mekgoe
Eyes
South
of
Jud
The last in
women
section
their
a woman's
major
role
role
be a private
matter
an unforgivable
punishment
of
Up to
pregnant
three
to
after
among the
months
to
the
thrown
into
Yoruba
of
this
situation
to
out
produce
children
for
her
an entire
example,
symbolic
sex
organ
was
a
ritual during
her
Nigeria,
a woman who fails
marriage
is
may not
wife,
is she
frustrations
from
a second of
of
Ghana,
to
allowed
concern
was given
after
of
towards
of
a year
marriage leave
Fante
Africa,
The
was never
was the
children
pepper
a woman in
be forced
The attitude
hot
today,
although
abandoned
producing
it
that
of
traditional
children.
a woman to
of
representation
In
produce
but
spouses
Among the
before having
and
failure
or
the
process.
so seriously
between
curse.
woman who died
marry
1978
examines
procreation to
was
Barrenness
community.
useless.
the
chapter
was taken
reproductive
burial.
in
role
this
of
1985
ement
Africa: Lindiwe
likely
to
women en masse and by its
at
institution as an
Women, Marriage
get
fails
women as procreational
dismissed necessarily
as be
nevertheless conjugal
gadgets
in
neglect. traditional
to
50
Africa
is
in
examined
Nar-r
best this
world might
African
this
attitude
playwrights
barrenness
from
the
a Muslim
barrenness
undergo,
because
is
Zaina.
having
had only
society
in and
Zaina
David
plays
traced
to
towards
some
reason, their
of
in
her
barrenness
affects
links
Hadija's
barrenness
eyes
of
Allah.
the
tragedy
herself
forced
mother
boyfriend's fiadi ja
bcth
and
her
with
as a total
She tells
of
environment.
Hadi ja's
between
the
perform
communities.
a contemporary
This
and sees
women as causing cannot
examines
an abortion
feud
A woman been born
with children. have as well
Mulwa
tradition
one child the
for
satisfaction
a family
of
own family.
mother
who,
Judgement47
of
Hadija's
her
those
to
role Eyes
view
for
unhappiness
In
the
one of
study: the this
procreational
in
character
Women were made to flower who cannot to contribut 6 into something else.
great
any
by a male
expressed
her
to
f
ly
her
own problem
of
in
failure
Hadija:
Do you know what they say about me? That I brought forth ... just And that brought forth you! child one child nothing. Truly I must be a fallen woman - the cured of Allah else my lap would be full with grandchildren ... The role without
of
sense
of
hood;
it
has to
sirilarity
her
In
comment. fulfilment
in
daughters
Austin daughter
most in
Zaina's
Bukenya's dedicated
providing
African
procreation
be boosted
between
in
by her yearning
The Bride"'. to
the
traditional does
not
Tatu's
her
end with
Notice
grandchildren
God Wanga is
based
of
go
own mother-
fertility.
rejection
not
a woman's
cultures,
daughter's for
should
grandchildren
a
and that
of
Tatu
the
to
have
on the
plan
consequences
51
of
such
to
fulfil.
The
fear
opportunity children.
is
on her
a plan
My daughter to married
as
as the
being
of
leads
living a heap
robbed
Tatu
am a mother, and the ask of the skies a strong and surround Proving even the
gods, the
risks
wrath
the
of
god
the
challenges Badua's will
rob
'normal'
Badua
of
becoming
and
place
of
in
African
women that
latter.
Ama Ata
and
revering
Like
Tatu
Aidoo's
the
Like
Tatu
who
Anowa51
in
as the
have
it
a priestess mother
of
be
the
to the
rejects
to
order
a priestess.
who refuses
Badua
a god,
a priestess
becomes
hierarchy
social
of
become
to
daughter
only
handmaid
mother
the
daughter
her in
to
cai1oL, J
a grandmother.
a childless
the
her
honour
a
of
reproductive
continued. The
Eyes
of
where
the
the
difference
only
Zaina
her
of
if
grandchildren
shrine
responsibility
Wanga,
refusingrher
that
her
woman
mother
role
is
argument her
by
gods
have
I
this
go against
to
to
my daughter 5°
to
prepared
Namvua's
the
of
Wanga:
the
important so
between
her
rob
of
against at
blessing
is
a choice
is
a woman
chance
blaspheme
only
fertility
is
there
when
the
of
man to marry grandchildren.
and virile me with
one's
to
would
grandmother
a perpetual virgin bones? of cold
I
is
it
a grandmother;
herself
it
that
so great
future
two
threat
tragedy. woman while
of
Judgement
other of
She is
is
women are having
ready
she hunts
Tatu
between
that
the
to for
help
latter
completely
a childless her
a baby
to
Badua
and
is
quite
daughter
hangs
one
hand,
and
westernized Yet
traditional.
daughter
steal.
on the
even
for
as an unbearable
masquerade
as a pregnant
ýG
Although is
baby
Hadija
up for
her
barrenness
in
mothers
the
reminder
than
But
slums.
her
of
suggestions,
her
that
her
She tries
by losing
torture.
psychological
the
intense
no less
Zaina's
rejects
of
contact
The cries
in
terms
of
charity
with the
of
own barrenness.
barrenness
in
herself
her
mother.
Notice
from
like
to
make
towards
poor
are
her
Allah.
a
her
women gives
babies
that
punishment
work
productive
slum
for
anxiety
a constant
mother,
She
she sees
says:
Oh for the pain Just of childbirth! one! But there's just here dream nothing a I somehow became a mother. that Allah! Why have you forsaken it I know me? was it But Allah wrong. wasn't my fault - 52 forgive please me and make me whole ... The deformity
as
Notice
The
deformed
Fourth
...
would
children
not
A woman who cannot ation
of
marriage
her
community
has
been
a family
of
helping
The most turned
the
commonly to
her
53
...
her
fulfil.
has no place blessed
accepted husband's
must
that
Although
it
admit
that
there
where tradition brother
chase
procreational in
is
the
a husband that
or
a close
otherwise
woman
role
to
away'.
the
expect-
and where is
fault
for
sterile
accepted
is
wife
in
that
that
impossible
is
Africa.
54
community
is a man are
think
well,
perfectly
children
children, situation
'I
his
of
in
prevalent
He retorts:
with
to
very
against
I
a form
as
complaint
my duties
formed
woman's.
fathering
out
over
be
is
speech
Musa's
Trial.
barrenness
or
above
I perform
individual an
or
incapable of
be the
to
assumed
not
the
from
example,
Imbuga's
is woman the
for
childlessness in
reflected
this,
Francis
towards
attitude
always a community, or
otherwise
traditional
known
whereby relative
to
a
ways
be sterile.
is a woman for
53
procreational
Shimane
purposes.
Mekgoe's
Lindiwe55
where
a man deserts
is
based
on this
tradition. Lindiwe
examines
her
accusing Dabula
barrenness
of
actually Dumdum:
(Suddenly)
Dabula:
(Raising
Dumdum:
That's
D abula:
She knows
Dumdum:
Barren! Do you
By the his
brother
I
shoulders)
I
her
left
But Yes and I am ashamed. of witchcraft. was a victim
when
she the
bear
social
Clark
For
Goat57.
in
that
which
community her
husband
Notice
the
time,
for
in
of
(Pause)
I
be with
was
normal
not
Ebiere to
traditional
ýgere
I
was a reason;
blame
the
fault
lies
in
traditional
for her
with
childlesshusband
Africa,
women
to
maintain
the
a more
creative
and sensitive
situation
and therefore use
the
order In
failure
that
carry
sometimes,
a similar
a long
her.
left
barren.
was
my brother. fault might
my wife
a9 ,I'r. Cs to
well
criticism
examines
I
it.
Deborah very
to
admit
and flawlessness.
superiority
her
I
admit
which
way
keeping?
know;
she
You are foolish ... that the not realise and not your wife?
knows
Deborah
don' t
because
Dabula:
in
impotent.
desertion.
So you
way
wife,
he is
that
well
how is
way,
his
Dumdum:
Dumdum:
had to
loves
his
How could sexually?
illustrates
of
to
very
Dabula:
The
J. P.
when he knows
this
admits
you
ness
a situation
provide does not religion
to
bear
a second want in
in
Ebiere
through
ag rj«s
myth
to
the
taunts
child expose
Lindiwe
of
male
Song of
to
a
and abuses
because his
manner
she
impotence. justify
the
54
practice
whereby
Deborah's hini of
to his
a woman sleeps
husband father
to
explains
his
child tell
ancestors
his
in-law
brother
from
stems that
her
with
Lindiwe
that
a dream in has
to
to
produce
his
decision
to
send
he has heard
which
be born
a child.
to
Deborah
one
and her
brother-in-law.
Although
Deborah's
traditional
subservience
a woman
to
Deborah
agrees
that are
with
virtually
his
this
her
sleep
sleep
her
as
from
of
mechanical
is
the
implied
does
which
plausible
for
and
as easily
as
to
effects the
of
she agrees
of the
fact
two
them
empathise
she
may have desertion
subsequent
automaton. to
of
brothers.
the
attempt
and
as a kind
not
the
between not
of
spite
that
psychological
childlessness
in way
in
all,
some enmity
Deborah
He treats
is
Mekgoe
the
it
men,
After
it to
owing
envisage
a result
the
Dumdum.
with
as part
a man as mechanically
viewpoint,
and
husband.
with
brother-in-law,
a male
heroine
women towards
of
strangers
from
su=ffered
tv
to
is
Dumdum
Tvriting
to
agree
can be explained
passivity
sleep
Notice with
brother-in-law: he (Dabula)
Deborah:
Will
Dumdum:
Yes, that
Deborah:
uLindiwe?
Dumdum :
Yes,
Deborah:
(Smiling)
come back
then?
is the born but only child child a after ... is it the is long And will of our awaited. this I provide that uLindiwe. child, ancestors
umtwana
...
It's
like
a dream
come true
to
child. Dumdum:
It's
like
a family
reunion
to
me,
a wife.
me, a
her
55
Deborah:
But
Dumdum:
We were
Deborah:
But
Dumdum:
And I forget
Deborah:
I won't.
Kisses
him, is
There and that
and they
undergoes
with
come to
at
both
in
J. P.
sensitive
to
as
Why?
us.
loggerheads you
my brother last.
between
Clark's his
being
a result
(Embracing)
the
Song of
heroine
Eh,
treatment
don't
the
kind
her
misfortune
of
of Deborah
her
deal
a great
as
of
tension
psychological
and
here
59
a Goat.
and gives
showing of
...
58
exit.
difference
a human
as
visited
came to you at last. the name uLindiwe. ...
a great
more
attention
at
he did
Ebiere
of
is
Clark
she
you never
a victim,
of
rigid
and the
role
of
traditionalism. This in women social
African
the
that,
traditional
One
wrights very
subjects
between
important
point
whose
works
critical women.
are of
to
the are
roles
low
social
often
emerges
examined
traditionalism problems
in
the
context
the
of
changing
traditional
milieu
come into
often
human beings. status
It
conflict has
also in
women occupy when there
victimized
traditionalism which
From the
in
that
individual as
they
conflicts
and in
and these
needs
setting,
representation
observed
roles
owing
the context
has been
personal
observed
cultural
are
It
stereotyped
women's
been
discussed
traditional
values.
women play with
has
chapter
are
and modernism. from
this
attitude
chapter
and the raised
the
kind
by these
of
the
play-
is
that
many of
of
life
to
playwrights
which it
them it
56
would
that
appear
traditionalism di
in
them to
as a solution
would
not
the
recommend
contemporary
to
a return
cultural
transitional
emmas. The next
their
many of
struggles Africa;
that
chapter
the
examines
to
come to
is
the
urban
terms
representation
with
environment.
a relatively
and role new social
of
women in situation
57
NOTES TO CHAPTER 1
1
in Emmanuel Obiechina, Culture, Tradition Society West African and Novel, London: Cambridge University Press, 1975, pp. 101-103.
2
From an open discussion at held in Nairobi, July-August
3
Lusigi
4
Ruth
5
1982. Kenya, Florentine Orwa, Veil, The White play, unpublished Veil' 'The White A dramatization Grace Ogot's story, short of (in East African Nairobi, by Grace Ogot, Land Without Thunder Publishing House, 1968).
6
Ibid.,
7
Ayodi, Kamau,
9
Itid
Purity
1980. 1982.
and
quotations
African Spear, 1973, Heinemann, edition. are from this
p. 120. .,
p. 121.
Nairobi:
11
Ibid.,
p. 5.
12
Ibid.
13
Ibid.,
14:
The Trial, unpublished B. M. Kenyago, dramatization of Ngugi wa Thiong'o's 1968. Heinemann, London,
15
Ibid.,
16
Op. cit.,
17
Conference
(ed. ) by Theatre All pp. 109-129.
in
Austin House,
Rebeka
Kenya,
play,
unpublished
The Bride, Bukenya, All 1984. references
10
Kenya,
play,
unpublished
Test,
The Family Zirimu, London, Henderson,
references
Ibid.,
The
End of Women's Decade 1985.
p. 3.
Elvania Gwyneth
8
The Pumpkins,
the
.,
East
African
and quotations
are
Publishing from this
edition.
p. 34.
P-19. play, novel,
A 1980. Kenya, Between, The River
p. 2. p"7. Njau,
references
The Scar, and quotations
Nairobi, are
Kibo Art Gallery, from the original
1965. manuscript.
All
58
18
Ibid.,
19
Ibid
20
Bert-': - Msora, I Will 1934" All references
21
S. D eeker,
22
Guillaume Oyono-Mbia, Three Suitors Notice, London: Methuen, 1968; 1978 quotations are from this edition.
P. 7. .,
p. 7. Wait
Harare
Zimbabwe Publishing House, : , and quotations are from this edition.
The Maasai,
23
Cosmo Pieterse, interviewed',
24
Op. cit.,
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid.,
27
Guillaume Oyono-Mbia, ORTF-DAEC, 1969. All
London:
Denis
Dobson,
1963,
One Husband reprint.
p. 94.
Further and Until All references and
'Guillaume Oyono-Mbia, Cameroon (141). Abbia 24 (1970), 137-1)+2 pp.
playwright
p. 12.
32. p. ,
p-31Notre
fille
references
ne se mariera and quotations
pas, are
Paris, Paris from this
edition. 28
Ibid.,
p. 116.
29
M. Eel,
30
S. E eeker,
31
K. I; deti, Pubsring
32
(ed. ) in Plays by Malawian Nine Tree, The Banana James Ng'ombe, Press & Likuni Publications Popular Limbe & Lilongwe James Gibbs, All 1976, pp. 21-29. House, & Publishing and quotations references edition. are from this
33
Ibid.,
pp. 25-26.
34
Ibid.,
PP. 2)4-25.
35
Ibid.,
p. 25.
36
(My Chacha, Mwenza Nyaigoti Mke Chacha co-wife), All 1982,1983 Heinemann, references reprint. this from edition. are
The Chiga op. cit., Elements House,
of
Western pp.
Uganda,
OUP, 1959,
New York,
p. 105.
1- ?.
of Akamba Life, 1972, p. 16.
Nairobi,
East
African
Nairobi: and quotations
J
37
Ibid.,
38
Translations are
italics
PP. 7-8,
from
mine. into
Kiswahili
English
on this
and c -.her
texts
mine.
39
Ama Ata
40
For
41
OT. cit.
42
Ibid.,
60. p.
43
Ibid.,
pp. 16-17.
44
Ibid.,
48. p.
45
Ibid.,
pp. 73-7)4.
46
Francis Bureau, Chapter
Aidoo,
detailed
48
Ibid.,
49
op. cit.
50
Ibid.,
51
Ama At a Aidoo,
52
Op. cit.,
53
Op. cit.
Mulwa,
54
Ibid.,
55
Shimane
a Ghost,
Eyes
Judgement,
of
see Chapter
5.
Literature see
play,
Nairobi,
play,
unpublished
.
1985
Anowa,
London,
Longman,
1970.
pp. 9-10.
1 pp. -5. Mekgoe,
For
detailed
Lindiwe,
and quotations
analysis
Johannesburg, are from this
this
play,
Ravan
Press,
of
see Chapter 19iß.
All
edition.
pp. 5-6.
Ibid.,
57
J. P. Clark, OUP5 1964+.
cit. .
of
196E
p. 29.
56
59
Dilemma
Longman,
p. 22.
references
DID
of
Accra,
Imbuga, The Fourth Trial, Nairobi: East African 13-14. 1972, For detailed pp. analysis of this 4.
David
Op. cit.,
a Ghost,
of
analysis
47
58
Dilemma
Song of a Goat in Three Plays For detailed of this analysis
pp. 11-12.
London, Clark, 4. C'napter see
by J. P. play,
4.
60
CHAPTER 2
THE URBAN WOMAN
The urban having Several
clan
limitation also
is
There
blood,
morals
a century
communal
ago the
cohesion
during from
since
the
as
leads
to
competitiveness
degree
of
rebellion
to
challenging
resources
the
urban
in
the
in
new phenomenon
ties
ethnic
a certain
a relatively
distinguish
no
or
of
to
only
factors
social
milieu. by
introduced
been
is
environment
colonial
era.
the
traditional
people
are
traditional
not
linked
The
setting.
between
people
traditionally
against
Africa,
and
acquired
and etiquette. Partly
owing
because
partly
individuals' to
ready
economic
adherence express
vis
whereby
the
than
pace-setter.
her
viewed
she has
in woman can is
the
situation
urban
to
establishment
roles,
the
for
her
as a rebel
has
led
to
more
social
and
inevitable
This
counterpart.
and
monitor
woman is
urban
independence
environment
male-female
Conservatism
of
traditional
urban
that
a social
degree
is woman
urban
of
of
nature
stereotyped
a challenging
Considering the
to
ä vis
'normal'
established
absence
a greater
survival
courage
Africa,
the
of
the
a situation
and as a threat
to
the
relationships. to
play
roles
many respects
which
are
relatively
be regarded,
a common characteristic
in new
as a cultural
of many societies;
61
pec .ple
are
rcwever
inclined
more
towards than
unsatisfactory,
ir_:. o new modes
of
to
behaviour.
arise
against
the
ur-ban
African
woman
is of
been
with
and
as
adapt
a result
of
new ways
estal-fished their
norms,
life-styles
this
life.
of
is
still
age-old to
struggling
It
pace-setters has
coping
that
prejudices
Consequently,
a victim
of
the
social
many
prejudices.
To write h.
an
credible on the
condition
situation
such
responsibility üý- Dan areas
as
the
in
this
present
stereotyped
examine
how
to
far
kinds
the
African
image
problems
to
the
there
is
a tendency
have
playwrights the
of
with
of
woman
urban
which
she
has
to
against for
their
is to
to
avoid
sensitivity in
contend
to
authors
chapter
managed
by
heavy
a writer
prejudice
this
the
social
a challenging gives
purpose
to
sensitivity
Owing
The
African
and
environment
elements
characters.
demands
author
direction.
selected
of
the
of
urban
a distorted
-projecting
part
corrupting
as
literature
creative
this
new
environment. This
t:
chapter
tie
examine
culturally
'_: e Evil
divided
the
'Segue
Ajibade
of
four
presentation
and
woman
Corrupting
(M) Nigeria:
of and
image
a distorted
the
The
sections.
woman of
urban
lastly
the
Rakinyo
the
of
loose
professional
Agent
1975
begins
discussion
urban
The chapter
agent.
and as a corrupting
alienated
temptress
into
projection
temptress
as an evil on
the
criticizing
to
is
woman
then sexual woman.
moves morals,
62
Jacob Victor In
(M) Ghana:
Hevi
(M) Cameroon:
Musinga
Jacob
Hevi's and
represented
as a corrupting
male
and
if
is
shown
In
to
couple
leads
close
loving this
to
Rakinyo3 her
others
urban
the
whereby
urban
with
in
their
strength
moral
sour,
responsibility
Sewa,
the
If
men.
for
this
woman.
of
loving
in
life
or Yr
is woman
relationship
go
introduction
a very
the
disintegrate
plays with
be
in
The TraEedy
1975
and
husband
caring
work
hard
woman,
to
Amavi.
and they
have
together
and plan
countryside
they
urban
The
an honest their
together. and
meeting undergo
from
these
of .1,1_rNo-Balance
Musinga's
agent
the
a simple
father
children
before
relationship
After to
Victor
wi+1 some evil
shown
move
shown
lie
Amavi, is
every
in
1975
The Tragedy
Ajibade's
relationships
Kokutse
and
'Segue
characters
their
1,
Amavi
No-ý: alance2
the
Amavi
his
becoming
a drastic
when he brings
with
transformation.
he was before unceremoni:
friends
l
this, and
From
he becomes beastly
Sewa home as his
Sewa,
second
Kokutse:
at me like are you all gazing Or don't you see me water? give (Kwami brings him a cup of water) looks to Sewa (Kwami first round, Or, you don't hear me?
Kwami:
(Looking He waits
5-,hy
at to
the
a cruel
attitude
Kokutse
is
loving
husband
and
brute.
Notice
however,
towards
Amavi
and
wife: Can't bulls. you the guest standing? Give it Not me. a bit confused)
the young woman gives the Shall take the cup back)
water to her. I bring you
more? Kokutse:
(Suddenly
turning
taught at some too!
school? Quick!
Is that what you are on Kwami) (Shouting) Run and bring me (Kwami runs for the water.
their
63
Meanwhile
Amavi
Amavi:
Papa! him)
(She hurries
Kokutse:
Remove
your
Amavi
gazes
Sewa is urtan
that
onstrate the
Sew a. is .
The
is
It
It
their
as well.
her
love
cannot
acquired
have
urban
on the
The disintegration
wife
and to
are
moral.
hardworking, lazy.
extremely
between
marriage
power
of
Kokutse
Her
evil.
) throws
and the the
patch
Kokutse
strength land
to
up their
can
of
level;
it
in be
evil
so
(the
youth
on the
some doubt
and
overwhelmed
a long
go such
once happy
to
the
character
with way
relationship. is
agents
extends
Mr No-Balance's
very
an
and determination
women as corrupting
family
Sewa being
of
so much experience that
tamed to
fact
mere
school-girl!
a mere
be used
against
influence
so much
Amavi
latter
happy
the
women
and
and
his
into
playwright
rural
as honest intrigue
once
from
by the
the
where
of
Kokutse
him
be an attempt
how the
exaggeration
for
who lures
presented
play
with
having an
near the Sewa, take
some time.
immoral
the
before
and stands
on Sewa.
the
is she
seems
he and the
Prejudice
in
her
his
that
of
Kodzono!
work)
alienating
full
entirely
clear
of
economically
to
dishonest,
blamed
say that
intrigue.
which
is
endows
plausibility
her
woman Amavi as
not
woman
villagers
by
are
disintegration is
and Amavi
to
women
portrayed
for
and thus
appears
urban
country
eventual
urcan
him
Her portrayal
children.
him
temptress
as an evil
dehumanizes
her
up to
dumbfounded
presented
world,
Where
him
at
finished
things to the empty room (he turns towards Sewa) into my room.
children's. things your
de
has
not
limited
public and his
level
64
eventual blamed
on an urban
who leads type It
the
is
her is
which And
as
as
in of
downfall
of
embodiment
the
of
evil of
urban
loses
the
But
the
money
corruption. down-
consequences
of
but
the
has
caused
Mr No-Balance
ends
due
lack
to
of
of
representation
description
very
urban
a chauvinistic
reflects
women to
takes
author
it
common
regard
the
The
and
a very
this
downfall
playwright.
to
in
Ajibade's
temptresses
rural uses lure
that
given
in
is
downfall
eventual
as evil his
to
similar
Elizabeth area
tragic
met
women reflected
urban
No-Balance.
the
for
of
be the
and wickedness.
is men
presented
In
officials'
shows that
Rakinyo's
woman.
money.
Mr No-Balance's
and
Africa
jobs.
their
these of
relationship
in
in
of
to
urban
stereo-
for
greed
public
an unfortunate
officials.
who have
officials
part
The image
Rakinyo
to
face
post-independence
government
as a Jezebel
Mbarama
who are
in
life
cause
on
attitude
money
the
and greedy
and her
road
him to
is
affairs
stability
and
Women as the
public
many
those
integrity
on the
leaving
lazy
life
easy
enough
temptress
evil
She represents
dehumanized,
is
alone.
characteristic
represents
acquired
she flees,
Corruption
the
has
as the
presented
a luxurious
Mr No-Balance
of
bribes.
Mr No-Balance
spur
imminent,
is
taking
woman;
lead
she
bribes
taking
to
shown to
is
fa-',
desire
soon
into
African
urban
The Tragedy
Mbarama
woman.
Mr No-Balance
of
in
downfall
professional
wife the
Awero
promise from
The Tragedy
blamed
and corrupting
through
the of
Rakinyo
Rakinyo
on two
in of
urban
so that
Mr women
agents.
latter'scorruption
a lazy
their
and exuberant
by an life
she can occupy
her
65
as the
place to
tempt
with
her
tremendous
committed
rural
whose
character
is
and
Bimpe's
has
playwright
example,
talks
of
Rakinyo his
develop his
is
grossly
for
all
of
his
exaggerated
to
allowance is she
women
not
money and divert
is
his
destruction.
illustrate to
by of
the
have.
have
for
For
squeezed
in and
addition,
one of
her
she still
satisfied;
for
greedy
Her power
shown to
petrol
Bimpe.
manipulated
many relatives of
urban
wife
into man
of urban
each
and
relaxation.
and
urban
woman.
her
of
money
an
Awero
a hard-working
is she
is
is
a stereotyped
the
urban
begin
play
Elizabeth
woman who
naturally;
period,
the
been
see how fast
second
lead
Bimpe
this,
his
into glamour,
imagines
playwright
short
to
view
financial
spite of
urge
into
From
a dehumanized
as
not
her.
is
in
because to
have
to
said
shocking
of
temptress
evil
women as having
events
just
transformed
a life
be explained-
and can only
the
to
presented
attention
to
plans
from
caring
relatives.
The height sick
is
a house
and a regular In
is
Awero
a very
within Rakinyo
brothers.
his
Elizabeth
fit
the
greed
material
drain
It
Rakinyo
of
exploitation
is
explained.
does to
before
Awero
with
we are
and urban
withers
inexplicable
character
city
time
presented
an
unrealistic
friendship
interest
sole
direct
a car
a long
woman
Rakinyo's
money
for
not
The situation
The two women are
power.
immediately
changes
This
the
for
is woman
woman
against
how the
place;
urban
very
intimacy
her
uses
husband.
women is
bias
friends
taking
her
corrupting
intimate
out
two
author's
Elizabeth
wife.
away from
the
about
by the
the
latter's
father
of
Bimpe's
claiming
evil that
is this
incites when she way he will
Rakinyo
be getting
to rid
murder of
an
66
economic
is
there
evil;
This
problem.
Like
The
female
the
playwrights
relationship to
fit
the
of
the
male
Mbarama
The
Woman of
are
Sexual
(M)
says, away
Cyclos
David
(M)
Eyes of
female is
character presented
either
It character least
is
unfortunate in
African
realistically
sensitivity
Kenya:
(M) Uganda:
type
woman. not
to
see
by
expressed
one
Rakiny, -o realize
make
bran:
tree
'7
h breaks?
Morals
Blind
loose
is
as the
(M) Nigeria:
The woman of
African
men are tailored
Ime Ikiddeh
Singh
be a play
respective
Game 1968
Muiwa
to
The Tercenary
do you
as soon
than
other
difficult
women which 'How
of
positions.
The
Euba
Jagjit
lack
fly
urban
is
sake
destruction.
urban
Nigeria:
Femi
the
that
Loose
he
when
birds
it
that
the
murder
appears
on the
views
prejudiced
of
this
Rakinyo
and Bimpe to their image
characters
women
from
for
evil
a man into
leading
so one-sided
as working
stereotyped
that
she
are
in
from
gain
distorted'
confirming
of
to
Mr No-Balance,
of
characters
indulgence
in be can
she
The Tragedy
towards
geared
is
Bimpe
nothing
how powerful
seeing
is
murder
Sweet
sexual
morals
urban
African
in
is
urban
represented
and understanding
the
1985
Scum of
Freedom
perhaps
the
recurrent
African
drama,
a prostitute.
perhaps
woman of
1973
most In
or
wife is she
although drama,
Judgement
literature.
as an unfaithful that
1968
loose
female
character.
it when
comes to
the
most
sexual Most the
recurrent morals
is
playwright-
portrayal
of
6T
this to
Few playwrights
character. show the
and her
dialectical
background.
character
surface
her
behaviour
immorality
is she
presented
'immoral'
her
outside
her
of
so-called
In many plays,
no life
with
the
between
relationship
socio-economic
a cardboard
go beyond
as
social
interaction. Ime Ikiddeh towards
standing
iioortance
to
characters' icism In
the
towards
the
to
as
to
Ikddeh
a character.
his
is
This
wealthy
businessman
woman's
friendship
Olemu
is
in
her
The
playwright
who regard
critical
this
who risk
of
the
Olemu;
it
is
with
the
human beings
being
to
dehumanized
of
her
in
the
idiosyn-
as one
of
the
the
urban
areas.
rather
than
fellow-
between be the
shown to
it
and there-
personal
in
relationship
Elisa
and the
basis
of
the
Austin.
those
not
makes
survive
uses
on needs
new wealthy
sympathetic
by getting
people
Although
as commodities.
he is
deal
a great
portrayed
any
merely
also
female
their
as a human being
without
policeman
as one of
attitude
is
struggle
as built
basis
the
her
giving
life.
on human relationships
views
presented
areas
of
to
human relationships
sees
feeling.
relate
presented
exhibit
Elisa
Blind
avoid
causes
immoral
which
is
Elisa
explore
in
in
morals
which
also
so-called
predicaments
environment.
tools
Elisa
audience
her
understand
crasies
women's
and under-
playwrights
background
The writers
way
sensitivity
sexual
Both
respectively.
the
of
loose
woman of
laxity.
Cyclos,
for
urban
urban
these
Blind
Euba show lack
socio-economic
sexual
difficult fore
the
9, and The Game
Cvclos8
cy
and Femi
used
towards
in
Ikiddeh the
the
urban
is
women like
as commodities
by
68
these
Apart
nouveaux-riches.
by Olemu
in
reaching
the
couple's
relationship
laughter
from
his
election
female
sexual
in
the
of
this
man's
that
suggests
from
the
stepping
Ikiddeh
electorate.
a way which
Notice
the
is
Elisa
exploitation,
she is
campaigns;
members
it.
from
the
presents
excerpt
of
in
stone
he derives
following
used
cynical their
dialogue: Olemu:
Close
the
window - we must hurry, today, too rents ...
collect Elisa:
Your want
(flattered)
Olemu:
No,
(sharp
Olemu:
Oh,
Elisa:
Are
Then
me when
come on, campaigns. you not?
Ikiddeh's
cynicism
policeman
is
I
to
Lock
many dependants
is
the
window
only.
during
useful
for
door
the
Like
the
these
weekend
first.
10 the
plight
presentation
The money Elisa This
that
me something
give
pounds.
his
for
am fit
been very
you've
towards
shown in
Austin.
by Austin.
seven
you
me honey.
call
How much do you want? Only
morals
going
to
Liz! You know how many nights (Softening) But these weeks ... You're so sweet!
Yes,
again)
Elisa:
has
remember
Simply you're sweeter. overwhelming! Won't some unexpected you close money. now?
Elisa:
spent
only
I have
shut.
Elisa:
sexual
Elisa
window
You
Don't be impossible, I have spent here. it! But I can't help
Olemu:
is
lucky.
Olemu:
or
the
is
wife the
Elisa.
the
of
Elisa's
gets
a pathetic
who look
of
up to
from
situation her
for
urban
her
woman of relationship
services
considering their
survival.
to
loose with Olemu
that But
69
the
playwright's
observer.
The question
when Elisa
complains
that
realize
the
since
The
final
the
discovery
that
and eventually in
be
to
shown heavier
than
it
were
as an aspect the
which
for
not
the
cynical
phenomenon social
in
as that of
in
in
conditions. affecting and blames Awero
both
the
women
urban
the
traditional
But
instead
area values
of
viewing
the
men and women, Euba
from
Austin
the
the
is to
loose
the
urban
and the
other
aside
urban
area.
policeman
and
as brothers
morals.
city. is
The Game12 is introduces This caused
introduction
as such
is
the
each
it
particularly
is
in
the
the
woman
of
Olemu'scorruption
playwright
in
case
of
Femi Euba's
the
police-
criticism
that
sexual
urban
corrupt
As in
exposure
draw
stands
towards
girlfriend,
sterility
Here,
it
she gets
Ikiddeh's
relationships urban
she not
businessman's
related of
does
condemnatory
his
in women
Cyclos.
Blind
extra-marital
problem;
breakdown
of
have
is,
trouble.
moral
seems to
would
The representation
into
in
of
play
urban
is
tragedies.
men's
attitude
Olemu?
Mr No-Balance11
involvement
businessman
corrupt
him
a cynical
playwright's
services
on the
of
for
's woman
on the
on corruption
the
Tragedy
responsible
The conclusion
it
The
sex
Olemu shares
puts
of
by Austin
Cyclos
investigations
that
the
than
Blind
of
his
Mir No-Balance
the
lover
statement
man accelerates activities
a better
from
exploitation
for
pay
is
situation
hangs
her
about
is
latter
the
which
she has to
At
women.
to
attitude
of
is
the a new
by the new living
and as a problem as a cynical
observer
women. is
the
childless
second
wife
of
a wealthy
urban
as
businessman
70
and has In
an extra-marital a female
choosing his
shows the
biases
family
to
the
to
like
importance is
their
instead
could
affair
is
derive
money
be used
to
of
deal
This
escapades.
creative
serious
Eyes
In and Jagjit
of
Singh,
characters
is women
limited
for
in
kind
the
playwright
first
social denies
audience
immoral as an
only
to
Awero's in
involved so towards
attitude This
social
in
involveient
person.
laxity.
who are
fa--lies.
can
due
give
sexual
exhibitionist
factor
an extra-marital
passing. in
characters
Blind
humour.
is
cynicism
and The Game seems
Cyclos
The two playwrights
laughter
cynical of
woman's
Euba refuses
Awero's
the
this
whom the
heroine's
their
farcical
of
his
their
explain
providing
a great
Cyclos;
her
nouveaux-riches
time
female
judging
of
in
and
only
mentioned of
Blind
African
no
The role be that
the
lover
as a character of
causes
have
they
which
in
root
of
for
search that
the
one
herself
reveal
in
of
woman who has no
urban
her
already
importance
the
by limiting with
employees.
playwright
childlessness
a stereotyped
relationship
Ikiddeh
to
husband
female
her
chance
Finally,
to
of
the
Considering
Awero's
Secondly,
as a human being
view
life
image
the
husband's
childless,
women.
women,
responsibilities.
interaction her
for
her
one of
who is
urban
role
her
gives
with
character
against
procreational
place
affair
from
heroine's
their
insensitive
and does not
seem to sexual go with
writing. Judgement13
and Sweet
respectively, of
loose
by these
are sexual
playwrights'
Scum of
sympathetic
morals,
but
inability
Freedom
1,
towards their to
David their
i"alwa urban
portrayal
of
empathize
with
these
71
them
fully. In
Eyes
traditional living
the
with her
face
audience
of
the
loving
have
slum
of
did
when
the
in
living against
these the
of
these
owing
areas.
an abortion
of
Mulwa
of Amina
which
to
Arising
sees
the
economic
out
these
of
shows
that of
he presents
and her
subsequent
does
is
not
incredible
Since
'Honesty!
j15 problems
common social
the
of is
problems
which
maternal of
abortions
he represents to
he subscribes
cause
root
the
to
undergo
Amina's
daughter latter
of
abandonment
of
the
of by
This
order
view
poor
illustrated
human feelings.
her
urban
erroneous is
women
a prejudice
and as lacking
as the
to
playwright's
deprivation
immoral
in way
inability
says:
are
to
attempts
the
honesty?
children
poverty
the
children,
dehydrated as women in way
She
women as sexually
poor
abandonment
honesty.
of
his
it and
articulate
the
prepare
poverty
made to
boast
dweller
money.
playwright's of
him to
Her mechanical
indecent and
in
lacking
Africa
Although
through women
is
and abandonment
urban
feelings. and
mere
for
because
fact
widow
and tells
poverty
latter.
merely
After
the
while,
herself
shows the The
who
slum
any wise
slums
as
women
Abortions in
herself
Amina
his
by common
who,
brother-in-law.
and Mwaruwa to
the
of
dishonest a woman make is
it
Amina
fruitless
heroine.
of
prostitute
rejection
a widow
a short
pretext
new husband
proved his
with
necessarily
view
no conflict
with by her
only
between
woman's
empathize
that
henceforth
the
job a
for
she will
for
rejection
find
brother-in-law on the
is
presented
inherited
been
new husband
that
There
we are
has
practice,
rejects his
Judgement
of
when she
72
to
have
Amina
is
refuses which
her
r '''ýý.
made to
in
assume
(storming)
Amina:
Your
the
the
following
clinical
attitude
excerpt
her
of
dialogue
last
...
Rasha:
Mama you chose to have me. Isa to take before my life breath on earth!
Amina:
Yes you because
he
Judgement,
his
Singh
tive,
definition
veneer
laxity
of In
Singh
morals
but,
that
private, In
morals
this are
with
from
this
in
game, the
public
Singh
by
morals denote
kind
they
general perspec-
of
African put
on a
shows that
playwright
as scapegoats
es of
heroine.
independent a new
while
used
his
to
Working
in
Mulwa
like
'prostitute'
term
towards
sympathetic
sexual
the
in
is
loose
women of
many people in
sexual
fully
the
and hypocrisy.
prostitutes
loose
women of
of
respectability.
of
Jagjit
empathize
towards
argues
are
country
sexual to
unable
corruption
social
loose
sympathies
a broad
taking
is
keep I to father you chose and father legal and with a child a 10 married.
Freedom17
of
women of
urban
shows
Scum
Sweet
In
Mama call my first
You didn't I had taken
Your
child! you were legally -
a mother
for
general
moral
society.
his
attempt in
as lacking
Wright
father's
wish was that you in school do well You choose between me and ... illegitimate father's brat last your wish and an in there the darkness. I'm not going to work -,ut in Life feed brat fatherless and a my own house. is hard howling babies enough without and costly nappies
not
Notice
Rasha:
with
the
ter""'4t.
uses
his
to
show that
social
awareness
prostitute
heroine
women of is as as his
loose
morals
sexual
generally mouthpiece
assumed to
the
state
are playhis
73
'Look
position. and dancing
malayas
women of
loose
Minister these
with
sexual
for
ministers',
In
morals
Culture
are merely
juxtaposes
Singh
to
order
used
detract Singh
are
from
two
the
distances
attitude
to
the
aspects
his
for
general
important
the
he is
examining.
This
than
than
corrupt
Oyono-Mbia
Sekyi
The theme African
of
Lord
to
Swahili
cultural
help
word
alienation
indiscriminate
Africa
for
characters. journalistic a
assumes
a melodramatic
makes the
playwright
appear
writer.
creative
1976
Have Mercy
regain
'prostitutes'.
fille
ne se mariera
The Blinkards
The major
discourage
to and
which
(M) Cameroon:
Ghana:
writing.
creative is
(M)
female
gives
a sensitive
Notre Kobina
thus
however,
Woman
(M) Malawi:
Banda
his and
and
rather
Freedom,
characters
seriousness
Alienated
Guillaume
*
that
attitude
be much more
for
his
photographer
Innocent
Scum of
sympathies
from
reduces
problems
The Culturally
Sweet
of
playwright's himself
which
as a mere
values
the
we're
as scapegoats
to
drinking
women. There
theme
his
women with
latter
'Always
no freedom
or
highlight
these
and shows the
Anna,
says
Freedom
malayas*.
118
always.
immorality,
social
African
our
Lorina
at
same old
tone
at
is
1915 important
a very
aim of
writers
assimilation her
sense
of
pas 1969
cultural
in one
who explore
this
foreign
(Western)
of
direction
which
74
was threatened focusses
section
examination
on the the
of
the
In
next. a sense final
this
of
light,
While
to
the
of
the
plays
the
role
the
against
tendency
for
Have Mercy19
able
to
relevant
of
as
from
in
erroneous
cutting
oneself
civilized
in
the
off
to
just
is
in
valid
fooled
Have Mercy
view
held
from
Western
their
is
one's sense
indication and an
roots
Banda's
are
is
Lord
have
kc
presented
with
ä_at to
pas20 had
as is
regard
men. those
urban
is
a mark that
women who Africans
alienated
culturally
African
cannot
mere
a tendency
than
maintain
pre`udices
husbands
wives
represents
by the
,o
ne se mar era
cultures
There
by new values
Lord
fille
African
culture.
sat----: cal.
a critic
Innocent
their
while
like
an entire
westernization.
in women
confused
as _rl the
their
reveal
the
to maintain
helping
general,
Oyonco--Mbia's Notre
Western
easily
Petronella the
example,
what
the
in
society
why the
in
of
on to
of
are
plays
thoughtless
ridicule
education
synthesize
these
ec-ý:cators
helping
stability
alienation
some playwrights
culturally
Western
women as more
hold
women and
and Guillaume
presented
a taste
of
women as they
no explanation,
are
of
cultural
on cultural
the
important
very
by
played
aimed
is
he
role
at
This
:r ama.
is
contributes
balance
African
one general
it
cultural
in
from
women
by
in women
culture
which
played
of
are
in
Most
ignore
theatre
West.
they
stability
recognizing
the
As mothers, of
the
with
important
the
recognize
carriers
the
alienation
cultural
analysis
society.
the
contact
and role
cultural
development.
and hence
youth
of
playwrights
cultural
her
after
representation
theme
Many African women in
destruction
with
of
that
Lung
is one
superior
75
to
the
folk
rural
this
from
the
following
indignation
her
But
Petronella: But
Petronella:
It's
Petronella
regard
roots
the
the
any
West
specific
South
somewhere.
culturally
from
African
as good and everything
the
aspects
practical
is
servant
the
not
you would
of
from
she rejects
why she inferior-
the
people
European
'somebody
but
She suffers unstable
and those
house
as to
conviction
African.
consider
ideal
the
the
be?
ways to
not
satisfaction
There
is
a certain
is
There victim is
of
degree husband,
Petronella's
Mercy.
there
in
which African things
the
Africa.
To her, job
one who does his if
employ
she
you were
a white
22
man'.
the
have
everything
from
example,
wife.
African
am not.
not
afflicting
She does
her
her
of
My father a long story. was a diplomat. brought So I can't 'the b? from up abroad. 2ý Tom meant. somewhere', whatever
European
prefer
assimilates
to
does
complex
for
I
from
you were
how can that
I was South
as bad.
reminded
Notice
values.
no village.
Tom said No,
Cousin:
them
African
Can't your man leave you for a bit? ... in your village? are there no such things
I have
Cousin:
makes
being
at
(Laughs) Tell me,
Petronella:
ity
traditional
excerpt:
Cousin:
should
hold
who still
no reason,
satire
no reason
against
of
is
therefore, the
why Petronella
against
prejudice
Tom,
Western
educated
why only
culturally is
taken
in women
is woman
the
alienated. as the
just
cause
Lord
Have
like
his
used
as
In
addition,
of
the
widening
76
gap between
her
Petronella
is In
wives. women
latter
23
a bit?
'
gives
women
to
and
to
held
they
Cousin)
an
independence
prejudice
communicate Notice
fact
so much
relatives
after
this
of
attitude
man leave
your that
African
urban
urban
husbands
'Can't
the
the
which
educated
implication
the
from
educated
their
with
when she asks, arises
that their
monopolise
of
against
believed
still
women.
prejudice
western
education
finds
society
for
you
difficult
accommodate. Petronella
Oyono-Mbia's
Notre
backgrounds,
both
difference While
fille
that in
variation
ne
se mariera
having in
the
part way
as playwrights,
differing
background
his
portrays
of
differences
of
the
be appreciated. indigenous
In
the African
difference
would
be a grave
mistake
of
from
order
to
by the
two
people
heroines,
up the
colonies, was only
take
an Anglophone to
differences
on cultural the
a in
the
cultural
two women overseas
of
the
consideration.
the
education part
to
to
their
experiences the
understand
who brought
British
heroine's
handle
not
of
a perspective his
relates
Banda
into
plays
alienation.
be attributed
could
it
two
a significant
cultural
and
the
cultural
up overseas,
Oyono-Mbia
In
parents
identical
their
of
in
Colette
and
have
brought
degree
this
Mercy
which
suffered
alienation
the
Have
pas24
been
heroine
background.
Lord
in
Oyono-Mbia
while
Francophone
of
backgrounds
cultural
Banda
the
Barlda's
them
of
recognizing
degree
in
can be observed
material
for
these
This
Although
the
that
The portrayal
relatives.
is
can no longer
(Tom's
Cousin
it
of Africa
marriage
from
and his
on a widely
arrogant
the
their
based
most
are
that
husband
general
ma-, matters
77
instruction to
make
In
the
'Englishmen' French
assimilation
Africans
who
could
of
mind,
therefore,
qualify
extreme
cultural
aimed
at
least
can
speak
or
in
her
into
speak
to
marriage French
between
under
the
so-called
the
of
the
have
must
Africans.
educating the
of
the
of
this
require-
for
background
the
few
in
background
evolues,
been
is
This
out
rigours
an attempt
in
French
With
people.
France.
which
a French
of
Atangana culture
her
in
human
them
to
to
Colette's
denial
of
robbed would
living
in
is
have
of
an
language
complete
attained
France.
cannot means
important
as an African.
her
at
As a basic
an African
emptiness
was
who
Colette
language. language
upbringing
Petronella
when necessary,
beings,
cultural
she
Unlike
an African
as having which
lady.
her
that
suggests
language
Colette's
and henceforth
Frenchman
educated
'Frenchwomen'
cultured
a way
a word
foundation. extent
in
an African
understand
the
the
aims
and
parents
live
of
go through
or
was not
alienation.
communication
shows
she
to
behaves
making
cultural
the
evolues Colette's
actually
Colette
'Frenchmen'
successfully
becoming
ments
major
it
skills;
out
contrary,
the
one of
mould
of
'Englishwomen' on the
policy, was to
acquisition
and
colonies,
Africans
of
towards
geared
through
She laments
therefore She
sees
into
assimilation marrying
about
this
her
a
when
says: epouser Tout le pu en France! un Francais et vivre je disait Brigitte Bardot la que serais me premiere monde j'ai ä ä de de renonce mais vedette cause mon avenir noire 2ý lui. J'aurais
In
his
portrayal
of
Colette,
Oyono-Mbia
satirizes
the
dehumanising
7ý
effect
taking
of
important to
it
being.
women
tendency
imaginary satire
for of
in
the
in
way
deified
the
appear
Sekyi's
African
situation.
the
of
the
younger
in
of
that
create
in
which
their
is
apparent
his
brings
up her
children heroine
a
Sekyi, by
values
can
to
nouveaux-riches for
than
lead
Oyono-i, b-ia's
generation.
now
decadent
are
foreign it
and
Blinkards26,
Like
assimilation Africa
The
West
be
contributes
rather
the
future
which
as a robot
from
the
it
culture
Kobina
to
culture
French
borrowing
Africa
way
takes
is
African
the
of
Europes against
to
the
in
indiscriminate
alienation
the
has
Brofusen
Colette
the
dangerous
as
for
makes her
Mrs
irre*eYant sees
cultural of
like
Colette
value. not
Colette
aspects
completely
Oyono-Mbia
but
sake
a way which But
face
at
life.
in
cultural
and
own
beings'
worships
the
its
for
human
human
culture
to
the
criticisi.
little from
his
son:
je
lui fais de apprendre pour mieux mon que pourtant ä 1'ecole le deposer Le chauffeur chaque urbaine va eviter lui les en parlent ne enfants autres que pour matin trois J'ai deja langue ou quatre renvoye vernaculaire. des de lui d'hotel mangues, servaient qu'ils parce maitres donner lui de lieu du fruits d'autres ne pays au et ananas ä fruits des importes la d'Europe des rigueur ou produits que Je Europe, ne reimportes. et en conserve en mis africains ä fa-rille ä la jamais visite 11autorise rendre aller presque boivent brousse de la les que ne de son pere gens que parce de l'eau non filtree ... Dieu sait a vivre!
je fais eduquer
Enfin pour
It her his
is
husband wife
African
tout son
difficult Atangana
embraces traditions
the
moderne
ce qu'uný7Africaine enfant ...
to
ignore
in
their
French
the
sharp
approach culture
indiscriminately,
to
contrast cultural
wholesale, Atangana
devrait
between
faire
Colette
Whereas
matters. and rejects
syncronizes
and
values the
good
of
79
from
either
but
alienation in
his
also
1",ercy28
male
contrasting
sentiments
behind
is
positive,
to
the
the
point
female
characters
cultural
alienation
Perhaps
the
African
is
Although
against
of
is women
facing as women female
as well
danger
as male
their
exposure
are
with
high
not
example,
even
as Sekyi's
satire
the
at
and
Sekyi
as victims
stable.
effort
every
and
the
of
The
Sekyi's
illustrates
this
strong
and as
approach
point.
based
Foriwa30 to
the
discriminate
not views
both
men and
and therefore his
women
on patriarchal
Kobina
alienation of
against
expense
its does
which
against
Sutherland's play,
in
culturally
regard
society
a way which
cultural
characters
of
based
plays
noteworthy. of
way
as artistically Efua
contributing Africa.
the
as
have
alienation
transitional is
plays
held
at
discrimination
apparent
Fante
in
in
aimed
presented
these
is
attempts
Have
plays.
of cultural
as victims
between
nevertheless the
in
male
alienation
cultural
women
image
society
same matrilineal
theme
for
men and
men are
men are
The Blinkards
a Wall)29,
overlooked
these
Lord
is
used
this
in
Banda
(Time
are
be
matrilineal
as,
fairness
Ukuta
direction
of
that
A contrast
pro-women
overtly
fact
a positive
based
Blinkards
these
the
for
on the
cultural
playwright's
Innocent
playwrights'
constantly
where
image.
female
the
the
boost
of
cannot
while
societies
made to
which are
in
images
a sense
explanation
can be found
Wakati
that
of
the
of
example
in
these
recognizing
development
However,
for
Hussein
similar
question
Colette's
women.
playwrights,
and Ebrahim
given
the
of
highlights
contrast
raises
representation
Other
she
This
culture.
satire
uses
against
on
80
thoughtless also
assimilation
Sekyi the
seems to
early
have
made to
years
to
the
she get
his
in
absurd
daughter in
her
is
stability the
appears
into
simplistic the
represent
important
factor
impression
the
in
absurd
struggle Brofusen.
the
playwright
uses
younger
generation
whose
as the
that
his
manner,
underlines
in women
society
the
from
at
role verge
the
of
embodiment
crowd from
of the
married,
is
strong
imitators.
in way
insanity. the
plays of
the
Miss
to
Tsiba
cultural
of
culture
imitation
the
Notice
her
which
the
important
role
Fante
not
afraid
countryside
the
urban
apparently
in
the
English
area
to
style,
of Miss
the She is
culture. of
challenging when she
stand
categorical
to
of
find
her
without
the
playwright
direction
Nana Katawirwa,
traditional
is woman who
from
Blinkards
the
re-establishing
cultural
vitality
as a very
presented
of
grandmother,
maternal
siba's
of
The
distinguishes
the
daughter
is
inapplicable
Mrs
which
patrilineal
arrives
is
which
giving
analysed
that
culture
ridiculous
is
backgrounds
whole
of
the
Mrs Brofusen
behaviour
by
in as
play.
The
plays
women who,
the
by what
threatened
African
Western
of
equally
a lady
direction
of
experience.
hope
playwright
a sense
as well
titbits
the
Mr Tsiba
to
those
represent
limited
with
This
culturally.
when she exhibits
a somewhat
fiance
apart
little
their
moulded
life.
westernization
the
situation
a lady.
now
Though
in
come across
African
is
and
ape
of
re-establishing
to
Africa's
of
ways
be falling
period,
appear
in
Mrs Brofusen
uses
contemporary
they
western
women as important
sees
when a society
in
of
grandthe
the
81
traditional
necessary
Fante
engagement
(To
Nana
Kat:
Mr Tsiba, As soon as I received calmly) letter, I set out, your I was when I arrived, told you and Araba What are you were here. (To Miss Tsiba) doing here? What does this dress white What are you are wearing mean? these here for? all people
Miss
Tsi:
(sobbing)
I
Nana Kat :
Say that
again.
Mr
(Placing
Ok:
Nana
(Angrily
Kat:
Tsi:
Nana
Mr
Kat:
is
out did
of it
say
we did
is
Nana Katavrwa's
culture woman's
Take is
child
care nothing
it
in
come We
have wines on the table I know that has nobody in marriage. Don't tales ... the
English
manner.
English, then the English are (To Miss Tsiba) I an your to my family. you belong mother: mother's (Takes Miss Tsiba's hand Come away kith me. the hall. MLr Okadu attempts to leave and turns Nana Katawirwa's Nana hand away. to force ) Katawirwa him face. the slaps on
Learn
question
hand)
says
is If this barbarians.
Kat:
from
Okadu's this
She
Okadu's just bride. We have only is the reception. the church. This in the English manner.
Nana Kat: It
Miss Tsiba) round She is my wife.
seems to me these drunk. made you all asked my grand-daughter tell me any barbarous I
bride.
a --
It
Tsi:
Nana
She
air. --
Mr removing trouble; court
how you to you. Mr
--
an arm a bride.
is
she
to
arrangements:
themselves
to
about
and their
indiscriminate
readiness
to
utilise
respect
the
mother
intervention their
blind rejection
the
services
who bore that
the
of
their
own.
of
you.
imitators
assimilation of
31
the
begin
English
The old
a Western-educated
lawyer
82
indicates
her
recognition
cannot
afford
to
remain
to
assimilation
of
the
imitators
in
English
culture
intact
in
that
which
which
her
traditional
differs
from
she accepts
add some vitality
culture
However,
a new world.
new practices
in way
the
fact
the
of
that
those
only and are
her
approach
the
of
aspects
of
to
her
relevant
the own
culture.
The Professional
Kamau (M) Kenya:
Francis
Jean
the
to
Owing and her
has
her
popular
opinion
than
has
for
domain.
Her
valued.
The professional
harassment unwilling
into
the
come to
terms
Tragedy
1977
Volunteers
1976
Mr No-Balance
of
1973
particuliere is woman
a professional is
which
Western African
from
categorized
dependent
on skills
prove
time
with
work the
jobs
a victim
because
male
that
She
jobs
in
competence
herself
fact
roles,
prejudice.
social
these
school
female
is of
under-
greatly sexual
colleagues
at work
which
male
as exclusively
regarded
woman finds at
her
in
through
culture stereotyped
of
a victim
and competence
discrimination and to
The
the
man to
a long
seriousness
Positive
education.
become has woman
harder
work
(Western)
initiation
subsequent
The
a vocation
independence
professional to
in
engaged
formal
and
study,
1964
Daughters
Sons
La secretaire
this
of
purposes
from
Cameroon:
(M) Dahomey:
Pliya
is woman who
acquired
the
(M)
Musinga
Victor
as any
(M) Ghana:
de Graft
Joe
For
Woman
are
is a woman
a
ýý
colleague This
and not
simply
section
examines
African
professional of
and
the
characters
illustrate who
prejudices
against is
Playwrights
who are
them
regard
between are
sensitive
In who
the
are
who
to
the
plight
to In
heroines
Pli;, yya's La secretaire
are
explicitly
respect
An example
of
these
both
morally
and of
male but
colleagues contrasts
drawn
are
These
antagonists.
Volunteers33,
Joe de Graft's and ,
particuliere3
women
critical
The Positive
Kamau's
social
Mr No-Balance32.
sharp
male
aware
the
women as
plays
plays Jean
Sons and
Daughters35. Victor exai
ned
and
interaction
with
investigating
presented
as an evil
His
the
presentation
Musinga's
portrayal his
shows
the
attain
investigation
Mr No-Balance
of
temptress
of
of
women
as
their
evil
of
representation
general
Maggie,
an
attitude
towards
women as
Mr No-Balance's
as
respectability
same professional
than
been
already
Inspector
negative
rather
has
in of women
as that
as biased
men.
who can never In
with
of
agents.
corrupting
officer,
her
Tragedy
connection
is women
professional
men.
in
above
temptresses
people
The
Musinga's
the
female
of professional
strong
these
politically
to
of
very
and their
by Francis
represented
Tragedy
prepared
objects.
strong
The
of
subscribe
writers
in
are
not
women portray
women.
they
addition
not
sex
as
these
representation
who are
African
of
Musinga
characters
professionally. officials
position
professional
Victor
female
present
playwrights'
Playwrights
that
the
playwrights
object.
selected
woman.
to
sensitive
a sex
corruption, a person
is
Maggie
engaged
in
a
8L
professional it
to
tone
very
immediately and
involved woman of
Her
mission.
herself
in
blends
of
as a
description
that
with
a cheap
her
how her
temptress
an evil
has
due to
Notice
profession.
image
the
Maggie,
down any respect
waters
a difficult
Inspector
name,
of
a
prostitute: Three faces wears Officer Maggie when first Confidence, investigation submissiveness and The investigation she seeks her fee, over, The devil looks less fearful than she. Maggie's into
No-Balance her;
she
female
in
prevalent female
sympathies
playwrights'
by the
contrasting
not
succumb
to
sexual
of
irresponsible an
a personnel
as a person
is who
great
respect
for
her
Mr Kolobo
of
drunkard His
very
of
is
the
situation directly
shown
are
and
officials
male
corrupt
under
latter.
by the
such positions
female
Kaurau
who do
professionals
exploitation.
we get
manager.
of the those
a cruel
women which
professional
and exploited
in women
project
image
positive
The picture that
they
picture
negative
the
for
of
who are
as secretaries,
harrassed
against
audience
particuliere
This
Africa.
such
sexually
of
a problem
contemporary
employees, are
officials
These
discuss
Mr
on duty.
and La secretaire
Volunteers
lure
to
a representative
an officer
of
the
prejudices
being
of
that
than
rather
and deception
cunning himself
respectively,
whereby male
flirtation,
impression
the
The Positive
and Pliya, very
of
incriminating
gives
race
In
is
use
sought, half-wrought;
who does not on the
secretary,
conscious official
of
of position
her
Volunteers
The Positive
up to
live
other
hand,
is
as well
name as
presented
and who has
responsibilities as that
his
is
of
her
boss.
85
This
can be noticed
contrast to
advances the
where
Rosemary;
and respectable:
Good morning
Mr Kolobo:
(cross
the now dwindling (imitating What do you mean? cigarette away) "Good morning her) Mr Kolobo? " Why the deuce do you have to keep Koloboing Can't me? you for once drop that stupid elevated air of (hiccup) (Belching Richard yours? and call me ) loudly. ...
Rosemary:
(Taking
her
between and
exploitation, respectability
from
of
self-respect
that
What
Rosemary
Monsieur
sexual
Unlike
this
to
her
future
not
only
object
for
from
which
she
the
is
boss,
to
the
the have
Virginie courage that
but
to
of
has
into
the
a sex
same play,
also
because
Where Nathalie
derives
She refuses
promotion
secretaire
be turned in
that
demonstrate
to
by succumbing
This
harassment.
La
is
play
to
parallel
Pliya's
Nathalie
colleagues.
a sex
approaches.
in
Jean
woman who refuses
gains her
in
Virginie
of
is
and Mr Kolobo
Chadas
and spoils
Virginie
position
throwing
superiors.
male
respect
against
Mr Kolobo.
and
a professional
by her
love.
do you think I am, eh? A You hardly porcupine or something? step 37ver near me or even give me a smile ...
The role of
Hello,
voice)
(Menacingly)
Virginie
rewards
a husky
to Mr Kolobo's some papers office) Please Mr Kolobo, don't let us begin all I implore once again, you.
particuliere.
sexual
and detestable
Rosemary:
between
stand
refined
be crude
makes
(With
The contrast
loses
shown to
Mr Kolobo
where
Mr Kolobo:
I,Tr Kolobo:
object
dialogues
is man
the
woman is
young
from
who
sexual professional her
accepted
courage the
maintains
remarkable
to
L
oppose
inferiority
Chadas'
complex
of
to
86
junior
female
Notice
her
professionals
of and her
self-respect
men like
which
M. Chadas take from
self-confidence
her
advantage.
oplc. sition
of
M. Chadas: J'accepte mais je
de faire
tout le travail que vous voudrez me confier, jamais Si ne m'abaisserais au rang dune gourgandi e. j'en vous osez me toucher comme vous venez de le faire conclus je de respect que vous n'avez point pour vous-meme et vous 38 insulterais ä Je tiens ou vous giflerais. mon honneur.
M. Chadas,
on the
lecher
who does
He has
three
initiate
wives
sexual
lifestyle
or this
pregnant
from
with
Chadas:
the
for
his
his
high it
yet
relationships
in
his
of
it
a habit
for
when Nathalie
hilL
juniors.
female
since
ad
to
informs
corrupt
he occupies. to is
This
him women are
same way as men, but
the
attitude
as a cruel position
become
all
fun
sheer
portrayed official
has
with
the
human beings
Nathalie:
M.
deserve already
he leads
officials Notice
not
is
hand,
other
sex of jects
him that
not .
is she
baby :
/Je/
... j' attends Quoi?
suis heureuse un enfant.
Quoi? Mais
enfant? tu au moins
de t'annoncer
Tu attends un enfant! je ne to savais pas un fiance?
le
que
Quel
Nathalie:
Tu devrais
M. Chadas:
des confidences Me fais-tu Qui est de plaisanterie! enfant?
Nathalie:
Tu ne devrais questicr: pas me poser cette de plus. d'avoir rejouis-toi un enfant
M. Chadas:
(rit J'ai fees cela
As-
mariee.
savoir. ä ce propos? le pere de cet
Assez
jaune) Tu veux plaisanter ma chere. Avec 3 d'enfants. deja une quinzaine ä la fois Mais arrive. vite c'est 39 suffit comme ca.
a
87
The portrayal
M. Chadas
of
Lawyer
Bonu in
lawyer
who owns a well-established
irony
behind
through In
the
Joe
the
respect
when one office,
capacity
he is
since
and he will
use
intrigue
to
sleep
employed
her
her
father
role
as
father)
Manaan's blackmail
is
reflected
characters. presented Like
Kolobo
to
his
as crude in
of
sleep
in
that
to
the
contrasting Manaan
is
plight
of
in women
images
he projects
strong
and detestable
The Positive
attitude
towards
Volunteers
the
that
he has
like
to
Bonu,
Jw es (Manaan's desire
stror
to
lady. Bonu's
Lawyer
La secretaire men like
the
of
two
Lawyer
as a man with Lawyer
Lawyer
Manaar: 's position
and respectable, as well
an
a do-ü1-le-faced
resisting in
critical to
young
in
Lawyer
of
with
Virginie
of
would,
plays
Manaan's the
with
is
It
daughter,
friendship
be
to
sex objects
influence
the
other,
official
mere
Manaan
The lawyer
and stubbornness
sensitivity
Where
to
friend's
treat
supposed
them.
with
under
his
is
are
office.
and on the
attempt
comparable
by the
his
law.
advantage
sleep
best
but,
study
De Graft's
his and
in
on dance-drama
courage
particuliere.
his
apprentice
her
employees
employees.
tc
their
justice
law where
female
Manaan,
one hand,
in
the
means to
crooked
he takes
on the
dance-drama
is
an
respect
female
in
them
The
him comes
regard his
of
a respected
firn.
be expected
due to
that
Bonu is
legal
towards
Bonu would
him,
to
with
wants
whereby
Bonu
any
a course
pursue
the
a man of
Yet,
pillar.
40
community
attitude
Lawyer
women with
his
which
to
similar
and prosperous
his
least,
is
Sons and Daughters.
with
considers
at
professional
a major
de Graft's
and Mr Kolobo
is
Bonu is
no morals.
presented
as
do
88
exhibiting this
literary
device in
positions
jobs
Lawyer
in
behaviour
animal
helps
headed
B:
his
highlight
professional
by corrupt
officials;
women's
vulnerable
men.
Don't you, you want to go on stage? want to study dancing and be able to create Don't You do, Manaan; your own ballet? you? I know you do, and I can help you to achieve I can make your father your ambition. grant your wish ... I
don't
Lawyer Bonu. I don't want your help, from you. Aren't want anything you ashamed to stand there and tell under me that, right my father's like this?
Lawyer
B:
Because
Manaan :
I
to
walk ) wad ...
gives away
him ...
Why do you
roof?
love
You who are
(Manaan
old
a long stare With a swift
full
of movement
have
you to pass unless allow Come don't you see ... heart
the
has nothing need know about
to
This
it
...
then turns contempt, Lawyer Bonu bars her
to
wonder you you a married man and a respected Mrs Bonu What would this town. words? your you now and heard
B:
my life
be my father?
to
enough
Manaan, I'll not you. you let me kiss I love you? that ... I
pester
Manaan.
you,
No,
B:
Manaan:
Lawyer
female
Don't
Manaan:
Lawyer
to
approaches
do with
such things , of gentleman if she saw say
say
my wife
...
Nobody
...
the (Manaan in a sudden fit knocks away of anger and scorn, him Bonu's hand, Lawyer from past push a and makes glass . Manaan, his throws Lawyer Bonu recovers round, armE quickly and ', P,, Lawyer kiss her her teeth to she trying cnuls on gets ... )41 him bites hard hand and ... De Graft's discuss
the
major
question
intentions of
in
a daughter's
his
portrayal
freedom
in
of ."".anaan are choosing
her
to
own career
89
and to
demonstrate
Manaan
is
prejudice boss's the
the
between
against
female
The
risk
by African
professional
dominated
world,
prevalent
in
on the
unfortunate
plight
of
have
problems
it
Indeed,
they
to
want to
an attempt that
in
strength in
survive
demolish
actresses
even
the
are
is,
dance-drama
the
about
as sex objects
victimization
a course
only
and
one hand and her
employees
sexual
pursue not
Africa
that
required
a male-
prejudice loose
women of
not This
automatically chapter
urban
chauvinism
come to
African
has
discussed woman.
and prejudice
have
to
being
male hold
official
have
in and
the
are
situation
a reversal of
the
ignored spite
man.
the of
a traditional who is
works
Such women
helper
here
their
as managerial
men.
jobs
their
a subordinate
female their
such
superior
that
subconsciously the
examined
examined
because,
they
women,
women have
are
as
playwrights
professional
basing
authority
fact
position
women and therefore
towards
the
playwrights
of
they
where
traditional
for
the
of
African
from
may be that
sympathies
none
positions
posts emanating
female
senior
of
also
women who occupy
a woman's
the
to
professional
administrative
does
is
female
against
if women
contemporary
is
those
of
his
artists.
attitude
on the
artists
statement,
it
authoritarian
towards
a chance
performing
morals. It
and
father's
resistance
losing
of
female
of
performing
heroine's
de Graft's
of
her
attitude
therefore,
sexual
respectability
caught
chauvinistic
other.
at
the
their
attitude
superior
to
minds.
selected
playwrights'
The chapter
has
attempted
contributed
to
situations
representation to
show how
whereby
men
on
90
playwrights prejudices
against though
wrights,
of
the
urban
relies
male,
to
women by male
5 where
playwrights
has been
observed
tremendous
of
on male incorporating
existing
how some play-
also
to
sensitivity
we draw
and their
playwrights.
This
the
plight
of
is
hinders
on the
portrayal
reflected
between
respectively.
the of
Our
writers. in
is it
materials,
limitation
female
as possible
counterparts,
go unmentioned
remarks
by the
omission
comparisons
female
cannot
availability
comparative
regrettable as many
which
on the
and that
playwrights this
chapter
dependence
our
from
this
of
exclusively
awareness
manifest
of women and highlight
woman.
owing
discussion
It
women.
One limitation that,
images
distorted
project
Chapters the
major
4 and male
91
NOTES TO CHAPTER 2
1
in African Jacob Hevi, Amavi, Plays Playing for 1 (ed. ) by Etherton, London: Heinemann, 1975, pp 2+3-92 All references . . quotations are from this edition.
Michael and
2
in Victor Musinga, The Tragedy Mr No-Balance, African Plays of for Playing 2 (ed. ) by Michael Etherton, 1976, London: Heinemann, 67-101. All pp. edition. references and quotations are from this
3
'Segun Ajibade, All references
Op. cit.
6
Note
the
abandoned
7 8
9
and
in
African
quotations
are
dictionary woman.
definition of Jezebel: Dictionary, English Oxford
Cyclos, Blind Ime Ikiddeh, Heinemann, London: Pieterse, from this are and quotations
in
11
Op.
cit
12
Op'
cit
a wicked, Vol. V.
Ten One-Act Plays 1968, pp. 109-133.
impudent
(ed. ) by Cosmo All references
op. cit. edition.
83-107 pp. ,
p. 12L+. -
Mulwa,
Eyes
Judgement,
14
16
Ibid.,
p. 28. p. 36,
italics
mine.
unpublished
play,
in Theatre African Freedom, Sweet Scum Singh, Jagjit of 1973, Heinemann, London: Henderson, pp"35-51. Gwyneth from this edition. are quotations and references
of
1985.
Nairobi,
David
pp. cit.,
p. 579.
H-r:,
13
15
or
edition.
Ferri Euba, The Game, in Ten One-Act Plays, this from All are and quotations references Op. cit.,
op. cit.
p. 113.
Op. cit.,
10
1,
Plays Playing for from this edition.
81-82. pp.
Op. cit., 5
Rakinyo,
(ed. All
) by
92
17
Qp. cit.
18
Ibid.,
19
Innocent Banda, Lord Have Mercy in Nine Malawian (ed. ) by Plays James Gibbs. Limbe and Lilongwe, Popular Publications and Likuni Press & Publishing House, 1976, pp. 101-117. All references and quotations are from this edition.
20
Guillaume will from
P. 37.
not this
Oyono-Mbia, (Our Notre fille daughter ne se mariera as DAEC, 1969. All references marry). and quotations are edition.
21
Pp-cit.,
22
Ibid.,
p. 122.
23
Ibid.,
p. 121.
24
op. cit.
25
Ibid.,
26
Kobina
pp. 12l+-125.
p. 123.
Sekyi, The Blinkards, in Accra, 1915. All printed the Heinemann edition.
London:
Heinemann,
references
1974.
and quotations
Originally are from
27
cit., .
28
Op. cit.
29
Ebrahim Hussein, Wakati Ukuta (Time Kuigiza, by Ebrahim Hussein, Nairobi, House, 1970.
30
Efua Sutherland, Foriwa, State Publishing Corporation, Accra, 1967. 5. For detailed see Chapter of this play, analysis
31
op. cit.,
32
Op. cit.
33
(ed. ) by in The Debtors Kaurau, The Positive Volunteers, Francis Nairobi, Literature Bureau, East African 1977, Chris Wanj ala, All 121-11+5. references are from this and quotations edition. pp.
3)4
Jean Pliya, All 1973.
p. 102.
is
in Wall), a East African
Michezo ya Publishing
pp. 1014-107.
Lasecretaire references
articuliere, and quotations
Yaounde: Editions edition. are from this
Cle,
93
35
Joe All
de Graft,
and Daughters, are and quotations
Sons
references
(italics
36
Op. cit.,
p. 92
37
Op. cit.,
p. 128.
38
Op. cit.,
p. 54.
39
Ibid.,
140
Op. cit.
41
Ibid.,
pp. 76-77.
pp. 37-38.
in
the
London: OUP, 1964; from this edition.
script).
1979 reprint.
n .a ,i
CHAPTER 3
WOMEN IN
intention
The
African
selected
relevance
of
African
discussion
been
her
contact
the
relationship following
of
arena
of
West.
between
in
role
the
this
is
drama
for
Louis
James
re
genres
in
found many
The
of
fact
the
years,
African Africa
that
especially the
emphasizes
in
in
of politics
all
by
resentation
politics.
centrality
and literature
politics
the
examine
permeates
for
political
the
with
in
lies
explanation
to
women's
Politics
writing.
The
has
the
this
is
chapter
playwrights
creative
literature.
this
of
POLITICS
Africa
after
crucial
when he makes
observation:
In be in
today there situations as explosive as that of Africa can in is literature that no creative some way protest, not Even the writer some way political. who opts out of the to create a social struggles of his country and tries is controversial private world of art, saying something If he to the responsibility the society. about of artist by drawing tries his to create on, say, the world private is Europe, he something very saying of artistic achievement indeed. controversial
Contrary in
the
affairs
the
to
their
of
stereotyped
feminine
significantly
to
the
traditional
popular
the
myth
is
societies
roles,
African
political
and contemporary
in
Africa
that to
confined women have
advancement periods.
women's
of
the
participation
kitchen
very
contributed their
However,
societies in
and other
their
in
both
95
in
participation problems
women
both
is
regarded
the
and the
as a sphere
exclusively
this
Scene
position
of
the
religion political and the situation
This Sacrificial
a tendency
political
era,
gain
to
use
catastrophes.
leadership
political
to
access
many As will
sex.
men and therefore
three
at
black
the the
with
colonial
looks
The Traditional
In
includes
contact
the
to
into
divided
Scene
incorporates
or
for
The Contemporary
before
societies
African
is
Scene,
Traditional
natural
contemporary
order
is
with
women have their
or prove
field.
chapter
Traditional
in
hard
extra in
This
are
contend their
of
there
setting,
there
when
had to
by virtue
traditional
traditional
work
capability
women have
discrimination
the
scapegoats
In
The
in
below,
as
had to
from
arising
be seen
these
politics,
Scene
West
how the
while
apartheid
African
affairs the
The
viz.,
parts,
and The South
political
and the
phase
South
main
of
African
Scene.
African Scene
Contemporary
independence
The South
period. system
political
the
affects
woman.
Scene
looking
at
the
be divorced
cannot
institutions
were
used
section Victims'
religion
is
divided examines
scene,
it
This
politics.
seen
intermediaries as
Traditional as
an arm
into the
three plight
rulers of
their
parts. of
be noted
should
from
worlds.
supernatural and
traditional
is
because between
traditional the
took
advantage
political
power.
'The in women
Role
here,
that
of
situations
human of
this
Women as where
96
a community time
of
catastrophe
includes
the
second
part the
while
a human sacrificial
needs
during
or
role
of
women
looks
at
the
third
a particular
as
the
examines
in
of
political
in
gods
The part
also The
conflicts.
women as wives
representation
the
placate
ritual.
scapegoats
plight
to
victim
leaders
of political
of women as political
leaders.
The Role
of
(F)
Grace Ogot E. Mphahlele J. E.
Women as Sacrificial
(M)
need
is :
need
As it
arose
who
by those example, In in
close
be
the
the
find
in
of time
the
cases
most
with
proximity it of
gods
and the
(and
seems contradictory sacrificial
tragic
this
in
victim,
such
role
as wars.
African choosing
of
own system
position
idiots
such as
victim,
sacrificial
avert
politics.
disasters
social
where women were considered the
African
had their
a weak social
foreigners,
of
to
order
catastrophes
natural
a voluntary
In
sacrificed.
societies
role
time
--, ere' s on ',`.
in
sacrificed
traditional
of
institutions
who occupied
women as such) play
to
political
should
in
be
to
196)4
a Chief
for
Were Strings 1977 Shield
There
part
and also
was difficult
traditional
Kenya:
? 1968
Journey
Companion
scapegoats
normally
and famines
droughts
Africa)
important an
is
catastrophes
human
for
Oganda's
Nigeria:
Ochieng'-Konyango
The
)
Kenya (M) South (M)
Henshaw
Victims
was played
for
a community,
women. and unfit
as unclean
many African
communities
ironical and
that
particularly
in
to come regarded
a woman should
sacred
rituals.
97
However, fact
to
that
women were there
pDsitions, to
appease
it
was explained
the
that
is
based
on this
of
innocent an
of
an,
own view
of to
objects latter
the
interprets
the
imagines
beautiful hearing
chief
in
virgin from
the
his
the
land.
truth has Your dream last night Chief Labong'o and master, your to the so ancestors you can give has gone The drought have rain. if the befall disasters you will is appeased not ancestors other live. lake your ancestors where into her the will carry currents
The idea Podho his
sleep
of
with
own perception
appeasing Oganda of
is
the
gods
all
in
women to
in is
interpret
Mphahlele the
choice drought. and
Nditi,
objects.
the
from
ancestors
of
to
gods
ambitions
his
women as sex way to
fore-fathers
to
the
placate with
sleep
voice
the
Tvditi
ancestors: it.
Oganda, daughter of the most beautiful prize thirsty land that this may and greater on too long, of Podho and your anger Oganda must go to the ... in and the She must walk in Podho deeps. the of arms
and the
the
E'ski
a serious
and the
Listen the
of
spirits
avert
best
a case
the
question
sex
the
these
to
political
gods
that
among
the
to
such
order
was suffering
and
own attitude
imagines and
the
Ogot
men's
In
be given which
women as
of
He transfers
for
of
2
writers
victim
towards
will
the
a woman in
of
rains.
could
Grace
play,
a victim
the
ancestors
be
would
most
as
choice
the
the
camouflage
weak socio-political
community by
this
attitude
women.
the
a sacrificial
presented
chauvinistic
medicirer
In
the
which
Jo
custom.
in
release
gift
from
Oganda's
as
them
their
of
used
best
girl
girl
da is
the
the
virgin
drought.
ga
mechanisms
to
and also
because
and have
gods
the
contradiction
victimized
were
was a beautiful from
up this
cover
mind
ancestors o° Nditi
the
will
through
having
as a man who uses of
the
divine
powers.
Oý ýý
is
It
choice
have
will is
concern political that
with
the
Nditi's chief
has been
It
is
in
Henshaw's
the
of
chorus
women
intrigues.
off
is
it
political
women
in
kind
the his
that
daughter
interpretation
of
is
This in
pawns
the
he has had
relations.
as political
in
that
as an honour this
future
implication an
by a quarrel
and therefore
used
Nditi's
on his
implication an
also
take
will
are
Children
of
life
identify What that skin Nditi
of
is
not but
in
Goddess5,
a clear
men's
this
reason
very
the
chorus
experience
an unusual is
one of where
tragedy
those
can
the
own:
have we done the gods should like this? us alive tell us that! should
You are wise, or so they say, Nditi ... bear children, We the women of the earth backs bend break our under the load, and dawn the new comes, and when
hates see
chief
no political
the
through
that
history
common events
women have
as their
they
indication an in
the
unfortunate
And Nditi
that
is
like
who,
know this
ambitions.
of
it
Journey
political
societies
Oganda's
Oganda's
the
of
men's
because
community,
typical
of
The lament
tragedy
this
chorus
triggered
future
women
women in
of
Oganda's in
is
is
his
effect
mother.
have
will There
the
ambitions.
position
his
how
choice
to
girl's
chief.
gods,
their
young
the
chief
by the
of
political
the
cement
illustration
his
There
recently.
hopes
to
may serve
with
a thought
give
on the
effect
decision
chosen
not
on Oganda or on the
only
medicineman
chorus
he does
connections
play
wife
then
no wonder
of women
which
are
voice.
The
99
we take our place again in the ancient pattern of things. ispain, Life is fate, life /Nditi/ is only that yours which in in your belly. and sits safety The decision consulting
to
been
c
someone
will
die
individual
it
is
significant
Oganda's
with
they
is
that
can easily
and that
an agonizing that
which
empathize
Who will
the
cry
only the
has
fallen
with
her:
is
level,
they
In a result for
this of
a Chief8 sacrifice
victimize
give
of
chorus
on Oganda's
this
tradition his
subjects
naming
whereby to
on which the
women
sympathize
had
similar
and therefore
mother
time
our
-
bowels
...
to
get
as a wife
him
a chief
on his
how the his
but
his
journey
to
gods
demand to
power
failed. a
practises
play
requires
is
Companion
Henshaw's
a man uses
Henshaw bases of
In
showing
but
suffering
women's
gods.
dramatized
anyone;
burial
accompany
that
men and the is
he wanted woman a
The community
implication an
is
collusion
without
on the
Oganda and her
have
must
but
rain;
the
that
it.!
between
collusion
rejoice
114 dec l1k. 1,OK whevL e.
loudest?
there
chant,
people
for
is the woman who must wail long and lonely of wilderness if it be you, shall mother: you need a stone to swallow ... Mother: too, our we are mothers from have fed the with corpses soil we The gods shall ask fyr blood we must
only
experience
chorus
men without informed
have
will
Again it into the Oganda's
and
eaten,
made by the
latter
communal
As women,
mother. to
experiences
them
level, It
mother.
On the
for
the
mother;
ký
already
Oganda is
sacrifice
Oganda's
even
you have °
the the
death world
of of
one of the
100
The victim
ancestors. them
and hence
has
victim
to
political he chooses
is
Adeigra
rooted
past
Tubaru,
the
refused
to
reason
the
High
whose of
was
to
to
buy
play
in
to
be
to
consent
or
an arranged was
participate
grandfather
powerf
a place
refusal
woman
the
of
)
to
play.
was
r. --
The
second involving
grudge
the
grandfather; '--abaru's
enable
Adeigra
society.
secret
is
to
parents
husband's
This
here.
quarrels
her
marriage.
she was not
politics;
but
politics
corrupt in
to
a political
in
involved
sacrificial
innocent an
owing
Adeigra
marry
and Adeigra's
is
his
rightful
the
she had no part
which
grandfather
these
that
is
victim
Adeigra
himself
his
placate
revenge.
(Her
him.
victimizes
Priest's
to
no part
this
Tubaru
grandfather
to
gods to
chief
uses
it and
revenge
in and wanted
the
no rule
Priest
a sacrificial
Priest, her
give
refused
as
for
deceased
is
High
his
relationships
since
why
latter
chosen
High
consequence
the
for
the
there
as a means of target
be food
offer
Here,
be a woman but
as the
in
they
ancestors.
position
to
expected
that
ensure
among the
place
is
the
to
even married
ious ot-, an
therefore
had man case
victimization. As
towards Apart
from
not
traditional Priest,
the
of
case
women are
treatment does
in
grudges
Adeigra
carry
herself
Africa. Tubaru
is
is
and dirty
motivated with
Adeigra one of
the
the is
Journey,
Oganda's
factor
a contributory
personal of
in
Oganda
to
Adeigra's
politics,
by his
dignified
guardians
the
resentment expected
subservience
and proud. of
his
attitudes
negative
victimization. High of
Priest's
a woman who from
v
As the
community's
in en 11-igh
culture
and
101
hence
he takes
behave
advantage
Adeigra's
of
to
as outsiders
laying
their
for
to
position
get
circumscribed is
and dignity
pride
a trap
his
of
rid
of people
positions. from
apparent
who
s resentment
his
exclav: ation
after
her:
Now great Chief of Boka, your road is prepared. You hungry that spirits be now calr. ed, for molest us with your anger, in this kingdom there is no head so graceful and proud as that of Adeigra, Tonight t`come the wife of Suoma. she will for our Chief =' the companion food for and our gods. Henshaw's
treatment Adeigra
portrayal
of
contrasts
this
intelligent detestable.
of
farily of
a trick
as the
sacrificial
traditional
their
African
traditional
against
on Magere's
Strings
sense
politico-religious her
plight
towards The
äßv
a political
those as women Chief's
Adeigra
in
not the
scapegoat
daughter
is
to
uses
women's
them
the used
case
of
Oganda
Oganda
as a scapegoat
and
her
in
the
and
land
face
to
rebel
and
an open mind.
with
illustrates fate
the
as weaklings
as a sacrificial of
to
determination
Ochieng'-Konyango's
used
Tubaru
chief
herself
de
coup
with
survival
on their
and
a clever
his
save
as
stupid
roles
accompany
situations
is
in as
weave
his
and
emerge
appears
classify
daughter
her
reverses
depends
difficult
behind
The playwright
women.
to
that
which
Shield10
for
assailant
to
reveals
face
politics
making
she
victim
Chief's
the
her
politics
to
Priest
which
attitudes
willingness Although
in
intrigues
dirty
traditional
intelligence
her
The means
ancestors.
from
High
where
uses
of
sympathies
the
admirable
designing
him
the
and
Adeigra
theatre,
sends
woman
and
his
show
issue
the
of
in
There
Were
victim
in
Oganda's
ilar siL':
attitudes
and Ade; `ra. in
the
political
Journey,
the
102
between
conflict She is
to
'string'
the
Magere,
the
and worst
her
of
is
her
African
used
father,
She is
the
case
She is
tantalize
group. to
tied
play
spy on off
married
has
a man she
As in
position to
the
of
decision.
the
ethnic
community.
enemy.
prestigious
it
reflects
never
met,
her
Oganda,
of
by
chosen
of
virtue
her
daughter;
as the
Chief's
Magere
him reveal make and
both
men as they
the
an
important
in
the
as commodities
The Chief
this
daughter
reveals on this
send
off
this
of
the
position
aspect
traditional
used
often
his
by
taken
politics
ambitions. send
people's
are
rival
be her
to
in
title
the
the
neighbouring
the
strength.
as
Women are
in
of
considered
attitude
important
and a rival
enough
and her
his
of The
to
old
features
physical
in
warrior
all,
not
beauty
root
is
people expressed
great
a man who
safety
her
and
scene
further
to
girl
the
of
political
when he rationalizes
his
his
mission.
women
contemporary.
men's
He tells
is
decision
wife:
our I lose all and her position lose my or partly either the The in of the weight their lose world place people ... To by the is felt elephant. head of an elephant only the we weight carry we must as we are ourselves maintain 1 something. sacrifice must You
Notice
attitude
a similar
he tries Notice
to also
towards
marry the
Medicineman
his
similarity
in women in
off
There
Oganda's
Easmon's
in Daudain daughter between Were Strings Journey.
to
Dear
a possible
the
Wiseman's
Parent
12 and Ogre when ally.
practical chauvinistic
Is Shield Magere on
and that
attitude of
He says:
her What is is beautiful. size What makes women what already That important thing. who the is her arms are not or waist (Grinning) Only one beautiful. them of made women made all
the
103
is
P art
important
As mentioned High
the
their
their
of
chauvinistic
as
sex
to
be
objects
examined
Oganda's
Austin
values.
these
of
human
their
of
(M) Uganda:
Odhiambo
(M) Kenya: (M)
The role
to
of
sections
popular
value as
Medicineman, of
the
respectively, follow
would
in way
the
and makes illustrated
view
it
natural
in
the
are that
then
The traditional
which of
women
for
them
three
plays
in women in
of
of
Odanga's
Flower
favoured
Were Shield Exodus
It
1964
Goddess
the
1982
Strings 1977
on Magere's
1968
was discussed
relationships
marital 1.
1968
Children
The
Chapter
and beliefs
Leaders
There
Kenya:
Tom Omara (M) Uganda:
occupying
Shield,
The Secret
(M) Nigeria:
Ochieng'-Konyango
This
the
Children
women reflect
reasons
Women as Wives
Bukenya
Aloys
position
It
communities.
political
J. E. Henshaw
practices
Journey,
communities'
towards
like
people
above.
The Role
various
study,
on Magere's
in
for
...
Were Strings
reduces
misused
husband
this
in
attitudes
treated
women are
in
and Wiseman
and There
guardians
a young
elsewhere
Priest,
Goddess,
to
13
here
was observed
men and subsequently
that
under
traditional
undermined
the
women.
section
the
plight
leadership
in
discusses
positions expectation,
of
the
position
of women as wives the of
traditional wives
of
of
setting. leaders
is
men Contrary more
1o
difficult There
three
are
dual
role
major
of wife defined.
clearly
to
opportunity
situation
the
to
owing their
land,
too
with
kings'
reason
rulers
himself,
Baganda
of
could
a war
present
or
thing
The king
status,
just
rights. of
wife
Uganda,
besides
numerous
as
from
traditional crowned is
that
had the
were
king
It
does
improved
not
to to
right
as maids
or
on a woman's
king
a Lastly,
any woman
their
husband
treated
are
as
the
effects
of
the
of
polygamy
to
extremes.
a king
that
booty
subjects.
For
all
in
chiefs
after
the
the
or
deny
someone
who did
the as far
not
it
example,
women attained grant
Baganda
for
chose
the
of
concubines
situation
marry
an
their
of
maidens.
acquire
however,
not
they.
give
beautiful
young
prerogative
mean,
for
these
all
to
they
wives
various
with
is
go wrong.
sharing
as part
practice
not
as he had the
regarded
the
others
'presents'
plays
the
degree.
tradition
the
that
facilitates
merely
situation
exanines
The women owned by the
concubine. wife
Secret14
is
affairs
prerogative
an unbearable
exploit
get
a newly
unfortunate
of
The
to
was an established
wife.
to
power
men.
than
rather
themselves
this
a ruler
when things
the
find
rulers
women and in
Bukenya's
he
winning
to
of
have
ordinary reason
political
to
proximity
of
that,
the
that
wives
wife
is
to
of
The first
the
can be victimized
prerogative
Among the
freely
of wives
they
sometimes
Austin
this.
The second
many other
commodities,
for which
women's
fact
that
reasons
contribute
whereby
than
and subject
these
communities,
in
demanding
and more
kingdc-The
status
of
a woman this else's
wife
attain
the
and had very attainment as conjugal
as a status
limited of
the
status
relations
Y
15
the
with
king
were be used
woman could
to
a chiefdom Like tradition;
Secret,
traditional
the
for
favourite
in
This
Nannono
Bukenya's
this
he sees
the
is
It Nakibinge being
extent
He confides
to
maid
in
his
sister:
which
for
found his
true
the
in
king
historical
as the
women as he extends
latter
as
fame. King
between As a result
used.
now sees
companionship
and this
to
whereby
and the
wars
relationship
the
of
communities
his
is
and the
these
regard
a king's
which
king
reluctance
dies
acquisition
Subsequently
Nannono
King
privileges
political
the
she is
the
of
The easy
in
The
the
way
neighbouring
fight
if
subjects
these
to
on one woman,
He has
responsible
to
Yet
case
his
war.
Nakibinge
concubine
concentrate
light.
in
for
or
is
he can gain
deaths
proposition
and his
forced
+ools
as mere
Secret
and the
subjects
whose
this
a different great
former
through
fodder
his
to
his
views
in
heroine.
bases
with
or give
Nannono
rule
the
human beings.
than
rather
commodities
King
leads
in
manipulate
as a concubine
to
power
relations
involvement so much
of
attitude
The
The playwright
and concubines
cheap
his
could
a wife.
and not
happened
in
a
be given
she could
The character
Bukenya
interest
affect
a wife
the
given
experiences
people.
cause
treat
a wife.
what
exactly
major
neighbouring
is
as a wife
king.
a concubine
and
privileges
direct
is
is
on whose
marital
due to
whereby
a Muganda king
he wished,
rights
Nakibinge's
the
of
was that
entailed
purposes
rulers, if
example,
battle.
political
on behalf
he could,
a concubine
wives
for
guard
all
What it
concerned.
continue
with
of in
marriage is the
to
a
war.
106
With twenty I thought I had too few. Then I got wives, disillusioned: I've found much more joy with only one, Nannono, The months I have spent her my little maid. with in this have been the happiest wilderness of all my life. But now bitterness I have to fight comes again: - and plunge into herd joy, that fýýget again of my wives, and my it to petty bodily sacrifice pleasures.
implicitly
Although traditional are
rulers
regarded
a pure king
the
with
these In
1 it
unfortunate
it
dual
of
role
for
and not
children
(particularly communal
satisfy it
is
In
E. J. and childless In
as
of
be
he
is
of
households
operating
from
more with
the
in way
the
which
than
on the
effect
in
is
Selected This
leaders.
a wife not
considered, of
role of
and Children examine
of
duty
her
of the
the
is
is to
to
produce
as failure
to
married
adult
power
modern
a leader
only
the
where
settings
every
how
playwrights
Unlike
African
traditional
the
women and hence
for
problematic.
of
African
traditional
seriously
of
becomes
betrayal a
Flower16
royal
rather
childless.
wives
of
respectively, of
how
Failure
expectations
Henshaw,
spite
power
sons)
Odanga's
wives
for
acquired.
interpreted
also
heirs.
of
leaders
of
are
on the him
privileges
so acquired.
to
a woman
wives
sympathies
procreation
of
worse
political
inherited
role
marital
commodities,
dehumanize
wives
is
it
wives
institutions,
king
discussed
was
the
is
that
shown
the
on the
regard
as
He concentrates
wives.
privileges Chapter
where
The playwright's
of
communities
have
treated
and
that
recognizes
a situation
viewpoint.
privileges
marital
of
create
en masse
male than
Bukenya
provide
Goddess17
woman;
political
Aloys
precarious
situation
she occupies
as the
Odhiambo of
leaders.
the
prestigious
position
king's
107
life
due to
community
scorn is
Anyango is
is
them
of
than
the king
important discard
tool a as
human being.
duty his
of
which
to
be
Instead
of
empathizing
of
destructive
traditions
those
neighbours
join
saying,
failed
who has
The elders
a successor. 'Without
Anyango
community,
as a subject
advisers
wife
in way
the
female
by the
generally
producing
the
that
beliefs
a victim her
those
the
own kind.
their
scorned king's
another.
women,
of
for
passing
illustrates
traditional
arg equally
a child
to
to
is perform
pressurize
be kir`
the
is
18
As they her
being
observed
one
in
children.
and contact
witches
here
childless,
from
also
her
women harbour
consequences
community
position
victimizing
but
in
w-,-, -n
harm their
barren
women are
is woman who
as a fellow
by the
baseless'.
Anyango's
supportive
society
to
in
the being
she might that
the
Anya.: o loves
that,
assume
destructive
may be
It
towards
in
They
from
contempt
but
company,
productive,
to
conservative
undermine
condemned
lead
them.
the
her
childless
by
Anyango
Besides
these to
women
forced
are
rather
that
the
of
advisers.
a common assumption
towards
likely
in
ar. - lonely
miserable
a victim
and therefore
from
with
attitude
male
her.
belief
associating
which
and mistrust
jealousy
prevalent
women
enjoy
a very
kings'
the
being
only
not
malevolent
with
from
ill-intentioned
leads
She is
childlessness.
and children
community
This
her
Flower,
Odanga's
and condemnation
children
with
in
Anyango,
wife,
drive which This
Anyango has is
to
failed
the
suicide, to
play
same attitude
the
king's
its
role
assumed
advisers and not by the
consider so much as a
E=ýefom,
priest
108
and king's Unlike of
the
here
that
of
childless
Anyango
in
other the the
is
in
As Asari
send
the
Amansa
household. to
guardian
the the
away
but
as he determines
his
this
the
question
Goddess,
similar
yet to
suffering
king
himself
puts
heirs
other
is
reluctant Like is
Effiefom
his
reasons
adamant
priest's
is
royal
interpretation
so the
household
royal
the
the
rulers, and
in
on him.
pressure
traditional
possible
woman's
the
adviser
the
the
favourite
current
culture
in
a wife
childless.
the
of
experiences
the
men of
Notice
Flower,
Children
Anyango,
of
has
in
and
community's
already
Odanga's
Goddess.
play.
last
hand
of
king
wife
away
this
childlessness
king's
case
right of
arise
the
of
in
situation
former
the
Children
not
the
Amansa
religious
Since
does
the
Asari
Henshaw's
monogamous
an heir
producing
even
in
adviser,
19
responsibility. to
used
are
inhuman
and
of
cast
attitude
fate:
is Le T Amansa! Asari Amansa! not pleased goddess harbour Lord, do My Amansa. Asari a woman with not with Do is displeased. and the yourself not place whom goddess in enmity with the spirits kingdom on this of our fathers the good fortan of our people. and prosperity which rest f My Lord, send Amansa away.
Asari
Asari
Flower.
the
Amansa
in
chief similar
Oganda's
express
her
is
that
significant
that
Journey.
sympathies
the
of 21
The
for
the
attitude of
chorus words
the
like
she
young
young
in
plead
woman as well
the
sympathies
great
towards
to
Odanga's
co-wives
women towards uses
in
Anyango
she receives
The latter's
wife. to
from
contempt
great
just
a witch
as
condemned
it
but
king's is
situation mother
is
She experiences household
royal from
Amansa
Amansa's
Asari
Oganda's for
Asari
as her
under-
log
standing
the
of
plight
of
all
wives
of
households:
ro; -al
Oh Effefiom, Amansa has
you do not know what we women suffer. Asari done all household she can to bless our royal Pl1 se, my Lord, leave her alone. a child. Her time . surely come.
with will Having
in
lived
time,
the
the
chief
involving
household
royal
wife
have
must
women and therefore
plight
any woman in
of
in and
witnessed
this
many unpleasant
she can speak
the
kingdom,
for
culture
with
a long
experiences
authority in
those
particularly
the
about the
royal
household.
'The the
Women's
political
Role
Women as
of
role
of
wives
proximity
to
political
leaders in
power, o-served all
taken
more
seriously This
is
in
great
warrior of
is
their
bride a
in
for
There
by their
all rival
po_tics contributions in
his
political
because,
the
as
just by
raised
that
note
of
negligible
if
like
playwrights
women were
would
help
avert of
presentation
on Magere's
Shield23
Mikayi
and
24 '- frTrsigh ted
as ho and
is
to
Wives
is
under
their
since
attitudes
point
example,
detail
important
This
chauvinistic
Were Strings
The Exodus.
is
power.
significant
political
implied,
portrayed Magere,
to
participation
Tom Omara's
Mikayi
one
it
have
context
victims
greater
on them.
some effect
of
in
leadership
traditional
However,
but
political
proximity
are
Ochieng'-Komyango's
Lawino
offer
they
in
obviously
the
discussed
Leaders'
rulers
their
women's
disasters. in
in
women.
who support
Political
has
of
above,
other
of
power
spite
is
position
male
than
advisers.
neighbouring
her
husband,
She can
community
is
the
see that a political
the
1 10
trick
through in
prowess Even to
after
the
war,
but
her
the
bride
it
reveal
Notice
which
to
jealousy
...
don't
like
The underlying drama
the
of
Luo people
author's
conviction
allowed,
this
Lawino
latter
of
would
has no right
in
when the her to
comes
to
to
his
these
into
rival
the
have
Gipir,
it
is
in
this
interesting case,
chauvinistic that
Lawino Lawino:
is
Lawino to when
attitude gave
note
Gipir
not
allowed
how
away his But
the
ancestral
women which
Labongo,
is
the
ancestors
of
the
political The
communities. shows
the
was
avoided. even
matters
on behalf
is woman as a when the
ancestor,
spear.
ancestral
in
participate
she
ancestral
this
of
She
says:
Labongo.
easily
loses
towards
to
great
people's
second
Labongo's
way
25
this'.
Her position
the
brother
yourself
participation
been
away.
on her
seriously.
ancestors,
political
I have no ruling over the spear of He is your brother and I am2nothing ö to him. But a woman, a wife Although
two
to
of
by jealousy.
The Exodus
of
on political
is
latter
response borrow
touch
me like
the
led
one
women's
disintegration
husband
expressed
between
society
if
that
you had now rid
theme
wife
taken
not
and the
a unified
Lawino,
of
still
major
warrior's
is and
secret
to
which
great
as motivated
women talking
Africa
from
the
the
is
thought
conflicts
Eastern
of
presentation
of
motif
mythical
disintegration
her
'I
learn
dismissed
Mikayi
people,
to
learnt
already
reaction:
I
is
warning
has
her
Magere's
enemy wants
is
blamed
when
spear: a replacement
...
to
matters,
things
Notice
spear.
he uses
political
back
go wrong, Labongo's
up his
claims
111
Labongo:
What? Replacement? You have been lured with
rhythm.
Gipir:
I
lain
with
Labongo:
How do I know you did not? What other is act so sweet as to move a woman Into giving away a sacred possession?
in
Later
they
to
attempts
the
not
by her from
stone
playwright
to
the
perform
bear
baby's
oath
of
and flourish
in
complete
slaughtering
of
her
the
in
two
baby.
for
Notice
from
is
the
great
weeping the
brother's
he
in
with
Lawino's
this
his
example,
innocent
her
that
a man .
scene
where
enthusiasm the
after
stage
insults.
with
watching
prove
ceremony to
rewarded
retrieve
and
men,
oblivion
of
to
order
separation
are
pain
stomach
the
satirizes
27
as a peacemaker
husband
the
her.
shame on me.
act
she has
play
slaughtered
precious
have
You bring
Lawino's
The
him my
giving
spear You woman,
Lawino:
baby
into
directions:
LAWINO is weeping; OTEKA leans her, crying. against also LABONGO and GIPIR back to back, swing round simultaneously, in their directions spears rasping exit opposite apart, and
Throughout the
men;
for
peace
the
risk
the
where
of
ambitions, women were
disasters.
men
and love.
other
societies
the
losing
hand,
are
Lawino her
put
family
contrast
allowed
to
their
for
healthy
for
cares
ties
illustrates in
The representation
would of
the
conflict
The two
playwright's political
go a long in women
in way
political
woman
at
brothers,
to
affairs
on
political if
that
view
of
their
preventing leadership
of is
relationships
secondary
the
the
...
that
with
contrasted
family
woman.
and welfare
participate
contribution
and
competition
name as a chaste
This
is
Lawino Is character
thL- play,
28
is
112
in
discussed
The Role
of
Nyambura
Mpesha
Isaac In
for is
attitude
that
in
women
judgement
represent
female
male
potential ship
just, as
they
govern.
govern
projected
Zegoua which
Waweru
the
Nokan's
a woman's
is
to
rule work
for
the
for
women to
in
characters
who govern
towards
positions
women to
contrast
in
and therefore society
women's of
the
people
The End of to
these
leader-
is
govern
ou Une Grande
the
cannot
require
hostile
towards
altruistic
of
they
who represent
In
welfare
prevalent
Playwrights
Mpesha
respected
most
which
playwrights
Poukou
whereby
therefore
weak;
and Nyambura
Abraha
a situation
leadership
for
1982
periods,
and extremely
unnatural
respectively.
(Charles)
desire
is
Road
The
unnatural
female
it
to
character.
and extremely
that
Happening30, The and
is
contrast,
portray
by Isaac
of
as despotic
selfless
The attitude
and
of
it
In
subjects. to
strength
ou Une Grande 1972
the
of
unnatural.
positions
leaders
led
emotional
that
view
1981
contemporary
have
considered are
and
the
subscribe
their
is
End
as the
Africa
challenging
to
The
as well
women
the
with
rational
Kenya:
attitudes
leadership
The Happening
(M) Ivory Coast: Abraha Poukou Africaine
Nokan
traditional
chauvinistic
Leaders
Kenya:
(F)
(M)
Waweru
the
below.
Women as Political
(Charles)
Zegoua
cope
detail
greater
the
Road29
in
Africaine31
depicted on the
is
two plays
as rooted part
of
in the
113
female
ruler. Both
Kenyan the
The End of
legend
legend,
Neither
of
reign the
beginning
the
two
playwrights
at
is
demonstrate
to his
states
of
that
been the
In
.
chaotic
end of
Gikuyu.
leadership.
women's
that
clearly is
leadership
women's
on . he
among the
rule
Waweru states
the
his
aim of
He
unacceptable.
aim thus:
The
tries to clearly play if it be would were there by would get dissatý5fied under In
patrilineal
supports
beginning
the
have
to
said
based
are
named Wangu wa M.akeri
woman ruler
Wangu is
of
and
Right play
Road and The Happening
a Gikuyu
about the
matriarchy
the
all
both
show how bad the rule of women. in Gikuyu land and how soon men it and therefore plan a revolt
costs. Wangu
plays, She
megalomaniac.
is
is
shown
presented to
a despot
as from
suffer
and
as a grotesque
a superiority
complex r
vis-a-vis
men,
hostility
towards
be of In
service
The End of
an
to the
which
attitude
her her
male people
Her
subjects. but
her
makes
to
in aim
with
position
extreme
is
leadership
is she
that
prove
Road she sums up her
relate
stronger
not than
to men.
thus:
I than Yea=, yet am greater woman a woman me a call ... Kagucwi beyond in There land. this and and across men all Nyandanla Up there the live Hills Gaturi of on slopes men. On Ruare Chief. the the lives side of other paramount great is is Yet these there the who greater any of not others. are There have cages of women, here I have a they I am. than is See the way they Wangs Great, harem of men. great ... Who Wangu. bow they the can challenge way at great come, 33 the power of this great woman? They
Wangu is those
presented
she governs
but
as corrupt. also
material
She demands gains.
not
She will
only not
homage from attend
to
any
114
matters in
live
affecting
the
ivory an
tower,
including
her
Wangu in
Wangu in
The End of
negative
qualities
is
concerned
her
with
for
complain
does
fame not
of
Dedan
Uhehe3ý Mukwava
capable
liberation
In around types.
of
case
of
Micere
in
of
in
their
Wangu in
The Happening
example,
is
which
only
actual struggles
for
Ngugi
for
play,
gaining
communities,
plays
plays
which
can
support
as The
such
are
presented
in
the
latter
is,
that
cause,
Trial
and Mukwava
women
sheer
she
yet
A difference
Secondly a good
latter
in
gloats
complain
equally
the
wa Thiong'o
Mulokozi
and not
men who
women in
In
and she
of the
women are
in women
do not.
and
of women
herself.
of
adds more
expense
she
fighting
fighting.
as
plays
for
the
fame
political
wa
in as
The Happening. there
distinguish who women For
in
Mugyabuso
countries
it
Waweru's
ambitious
on neighbouring
which
by
the
men and
portrayal
Mugo
at
Happening
way
actual
the
Uhehe)
involved
women are
the
by
The
war
those
and
engaging
of
she rules,
than
only
abnormally
Road
Both
the
the
between
3
is
the
of
rule.
developed
development
image
in
waging in
here
Kimathi
End
about
through
leadership
women's
shown to
everybody
as a representation
heroine
The
Wangu's
participate
be detected
from
more
this
character
leadership,
dissatisfied
is
own political
in
women's
political
But
Mpesha's
with
example,
Road.
on the
Whereas
the
about
She is
paid.
alienated
The Happening
the
leaders.
community.
completely
is she
husband.
Mpesha's
political
before
community
Wangu's
is
to
no attempt
themselves
in
despotism
leads
correct
roles her
myths
outside subjects
which
the into
build
stereoaccusing
115
her
of
practising
Anowa in
Like are
Ama Ata
the
outside
1heroine such
the
impression
who
resent
for
instance,
African
that
deserves
power
of
presentation
the of
is
playwright political
but
Mpesha's is
author
anti-feminist
only
the
_pesha interest writing can
is
The
Ogre
is
half-animal
monster
her
of
intention
African
in
correcting
in
lecturer oral
creative
in
into
this
of
in
represents of
the
aý a irumanity If
world.
on Mpesha's
theory
erroneous her
er play
an Ogress,
symbolises
deliberate
this
losing
that not
the then
part,
the
pursuit
her
only
literature.
was to writing
is
towards as the
such the
Literature
see how material and she
did
a woman.
negative A woman
of Wangs wa Makeri
story
image
and her her from not
this
women and therefore
distorted
Perhaps
in
leaders
playwright
be supportive
and myths of
which
women political
that
to
legends
The Happening
be used
the
in
gives
humanity.
very
considering
a university is
to
criticism
conceived
lurking is
an Ogress
as
be expected
use
with
tradition.
destruction
her
of
implication
character
representation
would
full
by a woman leads
also
shocking
To
Ogre
and
`resents
Wangu and
of
which
Aidoo
characters
comparison get
or--Eins
women, r,'resha
strong
the
have
aware
those
with
to
whereas
is
audience
as a sub-.. ----an being.
the
what
subscribing
power
femininity
light
evil Wangu
of
Her
know
But
towards
scrutiny. to
needs
the
along
strength.
half-human
the
said
attitudes
she goes
story-telling
grotesque
Anowa36 she is
human experience.
chauvinistic
one
her
a way that
such
women's
comparison
viewing
and also
Aidoo's
normal
in
against
and
witchcraft
of
major
only the
consider
women.
area
intention oral the
of in
tradition need
to
116
examine
the
thematic
be that
unlike
Unlike
his
major
time
Waweru and Mpesha,
Zegoua
Nokan
leadership.
is
the
the
ruling
Abraha
beings
by other much
Nokan
is
based
to
oppose
exploitation
etiquette
and
the
has
express
is
speak.
overtly
play.
supportive
on to
goes
departure
give
of
Nokan bases
in
a legend
of
daughter
from
which
a very
women's
the
her
that
tells
the
Yet,
a member
exploitation
the
of
she decides whole
but
elders,
to of
group
from
right
and as a female, to
opinions
herself
ruler.
the
As a youth
so great She
of
nobility
ruling
human
she does the
ignore
desire
cultural elders:
Les premiers travaillent les nobles. nourissent esclaves Ceux-lä livrent les se au vice. valent seconds que pendant ieux que ceux-ci. La guerre donc et la famine ont a de faire des nos ancetres permis respectivement ignames de l'or des de troquer des ou contre et prisonniers 37 a humilier. les Cela ne nous autorise pas personnes.
the
speech
the
play
Abraha
woman's
young
people
is
is
concerned,
Poukou's
debut
ideological
stand the
and sets
.
m
in
the
as far steps
of
play-. as the her
The words politics
subsequent
of
of her
Les
This
the
positive
the
which
is
Poukou
detested
always
in
society
Abraha
slaves.
human beings.
right
then
her
initial
his
choice
on a feudal
of
being
Poukou
is
could
Mpesha had not
two playwrights,
but
his
Aidoo
reason
legend.
expense
class,
youth,
have
this
Poukou
at
is
other
she wrote
these
on a legend
counterparts
to
Abraha
Like
respected.
interpretation
thrives
Poukou,
his
of
leadership
Ama Ata
by the
Abraha
direction
like
The
work.
stand
political
play,
her
of
playwrights
ideological an
developed
women's
significance
express her
actions
in
not to
117
is
It Abraha to
hatred into
Poukou
leave
for
her
her
those
her
is
which note
her
side
by
to
are
guiding
of
she
the
She decides
a just
to
fight
S'.ie
justice
of
important for
women in
of
love
is
It
world
freedom.
and her
ought
lot
regime.
their
henceforth.
a woman
which
of
for
leads
politics
pursuit
exploitation
because
slaves
cousin's
struggle
principle as
as that
underprivileged
to
against
that
with
her
woman in
a noble
prepared
sentiments
conviction
and corrupt
against
of
who
be her
side
exploitation
rebelling
privileges
slaves
reiterates
of
her
to
liberation
is
society
as
slaves:
Dans
les notre societe, differentes sont pas tres devons dons lutter pour je pense que l'esclavage
d'existence des femmes ne conditions de celles des esclaves. Nous la meme cause Depuis mon enfance, ... ne doit pas exister, qu'il ne faut le': rs semblables. N' effort pas que des hommes exploitent ant idees, je de wettre bute e pratique ces contre maints obstacles .3 Unlike
Poukou's
major
to
refuses her
found
of
because
has she
mine
her
own
to
she
to
opts
son.
observed that liberation
that
the
for
the
because
latter allowed slaves
to
those
as
a sister
is to
the
next
she
hates
rather
of
son of her
reactionary
and destroy
are
that
succession
leader
the
succeed
who
same reason of
methods
and supports
not
he is of
is
It
Abraha
personal
attain
regarded
become the
vote is
if
be
Happening,
and
feudal
automatically
This
to
not
a principle
she leads.
the
The
and
is
traditional
the
She uses
therefore present
why
Road
the
of
leadership
slaves
son would
instead
the
in
is
follow
community.
She fears
End
a commitment
by the
a mother
whereby
is This
down-trodden.
she
The
objective
Hers
grandeur.
than
in
Wangu
the
new-
a slave son
but
and egoistic. her, her
he may ur: ýeraspirationE
118
for
their
and
women.
future,
One of
to
demands
the
to
bar
and other
posts
of
public
synchronize
their
of
myths
public
make up their
arises
between this
during
the
decide
to
the
where
context
of
liberation
that
contributing
to
indicates great
the
the
play,
Nokan's
omission
not
respect note
Abraha for
this
Poukou
the
the
But
mission.
freed
of slaves 'the
means,
incident
leads,
she
depth
the
in
the Yer
sacrifices
establishment
Poukou for the
Nokan
therefore,
health
political
to
and
women have
Abraha
those
which
dies
of
baby
justice
injustice.
great
African
that
slaves
tells of
to
death.
and
'Baoule', of
this
up her
that
women
baby
give
recognition
the
with
incident
Poukou's by
are
when a conflict
not
liberation
nation,
is
Waweru and Mpesha,
demonstrate
of
been
in
take
Abraha
tears
they
that
moving
course,
significance
play the
of
has
their
symbolic the
is
a very
does
that
theorized to
men
political
as motherhood
position
of
her
it
of
is
often
when
she
wipes
new-found
The
Unlike
title
to
is
free
as
positions
such
uses
upset,
And
commitment
dead'.
there
she 39
name their
thematic
greatly expectations
chemin'.
Poukou's
which
incident
the
strength
Abraha
for
is
prejudiced
le
is
is
she
remarkable
'Reprenons
roles
Nokan
roles.
This
trek;
to
child
two
myth.
contrary With
the
from
It
about
motherland
responsibility
feminine
minds
their
women
responsibilities.
cannot
crush
to
a return
used
leadership unable
is,
that
contributed
of
their
ou Une Grande
women political sharp
contrast
is
all
and
out
are
capable
im: e
Africaine,
between
of
The very
societies.
leaders.
to
It the
would
ately be a
poem Nokan
li9
gives
the
at
The poem is
beginning a kind
of
It
contributions.
his
of
and Waweru's
play
song to
praise
foreword
women for
their
q, Iled
above.
political
reads:
Aux
Africaines
Femmes africaines etiez etiez
vows vows
ä Dimbokro eL Bassam, dans le djebel;
demain vous devez vous trouver avec nous ailleurs. Notre bataille debouchera totale sur la victoire Femmes africaines a ressemblez vos soeurs de Viet-Nam. Jýe vous salue, femmes heroiques du monde entier.
The Contemporary
The
the
Scene
second
part
participation
discussion
des peuples.
African
politics
against
Colonialism
the
around her
since and
in
politics two
the
with
Building
representation
contemporary
the
West,
viz.,
the
after
of
era.
historical
significant
contact
Nation
the
examines
chapter
in women
of
centres
this
of
phases
The of
Str-, Sgles
attainment
of
independence.
The Role
Emmanuel
of
Women in
Struggles
(M) Tanzania:
Mbogo
against
Tone la
Colonialism
Mwisho
(The
last
drop)
1981 Mugyabuso
Mulokozi
('M:) Tanzania:
Mukwava wa Uhehe (i Fukwa- a of Uhehe 1979 Kenneth In
Watene
many parts
(M) Kenya: of
Africa,
Dedan Kimathi women have
played
1974 and contir_ue
to
play
120
very
significant
the
fron, the
alongside own
right
the
Algerian
40s
and
commitment
for
veils
war
for
50s. defence
political
of
Muslim
Fanon
from
away
from
the
on women's
1
Colonialism
from
the
Fanon
the
in
in
the
strength barriers
and
they
which
in
but
Frencr
the
eye
fought
participation
great
public for
that
political
: _, s was
countries.
breaking
country,
for
wars
supporters,
displayed
women
their
purpose
A Dying
various
Their
er roachment
women have
inferior
or
Frantz
the
struggles
independence?
them
confined
In
of
in and
these
their
the
against
continent
of
domina. _on.
colonial
struggles
substitutes
These
a different
designed.
the
against
In
citizens
example,
hitherto
both
as
for
in
wars
African
not
as
early
the
colonialism.
men,
cbservation,
had
on the
coloniser
independence
Their
in
has been
contribution of
in
roles
and which their
using were
late
originally
comments:
to the But involving the women was not solely a response The women's desire to mobilize the entire entry nation. into for to the war had to be harmonized with respect the In the words women war. other of revolutionary nature ýt was had to show as much spirit as the men. of sacrifice in then the have to therefore as same confidence necessary had from who served prison militants was required seasoned A moral of chara^ter and a strength elevation sentences. be therefore that required would exceptional were altogether be The the of as a conceived not could women of women ... but of adequately capable as an element product, replacement 42 the new tasks. meeting
In
former
contributed
in
British the
psychological
colonies fighting
actual
support
as well,
to
the
as well
fighters
for
example in as
and to
those
the
Kenya, sense
who were
women of
giving
left
at
home. There
are
two
conflicting
positions
taken
by playwrights
who have
121
dealt
the
with is
position
that
This
roles. recognizing
in
by
sex
fighters.
This
fighters
and
deal
respect
Mugyabuso
In
Mwisho4ýThe
Dedan Kimathi,
Kenneth
This
of
point
In
view.
his
freedom
fighters
in
objects
who have
their
freedom
fighters. nor
struggle are
not
met,
Lucia,
one of
the
forest
care not two
their
stop
and the
success Kenneth
is
position
are
that as true
contribution
participation
drop)
with
a great by
represented
the in
image the
a totally
for
war
interacting importance
betray
who represent
as sex with
of selfish
the
the
with but
as fighters
When their to
Kenyan
who live
while the
women
chauvinistic
male
not
of
Mau Mau Movement).
as the
anything
of
respectively. ,
distorts
success.
characters
and also
Mukwava wa Uhehe
understand
at
fighters
proper
1L(Mukwava
motives
its
its
representation
writers
there,
are
neither for
of
women characters
own selfish
They
will
the
women as
women's
known from
represent
efforts
participation
women
play,
the
do they they
Watene
(otherwise
represents
playwright
last
struggles
The second
Mbogo in
their
and misrepresents
political
43
These
Emmanuel and
independence
kind
depict
and Tone la
fighters
the
who recognize
admiration.
Mulokozi
Uhehe)
is
therefore
and
the
from in
freedom
male
undermine
Dedan Kimathi.
freedom
category the
stereotyped
vision
liberation
for
their
playwrights'
this
objects which
playwrights
of
in
activities
those
taken
to
contribution
women in
gives
the
The first
struggles.
who see women in
blurs
stand
of
freedom
Watene
of
role
liberation
playwrights
The playwrights
the
the
of
women's
as engaging of
women in
of
kind
perspective. playing
role
the ends
struggle.
in women
Dedan
the
122
is
Kimathi,
in
aim into
portrayed
in
being
and in
fact,
her
personal
the
forest,
contribute
getting
Kimathi.
Tahu's
She wants
is
survival indicates
not
acts, spying
on the
this
Lucia, Kimathi
from away
for
can
Kimathi
it
the
Wahu, the
at
of
woman.
is
war
all
about
impediment as an
jealous
to
in woman
second
Kimathi's
love
and thwart
her
outbursts
Lucia
wonders
why she
if
all
she will
not
never
marry. me,
is
same
than
fighters
denying battle
the
says,
the
in
succeed / So why
is
under
this
to
element
Wahu and her
her
sexual
anger
and betray
him
only
to
While
struggle.
to
as
Wahu
for
spying
a double-dealer
her the
useful
object
and frustration
leads
attention
as a sex
the
me'.
fighters.
male
into
47
women as
are
command.
herself
for
front
also
general's
Wahu transforms as a disruptive
but
She to
presents
the
his
own personal
people.
him they by
manipulated
mistress,
her
Lucia.
of
winning
her
more precious
to
struggles;
easily
of
Watene
characters,
that
as
women from
struggle;
success
'My life
the
other
to
uncommitted
female
be
forest
the
and prevent
as Kimathi's
jealousy
the
Mau Mau leader,
what
'He will
in
being
revolutionary
acts
role her
two
fighters
freedom
the in
only
the
commitment
emotional
important
the
who
objects
angry
to
struggle
when she
to
uncommitted
the
in
more
Through
her
completely
this
understand
Her
and
46
possess
She is
Kimathi,
she may win
She exclaims:
motive
to
lure
not
She is
to
frustrated
to
Kimathi's
sees
one of
I care? '
love.
She does
as she fears In
is
forest
interests.
should
sex
the
she
intentions.
should
as
her.
marrying
jealous, a
on and
As for against
lure
colonial
the forces.
general
12-ý
Notice
here
the
representation
of
in
temptresses
women as evil
this
betrayal. Watene's for
struggle this
that
Kenyan
of In
Mugo's
was
and
In 'kA
ulokozi's
was
as unconditional
sharp
to
contrast
Mukwava
indigenous highlands
Tanzanian of
Tanzania) Through
colonialism. his women and recognition
portrayal of
the
this
women's
war
seen
and
their
Dedan
based
led his
the
against
women freedom
political
Micere
Mugo
project Ngugi
and
misrepresent
aticn
observed
Dedan
Chapter
5,
women played
as that
of
Kimathi.
as
freedom
the
men.
Mugyabuso
are
Tone
Mbogo's
la
M.wisho50
like
and determined sex.
of
struggle
the
the
of Mukwava's fighters, to
which
Wahehe of
Germans at
contribution
to
a play
commitment
Mukwava of
view
in
on a historical
(Chief
so
was no wonder
overall
in
regardless
trust,
a distorted
write
as committed
presentation of
the
to
the were
it and
Kimathi
Emmanuel
and
fighter
chief
to
be
represented
is
is
by
Kimathi
unreserved
Watene's
are
to
playwrights
and
liberation
Mu wawa wa Uhehe
Dedan
Kenyan
contributing
which
This
need
a response
wa Uhehe49
women fighters other
in
the
as will
play,
fighters
Mau Mau Movement
of
which
from
the
by undermining
struggle.
found
as
roles
true
the
Trial
written
Ngugi's
significant
fighters
any
The
?,au Mau Movement
the
where
in
far
that
freedom
this
of
women in
of
elements
male
playwrights
picture.
wa Thiong'o48
very
success
participation
other true
the
the
of
role
is
as disruptive
acted
for
women's
the
independence
and commitment
necessary
on the
conclusion
political
they
war,
unity
of
final
onset
attitude Mulokozi
Africa's
a renowne.
the
Southern
of towards shows his liberation
121
and thus
struggles
is
Mukwava lines
depicted
when assigning
castigates
women in
puts
and
roles
women's
leadership
accept
rightful
as a leader
men who are
attitudes
their
of
not
who does not in
responsibility to
prepared
living
discriminate
the
their
change
leadership.
women's
place.
To him
behind
the
He
struggle. traditional
those
times.
on sex
who refuse
He tells
such
kuwa huu ni wakati yafaa ukumbuke wa mabadiliko, Na huu ni mwanzo tu, bado mabadiliko makubwa sana. 51 makubwa zaidi ya kuamrishwa na mwanamke.
utaona
are
traditionalists: Bali
(It
is
important
change, yet to It
mapping
not
change. greater
this of
you to This
his
army
the
strategies
herself
is
Mukwava
that
spirit
be utilized
to
decisions
the
respects
and
Mtage,
appoints
by
she
freedom
the
as the
a woman, makes
in in
fighters
wax.
initial
is
to
be led
her
in women
and
she
general.
complimenting
her
not
For by
let also
their
calling
attitude
defend
when some old in a man
ngozi
men who are
she dismisses
chauvinistic
her
a woman's
among those
position
to
One of
leader.
courageous
Such people
prepared
example,
Mimi ni mwanamke katika 53 hivyo. hivyo (I am a woman in ) forever.
her
establish by a woman.
is
She
goal.
to
does
as a very
presented
tasks
prepared
cowards from
in
out
Mtage her
great witness
leader
overall
the
is
is that this remember of a time is but the beginning, you are )52 being than led by changes women.
for
the
distract
capabilities
men assume they
a woman's
skin,
Na nitabakia
And I
remain
shall
her of
are
she retorts:
ya mwanamke.
skin.
as
thus
,5
As a war and brave
leader.
Germans
are
Freedom
fighters
She is inferior as
is
she
her
feelings.
could
incident
her
and
fate
be
a symbolic
for men
with
its
to
the
liberation
praise
for
mwanarnke wa kesho,
words
that
see
is for
soldiers
out
the
already
apparent butchering
secrets
a captive
not
afraid
fighters
when
the
of of
the
of
fighting
and she knows
she
moment.
is MMMtage
symbol
of
portrayed she is
a future
communities. her
not
Rather,
barriers
traditional of
give
bound,
their
her
people
This
enemy
are
qualities.
break
can
beastly.
hands
the
so long
Mt age of human
she
she
that
in
war.
their
with Germans
the
drained
is
any
fellow
fight.
Yet
note
She is to
to
and
is
Mtage
gun
special
when he chants
Wewe ndiwe
the
to
character.
the
humanity
castigates
her
to
the
titter
reflected
announce
and become
when
this
the
of
is
war has not
uncertain.
woman with
ready
to
mother
her
in
win
weapons
committed
Wahehe against
Wahehe community
be prepared
war
is
important
is
women who are
griot
force
annihilated
it
she
to
the
of
her
although
enemy soldiers
mobilising
must
of
is
in
griot
in
This
strategies
determination
retains
to
the
superior
community
when
baby
individual
the
This
fighters.
But
the
goal.
boundaries
innocent an
the
the
still
of
whole
participation
the
overstep
freedom
the
victories
determination
against
the
She
an
her
men and women,
But
enemy
lead
the
sends
everybody,
from
to
her
as a far-sighted,
portrayed
the
to
and to
weapons
victory
when
Many of
attributed
ready
is
Mtage
general,
thus:
as ar_
presented
generation and fig:
This
is
as of
" alongside implied
by
126
Bila haya, bila woga, bila unyonge vitani au nyumbani. 54 Fahari yawanawake fahari wote, ya mtu mweusi. (You are the woman of the future, Without fearless shyness, and strong, The pride of all women, the pride of is
It community is
not
His
In
griot. the
only
of
therefore
represents
community
at
the
sacrifice is
these betraying
slaughtered
of
death
contribution
themselves
for
her people to b2foc A her very
the
through
woman loses of
leading
taking
joining and
up arms
freedom
tragic
the
approaches fighters
in
liberation
the
of the
voice
for
struggle
leader
the the
set-ups,
as well
the
is
too
wa Uhehe
griot
community.
'Liberation by the
as
other
of
liberation
enemy, and
eyes
even she
is
is
noting to
coi_; _ned
her
ir.: o been
has
baby so
stands
to
One of
community. intimidated
not
a
why besides
women who are prepared
after
too
worth
not
This
their
of
is above who
the
is
leadership.
of
is
which
struggles
examples
to
close
the
jaws
gun.
enemy's
her
she
Mukwava
woman mentioned
eye hereafter,
when
the
in
qualities
special
Instead
war.
made
gives
Another
by
t
expressed
the
also in
contribution
recognition
are
political but
mouthpiece
playwright
the
traditional
women's
point
few women with Mtage
sentiments
large.
A further women's
these
African
leader's
recognition
that
that
significant
in battle and at ) black people.
her
husband
her
to
despair
experiences the
and all
her
and view ignite
struggle.
latter
to
him ask
moving
to
ignore:
her Her to
relatives
male the with
her
the with to
the
a hostile
war with
dialogue allow
in
szrit
of
A`ukwava join
the
127
M. ante:
Hatukutazamia Watu wamekufa wote
Mukwava:
mambo yangekuwa inabay-a hivi. Mume wangu na ka. ka zangu wengi.
wamekufa.
Pole,
T,lwan amke :
kuwa
lakini
Si j akata tamaa. ikiwa angeanguka kitaluni. hiyo. ahadi alichokifia.
tamaa
usikate
Nilimuahidi
murre wangu kuwa ningechukua nafasi ya :e Na sasa ameanguka nami nime-imiza Nitaendelea kupigania kile
Mukwava:
Maneno yako,
Mwanamke:
Mutwa
tusiposhinda wangu, NikiangLa watoto wetu. mgongoni atachukua nafasi vitaendelea.
(Woman:
We did not foresee that bad. Many people have all my brothers are all
Mukwava:
My condolences,
Woman:
I have not if he that
mama, ni
but
Your
despaired. fell I would And now that
Woman:
My leader,
Notice the
the
sisi watashinda mimi huý-u mwa,; angu yangu na vita
things died. dead.
be this would My husband: and
despair
...
I promi scd m,,, husband in the take his place he has fallen i shall I shall to continue which my husbar: d died
are
important
and
are
good.
if
of
selflessness in
as expressed
interests
: l{ulokozi's
mama*,
mazuri.
we do not win ourselves, our If I -fa" I the will attain victory. children baby i carry take on my back will my place ) the struggle will continue. and
struggle
vested
words,
makubwa na ni
do not
struggle. honour that promise. fight for the objective for. ?ý'-uk. ava:
...
that
depiction
the of
her
in woman
the last
women in
means women.
fighters
'mother',
motives
for
She does not
speech.
Dedan Kimathi
women freedom
literally term which a for address respectful
her
have. contrasts
but
is
used
joining have
On the
the
whole,
sharply
with
as a form
of
128
their portrayal
of
by their
freedom
women
in
treatment
Tone
la
Africa. from
lines
competence,
liberation
struggles
Mbogo is
: ehe, "iberation it
one
is
very
make her
is
about to
retire
the
to
...
the
battlefield
In
fights
for
struggle to
lives until
anyone
lose
everything
true
to
the
last
her drop
of
Ian
against
the
Nukwava
to
wa
Africa's
Smith's
regime,
this
wrench
from
her,
Although makes her freedom. For
... is
it
their
lives'.
a cormitted
blood,
nor
makes
does
it
torture
psychologically She is
very
clear
when persuaded
she says,
A slave crucial
neither
the
example,
heath
her
She
struggle.
but
no country
her
the
a woman captain
forces
fighting.
about
Isitsi,
to
people's
words
in
Iokozi
contribution
struggle.
- even
wars
Mtage.
colonial
liberation
history
in
commitment
i'
of
to
the
Mbogo under-
play,
of
women's
and nurse
who has
this
sense
experience
she
from
the
the
is
which
In
committed
the
her
goal
to
in
for
for
people's
of
enemy want
weak,
to
Zimbabwe
portrayal
very
comrades
fight
on the
movements
by the the
physically
be prepared Tsitsi
she
her
struggle
portrayal and
paralleled
recent
countries.
His
is
wa Uhehe
Like
for
The
play.
in
and
guerrilla
secrets
desert
me-ans nothing live
admiration
torture
determined the
of
courageous
painful
her
-leaves
of
their
latter
Mwisho.
regime.
endurance
Mulokozi's
to
based
Smith
colonialism.
similar
betray
Ian
Zimbabwean
the
of
undergoes
more
full
from
Tsitsi
her
the
Tone la
is
the
Mukwava
on a more
The play
c_ liberation women's
in
fighters
based
in
Watere
E. Mbogo's
is
Mwisho
colonial
c-
by Kenneth
representation
'Health
has no right for
to
human beings
56 freedom
had earlier she as
fighter; vowed.
12°
Like
in
;."tae
ý:-akwava
spirit
and co-ü itrrýent
ending
of
her
wa Uhehe
her
of
The
Role
The
second
section
on the
post-independence
the
of
Commenting
is
the
of
fighting
implication
the
of
the
eulogy- :
(We shall take Tsitsi's The death the of Tsitsi Not as a cause for tears But as cause to amplify
most
a symbol
This
people.
Tutaukumbatia mzimu, wa Tsitsi Ila si kwa kulia chozi, wala Bali kwa kujizatiti, kuzidisha
focusses
becomes
she
Women in
of
creative
death freedom or the
of
regrets, struggle.
)
Nation
discussion
our
coming
This
out
of
African
of
contemporary
period
is
Achebe
centre
Africa
writers' has
scene
the
independent
creative
Chinua
affairs,
Building
on the
era.
writing
African
post-independence
fighter,
Post-independence
importance
on the
mzalendo, kusema: yarabi! 57 mapambano.
of
today.
attention
the
on
following
to
say: Most
is
of Africa independent
free; today there politically are thirtyAfrican their states managing own affairs badly. One A new situation has thus arisen. has been functions to expose always and main Should we keep at the old theme of racial injustices it is have when 3gw still) as
six sometimes very of the writer's injustice. attack (sore injustice
sprouted
all
Creative
struggles
and
It
frustrated. was the
with
order
the
period
post-independence
against
day
not.
independence.
was expected of
I think
us?
on the
writing
by disillusionment rebellior.
around
The aspirations
colonialism
that,
during
the
is
for
are
example,
colonial
seen
the
period
characterized
which to
have
oppression would
led
to
been
which
be replaced
130
justice
by took
the
over been
not have
people's
of
in
has become the
independence
Africa.
African
writers
on their
attacks interests government
than
relations
wealth.
The
devaluation
order
of
to
in in
are
in
search
material in
post-
scathing
which
the
expose
of
of
power
bitter
vested
exploitation life.
public and
material the
about
from
resulted
work
dominate
areas
many
especially
has
with
way
They
power.
sprouted
which
situation the
for life
of
so
citizens
greed
fellow-citizens
one's
perverted
life
this
it
have
which
many walks
criticize
to
writers
human
to
They
been
creative
day in
wealth
one where
Indeed
money.
the
have
is
has
goal
goes with
material
new nations
situation
for
which
of
build
responded
which have
of
race
accession
corruption
Human
the
service
officials'
the
the
core,
have
progress
people
This
countries.
mean acquisition
societies.
rather
and the
to
once African
welfare
of their
together
the
at
one another
wealth
and
to
working
welfare
against
other's
Independence
m sinterpreted
instead
each
leadership
political
attained.
been
that,
for
and concern
obsession
with
wealth
and power. me
is
period to
help
concern
help
to
their
he talks
of
regain
sterility
by Lubwa P'Chong, about
what
inspired
correct social
and
hence
These
attain
meaningful
write
They
situation. which
objectives
to
the
post-independence
values
a contemporary him
on the
writers
creative
societies
liberation.
political
articulated
their
societies
spiritual
present
true
overall
of
can cure
the
Ugandan one of
the
attempt
the
progress
African
writer
playwright, plays
and
are when
examined
in
ýýý Yý
this
59
section.
He says:
I
the fall realized particularly after of Amin that about heads are not correct. their ninety percent of Ugandans, This is why I wanted to point in is that out play what really trying wrong with the time bring back to us ... at same ... the suffering in the past we went through we artists ... have to go on hammering into these things the heads of °O if people people are going to change. This
is
section
Parliamentary
Elections
women
in
men's
women
as
commodities.
image
of
women
material
whereby
The R.
Sarif
in
detail
towards
women
political In
Dear
examines
as
Parliamentary Sierra
theme
in
the
plight
African
of
1 in
connection
Parent
and
with
of
literary
the
ideals.
Political
Power
Ogre 19EJ1965
is
above Ogre
this
attitude
is
This various
in
reflected
the
in women
traditional the
situation
post-independence
commodities
ambitions
the
of
post-independence
and
Post-
Our Husband Has Gone Mad Again 1977
Chapter
as
accumulation
Leone: Dear Parent and The New Patriots
women as commodities.
the
for
Elections
towards
In
Women in
examines
of
regard
projection
section of
of
plight
still
the
race
symbols
(14) Nigeria:
women.
affecting
their
in
used
(M)
Easmon
A recurrent attitude
are
Role
Women in
of
the
which
'The
of this
part
Role
discusses
societies
post-independence
Women in
of
Ola Rotimi
the
the
parts.
part,
Culture'
women
Role
in
second
The last
wealth.
device
The
'The
Power'
ambitions
Materialistic in
three
and Political
political
independence
into
divided
family
the
way
and
The
discussed practices
attitude which
nen
welfare. 62
61
in
New Patriots
is
study
Sarif
Easrcn
pý
132
how men sacrifice
examines political power
power
in
commodities Is
Rotirni
the
use
parliamentary
Siata's the
men's
order ally.
politicians
and for
of
is
break
to to
marry
The
Ogre
his in
Party
scheme
political
of
used
to
pur-suit in
as commodities
in
way
political
women as bridges
Parent
opposition
choice
the
in
happiness
which
women
are
power
is
discussed.
where
the
playwrig
the
reach
of the
used
in
as
Ola
.t in
electorate
elections.
Dear
in
women are
Has Gone Mad Again63
of
happiness
a dirty
daughters'
aspect
pursuit
Our Husband
ridicules
In
and how young
A different
game.
their
Dauda
political
daughter's
her
off
playwright's
illustrated
in
the
to
his
sacrifice
is
Dauda
ambitions. independent
a newly his
to
wants
African
daughter the
leader He uses
country.
friendship
with
a man of
a man whom he
sees
as
her
a potential
satirical
attitude
towards
such
following
dialogue
between
the
two
politicians: in
Our
two
Dauda:
And
what
Mahmoud:
(He sits Sir. on the edge of ) We talking very vigorously. the as a coalition. shall govern country the greater Whichever wins of our two parties in the the House shall provide number of seats be bluntly In fact, Prime Minister. shall -I Premier Deputy, versa or vice you and ...
Dauda:
(Looks boy. Then let me be plain my ) I have an appointment watch again. it But wait. minutes. can very well spare a quarter of an hour ...
parties about
shall the
go swag
fifty-fifty
both.
Mahmoud:
after
the
kill?
That's easy, the settee,
(For
once
he seems to
be at
a loss
at I:-is in five Can you
for
wards.
of
133
But
once he's ) enough.. -
in
the
to
in
but
this
their
him
that
success. that
they
daughters
just
to
order
if
carry
has not
out
cleansed
daughters.
goes
his
view
indicated
daughter
I'm
object
two men go as far
towards
wealth
is
politicians
is
fiance
man,
political
murder
the
play,
attitudes
making
But - Sir Sekou - you'd
sure just
if
you as strongly
) to be very frank. I probably do. (half But in the long in Mahmoud run, a half the politician's craftiness, sincerely) is difference between that only real us - my in war than ancestgxs were better organizers 64 yours.
chauvinistic material
)
(Deciding
Siata's
an educated
his
smoothly
(Chokingly.
murder
This
he goes
Mahmoud:
Later
for
tongue
first er - I'm a parent I and foremost. set my two children in above any consideration the world, Mahmoud. Briefly, it then, came to my ears that for Siata. you cared my daughter, (Raises a hand to save Mahmoud's protes of ) Never mind - don't embarrassment. bother to affirm Listen or deny the charge to me now. first. This Sekou Kuyateh is a strong runner in the field. if my wife In fact, is correct, he's something But of an odds on favourite. to be blunt, Mahmoud, I shall be most unhappy to have Kuyateh for a son-in-law.
Er
Dauda:
him,
his
Dauda:
object to me.
the
found
it
with
is
in
daughter
so
terms
their
of
The
yearning
price
and they
by Dauda's
use
as he uses
it
of to
in
their
hunting refer
to
for
the
are murderers
would way to
political
power
it
and
confuses
one has to
towards
imagery
is
traditional
strong
of
Dauda
plan.
that
attitude
stood
evil
him
The playwright's
they
to
as collaborating
not
pay
s,.:,--h hesitate
political
success.
when referring gains.
to
Notice,
to
134
'What
the
about
strong
in
runner The plight
the
takes
playwright
high
government
minister
Mahmeh has
two
in up
caught position
government
he cannot
be relied
of
embezzling
to
the
parents
Mahmeh's has
view
and not
situation
a negative not
merely
is
the
publicly
young
Fred
because
man's
is
Mahmeh is high
for
proposal
to
too
this
his
permanent
John's
minister
and
Here
of
the
by the
for
this
John's
in
have
their
material
father's
social This
the
kind
the gains
position This being
because
a prestigious
Mahmeh towards
this
relationship.
but
confidence.
the
happiness.
her
that
he hates
notices
of
himself
him in
not
future
to
in
reason
up for
terms
minister
a corrupt placed
in
girls'
commitment
is she her
confidence
will
fact
secretary.
First,
immediately one
only
a
and secondly
reduces
the
government is
father,
situation.
He therefore
terms
aggravated
is
is
Here,
the
conflicts,
marriages
on John's
effect
daughter
minister's which
is
in
Fred,
from
son-in-law.
daughters'
a
politics
both
are
upon i0, cover :`s-
funds.
public
man as a potential
for
in
daughter
a corrupt
game
is
Kuyateh
African
and fiance
fiance,
political
is
because
tendency
the
husband.
John
Sekou
The New Patriots.
posts.
future
Fred
is
men's
'This
play,
father
whose
emanating
as a minister's
as her
of
two
second
John,
while
' and
post-independence
political
problems
the
in
Easmon's
a heroine
holding
officials
field'.
in
kill?
65
daughters
of
further
examined
the
swag after
end of
is
position indicated
the
play:
While you were my minister's Mahmeh! Oh, my dear - my dearest have hesitated I'd to say what I'm going to say now. daughter,
a
135
Icy pride friends
as a Hayford would not have borne it that either my or my enemies should believe I was using you as a lever to advance my own interests political and ambitions. But now that I know for a fact that your father'sý9glitical is b Mahnreh, career at an end ... will you marry me? John's
proposal
like
would
John
his
end of
make up his
position
as
humiliation John her
in
a situation
saviour
He admits
Apart
mob during where
and hence this
Violet,
himself
wife.
minister's Secondly, his
other latter
from
her
father's
her
from
young
downfall,
about
Mahmeh's
down on the
young
places woman as
she marries
Look at the way these two girls Why ... If I'd day. trying this not been with have been killed most certainly ... I was not Till afternoon But when I saw those hgoligans inside me ... exploded this
required
him.
when he says:
between her and Vi The difference sticks out a mile. ... if in outlook. independent is completely I doubt she'll inner in father her to her life, except a man really need in herself fourShe's self-contained modern, children. Mahmeh's life, in She doesn't the need me. world. square incomplete hand, be the without me. would other on
It
father
a dependent
riot
once
her
and Mahmeh
political
subservience
pay
man does not
can occupy
subsequent
use Mahmeh
and bring
girl-friend,
the
he can now look
ensure
the
that
the
a file
corruption
not
she has to
price
steal
as he
as selfless
he would
the
Mahmeh has to the
not
that
claims
considering
career.
between
by the
false
expose
assured his
His
her.
political
mind
he has
until
to
to
uses
are
Mahmeh is
to
marriage
believe.
lever
he proposes
which the
to
people
as a political before
of
Mahmeh to
have come out of her, Mahmeh would
in
my heart sure her, attacking
be attacked,
Vi
humiliated
about Mahmeh. something
and placed
in
a
136
dependent
and subordinate
instead
wife
Mahmeh's that
for
inferior
is
It
ironical
maker,
is
In
Our
which
Rahman
viewed
that
John, such
women are
used
Taslim
his
wives pursuit
of
for
a political
as the
mother-pillar
is she
his
for
a government
and therefore towards
Ola
Rotimi
reach
candidate
for
before
his
women when justice
for
and the
third
way
electorate.
parliamentary He has
is one
wife's
role
his
a tool
in
to
a
act
her
if as
exhibition
if
to
social is one
none of
is
relates
future
the
family.
each
he actually for
the
instance,
For
The first
is one
minister
a policy
ridicules
men to
partnership;
family;
The second
mother.
he becomes
the
superiority.
aspirations
women.
career.
and
the
68
ambitions
social
ego
in as
Africa.
potential
mutual
male
attitude
for
towards
in seen
still
indirect
secretary
Gone Mad Again
political
she was.
indicates
John
women are
the
as a potential
feared
always with
new nations'
as bridges
see her
however
to
independent
attitude
is
latter
power,
the
Lejoka-Brown,
puts
the
a chauvinistic
in Has
relations
a permanent
to
he has
her
a threat
as
about
citizens
chauvinistic
three his
is
Husband
elections,
very
political
so much talk their
all
in
and their
hold
should
there for
like
Mahmeh,
of
in
situation
intellectuals
terms
John
daughter
minister's
precarious
even
case
the
of
for
situation
only
temporary
to
to
enable
him
Although of
'social
Lejoka the
Brown
moment
Ntap
the
votes
he expects
does
Elizabeth, if
officer'
relations not
Lejoka-Brown
the
of
want
her
fears
women electorate. his
second
he becomes in
Nigeria
that
being
wife,
to
a government
during
the
foreign-born
play
the
role
minister,
elections. (Elizabeth
At is
a
137
black
non-Nigerian he is
that
discover
not
when he has to
wants
elections her
play
of
the
latter's
position
particularly purposes The
are
illustration
in way
the
as ladders
women are
a very
to
compromise
to
to
which the
reach
powerful
Sikira,
of
that
it
elections. them
allows
to
women has very
success
President
of
liaison
as a wife. how to
discard
who has the
Lejoka-Brown Nigerian
with
He regards her
marries
Union
Sikira, her
as soon
is
tLe
of
aware he is
not
as a problem
men,
is
the
an
market during
is women walks
all
the
of is
It the
the
post-independence
support
Sikira,
to
As the
wife,
Nigeria,
winning.
for
daughter
the
such of
market this the
of
Women.
Market of
in
her
independence.
from
people
of
the
he
as economic
market
with
during
and especially
A-
many chances
Lejoka-Brown
Although his
very
that the
of
candidate
therefore
the
communicate
A parliamentary
life.
from
The nature
of
ek
--who,
indicates,
third
used In
politics wo,
time
his
come
Sikira
elections.
their
with
to
he expects
as well
women are
in
her
women whom African
electorate.
force
like
and Elizabeth
prestige
Lejoka-Brown
of
of
for
the
after
'modern'
the
marry
unwilling
marriage
her
but
claim
she may
welfare
Lejoka-Brown
for
that
particularly
Lejoka-Brown of
politicians, but
to
ready
that
fears
Elizabeth's
to
opponents
therefore
wives,
elections.
between is
He also
two
no consequence
friction
by his
and would
other
is he when
role
subsequent
Africa
his
during
is
Nigeria.
a polygamist
discarded
use
to
committed he is
that
she may be used
woman)
the
votes
prepared
he is to
and already
has the he won as
elections.
likely
to her
satisfy he has
gain needs
calculated
Notice
his
138
towards
attitude
Sikira
and towards
women in
in
general
the
following
excerpt: Lejoka-Brown:
Her marriage is for emergency, in order that What type of question are you asking? ... ... "Why didn't I tell Liza; I tell" why didn't What's the matter? Does a man have to broadcast to one wife every time he marries a new one? (lowering
his
voice)
That
is for woman's case only necessity, We need women's anyway - temporary measure. if votes, man, we must win the next elections.
Okonkwo:
And what would those votes?
Lejoka-Brown:
She is Nigerian
Okonkwo:
Oooh.
Lejoka-Brown:
(triumphantly)
See what I mean? Everything to plan once would have worked out according the elections See? I give Sikira were over. to go and trade a lump sum capital and look for another like that; Mama man or something in this Rashida remains house of my fathers; into i Minister's and move quarters on Victoria Island. Liza joins me there: is happy everybody ...
Okonkwo:
Send
Lejoka-Brown:
And what if Sikira's To where? mother finds I have kicked her only daughter out that out in house, I drag of my m; Ameriko? so can Chuu! Fi ish ! That'll be the end of my o9 politic thing
The disappointing that issues
the
comic
raised.
aspect It
the
of
the
the
daughter of the President Union Women. of Market
two
women
about
away
is
for
Our Husband detracts
play
seems Rotimi
woman do to
one extra
ý___y
from interested
the
win
of
time
you
the
being.
is
Has Gone Mad Again the
seriousness in
women's
of issues
the
139
to
merely ing
get
material this
considering
in
politics
independence
and progress of
even
dormant
depict
Adnagu
Visiki
Wife
critical
experience
Ndovu
Bibi and
the
is
image
the
their
rich this
attain
and a on this
plays
in
indulgence
Tamaa
Bibi
through
(Stumps)70
of
get
politics
men's
projected
Visiki
and
P'Chong's Lubwa and
respectively. ,
the
the
Tamaa use
Africans
whereby
owned by white
in way
which
and mistreatment during
behind
catalysts
to
others
for
greed
class
how to
about
based
of
The
on corrupt
who have
and
of power
developed. only
depends
of
a c,: lture
killing
or
starving
formerly of
has
with
problems
acquisition
think
a situation
examines
same exploitation to
71
misinterpretation
wealth
Khaemba Ongeti's
and businesses is
as
This
in
the
Subsequently
Playwrights
politics.
is
mean the
culture
women
The Minister's
Wright
this
1983
Wife
major
culture
means
conscience.
situation
farms
it
in
Survival
goal.
Pearl
if
this
1984
the
Africa
material
to
who belong
quickly,
corrupt
and
Culture
one of
wealth.
material
power
people
to
(Stumps)
disappoint-
issues.
political
The Minister's
free
is
This
Materialistic
Visiki
that
above
contemporary
accumulation
Post-independence
(M) Uganda:
was mentioned
in
seriousness
(M) Kenya:
Lubwa P'Chong
drama.
entertaining
playwright's
Khaemba Ongeti
political
create
in Women of
The Role
It
to
colonial government
of
these their
rule. power
to
taken
over
The play-
colonialists. Africans workers
Like
have
their
continue as the white
undermine
the
latter
the used
predecessors, rights
of
14C
the
in
workers
level
symbolic leadership
the
from
is
the
is
Kiswahili is
name
is
in
the
political he
needs
The analogy Adam
had
desire
the
him
playwright
is own
the
to
not
is
and this
the
to tree
story
God's
disobey
'Ndovu'
the
animal.
has the
make him corrupt; by
Bibi
Tamaa.
Adam and Eve whereby but
command
and
significance
provided
knowledge
of
Tarnaa
Ndovu's
its
to
of
and
them.
Elephant
enough
wealth
stupid
and
If
Bibi
whereby
somewhat
clear.
Tarnaa.
'desire'.
means
and
independence.
Bibi
gives
own making
similar
for
greed
tradition
heavy
wealth
to
positive poor
nothing.
sweet
squeezing
as
presented
in
wealth
great
Tamaa is tongue out
a dehumanized
associated The workers
workers.
Bibi
her
is
qualities
children
and
desire
Bibi
between
'Tamaa'
quite
its on
means
Tarnaa
swims
uses
is
of
over
he
and
needed
eat
the
Eve's forbidden
! Bibi
the
the
the
On a
who took
of
relationship
story-telling
a big,
very
influence
to
fruit
is
here
Ndovu's
while
play
this to
behind
names
them.
attainment
portrayal
playwright's
the
of
mind
all
very
as
the
the
The
African
the
of
weight, the
power
the
presented
context
play
workers.
from
a name
is
elite
African
after
'elephant',
for
is
this
in
derived
elephant Tamaa
the
implicit
the
represent
as the
of
is
Ndovu
in
from
maximum profits
colonialists
presented
exploitation
squeeze
two
Our interest Tauaa
to
order
of
also
to them
women.
it
ironical
find while
they
little
She has
who have
her that
no mercy
large in
schemes
of
they
have.
lost
all
towards
she who has
that
as a devil
presented
camouflage the
with
woman who has
no
families
disguise.
exploiting She is
have She
the
poor
depicted
141
as the since
main
culprit
she is
the
accumulation
is
influence
between
the
more
fair
and
and
even
independence
ruthless
means
dream
becoming
of
urgency
held
in
get-rich-quick
reconstruction
her
win
speed
of
on the
just
Wife.
Wife
Bibi Pearl
Damaa is
Bibi
as
the
is woman
the
while
many
is
This the
elections wife
as she hammers of
those
who
post-independence
to
wants
contest.
Adnagu
a
comparison is
negative
in
people
free
order
and
at are
lead
of
expense
that
she
a rich
husband's
not
interested
can
perverted political
the
and
honesty in
lives use
attain
lazy
is
hand
husba. rid to
her
her
African
the that
Africa
the
why she urges in
other
She holds
at
even
parliamentary
on the
opponents.
advancement
a minister's
tone
between
parallel
The Minister's
Pearl
means.
by
fellow-citizens. to
husband,
death
means material
one's
greedy
Visiki.
just
of
of
The Minister's
character
independence
of
road
close
husband
in
But
by
liberation of
on Ndovu.
in
a very
on her
Adnagu's
violence
view
influence
than
on the
Lubwa P'Chong's
Odoma, Pearl elections for
in
ideals
the
of
Ndovu is
man as a positive
obvious
killing
There
Adnagu
a corrupt
corrupt
the
one who propels wealth.
of
Tarnaa and Pearl Adnagu
behind
her
life.
matches
meaningful
societies:
is Our block! materia-iistic You must have a mental society hard-hitting is the It and unscrupulous only and corrupt! in Only the are respected rich succeed. can who people Now like Saints are you misfits social you are society. ... I have these But for weeks past within parliament! standing becoming hopes shattered! wife a minister's of my watched imagined. I have I lose am already I Now everything will candidate. known to many as the wife of a ministerial ) They will I fun (sadl a nurse. will remain now. of me make All because in hospital duties the you hate And I my ... let But in fashion! the the fight to regular election want
The
the
142
me tell No one can win any election you, you fool! by being You tell clean lies, bribe intimidate must people, ... your opponent and his supporters, character assassinate, and hire 72 if boys political you want to win. is
Adnagu
obsessed Africa:
post-independence for
greed
material
who is
a threat
values
life,
in
example,
has
and
love,
or
a healthy
the
is
following
the
characteristic
by
the
two
the
excerpt:
(removes
Odoma:
Can't
Adnagu:
(to
Odoma:
Pray, Pearl. hearts.
Adnagu:
How should crosslegged dance like
According
to
an
during
after
you
Let
audience)
significance
days
The irony
comes through
situation
in
Let
Pearl
is
Uganda
read
as
it
derived
during
and after
Arrin;
in
our
from
dictatorial end to
from
the
silently, and
Uganda
symbolizes
terrible
when she was known
when one compares
...
Should I sit r drum, sing,
Adnagu the
blood!
be peace
there
during
is
in
rejoice
I pray? Tell me! like a cripple? a dancing maniac.
experiences
prosperous
us all
Pray!
Lubwa P'Chong,
her
Uganda
life?
value
The name Adnagu
ironic
her
for
play,
Odoma's hands from his ears and shouts) Human life has become very And cheap to me now! joyful. the sight of blood makes me
Amin.
husband
that
between in
anyone her
anything
dialogues
many absurd
her
of
Whereas
wealth.
revolted
of
symbolizes
annihilation
The contrast
society.
from
the
of this
Adnagu
are
Adnagu:
confused Idi
peace
apparent
which
The food
is
death
while
acquisition
is
characters
phenomena
and death.
her
life
nurtures
food
wealth to
two
with
beginning.
Uganda's
as
'the
pet
Pearl
name and the
a period
rule
of
of :' earl
name
of=-r_ca'. actual
chaos
and total
143
The playwright
anarchy.
the
explains
as followE:
symbolism
The woman is a personification /She/ Uganda of syr.::: olises ... the majority of Uganda whose heads are not correct now. Whatever she utters on stage, whatever she does on stage, reflects what the majority We have of Ugandans are doing. got ambitious, this we want to become like woman, we woulü like to become a minister's But instead it wife. of playing cleanly we normally And this want to take a short cut. sort 74 thing brings death. of normally it
Whereas in
the
to
represent
culture
politics
individual
excuse
ones
to
blame,
that the
his
negative acted
attitude by playwrights of
The Role Seydou Joe
of
Badian
the
and
men.
wives
or
man gets
into
the
corrupting interesting
to like
(M) Mali: (M) Ghana:
Rugyendo
of
in But
it
most
man to
symbols analysis
Post-independence
The Death
of
Chaka
1977
(PY) Tanzania: The Contest
1977
evil
become
a mytY: and the
and P'Chong
the
or
to
subscribe
innocent
in
as the
trouble
of
are of
counter-
countries below.
Ideals 196E
an
on
a tend-
mistresses
political
how such
is is
there
their
corrupt ; here
power
Ongeti
Muntu
co.
a strong
who use women as positive
Women as Symbols
in
such
note
nation-building
chauvinistic
P'Chong
seem to
playwrights
participate
indulgence
the
of
their
playwrights
meaningful
de Graft
Mukotani
of is
of
case
is
participation
women as having
capable It
their
The two
standing.
crook.
ideals and
if
presents
are
the
it
men's
Ongeti
way
men using
particularly
which
worst
as
behind
the
women do not
acquisition,
culture, in
that
claim
catalysts
this
corrupt
social
they
in
to
and material
wealth
just
basis
to
myth
for
greed
ency
the
power
involved
are
loses
of
women as the
and
women
be untrue
would
14;1:
The device
of
using
a fascinating
aspect
what
analysis
the
romantic land
would
Mazrui,
African
tilling
it
and
the
this
of
women protect
the
land
and its
it
making
women of
Contest78,
for
base
as the take
in
The
Joe
,
Death
According
to
through
this,
the
professor
earth.
terms
reference
would
also
used
used
the
to
be
which
are
partly
Muntu77
in
Seydou
and Mukotani various
; Peale
necessary
In
a reality.
symbolise
older
to
Badian's
Ru
aspects
of this
on the
playwright and
the
endo' s
of
the
Notibe renowned
of
positive
on the
the
he
new;
the
a newly
struggle
sees
such
nee-. ed as a character, co-..intry
newly-independent
attitude
of
focusses
The female
the
on the
experiences
and stability
peace
nation-building.
as a symbol
build
based
nationalists
mouthpiece
to
is
The
threats
both
playwright's
where
to
Chaka
of
post-independence
order
is
have used
period ideals
and
de Graft's
country.
as possible
The symbol history
women and
nation-building.
between
is
Notibe,
feminine
some-
75The
the
of
African
fertility of
i's
Mazr
tendency.
view
contemporary
independence
African
conflicts
in
countries
women are
Badian's independent
of
Chaka76
of
power
In
custodians
on the
if
post-independence
for
are
countries
symbols
nation-building
The
food.
yield
this
is
societies
tendency.
as
The Death
between
relationship
or
All
writing.
root
Some playwrights characters
creative
countries
the
conception
explain
the
of
of
explain
African
concludes,
African
of
partly
and
women as symbols
citizens
and
need to
new nation. is
derived warrior
from
the
and leader
story is
of said
Chaka's
life
to
saved
have
a
145
young
girl
from
story
from
the
of
from
by a hyena.
mauled
fetters.
the
is
This
Badian
colonial
the
of
as an analogy
girl
colonial
to
phase
pre-colonial
this
rescuing
ries
being
79
transposes
implicit
Chaka's
and uses
liberation
this
of African
from
count-
Notibe
what
act
says
herself:
about
Chaka neither belonged nor our children our harvests And don't In short were enslaved people. we an ... debt. I was that I owe him a personal who young girl That by a hyena from a hut one night was carried off ... to confront the time for the first a young man dared night, killed He the Chaka. That young hyena. dreaded man was how during the too, And life. beast remember, my and saved it. Thanks to killed lion he faced and a alone same period is in It left Chaka, the wild not peace us animals ... is because I want It I am defending. the leader therefore head high to be to be proud my carry o always able of you, 0 among my companions.
Before to us forget,
Notibe's the
concern
new nation
speech,
Notibe
new
it.
step the
of
to
all to
to
To the
its
should citizens, It
power. share
have
its
playwright,
not
follows
to
therefore as well
resources this
their
towards just
is
the
of
only
this
as the
attitude
as the
the
early
to
that efforts
way a country
build power.
of
symbol of
citizens A nation
or those
politicians
then,
above
play.
nations.
the
the
political
herself
kind
the
them
with
by Chaka in towards
attitude
recognize
for
them
against
to outline
country
work
subsequently
symbolised
are
to
new nationalists
fighting
In
development.
towards
in
be established
and stability
peace
and
Notibe's
Africa
independent
prepared
appeals
to
uses
independent an
close
initial
nationalists
Badian
are
as the
instead
nation
The early
belongs
that
contributions
nationalists' the
is
all
be
should needed
who
to
can stand
build with
X46
dignity
among other
climax time
independent
Notibe's
of spells
towards
their
is
message the
out
kind
nations
of
built
around
commitment
She tells
nations.
disintegration.
and avoid this
which
from
required
the
ideal
the
The the
at
same
citizens
new nationalists:
I was Mapo's sister. I was Dingana's fiancee. Now I an Mapo's sister fiancee. I a= Chaka's neither nor Dingana's daughter If my people I prefer to be dead must collapse, °1 buried. and Like
Notibe,
First
peace
and stability.
First
Daughter
She
contributes
during
this
during
the
Brother
is
who appear slave
colonial felt
part in
force
required.
She challenges You You You You
in
Daug ter Second
are evil brought
peace
and
harmony
of
the
younger
the
face
of
play,
sisters.
Muntuland
of
Muntuland
by Second
dismissal of
members
the
and
from
absence
her
in
to
Muntu
community
influences
external
from
exploiters. Graft's
de
dedicated In
play
African
contemporary
a unifying
First
by
helpless
of
brothers
as a result
and colonial
latter
her
her
dedicated
examined
for
by
created
particularly
extremely
pertinently power,
phase
the
is
Muntu
phase
figure to
gap
de Graft's
pre-colonial
a mother
The
phase.
dictatorship
where
as
the
significantly
raiders The
In
acts
in
Daughter
her
to
It
politics.
peace
challenge
appears
a potential
Brother
thus:
the
examines
of
.1 God the of upon us curse sowed among us seeds of mistrust trampled on our human dignity like Making us grovel swine On the ground before you;
is
and stability Second of
such
of
phase in
this
is
Brother's a unifying
military phase
most destructive force.
147
And would you now threaten our souls with Having murdered ýrother our Eldest b2 in Murdered him cold blood? First interest
main
is
harmony
are
Daughter
at
personal
grandeur
implies
is
Daughter
doing
many ways
political
a threat the
in
power
to
earliest
is
Brother forces
away with
To gain
political
eliminate
whose
and
he murders
First
power
and
and this
others
human life
value
Brother
Peace
grandeur. then
has to which
Second
no wonder
opportunity.
Second
to
an antithesis
and personal
and it
him
destruction,
and social
stability. in
Maendeleo, symbol of
of
meaningful
positive
progress
She is
'the
not 84
role
symbolic
is
masses they
of
to
the
Africa
masses'
of
by the
towards
worked
beneficial
in
But
attitude
her. the
this
is
female
those
o them, past
the
literally this
as well
is
used is
Maendeleo
is
'maendeleo'
significance
have
independence.
of
Kiswahili.
suggested
have
which
society
in
'development'
Rugyendo ls The Contest
aspects
The term
suggests.
the
Mukotani
83
welfare
not
the
as their
or of of
meaning
the
for
objectives
aspirations
for
her
the
who represent
characters
she embodies
masses.
indication
only
character;
symbol
Etherton
'progress'
means the
the the
of
as Michael
as a
which
future
development. The Drummer the
outlines
beginning
of
this
bride. a as
girl But
it
can
see,
is
play
the
significance
introduces he when
of the
Maendeleo symbolic
right
at
the
contest
to
win
He says:
As you not such an easy day for all of us here. some of us are about to be put to heavy test.
148
Maendeleo,
the daughter is the product of the village, of our force. She has been fashioned collective by the things around us; in the heat of the life Our productive we lead. labour, is which provides us with the things the we all enjoy thing has created that the necessary for the conditions The standards, growth of our Maendeleo. likes and dislikes, in this created that process have served are the standards She is our representative as her examples. both physically She is the symbgý of our development. and spiritually. She is indeed itself. our development
The relevance be
Like
rissed.
voice
the
of
speech aspirations
and
the
masses.
aspirations
personal In
of
to
Hero
citizens
labour;
a society
operate
in
Old
development.
Woman and Old
contest:
where
a whole
her
by the
of
unity
Hero
in
of
hopes
and
meaningful
one who wins These
to
the
her.
The
are
welfare
of
in and
nation-building
1 emphasizes
the
contrasting
than
rather
the
not
the
in
articulates
independence.
gains
is
expresses
and the
should
Africa
embodiment
suggested
of
Instead
of
where
views
personal
accumulation contrast
also
resources,
national
as
Drummer
Drummer in
drummer
as the
who loses
as a whole.
nation
sharing
to
related
play
Maendeleo
perverted
the
what
the
is
hero
the
of
emphasizes
society
of
and development
aspirations
the
in
by the
uttered
community
Therefore
significance
progress
words the
griot,
above of
The
the
these
people.
quoted
loser
having
of
the
in
competition
wealth. 1, Hero
share
both
people Notice
Man and thus
2 is the
do not this opens
to
dedicated
and the
work exploit from the
the
building
fruits
one another
Hero way to
2's his
of
a
their
of but
speech
wich
victory
in
comoves the
i49
Spirit The vigilant Nkosis. The of the Nkosis. and fierce humane Nkosis Who do not allow of co-operation. who speak a is to too Who another eat much while one starving. man by the nose. detest for Who stands a man who leads others dignity the of everyone great man or woman ... - whether We do not tolerate whether old or young. who grows a person is We he fat doing on other sweat when nothing. people's ) (Marches like like to soldiers our work. a soldier. move (Shaking ) We come with And Weee! his to fists. so so much Maendeleo. develop, create much to feed, and recreate
2's
Hero been
for his
therefore, this
that
It
owing
problems,
towards
attitude
female
in women this
African
system.
drama
in
also
two
is
fraught
also
through
participation given
chapters
to
playwright
who subscribe
the
which
of
the
that
participation
to
with
because
observed from
writers
is
attention
and the
and
been
women's
their
next
suggest
would
politics
differs
women whereas
the
end,
in
politics to
social
negative
portrayal
of
comprise
Part
II
study.
The next peculiar
of
Greater
characters.
has
who respect
in
positions
politics
women represent
against
prejudices
role
writers
images
positive
project
of
women's
in
bride
as his
role
social It
To this
traditional
the
women's
women.
87
has
Tanzania
ideals.
both
inferior
their
Those
playwright.
in
against
prejudices
social
Maendeleo
symbolizes
settings,
to
socialist
these
that
ideals
Declaration.
winning
observed
African
contemporary
in
woman
been
Arusha
the
since
victory
young
has
represent
aspirations
striving
the
section
contemporary
looks political
at the
representation
environment:
the
of
in women
South
African
a apartheid
150
The
South
African
The last in women
the
to
lives
background political is
discrimination
literature
from
South
literature
from
that
African
of
part
its
as
of Alex
woman.
South
African
literature
characters
the
to
effects
are
A is
interwoven
how with
writing.
South
tool
a crucial
of
African
creative
of
representation
South
the
the
of
system
Africa
novelist,
to
relation
the
of
black
and experiences
The apartheid
South
examination
on the in
note
socio-political
racial
our
centres
point the
in
section
politics
pertinent deeply
Scene
Africa
which
in
have
continent.
all
is
This
based
on
when analysing
mind
permeate
is
protest
the
point
made by
Guma, when he states:
la
is that I am prepared to say, African And South literature, itself South the literature of with realities concerns which When Africa? South Africa. And what are the realities of I book, down to around or any of my colleagues a write we sit 80% that the faced of with reality as writers, me, we are, below the bread-line lives the population we are standard; daily the that the faced of population average reality with We 70,000 to South African are persons. amounts prisons half the that the faced who people non-white reality with These five the below are last died of years. age were year ignore if these to Even gruesome the want we realities. in Africa South in terms think details and art of culture and in today South Africa fact that the people faced with we are lines the their which develop to along minds allo1rgd not are ö they prefer.
In Africa,
examining therefore,
different
perspective
We cannot
ignore,
is woman
a victim
the
we are from for of
of
representation compelled that
example, dual
to
the look
at
of women from the
oppression.
fact
woman from
black
that Besides
her other
the
from
being
a somewhat
parts
black
South
of Africa.
South a victim
African of
the
151
oppression
discrimination
of
victim
of
the
further black
black
in
this
woman in
black
people
race,
the
by virtue
oppression
prominent
than
her
against
sexual
?"andela,
the
by all
experienced
her
South
Africa.
black
of
her
African
assessment
South
in
the
of
South
Africa
as a result
South
African
is woman
status
Winnie
as a woman.
woman freedom
fighter,
goes
disadvantaged
position
of
She says:
A black in this disability woman faces a three-fold country: the disadvantage she has to overcome black, the of being disadvantage of being a woman and the disadvantage of her African in an essentially background cultural westernized environment . Whatever of
assessment
the
black
facets is
South
her
of
difficult
introduction
on the
African than
preoccupation
is
view
to
make
the
art
of
various
it
that
entities. be incomplete
would
for
ideas as
statements
is
this
who base
without
in women of
women appear
Many playwrights,
the
position
interwoven
characterization
writers
on the
that
so intricately
section
the
based
be noted
must
The reason
creative
system.
The
this of
it
as separate
some plays,
experience
ideological
Mother
In
of
consciously,
under
to
a discussion
often
them
individuals.
distinct
apartheid
woman,
are
peculiarity
drama.
African
African
discuss
in
follows
oppression to
Our word
one
their
the
therefore,
South
symbols
that
works
against
characterization
or
a
the
major
on the
evils
rather
of
South the
consciously
or
un-
as subsidiary
to
making
statements. representation
'The
Black
Figure
in
of
the
black
South
a
African
South
African
Woman and Sexual
South
African
Drama'.
is woman Exploitation'
discussed and
'The
152
The Black
Athol
South
African
Woman and Sexual
Fugard
(M) South
Africa:
No-Good Nongogo
Kente
(M) South
Africa:
Too Late
Gibson Zakes
Mda (M) South
Credo
Mtwa
Africa:
(M) South
for
men's
wo-an
can
laws
Africa:
be
only
fear
sexual
for
Owing
protected
by law,
in
through
labourer to
create
he does this
the
fact
Woza Albert
1983
woman as a mere in
even
the
context
create the
the
of
black
in
the
South
sex
white
black
is woman
the
black
woman as a tool
left
life
easy
one way of
South
African
a
African apartheid
tension
of
is
as the
have
The
apartheid.
Women become
people.
tool
sexual do not
which
a circumscribed
indulgence that
plays
of
the
of
Mtwa,
Ngema and Simon's
as labourer-customer,
'bongeni P,
is
to
1981
predicament in
of
1981
for
prey
releasing is woman
victim
major
of
this
exploitation.
The image
the
majority
1977
uNosilimela
African one
This
since
tension.
of
a dominant
implementation the
) ): ) South
understood
exploitation
kind
black
character.
and their
any
is
pleasure
female
single
the
of
Friday 1977
Dead End 1978
P. Mtwa (M) South Africa M. Ngema (iR) South Africa B. Simon (M) South Africa The image
Exploitation
not
point:
is
not
prospects even
know.
for
and Percy
himself
An excerpt
emotional 90
Woza Albert.
in
interested
really
for
to from
In
as a young the
sleep their
boy's with
the
street meat.
the
ILoy's
conversation
release play
role meat All
comes of
vendor,
he wants
mother illustrates
whom
153
Mbongeni:
Hullo,
Percy:
Hello
Mbongeni:
(not
tempted can you sell
Percy:
I've got mutton, chicken, and nice (Swats a fly ) the on sausages.
Mbongeni:
Oh yeah the chicken does not smell nice, ... hey? Okay my boy, give me mutton chops. ... Two rand fifty, hay? Where's your mother, my boy?
Percy:
She's
Mbongeni:
She's 'tooka-tooka' Tell her I said at work? (Tickles ) her boy's the She on nose. nose. hostel, Dube must visit me at the men's okay? hostel, 'B', 126, block room number Qkay. y1 'B', Bye-bye, boy. don't forget. my
There
is
a direct
living
worker's
sexual and not
is
partly
owing
because
it
for
work, becomes the
of
example,
in
force
turn
in
he is
to or
city
the
above
the
a wife
meat
sausages.
of
a political
very
low wages.
live
with
in
the
system
his
use the
black
excerpt
lives
pass black
the
These family
at
Hence the
mines.
black
in which
in
and children.
apartheid
exploitation
paid
worker
him to
with
of
rigidity
general
the
what
and the
apartheid
a home situation
the
of
a scapegoat
in
The worker
the
a black
for
difficult
to
whereby
apartheid
between
which
in
Ehhh,
work.
tool.
hostel
under
at
)
by the display. me today?
connection
a men's
and partly
baba.
conditions
woman as a mere
This
my boy.
regulations92 worker factors his
make of
place
black
woman
she has no hand
in
making. Apart
a sexual
from image
being to
used
sustain
sexually, the
black
the male
black worker's
urban
is woman
emotions
used
under
as
X54
strenuous from
working
in
conditions
Mbongeni's
Africa.
as a brickyard
role-play
Lights flash Bright on. Mbongeni, is Zuluboy, as
Notice in
worker
daylight. singing:
(singing)
Mbongeni:
South
this,
for
example,
Woza Albert:
Coronation
Brickyard.
Akuntombi lokhu kwabul ala ubhuti (This is no woman. kuyamsondeza. my brother with a fuck and she him go. )
ngesibumbu She killed never lets (He
the street) Hey Angelina calls out towards Sweetheart! Why are you walking down the Come here to Coronation Brickyard! street? is waiting Zuluboy for you with a nice present! (Points )93 to his laughing. genitals
Sexual
harassment
African
plays
journey
in
Mtwa's
play
where
her
this in
contact
with
men
is
as
an object
used
that
is
she
But
brothel.
even this
against
criticism in
a human is
uNosilimela
which
the
Albert, black
woman are
the
character the
to
audience
is
city
for
It
being. used
by
urban male
through
In
to
Woza Albert
with
black her;
is
difficult
she
at for
time
one her
in
a
general
on the
way
own kind.
the
absence
Her
recognizing
their
Woza
case with
the
plig_lt
of
an actual
of
woman makes it
Credo
as a comment
vis-a-vis the
in
whereby
money
is as
feelingE
cultural
playwright's
victimize
uNosilinea,
oppressed
sympathize
than
her
that
note
earn
the
of
rather
oppressors about
to
woman to
as part
culture
playwrights'
the
interesting
a fellow
level anyone
without
South
harassment.
sexual
on a sexual
pleasure is
uNosilimela
extreme
always
sexual
lacking.
representing
for
the
In
appear.
roots,
undergoes
thing
The disturbing that
title94
in
recurrent
characters
African
true
comes
join women
is
for
is woman
black
female
actual
search
of
the
of
it
the female
impossible to
empathize
155
with
a mere
only
the
situation
heroines
mentioned
when the
especially but in
elsewhere
himself
also this
study,
distances,
playwright
from
the
situation
this
is
a problem
not
he examines. of
As
many male
playwrights. Mtwa fails because
he makes
he is
because,
even
focus
closer
on their
It
lives. plight
as
make
this
kind
of
the
black
would
joins
playwright
objects
and
their
male
of
strength
and
Zakes
Mda in
are
a
on black
people's
of
examination ideological
the
to Too
women
writer's
sensitive
woman contributes
unfor-
counterparts,
apartheid
the
that
merely is
This
a creative
strengthen
very
heroine
African
South
urban
a
an
the
his
uses
the in
live
create
statements.
certain
effects
urban
Kente
Gibson
the
than
oppression
of
to
culture than
to
allowed
as a character
black
that
destructive
is
of
statements
to
plight
the
against
position
women
considering
of
plight
never
the
important
more
is
heroine in
situations
situations
as though
which
victims
greater
is
black
through
object
an
tunate
the
it
treats
which
many urban
his
for
sympathies
uNosilimela
her
for
enough
Ironically,
system
too
represent
Furthermore
long
impact.
audience's
and he makes these
herself.
situation
the
raise
her
criticizing
heroine
as
to
Late95
and
Dead
En d
96
respectively. Kente's conveyed web of of
Mtwa
viewing
sympathies
through injustice. is
for
that,
his
the
examination
close
What really whereas
women as capable
black
the of
South
urban of
her
protesting
male
chauvinism
against
woran in
victimization Kente's
distinguishes latter's
African
injustice
are a subtle
approach
from
prevents
him
that from
and therefore
156
makes him present here
and there,
strong the
of tive
to
arm of
the
daughter
justice
in
ends
when
he
young
arouses
the
heroine
misused
beyond
the
South
a victim
her
arrest
Madinto
strength
perspecand her
and
in
appearance leaves
in woman
black
South
Africa
an
brief,
quite in
impression
a greater
is
creature.
is
play
struggle
itself
in
a helpless
Kente's
perverted
her
attempt
not
Ntanana
girl
arm of
Although
cousin.
being
and
the
Ntanana's
death,
a human
of
the
the
the
of
a victim of
sexual
black
of
more than
us
Mtwa's
than
on
mature
the
to
not but
because
woman sexually.
his
check
he wants power This
is
as an arm of indicated
She
hovers in
activities
sleep
with
her.
the
law
quite
to
98
laws.
Pelepele
on her to
woman.
liquor
African
The policeman
so much to
misuse
African
plight
does is
Kavanaugh
South
South
Madinto's
see
is
law
the
which
to
as Robert black
the
exploitation.
liquor,
black
laws
in
way
Failure
woman.
liquor
place,
he wants
the
criticizes
predicament
illicit
words,
Kente
African
Madinto's
around
exploit
the
the
retarded,
to
urban
Madinto exploit
is
Madinto
other
queen97
who represents
sympathies
to
oversimplify
sale
shebeen
who are the
is
This
tossed
uNosilimela.
Through
is
law.
policeman
whose
the
as human beings
African
the
which
notwithstanding
and somewhat
her
is
she
heroine,
of
plight
South
crippled
and in
greater
heroines
is
Too Late.
comes
that
creature
injustice,
presents
the
failure
indication
his
young,
his
against
perverted
Ntanana
fight
in
react
Kente
to
as a helpless
presents
which
Though ready
heroine
Kente
enough
from
is
his
early
the In
to in
157
the
illustrated as
play,
by the
following
excerpt:
Pelepele,
the policeman, has entered is busy meanwhile and Madinto, lightly her around her waist admiring caressing and thighs, though Madinto has kept on unconsciously brushing those touched He now pulls her bfr the dress. parts. Madinto:
What are dress!
Pelepele:
(Making
doing?
you
the
heart
Wenzani?
love
Pulling
my
We two talk
sign)
love. Madinto:
Notice
the
the
By
laws
South her
is
and her
daughter
know her of
a victim kind
this
goes
and comes back
only
we not
With
gives
African
of
house
to
dual
knowledge,
hence
and neat,
of preventing
whom social
queen
charged
find
her
by the
with
the
jailed
over
same policeman
as a black help system
the
contravening
nephew
human being,
we cannot
woman and condemning
sexual
against impression
dignified
shebeen
against
resistance
resistance
as clean
jail
murdered
oppression
otherwise
even
as a prostitute.
home to
as a dignified
this
a very
dismisses
Madinto
time
laws
liquor
she
the
from
as a stereotyped
automatically
uses
show Madinto's
Apart
her
You Sishumanel)99
you?
playwright
to
playwright
her
viewing
prejudice
the
which
when he describes
from
pass
What are
approaches.
exploitation,
us
(Voetsek!
Sishumane lesi! wena? ) him on aggressively.
directions
stage
policeman's
Madinto
Uyini
in way
the
insignificant
Voetsek! (advancing
but
person
the
she rebuffs,
we also
know that
and as a woman. with
sympathizing which
is
in
Southern
the
responsible
victimization. In
his
article
entitled
'Sex
and Politics
African
black for
158
Literature'
Lewis
people
the
people;
that
is
impression
that
there
100
black.
hatred
Nkosi's
between
illustrates terms.
that
shows
down
narrowed
Mda views
the
Mda's
the
in
trc-bled
from
in
exploited
girls
what
the
to
boundaries
racial
no sex problems
the
'dialectical
between
link
victimiser' sexual
End102
goes
exists
on sexual
,
lines
in
African
woman as a victim
and white
of
and
be
South
as the
guilty
in
analysis
cannot
black
and
example,
only
Nkosi's
between
man as much
for
oppression
beyond
black
love
of
101
and
analysing
black
black
the this
to
South
himself
black
Africa.
sexual white
man
oppression.
of
and rationalizes
black
which
sees
Mda castigates
sexually
Dead
urban
he
and
of
between
sex relations
are
victim
antagonism
black
form
view
oppression to
exploitation
this
narrow
to
he limits
to
and White,
Zakes
the
himself
reference
Black
this
racial
in
limits
and white
and gives and
Nkosi
'sex-starved
the
least
to
doing
that
arguing
103
kind
this
girl-friend
but
these
his
girls by
lives
conscience job.
of
as commodities
girls
Charley
survive.
whites'
for
his
he tells
by
attitude order
black
man who uses
Notice
need to
be
'selling'
is his
not attitude
Tseli:
if I, that And big Those suggest you money. earn girls think better their for you Charley, ways am responsible to 'round houses walk I don't girls recruiting go again. All Avenue themselves. Western to They the come streets. if I don't introduction. is In from case any they an me want for them look to will there else somebody - and you go out to have eat. anything won't
Charley but live
also with
exploits
through Tseli
black
keeping so long
women not
a woman only as she does
only
by
selling
them to
as a sex object. not
ask
for
marriage
He is
white
men
happy
to
or have
a baby.
159
When she Charley ...
',
gets does
not
he tells
African
Avenue
difference
are
sex
objects.
the
vivid
in woman
urban
confronts
dramatizations
him
of
South
the
African
is he when
and Tseli
taking
over the
of
Charley the
going
is my girl, 'This is a decent type
'Come on now. other whites,
I
Frikkie',
you,
her
play
smart.
Frikkie,
this
apparent
from
back.
his
the
A tug about
naivety to
contribution
is
there
no
Avenue,
between is
Tseli
one of of
the
narrates
how Frikkie
to
abortionist:
latter
the
And there that
is
'This
him,
tell
You are
is
status
attitude
of
the
war South
quo vis-a-vis towards
Tseli
taking
She
Tseli.
her
to
some
'
my girl.
He grabs What does he do, the bastard. I am as good as those he is 'Come baby,
Charley's
his
one of
.'
Don't '... eh?
am telling
I pulled
the
and of
that
'105
You sure You have brought me a nice one today. the same. I hope prices are still classy.
Oh Charley!
'I
it.
of
degradation
I was holding her. Her head was on my shoulder. that leaning sloppy signpost was Frikkie against Western Avenue. to one and all: announces
are
Tseli
tug-of-war
man,
drama.
rid
at Western
sells
extent
get
uy girl
him until
arguing
The subsequent a white
of
hit
Tseli, Charley
girls
sensible
So we must
does not
and Frikkie,
man,
'Be
treatment
attacks
and the
a black
black
customers
because
an abortion
it.
afford
general
her
all
go through
Charley's
of
woman in
white
Charley, most
can't
between
they
viz.,
'we
to
responsibilities.
implications
South
Western
family
want
Tseli,
The full black
she has
pregnant
Tseli taking
and says, you to. '
106 .,, African the
and about
situation black
during
this
urban
is woman
scuffle.
He
his
16o
believes
that
the
command greater
fact
which
he uses
her
girls
he sells
to
of,
spite attempts blinds mere
of
the
the
present
latter
which through
make
the
the
sy=: ýolizes devour black
to
either life
in
From his sees po
the
a direct
itical
defence
black
helping the
of
two
the
the
relationship
between
system;
Tseli
with
on the Is the
aim
which
obstacles
Mda is
level,
Africa,
South
Mda sees
apartheid
whose laws
the
black
called man rape
a system
du Toit
and practices the
represents the
quo.
status
the
woman dramatizes
upon to the
through
as
Frikkie
raped.
black
the
using
make a choice:
country
or to
risk
country. of
black
Charley's
Charley:
remove
perpetuate
presentation
the
to
has helped
white
in women
Frikkie
of
country.
is man
black
the
as a sex object.
and
men for
in way
Frikkie
against
Charley
the
the
107
Act.
country,
government
nourishing
between
continue
the
ravaged
minority
the when moment
critical
is
collaboration
man whose
The tug-of-war
his
of
Tseli
make her
relationship
that
is
to
black
with
his
from
statement.
Africa
white
instead
of
from
as a sex object.
abortionist
symbol
a political
in
on a deeper
that
sleep
antagonism
of
But
women.
Sex Immorality
different
exploitation
South
which
Tseli
to
woman as an appropriate to
takes
journey
be noted
should
his
not
to
guilt
behind
is
Charley's
may upset It
irony
the
from
Tseli
towards
attitude
himself
the that
defy
enough
no different
who want
whites to
exonerate
him fact
those
urban
is she
that
is
him
with
black
other
indicates
deliberately
or to
than
respect
lives
Tseli
that
black her
is woman
it woman plight
a victim
is
apparent
and the of
South
apartheid.
that
Mda
African This
is
161
different
quite
from
presentation
no doubt
one with two
problem
he does
black
of
white
writer
who
Queeny
is
malnourished
has
really
mother
black
her
wealth
is
prostitute
reminder
a constant utes of',
to
her
' men.
We cannot
'It's
present
fact
that
is
background
in
the
urban
the
plays
a true
to
he is
a
black
women
the her. of
dream of
In
fact
the
a greasy
a fat
that
shebeen
her
money I stinks
his
of
grow
of
pay-
childhood When
fat.
a nongogo110 but
queen,
serves
merely
living
sympathizing
with
as
and contrib-
don't
like
dirty
sheets
the
Queeny when we observe
feel
and
i1"] help
even
as a nongogo
experiences
earning 'It's
coin
and
money she gets
how she started torment.
whole
home and becomes
her
vacuum which
common poverty-
Queeny's
queen
from
flees her
the
frustrations.
a shebeen
the
a home of many
area,
who drinks
from
become
attains
phychological
she says,
unwashed
to
fill in
leave
woman's
to
enough
her
a father
she therefore
cannot
The first
do in
closely
and
families with
Queeny
prostitute.
queen
as an escape
dies,
lived
woman,
fully.
dreams: subsequently
her
never
the
black
black
example,
to
owing
leaves
work.
the
inability
Fridaz-l09
plays
the
playwright's between
is
problem
perhaps
children
on Friday
packet
second
a shebeen
home of
stricken
this
and Mda, for
heroines,
them
understand
in
two
towards
sympathetic
his
and No-Good
these
of
in
Fugard
Nongogo1o8
make a link
not
as Kente
The
above.
picture
to
that
in
viewing
is
Fugard
and apartheid,
examined
or the
can be observed
problems is
plight
that
by Athol
given
and Rebecca
The reading
respectively.
but
Queeny
of
impression
the
her
1ý2
torment
psychological her
reduced
in
her
pity a sex
stereotyped
had
e : 'er dignity.
The
character h.
traits
in
is
which
to
is
difficult
major
Rebecca that
the
latter
mate
for
Willie,
will
Rebecca's
services
expect,
but
to with
has been
Willie
South
portrayal
Willie
his
Kente's
to
that
years
Apart
from
playing
is
her
as a
a tart.
as a woman. inner
of
other
under
the
the
role
the from
spirit
woman not
No-Good
frustrated
Any
by her
in
servant
attitude
Late
This
conditions.
urban
with
Too
black
pillar
Rebecca
a domestic
any
as
heroine the
she
gain
of
her
as the
Queeny
to
either
enables
which
depict
treat
African
of
than
that
likely
Queeny
four
a condescending
heroine
impression
for
met,
his
audience.
motivated
act
not
herself.
trouble
presents
psychologically have
in
a man to
to
also
her.
this
give
in see
in
audience
ever
the
and which
grisly
the
the
is
for
us to
his
with
Rebecca
substitute
mother
the
marry
for
Fugard
search
but
with
lived
has
help
annihilate
under
problem
takes
Queeny exhibits
allow
on the
is
We
as a woman rather
towards
she
as a nogo o
as a woman.
some pride
and Madinto
Kente
which
personally,
survival
the
would
to
her
convince
that
or
above,
Fugard
survive
blacks'
Madinto
or by her
does
no time
to
experiences
dignity
of
presentation
her
Whereas
behaviour
conscience
guilty
her
attitude
queen
between
discussed
as
idiosyncratic
her
of
a woman
contrast
miss.
an being,
of ly
as
to
obvious
Fugard's
a shebeen
dignity
any
her
a man who treats
in
impact
the
that
whom she can regain
problems
with
too
too
and from
feeling
and robbed
for
search
are
interfere
her
a commodity
her
object, There
is
to
from
illusion of
as weft black
love
as a man.
appreciation Willie.
Friday.
one Willie,
112
X63
for in
example, his
see that
Notice
studies.
Taint
co
to
refuses
this
Rebecca
lack
of
has
him moral
given
from
appreciation
support
Rebecca's
:
I
how we was all said He corrected proud of him. it I looked word was 'admire' in that book up ... the words. You're all proud of something you had but you admire it someone that went all alone ... his in her rusty poor helped old him. canary pie if I wonder it that was best way. The
condescending
Rebecca
attitude
from
receives
The me. of his with a hand in, Not even Sometimes
Willie
coupled .ýý
the
wit:
is
support the
latter's enough
earliest too
and her
to
level
not to
any
make
of
about
very
perception
male
of
a whore
she has been his woman who has
to
leave.
But
to
make
a decision.
ambivalence
appreciate be
to
ambivalent
Willie
decisive
that
opportunity
sometimes
the
feeling
in
towards
her
relation
to
Willie
her
departure
even when the
her
support.
Fugard's at
chauvinistic
herself
in
the
this
following
is Her
situation
in
dignity
some
Rebecca
too
herself
make her
reduce her
indicated
towards Notice
this
take and towards
submissiveness
man has
point.
economic
subf. ýssive
and prevent
attitude
for
mate merely
herself
from
being
he does
Rebecca from
appears Rebecca's
speech:
four here these days? I been doing What do you think Oh, Guy! here watching been sitting I just Do you think What? ... it his food. I he cooking when wanted coffee making ... inside last this that knowed was our chance, something me with it God if to I'd think I've on give wasted call you and I've tried a woman everything can everything witness ... just it in here. here being tried I've tried I've try so it if I've tried he he wanted that on something ask. could I offered him the bed at night that only woman comfort a ... like dog him I have take let would a a man. me can offer 111 in it if be bitch the I thought takes would comfort. street a
By the
time
Rebecca
speaks
this
way she has had enough
humiliation
X64
to
n:ake her
is
too
ambivalent
to
the
image
Even has to
it
when the
bid
the
depends
the
is
absolutem,
worth
looking
which
has
that
very
makes
to
attempt
a victim
of
plight
of
black
Figure
Mother
in
(i"')
Leshoai
not
whose
women to the
of
artist
is
responsible
to
show
for
that
the
exploitation
people
African
Khayalethu
The mother literature,
(, ) South -,
figure
perhaps
is
backbone
the
their
Africa.
South
Rebecca
and towards Fugard
plight. urban be
cannot
The Blood
woman's divorced
from
Knot
1963
Africa:
Draw Monsters
Africa: Confused
important an
important more
man she has
ambivalent
black
of
Drama
Lines Mqayisa
a sense
apartheid.
under
Africa:
South
is
with
city
urban of
going
but
this
lacks
portrayal
not
attain
in
survive
Rebecca
dignity,
elusive
Rebecca
a woman,
as
South
that
her,
he is
in
or
represent.
need
with
she
herself
to
not
survival
But
to
whether
she finds
sexual
(M_) South
Fugard
latter
creative
which
doe
leaves,
aspect
heroines'
be true
Queeny who can never
black
so many
these
the
Benjamin
her
disturbing
as
Athol
finally
herself.
supposed
Willie
the
creature
treat
negligible
general
ask
unless
predicament
The
to
and dignity
situation
political
that
- clear
Like
for
to
woman she is
urban
She
in
some dignity departure
on Willie.
second
is
final
attitude
enabled
The
black
a hopeless
of
been
the
of
solely
personal
her
'good-bye'.
attitude
has
she still
about
submissive her
Queeny
if
leave
than
Mhlaba
character in
the
in urban
(Act
I)
1977
1974
urban
South
literature
African from
165
the
rest
the
of form
mothers
the
soc*o-economic One of problems
of
for
the
the
plays.
problems
the
black
with conditions
But
the duties
South
African
women
are
is
improve
given
expected
'You
are
are
to
already
more,
their
in
duties
this
organisation,
to
act
as messenger
besides for
'you
she was told, here
is
that
for
unbearable
all
magnified
already
the
in
role
men,
as
if
normal make
the
where the core
some of
to
do
of
Kompe
workload, and
she
wash
dishes.
115
better'.
working
women are the
function
Mrs
things the
where
major
tea
some
a black
situation
can do these
a country
blacks,
Kompe,
workers.
her
in
appalling.
have
whose
black
of
example,
The general
they
organisation
conditions
in
note
an
for
working
women are
ironical
a very
the
for
only
found
contend.
Mamma Lydiah
sex. cites
working
a woman',
The point
their
women not
of
because
worse
the
Africa.
accounts,
nature
black
men and is
activist,
extra the
black
of
the
to
and economic
figures
mother
of
linked
South
social
This
because
merely
is
on the
woman has to
situation
virtue
union
that
reports was
by
that
black
both
women the
extra
is
the
of
the
sustenance.
domineering
problem
which
working for
economic
and somewhat
Another
to
it
in
dwellers
owing
not
but
units,
urban
that,
is
this
many homes depend
men,
for
also
black
is
for
family
of
of
the
strong
conditions
to
foundations
problems
but
emotional
The reason
continent.
conditions
is
family
do
to
expected
affected
terribly. The mother is
based
which
black on
have
figure
is
people's
no female
important so experiences
character.
Athol
in that
South it
Fugard's
African is
found
The Blood
literature even
which
in
Knot
plays
116
has
166
only
two
in
force
dominant presented
the
mother
they
say
they
They
hold
the
conscience
in
man, inE
by the
the
the
watching
their
and
Morris:
on the
with
from
hindered vision
censoring
his
of
the
in
this their
but
they
awe,
and
Africa
These
There
she
is
are
For their
example,
mother.
a kind
of
plays
the
with
mother.
man and
He sees
Morris
In
I'd
fact
like
)
himself. Zachariah:
Carry
Morris:
(Walking
Zachariah:
Try.
Morris:
I'm
Zachariah:
Why?
to
...
their
mother
(stops
on.
) away.
I
can't.
you,
I
can't.
telling
that woman watching with questioningly stops and looks ) (Pointing. Over there.
Morris:
Not
Zachariah:
Old woman?
Morris:
Horribly
old.
us. at
white
game and mistreat-
actions:
(rising)
two
indicate
which
lives. knew
is
as a country
other.
play
black
contimiing
their
and Morris
play.
and
a very
one another.
Zachariah
where
in
in
force
father,
respect
by his
mother
points
relationship
role-play
is
black
characters
their
with
of
South
a great
knew
mother
Zachariah
is
figure never
latter
two
Zachariah
representing
various
is
figure
mother
The mother
mother
at
the
yet
and as a literal
statements
In
male;
play.
intertwined
are
various that
the
as a symbolic
on one level, levels
both
characters,
(Zachariah ) Morris.
X67
Zachariah:
And
Morris:
All the time. She's wearing
Morris:
And sore
Morris:
With sadness. day, all1Týong begging!
guilty
conscience
oppression closely
urban
forces
are
to
This
relation
to
her
relation
to
her
is
aware
ment
her
Notice robs the
the
role the
black
mother's
Night The two
their
her
the
great
that
implication child
of
econoxric
the
maternal
in way
care
treatment
asleep.
survival
Silence.
of
from
white which
for
of
The black her,
depends
yet
on her
the
at
commit-
children. this
Zachariah's
kind
of
situation
complaints
Miorris:
Suddenly
in
in and
other.
have
children
for
substitute of
preferential
men are
her
mother
loyalties
one hand,
on the
children
need
their
as a mother
on the
children
Africa.
substitute
divided
is
it
South black
urban
of
race's
black
which in
as a mother
their
however,
to
the
represents
for
level,
a situation
employer's
white of
in
Morris
Africans
of
things,
me all road ...
situation
situation
hey!
crooked,
situation
economic
other
puts
South
ambivalent
own biological
she knows
same time to
among
are
On another
economic
work,
children.
mother
by
disadvantaged
her
write
forced
see?
...
troubling
conscience white
the
Soapsuds
She's been following the road, unending
Africans.
to
connected
mothers The
South
)
The toes
liberal
of
black
of
of
Can't you on Sunday.
hands.
feet!
voice
)
dress
a grey dawning.
Zachariah:
the
us?
(Impatience
On brown
...
On one level
more
watching
(recognition
Zachariah:
the
she's
Zachariah
sits
about
168
in up
bed
Zachariah:
Ma.
Ma! Mother. Hullo. how are you, old There's woman? ... I need to know, something Ma Whose mother were you really? At the ... bottom is red of your heart where your blood tell with pain, love? me, whom did you really No evil feelings, Ma, but, I mean, a man's " got to know.
Fugard's to
sensitive
this
the
plight
perhaps
section
had
stand
their
his
to
devices,
the
of
wright's
is
of
the
Leshoai
in
respectively.
enough
play
and of
the
at
mother Confused
beginning from
fundamental figure I
fror:
black
1aba
119
he uses
portrayal
of
the
two
a female
Unfortunately,
these
to
characters in
result
blurring
effectiveness
the
of
the play-
woman.
of
this
the
differences
and that
because
underFugard
though
as
mother,
this
women to
appears
use of male
black
in
who has
a white
black
figure.
and the
detracting
politics
direct
mother
their
the
Knot
mother
elsewhere
and
with it
fact
avoid
black
of
African the
him
symbolism
situation
one of black
help his
of
As mentioned
This
closely
The Blood
use
South
as a male
in
presentation
divorce
writing
But
mother.
black
of
mentioned
disability which
the
disability
he is
that
African
presentation
actual
represent
the
visualize
relate
his
In
devices
character
the
South
urban
fully.
plight
of
literary
message
to
black
in
playwright
a chance
aware
the
problems to
do indicate
as a writer
of
owing
the
about
never
concerns
has
playwright
figures,
is
basic
section,
experiences between
of Khayalethu
and Lines
it
is
of
the
Fugard's Mqayisa
Draw Monsters
(Act
difficult
to
people. presentation and Benjamin I)
120 5
X69
Edna's victirization for
his it
and mother,
political
political
political
makes her
family,
to
detention
which
important
for
her
than
to Hlubi
long-term
husband
day-to-day
helpless,
Hlubi's an embittered of
becomes
his
of her
survival
ideal
national
Africa's
importance
the
about
the
South
makes her
only
cynical
renders
the
Her
not
Contribution
in
rooted
activists.
activities
also
commitment.
is
Ihlaba
Confused
black
of
detention wife
in
problem
more is
Hlubi
working
for.
introduces
Ngayisa in
his
discussion in
mother
the
have
children.
goes
a long
technical
of
Notice,
for
that
Rebecca
of
as stupid
is
other
women's to
attempts Joyce not
hand,
plays the
her
save
confined refuses
to
emphasize
important an
end of
the
road
heroine's
from role
in
making
and therefore
Rebecca
Joyce
is
domestic
horizon.
Hlubi
prevents
in
him
is
as for Mqayisa,
and sex. sexual
or
to
order
and
presented
support
support show
Where Rebecca's
succeeds realize
Joyce
portrayed
food
Hlubi
women as
of
Where
Joyce
she
detention
portrayal
the
fail
does
a
frustrations.
of
of
domestic
despair
full
matters
to
not
black
Rebecca's
relation the
African
Hlubi.
to
domestic
Willie
after
the
friend,
male
partner
beyond
Hlubi
a world
Friday.
No-Good
to
nor
South
between
difference
to
goes
role
in
families
Fugard's
his
with
of
is
Joyce
married
rehabilitating
Edna
complement
figures.
neither
importance
and as an equal
connection
that
in
in
men and
the
is
to
character
as mother
she
role
and submissive
Guy and Willie
in
her
example,
intelligent
on the
the
role
sense;
show the
way to
backbone
the
on women's
But
female
a second
with
that from
Hiubi. is
detention
succumbing
to
170
despair
and disintegration. In
Lines
dimension
the
of
goes
plight shows the
e playwright in
her
dual
role
Where
own children.
in
using
symbolism
ation
by portraying The dual
introduced
(Act
I),
and role
of
Draw Monsters
servant
Fugard
the
Knot,
of
the
people
gives
Lines
mother
this
of
us a clear to
black
mothers.
Draw
her
role
by
represent-
the
enact
South
of
and mother
implication
character
of
African
a black
which
white
full
urban
beginning
South
urban
Leshoai
female
an actual
at
the
of
a different
gives
through
blurs
The Blood
exploitation
right
black
frustrations
of
the
Leshoai
role.
African
is
mother (ict
Monsters
I):
in in Bloemfontein the the Province action opens of city Free State, The rather South Africa of Orange poorly . in dressed of laundry. mother comes a huge bundle carrying On the floor, A pair of trousers and a shirt. an old pair in A man's boots lies the middle of men's of the floor. is Masello throws hat old on the table. on one of the pots holds her hips the laundry resolutely. on the bed, The
Phew!
Masello:
occupants the all in this
Masello white
man,
is
no wonder
her
that
oppressors
husband
Nay nerves this white
Masello
from
more work grown-up
is she
emotionally
one another.
latter
herself
sees
tries
to
the daughter, No water
do as servant
to
children
the
upset Notice
this
comfort
her:
of
the
her dual
to ex-
it man, and
white
she cannot from
of
expect
also
as a victim of
and as a slave
slave
when
when the
her
that
them.
as a family
tation
t'r. e two
find
to for
do everything Fc
home carrying
arrives only
They can make one mad, Father, dump. sons, of this in the1ý? use! No fire same ... dishes Dirty drum! ...
Demmet!
her
distinguish retort
iron I've to they How wash and when need rest? can And that bundle? son of yours who man's great
to
171
gets lost I weep to (She
hides
her
is
Masello
her
manner
very
her
life
the
outside of
caution
Unlike domestic
Rebecca to
affairs
position
racial
discrimination
her
She admonishes
horizon. her
husband
in
but
She is
spite
very
For
example,
not
to
get
this
of
in
strong
them when they
influences
and she also
122 )
convulsively
oppression,
despair.
family.
family
and weeps
her to
difficult
in
Friday
Masello
the
jeopardize
the
them
make
on
as the
she acts
by
overwhelmed
way
the
urban
ir-, )lications
his
by her
suffered
black
her
of black
awareness
certain
which
in
engrossed
great
oppression in
too
deeper
demonstrates
and general to
is
who
to
attention
Africa,
system
their
No-Good
pay
sensitive
very
apartheid with
to
succumb
warning
in South
is
hands
daughter,
involvement.
political
She
not
unnecessarily
matters
her
sensitive
handling
of
in
face
she does
sensitivity
voice
in a haystack! Why, your a needle of her as a future mother ...
like think
of
aspects
of
the
people. the
maternal
mothers'
people's
relations
children:
if to listen How many black me would mothers the to they In the hate? to go mornings not boys little the look and girls. white after
I asked them to city great Their own
they At devils' come night, wiles! exposed children fire, find to no home tired no no children, and exhausted, Some tea nothing! come food, not even a cup of no water, been have their home to find arrested children ... to
Lines
Although
glimpses
picture
of
we get
very
Draw Monsters of
picture
us a comprehensive the
the
from
strong
the
women.
the
(Act urban
character
Masello's
I)
is
too
black of
short
South
Masello
hatred
African
leave
for
the
to
a play
mother,
us with
white
give
the
people
172
may not but to her
her note
be the
in way
daughter
already
The representation characters
I2 laba
and Masello
vation
Ellen
women's the
such in
She and
is
Lines
says,
integrity
strong
as Madinto
Kuzwayo,
rights.
strength
of
is
only into
one of 'I
the
influenced
a political
fighter.
Too Late,
African
South
(Act
Africa's
black
has
and yet
in
South
significant
a teenager
urban
am convinced of
awareness
that
Joyce I)
woman'.
in
is
she
women Confused
supports
fighters
for
South
Africa
124
Africa,
South
is
It
crucial.
black
Draw Monsters
in
problems
political
developing
of
people's
as a mother
The girl
signs
through
black
Masello's
which
Dikeledi.
showing
of
the
awareness
political the
to
solution
the
obser-
black stands
on
173
NOTES TO CHAPTER 3
1
Louis James, The African Literature London, Heinemann,
2
See, for example, 'The (Nairobi, East African in Kalenjin the Drought' Heinemann, forthcoming).
3
E. Mphahlele, Oganda's Journey, dramatization unpublished of Grace Ogot's 'And the Rain Came' in Land Without short story Thunder by Grace Ogot (Nairobi, East African Publishing House, 1968), undated.
4
I_bi d_.,
5
J. L. Henshaw, Children London, University of the Goddess, of London Press, 1964. All references and quotations are from this 'The For detailed Role edition. analysis, see under of Women as Wives below. of Leaders'
6
Op. cit.,
7
Ibid.,
8
Op. cit., edition.
9
Ibid.,
p. 1.
'
Protest in Tradition', (ed. ) by Cosmo Pieterse 1969 reprint, p. 109.
italics
Protest
and and Donald
in
Conflict Munro,
Rain Came' in Kikuyu Folktales by R. Gecau Publishing House, 1968) and 'The Story of (Nairobi, Oral Literature by C. Chesaina
mine.
J. p. p. 5. pp"79-95"
All
references
and
quotations
are
from
this
85. p.
10
in The Shield, Magere's There Were Strings Ochieng-Konyango, on (ed. ) by Chris East African Literature Nairobi, Wanjala, Debtors All 1977, pp. 13-60. Bureau, and quotations are from references this edition.
11
Ibid.,
12
R. Sarif references analysis Building.
Easmon,
13
pp. cit
p. 25.
p. 27,
",
italics
mine.
OUP, All Ogre, London, 1964. and For detailed this from edition. and quotations are Post-Independence Nation this on of play, see section Dear
Parent
174
14
Austin Bukenya, The Secret David Cook and Miles Lee, 83-11)+. All pp. references
15
Ibid.,
16
Aloys
17
Op. cit.
18
0
19
Op. cit.
20
Ibid.,
21
CID.
22
Op. cit.,
23
Op. cit.
24
Tom Omara, The Exodus, in Short (ed. ) by David East African Plays Cook and Miles Lee, )47London, Heinemann, 1968; 1970 reprint, pp. 66. All references and quotations are from this edition.
25
OT-cit.,
P. 51.
26
OP-cit.,,
P. 50.
27
Ibid.,
p. 55.
28
Ibid.,
pp.
29
Isaac
30
Nyambura Mpesha, The 1981. All references
in Short East African (ed. ) by Plays London, Heinemann, 1968; 1970 reprint, and quotations are from this edition.
P. 95. Odhiambo,
Odanga's
Flower,
unpublished
play,
Nairobi,
1982.
P. 9.
cit., .
p. 18.
p. 18.
65-66.
Waweru,
The
End
of
the
Happening, and
Road,
unpublished
Nairobi,
quotations
are
play,
Kenya,
1982.
Kenya Literature Bureau, from this edition.
(Charles) Nokan, Abraha Poukou ou Une Grande Africaine, Paris-Honfleur: J. P. Oswald, 1972. All references and are from this quotations edition.
31
Zegoua Paris,
32
Op. cit.,
33
Ibid.,
p. 2.
31
Micere
Mugo & Ngugi
p. 1.
wa Thiong'o,
The Trial
of
Dedan Kimathi,
175
London,
Heinemann, 1976; 1984 reprint. quotations This are from this edition. in Chapter detail 5. greater
All text
references and is discussed in
35
Mulokozi, Mukwava wa Uhehe, Nairobi, East African House, 1979; 1985 reprint. All references and quotations For greater are from this detail edition. see 'The Role of Women in the Struggles Colonialism'. against
36
Ama Ata on this
37
Op. cit.,
38
Ibid.,
p. 33.
39
Ibid.,
p. 36.
40
Ibid.,
p. 13.
41
Frantz Haakon
Fanon, A Dying Colonialism, Chevalier, Harmondsworth,
42
Ibid.,
p. 3)4.
)43
Kenneth Watene, Ltd. 1974. All 5
Mugyabuso Publishing
Aidoo, text,
Anowa, London, 5. see Chapter
Dedan
Kimathi,
references
Op. cit.
)45
Emmanuel Mbogo, Tone la University Dar-es-Salaam
46
Op.cit.,
47
Ibid.,
48
Op. cit.
49
op. cit.
50
Op. cit-
51
pp. cit.,
52
Translations are mine.
cit., .
1970.
For
detailed
analysis
p. 18.
4
53
Longmans,
translated from Penguin, 1965.
Nairobi. and
Mwisho Press,
Transafrica quotations are from
(The
last 1981.
drop)
,
the
French
by
Publishers thiE edition.
Dar-es-Salaam,
p. 9. l3. p. See Chapter
5 for
detailed
examination
of
this
text.
p. 10. from
46. p.
Kiswahili
into
English
on this
and other
texts
176
54
Ibid.,
)43. p.
55
Ibid.,
P. 75.
56
Qp. cit.,
57
Ibid.,
58
Chinua Achebe, Vol. 31, no. 59,
59
Lubwa P'Chong, Press, 1983.
The Minister's All references
60
Lubwa P'Chong London on 7th
interviewed July, 1985.
61
op. cit
62
R.
p-35-
Sarif
Ola All
mine.
p. 29-
'The Black Writer's Paris, 1966, p. 138.
Easmon,
references
63
Italics
and
Burden',
Wife,
Kampala, and quotations by the
B. B. C.,
The
New Patriots, quotations are from
'Arts
Has Gone Mad Again, and quotations are from this
references
64
Op. cit.,
65
Ibid.,
66
Op. cit.,
67
Ibid.,
68
Op. cit.
69
Ibid.,
70
(Stumps), Nairobi, Visiki Ongeti, Khaemb a from this are quotations and references
Africaine,
New Expression edition. are from this and Africa'
London, Longmans, this edition.
Our Husband
Rotimi,
Presence
London,
1965.
in
All
OUT, 1977.
edition.
pp. 18-20.
pp. 18-20,
see excerpt
above.
8)4. p. 8L+. p.
pp. 10-11. Heinemann,
1984.
All
edition.
71 72
Ibid.,
pp-1-2.
73
Ibid.,
52'53. pp.
74
pp. cit"
75
Professor 1986.
All
Mazrui
in
'The Africans',
B. B. C. Television,
)4th 1,,ay
177
76
Seydou Badian, The Death of Chaka, Translated Clive Wake, Nairobi, OUP, 1968. All references are from this edition.
77
Joe
de Graft, and quotations
Muntu, are
Nairobi, from this
Heinemann,
from
the French and quotations
1977.
All
by
references
edition.
78
Mukotani Rugyendo, The Contest in Barbed Wire and Other Plays, London, Heinemann, 1977, pp. 36--58. All references and quotations are from this edition.
79
Chaka (otherwise known as Chaka the Zulu) was a renowned king the Zulu of Southern Africa battles who led many successful between the Zulu and rival ethnic groups.
8c
Op. cit.,
81
Ibid.,
82
Op. cit.,
83
Op. cit.
84
Michael Etherton, Hutchinson & Co.
85
Op. cit.,
86
Ibid.,
87
is 1967 historical The 'Arusha Declaration' of a significant in Tanzanian It marked the beginning landmark of politics. initiated development towards structure economic a socialist Julius Nyerere. the then President of Tanzania,
of
pp. 22-23. p. 314.
83. p.
The Development Drama, of African (Publishers) 1982, p. 90. Ltd.,
Lcndon,
)40. p. 47. p.
the by
8E
in The in a modern African State' Alex La Guma, from 'The Writer (ed. ) Nordiska in Uppsala, by Per Wastberg, Africa Modern Writer (p. 22). 14-36 1968, Afrikainstitutet pp.
89
Nancy Harrison, Ltd. Gollanz
,
Winnie Mandela, 1985, p. 60.
Mother
of
a Nation,
90
Percy Mtwa, Mbongeni Ngema and Barney Simon, All 1983. Methuen, and quotations references edition.
91
Ibid.,
92
In
order
Lcndon,
Victor
Woza Albert, London, are from this
16-19. pp. to
live
in
the
urban
area
or
to
move fro--
one area
to
178
in urban South Africa, another a non-white person has to have from the South African permission Such permission is government. identity stamped in a personal document known as the pass. A nonis required white to carry this document at all times as the police can demand to see it any time and at any place; failure to the pass, produce for any reason, when asked to do so is construed as contravention of the South African laws. apartheid Permission for non-whites to move from one place to another is not automatic and victimization on account of the pass laws occurs very frequently.
93 94
95
P. 37.
cit., .
Credo Mtwa, uNosilimela, Mtwa, Shenzi and Workshop Heinemann, 1981, pp. 1-61. this edition.
in
Gibson Kente, in Too Late, 85-123. All pp. references
South Africa's '71 selected by All references
South and
African quotations
People's Plays R. M. Kavanagh, and
by Kente, London, are from
quotations
People's Plays, are from this
ibid., edition.
96
Zakes Mda, Dead End, in We Shall Sing for the Fatherland and Other Plays by Zakes Mda, Jonannesburg, Eavan Press, 1978, pp. 1566. All references and quotations are from this edition.
97
Shebeen in sold are
is
the
urban known as
name given South Africa. shebeen
98
See, for example, in Theatre People' Mushengu Kavanangh, 122).
99
Op. cit.,
100
to
illicit where place in deal women who
the The
liquor illicit
is liquor
queens.
'A Deep Insight and Cultural London, Zed
into the Loves and Hates of our in South Africa Struggle by Robert (p. Books Ltd., 1985, pp. 113-1)44
p"94.
'Sex and Politics Lewis Nkosi, Papers Sheffield on Literature (ed. ) by Christopher Literature l). (p. 1-12 pp.
12. p.
101
Ibid.,
102
pp. cit.
103
Ibid.,
p. 51,
104
Ibid.,
pp. 51-52.
in
Southern African Literature' Papers and Society: on African London, Multicopy, Heywood,
in 1976,
17'
105
Ibid.,
P-53.
1O
Ibid.,
pp.
11.7
The Sex Immorality Act is one of South Africa's laws which the apartheid used to maintain This particular status quo. forbids between people sex relations of different races.
1ý8
Athol Fugard, in Dimentos Nongogo, and two Early Fugard, London, OUP, 1977, pp. 55-115.
109
Athol ibid.,
63-64.
Fugard, in No-Good Friday, All pp. 117-16). references
Plays
Dimentos
and two and quotations
Early are
are law
by Athol
Plays, from this
edition. is
110
A nongogo especially
111
Op-cit.,
112
Op. cit.
113
Ibid.,
p. 123.
i11
Ibid.,
pp. 151-152.
115
Stephanie January
116
117
Athol The Blood Fugard, by Athol Fugard, London, quotations are from this in 1963. published Ibid., p. 91.
118
Ibid.,
119
Khayalethu All 1974.
a cheap among the
in
prostitute miners.
South
Africa
who solicits
P. 97.
'A World Urdang, 19855 p. 8. 14th,
Apart
in
Africa',
in
The
in
Boesman and Lena All 1978, pp. 1-97. The Knot Blood edition.
Knot, OUP,
Guardian,
Plays and Other references and was originally
81. p. Mqayisa, references
Confused
Mhlaba,
and quotations
Johannesburg, are from this
Ravan Press, edition.
120
(Act in Contemporary I), Monsters Lines Draw Leshoai, Benjamin (ed. ) Johannesburg, Ravan Pereira, Plays by Ernest African South All 1977, pp. 251-266. Press, are from references and quotations this edition.
121
Ibid.,
258. p.
122
Ibid.
259. p. ,
p -ý. ý.,ý.,
123
Ibid.,
124
'Not Weeping Behind the Door Davies Me Call on her book, in New Africa, January 1985, in Call Me Woman. expounded
p. 265. interviewed Kuzwayo , (London, Women's Press, oman is No. 213, p. 42. This view Ellen
by
Wendy
1985)
181
PART
THEPORTRAYALOFWOMEN BYMAJORPLAYWRIGHTS
II
182
CHAPTER ý+
THE PORTRAYAL
This
chapter
to
attention the-. - are In between by
inE J. P.
course
the
representation
comparison,
the
the
sections
Women's
Women and
J. P.
and
these the
are,
Ruganda;
Development':
issues,
women's
genre.
and
Femi
J. P.
Clark
Bekederemo
(M)
(Bekederemo)
and
Ruganda
(M-1) Uganda:
and
Osofisan,
John
with
Rugarda
1964 1964 Death
and
Ibrahim
Nigeria:
Covenant
that
and
Change
Social
Imbuga
made
Tradition':
wa Thiong'o.
Tradition:
are
correspond-
sections
'Women
buE.
To facilitate
chapter. three
male
considerable
playwrights
male
The Masquerade Song of a Goat John
given
observations
'Women,
Francis
major
dramatic
the
next into
These
Hussein,
and Cultural
Ngugi
Clark
in
5.
John
in
comparative
divided
Chapter
and to
society
women by
is
Ebrahim
Politics
and
discussion,
chapter in
in
writers
examined
(Bekederemo)
Liberation':
'Women in
women
of
who have
playwrights
creative the
of
of women by eight
portrayal
only of
established
the
Clark
Soyinka
position
playwrights
to
not
are
female
the
this
the
also
the
examines
These
playwrights.
OF WOMEN BY MAJOR MALE PLAYWRIGHTS
1973
Wole
Ngozi;
183
J. F.
(Bekederemo)
Clark
as a playwright, is
drama
in
believes
on the
the
African
modern
following
and lecturer
critic
based
African
African About
in
the
since
traditional
traditional drama.
to
involved
has been
Clark
Nigerian
as the
drama,
for
-Nigeria
1960s.
early
milieu.
heritage
in
theatre
Clark's
strongly
foundation
of
he has
example,
the
say:
Contrary begin at
to what Nigerian drama did not some seem to think, the University The roots there, of Ibadan. go beyond they than that. Very likely, and one hopes, are more enduring they lie have been found where they among other peoples of the /The/ deep in the past the earth, of race of origins ... i'igerian drama /are/ in the early likely to be found religions The and magical ceremonies and festivals of this country. the egwugwu and mmo masques egungun and oro of the Yoruba, of the Ibo, and the owu and oru water of the Ijaw are masquerades dramas typical of the national repertory still generally 1 today. unacknowledged John of
East
Ruganda
America's
involved
was
Theatre
interested
in
customs
affect
another
in
urban
in for
tradition. constrain circumscribed
He is
and
the
roles.
From
the
University
Nairobi is
Ruganda traditional
interaction
social
one
mid-1970s,
of
a playwright,
how African
and
one
with
Africa.
in
believes African
critical
individual
As in
also
their
the
of
a decade. and
playwright
directors.
development
the
problems
contemporary
contemporary
theatre
almost
contemporary
Clark
leading
committed
individuals
Although of
Uganda's
most
Travelling
basis
is
Ruganda
drama
of by
Indeed,
the
insisting the
African
traditional he
is
in way that playwright
by
no means
one's
of
an admirer
tradition
which
as the
cultures
tends
behaviour
seems fascinated
fits
to into by the
X84
between
conflict lives.
Most
is
Titi
here
that the
examines
their
in
suitors, of
traditional
suitor.
milieu
as
their
refusing
his her
against
life
in
it
a Goat3
he
through
independent
due
their
marry.
But
from
his
but
marriage
to
her
all
acceptin
girls
a
or
marriage
that
appear
oral
refusing
to
told
delaying
of
African
marriage,
is
story
would
issue
the
her
tragically
on who to
Titi,
approach
of
against
advice
to
ends type
a warning
heroine,
and too
strong
delays
girl
This
parents'
of
portrayal not
wrong
curtailed
individualism
on a common narrative
her
eventually
is
communities.
a beautiful
which
until the
based
tradition-
the
and Song of and
too
who are
in
individuals as
act
she
between
conflict
position
traditionalism
traditional is
women's
to
he or
which
theme.
The Masquerade2
respectively,
?!asquerade
literature
In
between
conflict
on the
as a dominant in
in
community
depend
plays
freedom
men.
conservative
The
ance
their
the
of
and Ebiere,
for
early
interested much
very
since
than
more
and the
individualism and
Clark milieu
Clark's
of
traditionalism
al
individual
the
Clark's
is
warning
against
traditionalism. Titi
in
a stranger
his
lineage al
her
his
encourages
from
her
delays
social
consummation
community.
and good in
important It
context. of
the
eventually
and
his
behaviour
daughter.
determining
is
marriage
during that
a person's
the
last
Tufa's
judges
ufa
background
and
in
worth
the
before
celebration background
Tufa,
with
Tura
Diribi
that
forgetting
love
welcomes
Diribi,
father,
Titi's with
relationship
wealth are
marriage
in
falls
is
and
traditionthe
revealed.
The
185
fact
that
Tufa
circumstances and
Diribi
unworthy
his
as
died
mother
traditionally birth
giving
is
The major
and
Clark's
not
and a conflict important as in
conflict
traditionalism
progressiveness
unaccertable to
hiii
make hire
individualism
of and
has
Titi
be
She
will
his
background.
not
persuade Titi:
her
by
She uses to
it
than
desert
to
reject
very
backgrc,
-=d
between
him and
'iti
strong
hand,
one
on the appears
of her
thought chosen
From he is
that
fiance
strength
arguments
Had you not
accepted
kept
as a fan
us waiting
of
must
the
fine
of
parents
Tufa:
I
more
regardless
when her
in face dangling don't my go ignorance in and overflow r
Of spirits Feathers. Umuko:
and
individual-
other.
and
to the You called witness clan all herself A union you said the soil to sweet fruition ...
Diribi:
between
a conflict
him hand brought When I first then In hand to you, occasion was the correct had I the To question was stranger who failed But you not only for husband. Chosen To find name was, you actually what his bright fresh, him Went the length on of showering More, Ones of your own making. friends in the presence and there Right of all The family you around, gathered in Invited open arms and eyes with us Full of dance ...
Titi, That
to
for
traditionalism.
independence
persuaded
Titi
characters
progressiveness
tremendous
is
on the
represented two
this
as love.
Diribi
by
the
arises
The Masquerade
represented
portrayal
On learning
a son-in-law.
Tufa
now rejects
whom background
to
that
and
in
uncle
4
taboo
ism
by his
was fathered
welcome
dagger
will. of
try
186
Longer Titi:
than
So that
parents
the
play,
Titi
as to
ation
favoured? Was that insistant his so with 5 talk of dowry?
the
reverses
on the
her
why Tufa
father's
should
the
of
other
for
judge
wrongs
placing
demanding
an explan-
before
committed
in
Later
way round.
by
arguments
suffer
why approval,
and becomes
situation
instead
defensive
crushes
cared
I
was all
Tltl
excerpt
her
last
...
little
was why you
Who at Father Waiving
In. This
was natural?
he was
born. Titi's
to
creek
all
her
Diribi his
cope and
be
the
a beastly
seen
fate
Anowa7. with
best
Diribi
or
sail
towards
his
fowl
offer.
to
the it
describes
by the
rejected
is she
She will
an answer She
from
that
women.
find
cannot
her
with
indicates
her
man for
attitudes
fish
He hunts
in women
Aicoo's
to
offer
describes
'like
in
latter
the
is
death
Titi
on sale,
daughter.
should
minded
the
of
a commodity.
which
uses
slaughters Ti-ti
father's
as
meanest
6
hoI. sehold'.
and
her
traditional
to in
style
putting
search
negative
be reduced
direct
of
in
creek
against
not
rejection
of
the
strong,
Conservative
of
to
Tufa
and
a most
conservative
women like
independence
in
method
Titi
merciless
context
the
resolve
the
of
like
animals
way.
The
independent traditional
these
heroines,
perhaps
thought
exposes
some of
death
their
weaknesses
of
independent-
Titi's
in Anowa as
communities
because the
strong
him
eventually
communities.
women such African
and
tragic of
position
African
traditional
between
conflict
Ama Ata
cannot strength n these
187
that
is
It
cultures. the
agents
heroines
as
imagine
that
fa--'-,-.er
Hence
dismisses
he who has
in
what
way
than
clung
traditionalism.
have
I
done
who I than well loin
is
Masquerade opposite
of
comunity'
his
what
the
for
respect
traditional In minded bases
Song and
this
the
individuals
cannot
tradition
could
'the
of
of
a Goat9
may never and
comment
to
belief
Clark
in woman
on a wide-spread
is,
that of
in
in
choice this
play
rigid The
exact it
devours them
encouraging
Clark's
that
the
ser-ves
instead
of
role
conclusion
serve;
individual
weaker
on the
playwright's
development.
progressive
label
play
Diribi
my heart I have - all
Clark's
supposed
women and his
sensitive
a witch
wrong
traditionalism
is
cultural the
of
role
is
conservative culture
towards
as
as male that so at the earth's
appear
s progressive
contribute play
would
that
to
so rigidly
took for a harlot.
root
Titi
of
It
Anowa
such
a prostitute.
Deep centre, come drought come disease Run out But Titi, Titi I loved ... innocent To think between sat my laps Who I have hugged to myself as island, A river laps an now seeks To dam my path, even as I an0wer The unavoidable to sea. call murder
treat
communities
Woman dismisses
weaknesses
girl:
Except that the one Has turned out worse Fathered maidens as By the labour ofy The river that took
Diribi's
up their
covering
these
as worse
always
a non-conformist
Yet
Old
Titi
of in
conservation
outcasts.
Diribi
while
of
intention
the
with
of
a
to
a woman to
demonstrates
women do nog deserve
the
sex'.
examines
the
plight African
a conservative tradition
in
Africa
of
independentan co =unity. whereby
Clark a woman
188
is
passed
of
her
to
over
husband)
her
in
a case
ch. 1dren.
Oyin
the
background
social
(or
brother-in-law where
Ogunba views of
her
this
an appropriate is
husband
tradition
to
unable
as too
relative
father to
commonplace
He implies
drama.
serious
male
this
form
when he says:
The point being explored here is that of tradition a commonlike this, place matter namely the handing over of a wife to brother by an impotent is brother, a virile yoL_, elder _n¬er
to assume such tragic is a normal This allowed proportions. in in is it tribes Nigeria, practice number a of although kept involved. by those But a jealous brother often secret is at stake his manhood that himlead may feel and thereby into irredeemable Besides, self action. of the meaning part incident is to be found in the introduced of the complexity itself, by modernism is gradually which making people individually important irrespective of the sequence of their 10 birth.
Ogunba's on his
effects tip
the
of
level
for
psychological
effects
idiosyncrasies
will
Clark's on the
nded
women.
leads in-law
seriously her
It role
reproductive
very
of
to
by the
of
in rebel
should of
is
the
this be
tradition noted
women which,
against
community.
the In
idea
order
attempt
as
discussed
by
the
of for
the
have
deep
and a person's
and
passed ceremony
independent
depends
tradition in
to
playwright
1,
Chapter
iere's
communities. being
to
effect.
sensitive
this
as normal
not
directly
such
that
African
traditional
of
on
it
to
On a broad
drama.
for
involved
degree an
this
may be regarded
impossible
is
Ebiere
in
tradition's
insensitivity
critic's
one
who are
determine
effect
as this
it
but
on those
portrayal
of
involved
such
all;
this
this
of
examination
out
characters
a tradition
and. satisfactory
ccrent
arises
characters
predicament
cc=unal
on Clark's
reservations
over to
to
on the is
taken
sensitivity her
be carried
brotherout,
189
Ebiere
have
would
Ebiere
something
This for
failing
'I
sleeping
and thereby to
Ebiere's
is
drawn
She
the
and
emphasizes
in
traditional
Clark her
speak
in
that
which
between
importance
/ Not
to
Notice
foremost
to
language
a person
of
in
that
her
stronger
of
is love
the
for
like
someone
who has been it
mind
is
the
and not
in
adult
frustration
play
the
half
sexual
desire
her
is
scuffling
than
bitter,
more
to
husband
have
on the
on the
one The
other.
role our
a
of
a woman to
maidens
13
after
fulfilment
of
her
from of
possibility
fact
of
by making
intercourse and her
a trance
released
the
an
grows
'we fatten
sense
morning
out
same time
as
procreational
them'.
Ebiere's
carried
sexual
expectations
thwart
the
not
Ebiere's
when he says,
capture
almost
Much
her
her
'Ebiere mock
communal
satisfy
the
lyrical
is
is
to
attempts
She speaks
imprisonment.
torn
is
says,
to
into
children.
their
and
refers
community
Tonye. like
is
fruition,
for
prepare
Laurence
need
Masseur this
she
the
at of
marriage
attraction'.
Margaret child.
hand,
Tonye
towards
sexual
attraction second
when
Masseur
her
has been
while
Zifa.
She says,
leads
ritual
produce
12
half
anger,
implies
Laurence
to
for
the
gives
is
This
concern
impotence.
expectations
her
with
and
independence
regulation
is
marriage
frustration
as Margaret then
in
role
love
Zifa's
necessary
community's
was impotent.
Ebiere
reason
Her
a communal her
satisfy
the
her
about
11
before
husband
to
owing
parents
him'.
breaking
woman whose
and
hurt
her
by the
her
Tonye
with
do,
illustrated
to
want
that
prove
not
inform
to
do not
trying
could
is
attitude
had to
with
behaviour
a long
period
having
conceived
having
had sexual
of
ýjv
as Laurence
satisfaction is
It
it.
have
would
She tells
there,
All I know it, it is for right, and you. I am so happy. Tonye, let's fly And set up house in another You'll creek. Cast your hold the net and I'll stern until
We have The
our
?'asquerade.
societv,
sensitive
is
in
Matama
J,iatama
in
traditional
his
shows
before
goddess
of
To
living
in
between
the
portrayal
With
for
that
is,
of 15
when
they
conservative
as the
fate
of
communities.
Ebiere
and that
role
is
barrenness
in
her
an act
dedicate
o
portrayal
procreational
and her rooted
inher
Ruganda's
their
is
conflict
traditional
rigid
in
barren
barrenness
born,
views
Death.
women
Mat ama is
is
Clark
what
the
The
not
of
parents
her
to
the
art
the
fruition.
evoke
over
Matama the
Notice
is
state her
his
Matama
allows
and for
for
sympathies
story-telling
anxiety
women
sympathies
in
in
Titi
of
expectations
is
Matama's she
communal
Covenant
Africa.
own making.
commit
torture.
Ruganda's
of
that
impact
the
death
Her
a parallel
John
of
and
r.
a
to
similar
as a result
independent
and
There
contempt
dies
is
Ebiere
of
individuality
her
traditional
her
death
Ebiere
Oh,
14
child.
eventual
between
Tonye:
presented of
being
anxiety
fron
heroine, to
tell
as
Ruganda her
adding
uses
The
own story. insult
barren
causes
the
following
to
her
injury
enough
excerpt
of
community's since
psychological of
her
stork-:
in need of a harvesting I was desperately season -I saw juniors of my age, even my command more respect girls other I saw them harvest from the farmers. as though their shambas*
Shamba - Kiswahili
word
for
'farm'.
her
1 ýý
inside life. were teeming I felt though with as my was made inside Dead, dry wood. My very of dead wood. was tormented by a deep wound, a wound I could not heal, a wound nobody heal. It fermented could The and festered as time went by. biting dug deeper and deeper as men passed me by - even my father's they hardly servants whenever passed me, they could look They would in at 1g. walk a few steps off and spit disgust.
Apart setting
of
from
helping
this
play,
the
helps
bring
human fertility fertile
use
ostracised
by
the
infectious
disease.
To understand it
is
important
for
scorn
is
Barrenness
barren a
ity
in
regarded implied
other
as
is
as a curse,
is woman
feared
as null
or
in
and void, statement,
two-fold.
taken
to
a punishment servants
the
for
in and to
avoid
crops.
Matama's
all
because
her
of
I was hardly
from
an
torture,
spitting
of spit
the
out
of
for
communities act
by
committed
contamination. interaction
some communities cause
being
suffering
responsible
an evil
to
of
into
her
They
be
their
'There
significance
Many African
spit
as likely
of
of
the
psychological
is
herself.
regarded
people
by her
she
describe
enhance
a person
implication
rural
treatment
leads.
of Matama's
is
the
the
also
like
to
helps
barrenness
treated
extent
upon
the
Secondly,
Her
The reason
Matama
barrenness
that
victim.
with
pass
it
Notice
the
her.
barrenness
about
believe
the
understand
barren
the
bringing
the
to
as they
servants
fully
between
the
of
imagery
addition,
imagery. and
atmosphere
a contrast In
community
cultural
agricultural
Matama.
disease
of
of
out
for
sympathies
r'atama's
use
barren.
women and the
audience's
the
convey
disaster beauty
or
and youth This
barrenness. eighteen
infertil-
years
old
are is and
X92
in
their
I was worse
eyes
Ruganda death
to
ion
this
of
Yes
she this
out, my poor (She Old
Man:
the
of
women
in
is V ho
is
passive. between
tossed
attempt
to
L-.- the
two
questioning like women resistance.
in In
women.
extremely
in
plays
contrast
her
men.
Covenant
contribute
like
husband the
against
tradition,
is
She
but
the to
the
her
reacdeath:
Titi
are
NNamuddu in his
leaves
status
towards their strong
intolerant
to
being
used
by the
quo by their
strong ?Iatama
Black
and
no doubt left
women
Ruganda's
Ruganda's
does as
that here lack
women
portrayal
are
employer of
impression
completed is purged of debt paid by
here,
Ebiere,
and
and
its
sympathetic
which
Death
the
curse The air inherited
heroines
humiliation
With
recog-
)
has
examined
Clark's
to
from after
...
equally
communities
rebel
her
the
implied an
village
wailing
and
are
significantly.
freedom
of
Ruganda
and milieu
differs
independent
weeping
is
in, dead! Death death ... is a butchery. Oh my ?`_atama,
dead,
our village Mat ama ...
starts
Clark
traditional
search
dead,
women wholesale
community
Matama's
Oh multiplying The evils! (Then to himself) circle. d the wanton affinities, an unknowing child.
Although it
is
the
and eventual
community's
barren
There by
community the
of
the
condemns
from
her
a result
tradition
of
representatives
Baraura:
is
circumstances.
weakness
two
of
from
alienation
which their
considering
hag'.
an old
The tragedy
traditionalism
without
tions
Matama's
tradition.
inflexible
r.
traces
than
17
Mamba
19
not
a sex
object
= uganda
is
is ne
that
of
193
The difference to
attributed lineal
two
one whereas
then in
in
that
the
Ama Ata
definite
that
Ruganda
of of
play20
drama, it
when
is two
as the
latter
is to
comes
playwright Ruganda
a matri-
is
It matches
a seasoned
his
is
background
heroines
women can be
of
patrilineal.
unlike
Clark
portrayal
cultural
Clark's
Secondly,
with stands
playwrights'
Clark's
society.
experimenting
two
factors.
strength
Aidoo's
matrilineal
the
no wonder
that
comes from
also
playwright of
a
be
to seems who
portrayal
Anowa
of
has
and
characters,
or
male
female.
Women:
Social
Ibrahim
Ngozi
Ebrahim
Hussein
(M)
Imbuga
Ngozi
Ebrahim
Hussein
Hussein 21
(Kinjeketile) w',-. ch has in
Tanzania
colonial
so far
Kiswahili. at
her
country's periods.
(M)
Women's
Liberation:
Tanzania:
Alikiona Wakati
Kenya:
is
is
known
been
political
with
the
1970 1970
a wall)
1972 Trial 1973 Bachelor
male
only it
during
his
one of
these
is
only
the his
other
recent the
plays one plays
changes
cultural
examine
West while
development
All
English.
plays
However,
playwright.
since
into early
had it) (Time is
Ukuta
plays,
internationally
Hussein's contact
major
numerous
translated
(She
Francis
Hussein,
(A Mwanamke Machozi ya woman's 1977 tears)
Tanzania's
has written
Ebrahim
Fourth Married
The The
(M) Tanzania:
Ibrahim
although
on the
and
Imbuga,
Francis
are
Change
ones
colonial
are
in based
and post-
X94
Francis of
best
the
family
with issues.
in
of
drama
before
and
to
ya Mwanamke23
writer,
Ngozi
with
issue
This the
context in
liberation
In
would
not
in
social
cultural
change
City22
the
was one
Festival
of
1977.
only
date,
to
one play he is
not
a major
chapter
because
his
Africa,
an area
which
of
portrayal in
and
changes
in
his
Ebrahirn
drama,
the his
caught
of
the
in
women by
the
problems
context
deals
play
has
male
major of
writers
women's
the their female
turmoil
in
of
of
response characters
the
social to
very
of are
changes
cultural
these
the
urbanization. inevitable,
changes
predicaments
change.
to
sensitive
a result
as
inherent
understanding
is
Hussein
Tanzania that
recognizes
in on women
treatment
wider
playwrights.
arising
discuss
indicate
who are hard
early
Hussein
Although
off
post-independence
Although
in
started
Africa.
problems
cultural
does
his
in
this
as one
and African
Black
tears).
liberation
of
on the
has written
as well
with
problems
Betrayal
Nigeria
in
Imbuga
dealing
based
World
in
included
cultural
of
with
(A woman's
examines
section
deals
Second
women's
few
plays
play,
Tanzania
been
of
very
attracted
in
has
on to
themes
held
playwright
As a writer,
political
the
of
Machozi
the
drama
(FESTAC)
Ngozi
prolific
country. moving
His
Culture
most
as political
entries
Ibrahim
the
serious
more
situation.
Kenya's
Arts
in
as well
African
Kenya's
actors
His
Africa
is
Imbuga
of
Hussein
in the
is
he
a way which characters
particularly
his by illustrated these as changes, 2 is (Time Ukuta in Wakati a wall)
195
and
25
Alikiona
In
Wakati
ignorant
too
with
the
open
mind.
is
Tatu
His Wole
portrayal
she
husband.
changing
The
is
Lion
and
the
Jewel.
that
cultural
parents
should
in
cultural which
daughter
should for
underwent,
She tells
was not
example
their
the
Mama
children
rigidly
the
issue
inevitable gradually
She
ago.
same denial the
of
to
sticks
choice
sees of of
a
Tatu:
Mimi
nimelelewa na wazee wangu nilipokuwa mkubwa wakanipa Sikumjua, hakunijua, lakini mume. vema. mpaka sasa tunakaa Nami nitakufanyia hivyo hivyo. Mpaka nikupe nyumba yako 27 halafu hapo tena shauri yako. (I
supervision; when I became an grew up under my parents' him, he didn't know husband for I they me. adult chose my happily together. know me, but up to now we have lived didn't il You the do for And I shall will wait un same. you exactly )2 do that home, I give as you wish. you can after you your
Mama Tatu's culminates
attends especially punishment
in
a film
her
act
of
of
daughter
This
permission.
when one considers disowning
her
disowning
vw-Lthout her
towards
attitude
uncompromising
a child
that is
cultural when
is
out
only
the
an extreme
African among many meted
an
of
Sadiku,
are
up years
go through in
Like
with
age.
Mama Tatu
trought
as compared
as that
changes
wean
change, she
26
of women as
changes
as negative
understands
therefore
times
cultural
Tatu
of
generation
who approach
an earlier
process
her
the
from
same tradition why
older
a. left-over
as
Baba
the
for
the
Mama Tatu
of
Soyinka's
that
freedom
presents
generation
feels
reason
Hussein
men of their
presented
through the
Tikuta
conservative
While and
it).
had
and too
in
Sadiku
(She
in
changes latter
measure,
peoples, those
rare
the cases
no
X96
the
where
has
culprit
committed
an evil
which
the
only
supernatural
can handle.
powers
Baba Tatu's to
contrast
level-headed
Mama Tatu's
to
approach the
amplifies
the
times
changing
as a
ignorance.
woman's
Sisi
hatukuwa kama wazee wetu. Basi na hawa watoto wetu vile Wanasoma kizungu, tunawavalýsha vile. kizungu, wanakwenda kusoma kizungu Hakuna tutu anaweza kushinda shuleni na ... WAKATI UKUTA, UKIPIGANA NAO UTAUMIA MWENYEWE. wakati. (We were not like It is the same with these our parents. They are learning children English of ours. ways, we dress them in English they to learn English clothes, go to school Nobody and English time. TIIE culture can compete with ... IS A WALL, IF YOU TRY TO HIT IT YOU INJURE YOURSELF. )
Where the
the
conservatism, embrace
western
culture
to
culture
thoughtlessly
elopes
with
begins
to
seems help
Ata
Aidoo
Hussein's women's Badua
Tatu and
stem
adapt
in
changing
Hussein's and
of
criticism ignorance
in
as elements
in
of western
what
is
into
in
is
appears
change,
trouble
to
to
new she
when the
a clear
man
criticizes is
change to
attempt difference,
and
that
(Guilty).
Hatia31
conservatism
cultural
a genuine
as wholesale
kidoo
the
that
spirit
Ukuta
Wakati in
haste
marriage.
from
There
of
this
approach
than
whose
in
the
women's
Muhando
Mama Tatu
aspects
her
superficialities
after
times.
Penina
society
of
and gets
attitude
cultural
as an extremist
It
knows
her
in
assimilates
rather
prejudice
Anowa30
choice
against
criticism
to
her
in
as an extremist
presented
immediately
on her
from
portrayed
hurriedly.
a man she hardly
between
example,
in and
assimilate.
cheat
women
is
younger
ways
Hussein's to
woman is
older
criticism
for of
Ama
Where
of
Old Woman and a hindrance
to
X97
women's
is
rebellion thoughtless
freedom
are
but
Hussein
detached
as
freedom in as
new values
In
Alikiona
Hussein's
as
a new
social
environment
in
Hatia.
In the
against
the
the
has
this
and not
hasty
case
Tatu.
in
as Soyinka
Anowa's
vein
of
for
sympathies
of was
The
Lion
and Aidoo's Vamýa
ne±ther and the
seen,
In
up.
forced
being
of
in
environment to
community
one's
to
this
the
rural
are
area
Cheja's
part,
out
but
place
does
not
where
as the
strangers
and sense
of
the
pregnancy
sophisticated
simplicity
rural
response between
conflict
on her with
which
neighbours
of
Muhando
behaviour
character's
background,
interact
of
as a new phenomenon
the
of
promiscuity
her
using
female
those
and
of
area
result
of
indication as an
not
urban
view
urban
ur'--an area
that
Cheja's
examines
this
environment
repercussion
the
of
a direct
as
latter
the
the
from
significantly
she takes
words,
in women
of
Muhando
play,
situation
brought
differs
background
other
the
representation
latter
social
urban
workings Cheja
the
in
'anzania;
is
for
In
32
Jewel.
to
and
Anowa,
He is
Tatu.
nor
of
with
independence.
be a search
shown to embracing
sympathies Tatu
for
search
in
the
of urban
situation. In
and
strains
working the into
Alikiona,
rural
on the
stresses
conditions
other is
Saida
which
hand,
are
Hussein to,
exposed
from
different
The playwright
environment.
a preconceived
idea
The playwright
assumes
that
urban the
issuing
those
manipulates women are
attitude
of
from
consider living
is one his
the and
usea to
heroine
to
in fit
promiscuous.
a prosecutor
and refuses
in
1(
to
see that
in
living
a new environment
necessarily
one's
woman whose
husband
works
situation.
If
social
it
play,
relative
this
would
necessarily
condone)
The picture
we get
who engages
in
invited
to
being is
tortured
G that
Sophie
help
into
noted,
the
(though
of
fun
of
the
not affair.
a naughty
humour
it.
wife
We are
even
is
when Saida
Saida
punishment. in
character
a male-chauvinistic
presentation
Her
irresponsibility
given
Apart
scene.
is
denies lack
a terminal
from
of
Sophie
her of
the
the
exit
only chance
us with
in
of the
of
is
only
this
appearing
in
only
appearance
in
the
life,
picture
through coupled of
her
own
to
has been
once
of
her
led
a character
her
which
character
which
importance
context
coming
about the
as
after her
of
denies
in
prostitutes;
brevity
seriousness
leaves
Her
hero.
Imbuga
problems
important
with
sleeps
Saida.
urban
towards
attitude
development
and the
not
the
to
a similar
heroine
his
understand
hero
the
assumes
background
social
relation
is
Sophie
Imbuga
Sophie
that
a customer being.
in
some emphasis
psychological
female
towards
audience
in
except
establish
brief
of
the
33
Hussein
prostitution.
right
sheer
a
and vulnerable
that
sadistic
through
urban
Trial
of
kind
the
would
the
places
an extra-marital
is
not
work. The Fourth
Sophie
for
husband
in
moment
playwright's
stereotyped
playwright's In
the
by her
a typical
at the
a lonely
area
understand
involvement
relationship
in
to
is
neighbour
rural
was given
audience
Saida
one's
the
in
shifts
background
Saida's
this
share
night
the
of
in as
friend
or
persuade
where
one play,
interaction
as a real with
her
With
human sense
a woman who sails
in
of
X99
and
out this
of
second
interest
in
Plays liberation fe: nale
is
writers
from
In
male
they milieux
even
34.
Liberation
by his in
fron
play-
the
lack
of
usual
women. issue
on the
hard
work
for
the
with
of women's Unlike
Muhando who criticize
ý.iý_= the
their
aim
emancipation,
of is
This
reaping
portrayal Kenya.
the
Francis
Movement,
of Mary
to
attempts
men's
men do not
expect
The issue
and cynicism.
themselves.
Bachelor
Movement
same time
playwrights'
hok
proving an attitude
difficult which
chauvinism.
revealed
from
change,
criticize liberate
to
Women's
Liberation
as Penina
women's
attention
for
touched
and out
character.
liberation.
is
this
by scepticism
women to
The Married
the
is
inspiring
women
for
are predominantly
characterized such
for
urban
on this
male
negligible
who have
counterparts
for
arises
other.
by male
judgement
struggle
explanation
to
sensitivity
discusses
section
women's
which
of male
the
the
of
she moves in
which
make unfair
has received
playwrights
their
arising
African
in
speed lack
this
of
matters
are
intention
This
part
Perhaps
wrights.
fast
to
audience
liberation
women's
the
at
playwright's
the
towards
attitude
about
This
leads
The
it
scenes
play.
problems
of
life
of
fruits
he
is
Mary, is
exploit of
Imbuga
a leader
of
a victim
of
changing
moral
they
satisfy
both
the
traditional
the
two
seem to
at
points
where
exert
sceptical
male
it.
towards
the
Women's
oppression
values In
traditionalism.
pressures
only
cynical
the
to
not
also
consider
them
is
this
while
at
social
on women when
and the
modern
be contradictory
to
each
200
is
Mary her
friendship
Henry
with
among many peoples and
after
that
But
men who
consider
many
as
argue
men
Married
The
Denis
the
the
similar
these
of
situations. Mary :
Denis
... of
:
us
What
rejected
before
most
Notice
this
that
women The
pregnant. fate
of
Mary
by Henry
and
once
by
Mary
had
a child
has
modern quoted
excerpt
how very
at
in men below: two
the
similar
do you mean?
too,
have
Mary:
I,
Denis:
I want to A child? ... is, is, who his father not
young
the
so-called
the
from
amazed
them before
marriage.
of
of
is
This twice
these
just am are.
I
is
are
tradition
advantage
with
these
they
unclean.
take
sleep
discard
proof
between
modern
to
that
on hearing
by
transition
to
Denis
taken
a sure
considered
1,
before
is
girl-friends
are
be chaste
at marriage.
themselves
a tendency
Mary
to
Chapter
a requirement
the
discover
pregnancy
attitude
during
women
Bachelor.
attitude
represents
is
there
that
marriage
their
men responsible
on account The
before
and expect
However,
soon
same in
chaste.
not
is
in
As observed
expected
virginity
is
change
social
of
a baby
modernity
marriage. as
Proof
in woman
as an unmarried
Denis.
women are
having
a woman
anc
of
or
pregnancies later,
and,
Africa
of
marriage.
Pregnancy
her
for
victimized
a child.
(Denis
is
)
surprised.
know where this and why the two
son of yours of you are
married.
Mary:
Surely But you appear upset. you Is it not the same case as yours?
should
Denis:
Who says it is? You are once have been pregnant, believe us to be similar?
I
a woman, I haven't.
not
be.
am a man. Do you still
You
201
Mary:
But
Denis:
What you fail to ... is dangerously a woman for more restriction Women must exercise if they are to retain if Right now ours, 3ý thin air.
If
is
is
it
Imbuga not
innocent
before
in
his
comparison
is
said
until
he met Mary.
Denis
the
Henry
notwithstanding.
Imbuga's
towards very
her
this
herself
him,
love. and
does
not not
When she later,
the
raises
is
heroine
against
weighed
it women and
Mary in
by men.
makes
is
when she falls
child
legitimacy
in
smiled
hand,
is
fact
herself with in
that
Imbuga's for
but Henry love
have
slept
a great Mary Mary's
is she
the male the
deal has
a
attitude
supposed
be a
own attitude of
picture
entire
chauvinism.
men with
Denis
emanci-
to
herself her
is whom she wholly
approach
is
36
with
with
the
about
of
she gives
with
woman
experience
playwright's
whether
sense
innocence.
gullibility,
the
of
to
said
contribute
presentation
the
the
any other
scepticism
The
of
at
appear he gets
Denis's
previous
her
Besides
one wonder
love
the
or
her
represents,
makes Denis
emphasize
shown to
question
for in
to
shows his
a reflection live
given
met,
is
Denis
attitude
example,
other
Mary Mary
women.
of
'touched
two
self-perception.
woman liberator towards
of
is
keen
on the
day the
oppression
negative
towards
Mary,
portrayal
African
of
pation
not
first
very
is
have
to
biologically This calls desires. greater control over themselves in society. their dignity into you had any, has vanished
For
Mary
Imbuga
same.
is that realize handicapped. of her physical
kind
Mary.
with
the
are
The playwright
play.
with
relationship
The latter
the
of
the
he was married.
that
facts
critical
from
clear
basic
the
to the
202
same.
Having
trusted
fully,
Mary
tionship
with
Denis.
she goes
as far
been
her
Mary's
acceptance
object enough
to
stand kind
of
attitude of
towards
herself
a women's
either very
of far
her,
and
from
If
from
portraying
Mary's sceptical
others this
portrayal cynic
betrayed
her.
rejection
herself
to
enough
is
she strong
of
as a male
is
significant
For
on her
The first
as the
weaknesses
and
towards
negative
emancipation "aryr is
liberation.
psychological
refuse
as a leader
suitability step
example,
man's 'the
herself
calling Mary's
Mary's is
writer:
then
character
suggests
accidental,
then
his
woman liberator.
deliberate,
who wonders
this
of viewing
doubts
is
herself
self-perception.
herself
contradiction
a credible is
one day
stage.
nature the
problem
playwright's
raise
attaining
possibilities.
instead
disgrace'37.
of
The contradictory
him,
by Denis
her
man, nor
relato
he might
after
describe
negative
movement.
or
fully
just
has
respects man to
to
uses
blames
she
liberation
oneself
from
her
rejected
that
immediately
she neither
her
of
'nature's
society'
is she
as Denis
or
tossed
by Denis,
towards
herself
proposal
Mary
illustration
oppression
does she give
in
own feet.
language
rejection
cautious
After
by a man she
pregnancy
considering
time
that
of
be more
baby.
first
being
of
to
without
Henry's
on her of
as a further her
the
of
only
his
proposal
idea
the
after
not
indication an
to
The
But,
as he did
on account
be expected
as carrying
betray
is
once
would
Henry's
she accepts
by Denis
rejected
the
male
how women can liberate
it
shows the hinders
chauvinism
On the playwright
two
other
if
hand,
emerges themselves
him
as a while
203
in
behave
they
a manner
Even when a male the
emancipation
women's
efforts
Ibrahim
Ngozi
in
of
of
of
to
women's
on
towards
the
International
play
women's
In are
the
women,
the
about to
preface
Women's spite
playwright
ability
to
the
plight
his
fact
Ngozi's
critical
betrays
themselves
ems cipate
tears) and as
that
he is
nonetheless
of
play,
(1975)
Year
and that
pro-women
success
(A woman's
the
of
to
contributing
Machoz. i ya Mwanamke38
liberation.
this
writing
oppression
scepticism
Tn the
aims
for
male
be observed.
the
in
concerned scepticism
he wrote
them.
oppress
unconscious
that
a contribution intentions
still
men to
genuinely
says to
response
is
writer
women,
can
invites
which
his
from
this
oppression. Ngozi's
presentation
shows his
society
Tanzania
rural
treatment for
money are
and
they
are
where
viewed not
Madahiro, he is
wives
have
the
tobacco
playwright boom of the
the
problem
to women
great the
the
beasts
buying
sales.
Madahiro
attributes
this
taking
the
views attitude
from
the
advantage
of
gained
wealth
burden in
either
objects.
of
Notice
Madahiro's
the
men who are
these
their
to
rives tc
them the
things. crops.
bride
price
attitude
from
on
men's
greedy
these
crops
work.
women
marries
like
The
objects.
from
money obtained
as disposable
new cash the
of
ya Mwanamke,
home `r
to
of
of
and treats
play
enhances
cultivation
frets
Machoz
his
crops
Wives
for
the
enjoy
of
no rights
of
labour
protagonist
cash
burden.
of
to
of
African
a changing
He bases
wcren.
introduction
as cheap
allowed
c, women in
for
sympathies
women as beasts
of
if as
of
and the
First, Secondly system his
is
there there
which
outburst
the is
reduces below:
20)+
(Anazipigapiga
fedha
Ha!
zake mfukoni) Nikitaka kuoa
Noti hivi
ha!
Ndiyo zipo. tena, mke mwingine sasa kiazi hiyo hiyo gani, saa Wangapi hivyo wanaweza
chungu mzima ... Hata waseme manari ninaweza. Dakika hiyohiyo Ninatoa ... ... ... 39 hapa Isikizya?
((He
ha!
his money in the pocket) Ha! ha! ha! Yes it is there.. Lots of money If I wanted to marry another wife ... just Even if they demanded a huge dowry, this now I could. hour this I minute How would pay many ... people can ... ... ) here in Isikizya? manage that puts
Ngozi
in
seems
to
order
liberate
presentation
of
and more
liberate
their
possible
counter-productive
fire
with those
even
in
future
the
unlike
Penina the
see that
Muhando
Indeed,
the
case.
he may incur
Each
of
officials
one of
should
Yangu4o
occupying
and selfish
male-c?, auvinistic the
Heshima
their
Madahiro's
for
i"_achozi in
(My honour),
attitude seems very type
of
is
Ngozi
sensitive situation
which
towards their
they
any personal
extend
most
does not
attitude
to
the
does not
position
in way
or
men and,
ya Mwanamke betray the
him
humiliation.
all
male-chauvinistic
in
has
ignites
his
are
an official
it
also
and
to
and beating
officials
officials
take
up
but
appears
who come back
wives
village
author
ganging
can repay
by the
individual's an
erase
automatically women.
fact
mere
in
of
towards
should
Madahiro
his
they
wives
ludicrous
angers
The village
steps.
the
make
his
scepticism
progresses
any of
handled
his
that
should
and in
oppression
only
only
so that
women
Madahiro's
not
harder
situation
these
of
play
step,
is It
efforts
male
steps
death
oppress
he marries
ridiculous
to
of
he betrays
first
results.
to
Having
the
Their
almost
from
As the
about
themselves.
type
what
solutions
efforts.
unsure
husband
to
as
themselves
liberation
women's
more
unsure
to
his
handle loss home.
205
None of
the
tries
officials
to
himself
put
in
Madahiro's
wives'
position. Ngozi
fails
is
economic
to
the
at
Madahiro's
to
see that
dependence.
land
they
if
children.
The man is
women will
go to
reduces
the
an empty
core
of
indicate
play for
in
some of
the
have
these
of
women have
be forced
to
take
to
women's
be accepted
rights
their
back
having
of
that
back.
problei
no ownership places
some means of bringing
when he boasts
right
Nguzo
the
liberation
up their
he knows the This
liberated
situation into
themselves
issues
to
African
is
Politics
doomed
tainted
Ngozi
,
does
facing
Ngozi
with the
to
futility.
not
in
in women Machozi
Development:
that
African
Femi
their
handling
that women's
Osofisan,
to
get
ya Mwanamke
his
oppression,
so much scepticism
feeling
to
attempt
African
raises
women's
with
and Cultural
41
problems
the
audience are
Mama
major
sensitivity solutions
leaves
Ngugi
to
as the
proclamation
Although
his
possible
Women in
only very
Muhando
emancipation.
of
will
cause
song.
Unlike
the
they
him begging
women's
root
As long
till,
home,
the
the
whole
efforts
Wole Soyinka,
wa Thiong'o
Ferri
Osofisan
Wole
Soyinka
(M)
Nigeria:
(M) Nigeria:
The Chattering and the 1982 Morontodoun
Song 1977
A Dance of the Forests 1967 Harvest Kongi's Madmen and Specialists
1963 1971
206
Ngugi
Ferri Nigerian that
is
Osofisan playwrights
his
of
the
most
this
This
it
Time
Tomorrow undated, ? 1967 script Mother Sing for Me undated
committed
Clark
after
predecessors;
implies
Osofisan
(M) Kenya:
wa Thiong'o
younger
and Soyinka.
portrays
His
? 1982
generation
of
drama differs
from
inclination.
Marxist
overt
ideological
leftist
the
of
original
when he says:
standpoint
For
time, to the left, the a long we are closed socialist We just don't know anything If you them. countries. about then you can be aware of several options open to development it, is one of the ways of to The theatre will want spread 1 information. spreading Wole
In
writers.
modern
and
the
African
younger
one
area
several
the
of
drama
of
in
theatre
African
literary
is
Soyinka
stature
is
and the
won the
influence
major
is
It
in
Prize
Nobel
of
playscripts his
of
recognition
for
the
on the
twenty
about
creative
father
as the
considered
on literature.
Soyinka
African
contemporary
He has written
works that
he
English
playwrights.
critical
leading
in
Literature
X986. The major
and his
ambivalence literature
over
his
and
position
direction
fellow-African
on the of
his
side 43
plays.
Critics
life.
of
writers
negative
writer
as a creative
view
pessimistic
even
emphasis
ideological
with
problems
Soyinka
of
have
life
taken
are
of African Soyinka
it how and
The playwright
his
to
affects
defends
his
thus:
in But are these not a antijqories my writings. human he the that Nobody of condition? can say reflection intense has never been through moments of pain or pessimism, I level, what on a very private or even of viewing whether 'recurrent have termed an expression a of stupidities', cycle Yes,
the
task
the
207
those who want human existence which distresses to be so obviously and patently without any qualifications optimistic But the human spirit the constantly overrides negative ... but those who inspire side of it, not always, us ultimately the moment c- despair are those who succeed in overcoming ... It is there, in human life tragedy exists and I do not believe that the function is to ignore thy tragic of the writer aspect that tragic face of truth. of human experience, Ngugi is
a novelist,
Ngugi's be
is
wa Thiong'o
Kenya's
divorced
based
are
from
on his
critic
creative and
belief
strong
thinker.
a political
that
He
writer.
literature
cannot
He says:
politics.
Literature impetus,
renowned
a literary
a playwright,
writings
most
in a vacua--; is given it not grow or develop direction by social, shape, and even area of concern in forces The political and economic a particular society. between literature relationship creative and theEe other ignored, in forces be Africa, cannot especially where modern literature has grown against background the gory of European imperialism its and changing man45estations: slavery, does
colonialism
Wole
This
Soyinka's
in
only
than
rather
terms
view
portrayal
of
portrays aspect
viz.,
of
the
women. the
patriarchal
the
has
world He views
positive
contribution
insensitive
to
in
of
these Si
outweighed
heroes'
experiences
In
ty
Very forces
Bero
and the to
the
by the
two
often,
with
the
earth
protection image
addition,
with
relationship
two
themselves
chauvinistic.
makes him view
own right.
destructive.
I
is
his
as dominated
world
and the
devote
their
and
which
attitude
a significant
the
creative. 46
is
contributions
women as embodiments dominating
women
characters
creative
Madmen and Specialists ecialists46 their
of
their
of
individual as
Soyinka's
forces;
portrayal
has a very
playwright
women
neo-colonialism.
and
of
his
opposing Soyinka destructive
mothers of
in life,
woman as a
Gý
destroyer of
which
In with
protection
and destruction destruction to
the
behind acts
of
life,
protection
that
as a link
while
Si
force
and as an opposing Notice
this
opposing
and Si
Bero
speak
at
between
her
cross
purposes:
Bero:
Corpses.
Si
What?
Si
Bero:
Bero: Si
Bero:
Bero: Si
Bero:
Bero:
in A Dance
I
I
said
I'm I
(stepping
to
cannibalism is
Bero
Si Bero
the to
is
devotion
discipline
life
which
mothers
on the
one hand,
brother
on the
other.
But
old
with
dialogue
they
where
be
will
patients.
patients. it.
forget face
anxiously.
)
They
do they?
exist,
I
Who?
puzzled)
tired.
like
old
(She scans his forgotten you.
still
(again
your
Oh,
corpses.
I can't. haven't They
All
your
said
and Si
following
the
principle
preoccupation
commitment
earth
I was.
Oh! how thoughtless disappointed.
Our neighbours.
Bero:
work
this
female
male
major
Agba
and her
in
at
Si
Bero:
is
and the
Who will?
Bero:
Iya
Bero
force
the
women teach
it and
Bero:
the
present
Mate,
The old
herbs
between
Bero's
Iya
of
life.
of
identifies
he identifies
Where
life.
of of
Bero:
and Segi
respectively.
Soyinka
life
life-protecting
Si
Rola
of
Harvest48,
Kongi's
and
Madmen and Specialists
the
portrayal
47
Forests
the
the
from
emerges
Let's
talk
keep
close
back
to
don't
of to
prevent
understand.
something
else
...
earth. her
from
taking
off
his
Bero
CVO
)
boots.
Bare
good earth you know. Si
Bero's
The question of of
Si
and the
Bero is
women
his
plays,
and
Specialists
in
arising
Nigeria. the
while
the
merely
people
because
* His
his
butchered
so many
lives
were
the
majority
cannibals
through
Bero.
dedicated
the
had
given
hence
the
to birth
majority
wasted
to
of
and nurtured of
that
those
war
life the
who bore
people the
they
brunt
of
saw the
of
cannibalism It
was
characters
were
the
the as
representation
in
killed
is
human life
a form
by
War
principle
Soyinka
war.
human
life
of
represented because
Madmen
Biafran
the
the
their
hence
portrayal
towards
justification.
without
be
disillusionment
from
as
other
cannot
play.
pessimism
the
against
The women are
preservation
the
and destruction
fighters,
of
his
This
bitter
and especially
in
another
one
of
subsequent
statement
playwright's
towards
in women
of
context
cannibalism
representation
attitude
women as representing
of
portrayal
portrayal
playwright.
Soyinka's
detention
men represent
men who were
and
society
from
the
socio-historical
his
Soyinka's
Madmen anä SpecialistE
of
during
human life.
positive
portrayal
in women stand
written
this
the
of of
overall
negative
of
the
was
-.. ý Nigerian
beings
way
Soyinka's
a rejection
with
whether
playwright's
a general
be taken
to
with
the
of
wetted your than that,
and destruction
connection is
mothers
representation
has
in
indicative
indicating
as
in
is
brother
cannibalism
arises
earth
Considering
women.
taken
which
her
of
of
new philosophy
We've wet earth. something more potent
with
rejection
eventual
latter's
feet,
the
that
ones
war
effects
who
and of
the
War
The Biafran from lasted oct. 1969.
in War was a post-independence war civil from 1966 to 1970. Soyinka was detained
?;igeria Aug.
which to
210
is
It
A Dance
illustrate
Soyinka's
human lives.
callous
with
opposes
Bero's
to
destroy
manner
and
always
depended
to
Rola's
act
of
wife Dead
link at
in
the
between a time
the when
conclusion
that About all that she shows the Philistine
whose the
ordering her
but
for
carries Rola
to
the of his
'had
make about
for said can some appreciation is Adenebi that be
is
has
a cruel
in
is
'50. womb no
who
a mutilation
merely
human
is
death
no wonder Eldred
the is
This
life.
the
not
showing
castration
and It
child.
is
this
captain
who refuses
To Rola,
life.
of
with
responsible.
captain
act
a woman has
littered
been
the
of
growth
the
in as
significant
level,
catalyst
people
world
of
on a deeper
as the
existence
she
only,
castration
that
handle
this
potential
she
to
negation
terms
and extremely
presented
deaths
is
role.
is
castration
her
political
Madmen and Specialists
The
trousseau
but
pleasure;
Woman concludes
following
for
really
in
Rola's
others.
o
superficial
of
annihilation the
death
recover
Kharibu
wantonly.
heartlessness
people
a tool
lives
lovers
of
to
war
her
views of
corpses
go to
only
her
i, ata
Rola
which
their
as fickle
portrayed
life,
of
on the
of
is
influences
who
in women
Where Si Bero
destruction
temptress
the
Rola
or
Is Harvest
and Kong
towards
attitude
P. iadame Tortoise
or
Forests
the
of
of
his
then has
Jones
the the
Rola: Rola
in
either She of art. in this regard
is
existence is not quite This ...
had been in not have Rola mentioning worth not would quality index of moral the an as art of appreciation. and art is She in important Soyinka's been work so sensitiveness ... is the to thus nearer and of redemption capable certainly 51 Demoke. human the three protagonists, of most sensitive Contrary
to
Jones's
contention,
Rola
is
not
capable
of
redemption
211
nor
is
her
as such.
there
level. is
any
What
her
merely
intention
on the
appreciation
How else
Jones
the
of
what
of
the
as her
led to
she says
purely
present
of
art
physical
their
death?
I have cause to torture Did you know tZe you. from the roof? The one who leapt to his dea, ^, He would that I took horn, my account? not understand ... day. He came back again as I select a new pin ever-and to him. He could not un rstand why the door was barred such a fool.
from
African
the
is
Tortoise human
just
beings
Her
her
lost
own
to
merely
feminine Watene for to
beauty in
those women
and while
can
charm
be
female
playwrights,
their
Mugo and NgugiIs to
Foriwa
distract in
the
Sutherland's
African
East
does
oral
was
taken
tri:
if
is
Rola
and her
position her
in
kster
narratives.
to
matter
one on just
folktales the
and
her use
to
not
African
ruse
iý
It
accidental.
many West the
is
charm
lives
human
are
whims. between
discerned
the
of
same.
view
Soyinka
women as using
in
sees which
between for
charm
they
them
example
in
the
The Trial
of
in eneü-y
the
Foriwa55
will
even
and their Micere
course
set
Yugo
of
social
uses
hers
Like
of
Kenneth
beauty
their use this
charm
purposes.
In
and
Dedan Kimathi54 workers'
view
playwrights'
male
playwrights'
ends
who stand
women as using
Woman in
her
and selfish
destroy
view
ends;
it
satisfy
and
in
politics
Dedan Kimathi53,
personal
contrast
Hare
in
role
A difference
In
not
who represents
like
selfish
is
Tortoise,
tradition.
oral
a character
a schemer. for
Madame
name,
This
warrior:
Torture! who fell
Rola's
is
on the
so many men to
the
to
playwright
appreciation
human world
she have
could
from
apparent
to
appears
part
Ems.a Sutherland,
development. uses
her
beauty
revolutionary
struggle
the
co-operation
to
win
212
of
in men
in
is
difference
this
terms
physical total
woman's
developmental
community
the
in
the
between
importance
life,
woman's
hope force through
in
Segi
Many grips
is
perhaps
critics with
critics. Segi utter Segi
Dead
only
to
a
implicitly this
woman's
Eldred
Jones
which
This
examined
force
creative it
work,
Woman not in
also
would
suicide
commit
productive
a most
and
in
further
during
her
moment
in
destructive
thus
destroying
between
relationship
Dead
the
sees
force
the
of
the
of
in
only
terms
castration
Soyinka
creative
world.
but
Woman to
extent
Dead
Rola's
at
this
Soyinka's
women as more dominant
the
play,
is
to
the
Harvest56
Kongi's
heroine
also
the
admit
to but
say
greatest
most misunderstood. in
difficulties
illustrated as following
the
attracted
been
has who one
experiencing
character, has the
who has
by two about
of
coming these
Segi: for
herself, unmistakable a complex character, is an embodiment principle femininity, of the life Her is another Soyinka's women extraordinary of ...
a
creative
Segi.
Soyinka's but
the
place
the
in
in
force
taking
is of
character
attention,
critical
the
destructive
and the the
causes
the
in
a balance
It
and the
emphasis
dominates in
smothering
as
women
of
beauty
as a complement
destructive
destructive Rola
death,
shows
the
commands.
which
This
pregnancy.
power
she
husband
Woman's
the
a character
as
power
political
for
accounts
and Dead Woman represents
playwright's
force.
creative
Rola
between
From the
he views
that the
than
feminine
view
it see
to
women tend
relationship
cosmos.
appear
her
the
of
men to
what
personality.
The relationship view
for
tendency
while
Perhaps
projects.
her ...
to
213
is attraction sex and hence Oyin
Ogunba
finds
is total Segi certain and an embodiment of ... potentially at least of the creative principle. her
57
He says:
mysterious.
As one thinks becomes more and more of Segi her personality is the reason why Perhaps this more mysterious and uncanny. (black, she is compared with agbadu glistening snake) and She has comely features water. mammy and her blackness becomes her, black hue of a truly African a rich, woman. Like the agbadu snake she is an adumaadan (a woman with glossy black But she is also a woman of extremes colour). of temper, (The ferocious is is who turns when she angry. agbadii snake known for violent )8 speed and sudden fatal attack. The reason deal
great forward this
of
why these
power,
women
creative Dan
o1a's
fact
negative
Soyinka's
in
but
that
the
of
playwright's
towards
is
verbiage
admission
critics
of
as beings
who
a way In
potential. to
warning
that
Segi
other
Daoäu
the
afraid
the
observations of
a
a straightSegi
of
reflects
women.
playwright's
force
destructive is
another with
associating
attitude
and the
creative
Segi
with
making
portrayal
shows the
words,
against
are
towards
combine
that
their
Soyinka's
attitude
portrayal
such
they
colour
destructive
devours
the
Mada.ae Tortoise. Segi
sums up her
He says:
character.
A-
... A right Tell ...
yourself ah, you have picked species cannibal of the female me, do you
Know that history? woman's Wandered round some dens And clambered over sweet
...
I have myself once, of Esu, hillocks
But In the dark, and not missed my way. Daodu, that woman of yours, she scares The pepper right up the nostrils She has left Of your old man here. victims On her path like sugar cane pulp 59 dry. Squeezed Apart
from
the
power
of
her
charm,
Segi
has
political
power
gainea
214
her
from
associations
However, ideology.
Her
towards that
is
Segi
her
her
not
it
association
is with
No critic Isma.
has
life
principle
does
not
politicians
is
based
on purely
selfish
Kongi
was for
observation
to
attempt
is
see
what
merely
their of
the
life
principle
leader?
A Dance
the was
creative
potential
supposed
to
in
her
is
Danlola
is
being
is
attack of
the
find
the
Kongi
are
men
only
songs in
principle
left
a more
similar
to
destroys
life
is
his
pregnant
by
life
the
of
being
afraid
of
afraid
sing They is
describe
lethal.
as Jones
62
suggests,
nor
murder
Segi
If
by
is her
indeed the charm?
The Organizing find the
as an agbadu, is
in
Segi
does
smothered
emphasize
Segi
on
castration
where
Segi.
her
embodiment mark
by the
layabouts
her
about
of
reflected
principle,
of
end
positive
impotent.
him
leaving
a true
so
he
women's
the
at
that
the
of
level;
about
be
wife,
The night-club
they
her.
to
here
so
her.
of
expected
have
is man who
on human beings life
of
saying
impotent
was
as Rola
contribution
an embodiment
Kongi
not
an embodiment
terrified
they
potential
death in
why
and the
mysterious
ment
and
not
Secretary
be
she
Just
the
and
she
when she
on a metaphysical
leaves
attitude
Forests.
the
warrior
mother
whose
would
Soyinka's
of
the
indeed
If
relationship.
the
of
Segi
contributions.
She admits
60
61 political
a commitment
political
Soyinka
exactly
of
purposes
him'.
Segi
about
out
motives.
Segi's
analyse
talks
not
prestige
and I loved to
attempted
the
night-club.
as a woman who has any political
man,
Even when Jones
popular
with
association
nation;
and her
politicians
portrayed
'Kon g i was a great
says.
to
with
neither is
her
destructive a serpent an embodi-
she an embodiment
215
of
the
her
role
'Maidens,
essay,
Selected
Soyinka Segi'
about
women in
of
Mistresses
Works',
Unlike
from
cooperate
shown
Kongi, to
on
Daodu
following
conclusion
put
revolutionto effect
prestige heir
her
task
for
for
sexual
this
of
Segi's not
selfish
her
also
virility
Apart in
is
their
Segi
father,
Daodu
reasons.
a
reasons.
misunderstanding
an educated Segi
very
virile
and
above
their
public
responsibilities. This parations
is for
illustrated the
by her
lýew Year
dialogue
during
the
pre-
Festival:
Segi:
I want to dance on not been forgotten.
Daodu:
I'll the
rub hide
Daodu
with
your skin of night.
bgegbe leaves;
in
camwood,
I know now I have
you'll
of
out
developing
or
imprisoned
He is
apparent.
exploitation
the
is
It
liberating for
both
struggles,
lines.
sexual of
having
and
revolutionary
Daodu
on Kongi
and
for
the
for
potential
and
befriends
revenge
Danlola's
and
selfish
Segi
love-relationship
to
in
Images
women in was able
role of Soyinka
in
participants
in men
with
Daodu
using
prince
Feminine
makes the
a revolutionary
is men
with
befriends
Davies
Segi embodies the This is so because
female
After
former
Carole
suggests
true
relationship
society.
and Matrons:
In
suggests.
in the projection her quality of Segi and to direct into is a tremendous There a positive channel. in the Segi Although by energy character. colored but the deserving endangers not the man she loves By making Segi a courtesan oppression and an ... of prostitutes and Daodu a farmer and an organizer in Kongi Soyinka toys the notion with of class
a balance of danger amount of myth, she agents of organizer of farmers, struggl93and groups.
to
as Davies
struggle
s character:
As a character, ary struggle.
need
revolutionary
be flames
at
is
216
Segi:
Come with
Daodu:
Now? There is at the gates.
Segi:
Come through the in me, my Spirit
Daodu:
Don't
me Daodu.
tempt
yam under season. is
There
Daodu:
My eyes
of
Segi:
I
help
Daodu:
Segi,
Segi:
Let
Daodu:
You
Segi:
I must tonight.
Daodu:
Promise
obtain
me tire
a little
you
I hg4 thought Oh Segi! keep my head.
low
Soyinka's presentation Isma
opinion of
Segi
illustrates endeavours
your
Soyinka's Indeed
of
except
Tsmite
I
me. final
that as sex
their
I
make.
must
the
at
of point
have
still
to
of
of
I would
least,
is
his
the
the
presentation
illustrates
which
Soyinka's
role.
women can never objects
am opened rains.
Segi
political
mistress
could
...
tonight
is
this
in women
view
to
A child pepper.
am ... a little
portrayal
as a rotating his
prize its await
I
eve,
keep me long. king.
Daodu:
of
I
you with from the
a bite,
symbol.
like
more;
Only
a sex
you
bursting.
now and tomorrow's some rest.
Segi:
as
us
you.
meet
of
I want
I have much preparation
rejoice, and I am soil
aspect
Now.
seeds
you won't my troublesome
her
political
kernels,
you meet
I am swollen harvest must
know how weary cannot sneeze my legs with me off
The worst
of
for
season
between
somehow
of
no
do before
gates tonight. of Harvest.
me so hard. but all earth,
Segi:
shall
much to
still
political
leaders
be committed male
politicians.
to
217
The sexual the
expense
their
of
contrast
between
wrights.
Where
foremost
the
their
political
and Daodu
lust
for
development
older
in
just
their
of
his
like
by their
of
Foriwa
society.
In
is
cheapened
by too
Femi
Osofisan
the
and in
and Labaran
case
Efua
concerns
Segi
of
of
women play-
ideological
shared
at
point
first
as related
bodies,
be categorized
into
the
this
of
is
of
women.
role
masses' women's
Morontodoun66
and Daodu, on their
much emphasis
to in
Ile-Ife
of
army.
The playwright struggles this and
who used
is
in
women
these
struggles
her
tact this
two playcannot
for
examining He
struggles.
class
in
are
in
participation
struggles
by the
heroines
Osofisan
as crucial.
Song.
cultural
characters
as a tool
drama
and the
the
Osofisan's
women's
uses
Yoruba
some extent
difference
about
two
of
his
plays,
67 Queen
of
the
Yoruba
and courage
to
spy
on an enemy Igbo
myth
to
his
this
play
the
recreates
reworks
to
Soyinka's
revolutionary
Osofisan
in
influenced
post-independence
and The Chattering
Moremi
portrayed
African
on his
framework,
Osofisan
the
role
Morontodoun
class
Where
view
contribution
women's
In
writer's
in
draws
a significant
ideological an
struggles.
revolutionary
exaiiines
is he and
there
portrayal
product
drama Soyinka
playwright,
wrights'
day
linked
emphasized
another
and those
presented
other's
is
This
characters
are
is
and Daodu
relationship.
heritage
sees
each
affiliation
Although
the
female
are
Segi
comradeship.
Segi
Foriwa65
about
sexual
political
Soyinka's
by the
Sutherland's
between
relationship
Africa.
In
due to
Osofisan's
myth
give
views
women are
socialist
very
inclination.
on presentpositively Women
218
are
seen,
the
oppressed
are
essential.
just
not
class
Osofisan's in way
which
the
the
capability the
considerations her
father
collective
involved
background.
and
the
is
what
Three
struggle
is
the
characters
of women in
the
secondary
to
the
her
other
the
aims
the
of
husband
for
show
Two minor
shown to
struggle
betraying
of being used to
are
struggle.
women Mosun and Wura are
peasant
shown in
instead on
going
female
members of
revolutionary
participation
in
and commitment
characters,
to
contributions
in
belief
as important
but
and mothers
whose
women are
to
relegated
as wives
when the
put
personal
one
rejects
cause
the
of
people. is
It
through
Titubi
that
Osofisan
women's
participation
in
a revolutionary
between
the
of
Soyinka's
o'vious
to
portrayal
male
political
Titubi
is
her
starts women's
market
revolutionary
spy
on the
ideological
much more
develop
framework
she
has
as a spoilt
off
is
at
on the
this
stage
for
peasants stand;
In
union.
struggle It
not
Osofisan's
her
a definite
of
difference Titubi
than
author's character
is
too
for
a sex mate
as an autonomous
of
view
character, of
views
development
thinking.
political
masses.
and
struggles
and
his
The
struggle.
appears
the
clearly
Segi
and does not within
presented
Titubi the
Segi
figures
revolutionary
in
Where
miss.
indicates
it
the is
for
of
child
this
position,
side
of
the
state.
fame more
act
is for
president
against
Moremi not
based
anything
of in
join
can only
oppressors with
than
wealthy
she
identifies she Her
the
the
the
and goes to on any else
that
she
219
decides
to
for
work
which
Titubi
goes
abc-it
wealth
in
wealth
per
than
impairs
plight
of in
clearly died
ever officer,
to
the
mother in
then
surprising since
she
cannot
While
living
p1_ght
kind
imagine with
rejection
Moremi
of
development
of
of
the
in
as a model
character
and her
in
fun
lead
would
begins
is
No one has
peasants
their
uprising.
commitment
development she
live
of
character looked
had previously gain
could for
rejection
the
from
welfare
the among
fcrfeiting
the
it of
I: oremi
as a model
and marks
a turning
of
at
from
life
on a personal
level,
a community.
It
peasants
and contribute
prestige
and comfort
is
to
show her She
struggle.
climax in
her
now prepared
their
her
life.
to
Where she work
she decides
struggle,
thus
mother's
wealth.
says:
I
that
this
after
of
of what
perspective
is she
her
the
point
the
to of
is
Her
oppression.
I knew it. I had last that knew And that I won. at was in I belly. Noremi had to kill the ghost am not my of State, the the State, the Moremi Moremi! was was served is it the true that But the not clasgsg spirit of ruling is always State right ...
Titubi's
their
understand
significant the
not
on the to
to
a police is
It
against
to
most
at you,
spying
struggle her
for
a lie!
the
seeing
can be noticed 'It's
Titubi
their
from
propaganda'.
which
peasants
as something
68
find
problems
it
am surprised
baseless
would
joins
and eventually
I
country!
Titubi
that
blindness
view
Though
them
and prevents
of
with
Osofisan's
views
when she argues,
this
this
carrying
kind
adventure
struggle.
playwright
rich
of
illustrates
state
the
This
and love
a revolutionary
the
of
masses.
hunger
of
an evil,
vision
Titubi's of
the
for
context
not
The ease
state.
spy
the
se is
the
the
to
220
Although women's
Titubi's
between
female
his
really and also tion
Osofisan for
the
by major
with
men.
Mugo's
Trial
of
fighters
off
by
While
cannot her
Osofisan
envisage
own right is
Like Osofisan's
ujamaa to the
Kimathi70
is
their
Cheja
in
Penina
live
does
in
an ujamaa*
indicate
that
demonstrated
Morontodoun, views
more
The Chattering
on class
struggles.
villages are communal left the 'Arusha after
to
any
celebra-
revolutionhaving Ngugi
the
to
to and
freedom
is is
Hatia71
contribute
not
communal
village.
in it
in
importance
the
appears
a political
of
a male
The Chattering
and the Here
struggle
struggle
he believes
in
to
in
of
Muhando's
independently directly
the
the
after
particular
fully
a woman participating
to
Woman nor Girl
struggles,
revolutionary
individual as an
to
is
Marshal
necessarily
married
by
Women characters
without
to
to
to
themselves
commit
commitment
to
contribution
attitude
x
going
fighting.
neither.
can be
women's
commitment
to
life
a man when she decides
with
development
women's
Dedan
Similarly,
unquestionable.
paired
example,
her
shortly
development
For
emphasize
leaves
seen to
are
communal
their
and yet
his
in
women and that
marriage of
latter
devote
playwrights
be coupled The
the
to
or to
struggles
development
that
marriage
female
the
revolutionary
Titubi's
belief
a difference
struggle,
playwrights
does not.
considering
of
of
Where female
unnecessary
Osofisan's
a revolutionary
portrayal
playwrights.
independence,
ary
to
contribution
discerned
illustrates
character
Song is
again,
introduced units Declaration' of
the
as
if
of he
in
struggle mentor. and the
based
This Song.
72
on
playwright
with Tanzania's 1967.
sees move
221
the
for
need
highlights
the
on their
Funlola, discuss
ing
believes
comes to for
but
of
is
the
women
their
her
weak and too
the
is
in
Leje
in
on Leje's
the
cause
its
own sake.
Notice,
for
guidance
in
that
the
of
Funlola
Osofisan
following
excerpt
:
Funlola:
So why do you
Leje:
The whole The movement people. capable all needs toil hands is farm, must and all a you see, world, its fruit it both to cultivate and eat of ...
Funlola:
For a You know, I had always longed to know you. in I dream time long my sleep. cradled you were a And now, suddenly you are a reality ...
Leje:
Well?
Funlola:
I
Leje:
(putting
Funlola:
But
want
his
suppose
me?
See how I
am afraid.
arms ...
round
suppose
shiver! her) I
I
an past
shall
her
views
Funlola's
example, the
uses
struggle.
recruitment
suggests
Before
Funlola
a revolutionary
Leje's
to
further-
of
Funlola
who teaches
a way which
initiative.
for
by Osofisan The play-
movement,
in
wrong
in
as art
farmers'
It
used
struggles.
meaning
participation
dependence
dialogue
find
existing
for
portrayed in
lacking
simplistic
of
fantasies.
is
too
revolutionary
only
intrinsically
latter
as
can
collective
nothing
women as capable
is she and
an artist
in
instead
meaningless
importance There
art
recruit
ideologically as
is
artists
that
justice
social
Leje art
of
and views
Osofisan
comrades.
example,
role
Although
men and women.
co-operation
them
male
for
the
wright
this
for
need
he depicts
participants, dependent
between
co-operation
protect
belief?
you.
of
222
Leje:
Nonsense. No one ever walks that far. Not even in despair. No one voluntarily walks beyond firm That is, drowning ground. without ...
Funlola:
But
Leje:
Like
Funlola:
Compassion
Leje:
Alright
if
they your
your
had
keeps
Leje:
Impossible. (Smiles)
to
the
Funlola:
Yes?
Leje:
Renewal, himself
Funlola:
I
The way in
You're
surrender.
impression
Funlola of
we get
what if in me?
went
of used
to
Osofisan's
Mokan
inclusion
forge,
old
the
yielding
to
a lover.
offers
her
the of
to
her
of
the
oppression female
of of
characters
the
is
It
Sontri
Sontri
similar
in
lieu
to
of
as an embodiIn
struggle.
rejection
here
persuasion
hand to
submission
ideals
73
tortoise.
Leje's
Yajin's
symbolizes
perpetrate
I
put. out roots. I am familiar I call on, say, I lose my what if the Of
the
to
when Yajin
to
rejection
to
get
No one who commits to break his with
a real
surrenders
a woman
her
commitment
to
a chance
happen?
always answer. be asked will ever roots ...
uses
If
is
But dies
happen
will
afloat?
afloat.
I
The playwright
are
artist
so persuasive. creature spirit
What will
which
impression
which
keep
abandoned?
Mokan.
her
the
What
tools
ancestral
of
to
You would already have Look, your concern is one In my drive for recruitment, with. if he a carpenter, and asks me: what Or, a blacksmith, skill? who asks: fight takes me on the road of exile? alienation?
the
to?
then, what I offer you feet back on firm ground.
You know, you're If the wither?
gives
cling
A means merely
art?
Funlola:
the
to
something
those
this
light,
elements
masses. in
The Chattering
and
223,
Song is
the
aimed the
participation, to
the
use
revolutionary
tional
courtship extent
out
struggle
and also
individuals. the
weight
creates the
in men
the
masses'
to
symbolize his
us from
seeing
The use
the
of
of women's
impression
the
to
women as subordinate
courtship
prevents
undermines
in
belief
traditional
of
as autonomous
characters
great
spelling
at
his
their
collective commitment
women
image
of
to
contribution the
that
tradi-
views
playwright to
contribution
a
these
move-
ment s. his
Basing
plays
examines
women's
colonial
and the in
participation
inclination
of
the
believes
Time
working
strongly
can be discerned and
in
The
Trial
of
as
women
the
'the
most
between
between
the
Dedan
Kimathi
men of
portrayal
his
Me76 reflects
for
on women.
exploited
socialist
co-operation
writing
for
sympathies
his
the
on women's
From his
Sins
and Mother
author
his
from
However,
struggles.
Tomorrow75
focus
class'.? in
in
struggles
Ngugi's
views
writer
Thiong'o wa
-Ngugi
revolutionary
springs
movements This
as a male
differences plays
these
revolutionary
This
limitations
two
post-colonial
periods.
Ngugi
in and women in women
participation
section
and oppressed
situation,
in
women.
class
working
Kenyan
on the
Significant in women
of
portrayal
is
which
these by
co-authored
a
77 woman playwright.
Time This the
Although
he is
Tomorrow
Ngugi
Time poverty
Tomorrow
towards
sympathetic portrays examines
degradation and
them the which
working in
as lacking
falseness
of
characterize
class
in women
consciousness.
political
in
independence the
life
This
of
view
the
of
urban
224
masses.
We are
daughter
whose
is
is
the
death
she
petty
trade.
her
trade
petty
of
Hati to
a housemaid
the
himself
While
his
them
as
Wanjiro
shows political
essence
a better
of
Njango
shows
discussing to
are
immaturity
of
in
go to
the
city
to
her
brother
relaxes
up and be married
so that
and to
while
Njango
that
from
Cheja's
and Wanjiro, of
capable
an attit
is she
too
naive
work
he
dowry! TNgagi does to
contributing
fatalistic
when working
She has no political
and believes
is
There
ie
a
while
about
the
situation.
interest of
complete
circumstances
Cheja
has
whereby
her
with
daughters.
their
grow
by
for
brother
her
help
forced
money gained for
by her
to
does
base,
an economic
city
here
14j ango has too
socio-economic Lack
politics. fate
who
characters
struggle.
revolutionary
resigned
sympathies
to
set
be educated
family
the
the
death
the
Cheja
her
with
a wife
showing
depict
for
waiting
countryside
can marry
money
means an economic
to
situation
for
Django
exploit
(Guilty).
a78
earn
to
independence.
for
herself
in
the
up
women being
of
Wanjiro's
between
husband
in
problems
traditional
building
even
and
Njango's
struggle
Wanjiro,
irony
the
the
countryside
daughter,
against
Muhando's
her
of
the
son to the
discriminate
Penina
are
and her
a mother
unlucrative
of
patriarchal
towards
step
cause in
husband
death
Notice
a similarity
not
the
keeps
while
in
women,
on a very
root
a Gikuyu
As an initial sends
the
her
of
own property,
Njango
as
that
in as a woman
her.
to
two
of
depends
subsistence
ironical
It
Since not
example
soup.
selling
city
the
given
that
nothing
class
awareness. to done be can
Men around Sie
is
im-prove
on
her
225
tie
socio-economic
her
dialogue
following
from
excerpt:
I know how much you have a little) in this You have fought suffered city. with drunks, wrestled Uhuru with wolves and hyenas in this Two days ago I saw a dress in the city. market ... it. I wanted to steal
Njango:
You want
Wanjiro:
Black
Njango:
This
Wanjiro:
The stranger
Njango:
Alas
Wanjiro:
The
of
to
in
Boy against
Similarly,
better
and workers, he earth,
city
are
on her
to
similar
initiates and
the
yet
Woman in
of
the
of
experience workers'
and does not
envisage
for
example, and that
gives
Wanjiro
teaches
her
daughter
class,
Woman
down-trodden of
position into
the
between
the
him
uhuru
two women respond
Notice,
Njango
the
for
those
Woman's
fate
Where Njango
the
us.
to
situation.
teaching
by Woman.
to
join and
resigns
the
saw.
who fought 79 says.
Where
become militant Njango
I
few.
experiences.
considering
situation
belongs
city
Dedan Kimathi
of
those
us.
the
as a member of
position
to
the
people?
like
clothes
a chosen
improving
Boy and Girl
white
for
not
to
between
contrast
inevitable him
like
says
their
struggle,
her
is
only
her
leads
sharp
cautions
wear
city
to
possibility
accept
people
The Trial
differently
given
dress
experiences
and Mugo's
to
to
poor peasants inherit this shall
revolutionary
lead
the
can be noticed
(Relenting
o; Dression
the
in
This
workers.
Wanjiro:
NE-agi very
the
of
Wanjiro
with
Njango's
the
situation
the
exploited
struggle
which
as an will
horizons. there
is
a contrast
portrayal
to
of Wanjiro
X226
and that when
Girl.
of
to
compared
revolutionary not
believe
her
efforts.
Wanjiro's that
of
her
lines
on sexual
in
and Girl that
he
The Trial to
his
Sing
against
imperialist
colonial
Kenya.
are
in
so far
the
is
merely
strictly
to
Boy
of
claims her
a change
on
present-
case
by
Asinjo
does
is
the
exploitation
with
his
of Asinjo's
spite
musical
Secondly,
given
The rape
are
represent
mother,
c- masters. for
cook
in and they
not
of to
the
two
Iºyathira
such
revolutionary
him
and
this
are
important
in
Girl
of
the
The playwright's a movement
characters by agents
in of
this
The
individual as
ideas
certain
of
is
illustrated
postThey
roles.
represent
embodiment
Woman and
revel,
two major
they
role
the
struggle
on a subtle
and,
women have
play,
struggle.
in women
of
colonial
Like
oppression.
as they
a workers'
the
country,
revolutionary
importance
position
this
Woman and Nyathira
a workers' the
of
against
Kimathi but
in
forces
majority.
resistance
her
she goes
Me examines
for
In
symbol
exploited
of
Njango
she leaves,
in as
a
clothes.
Mother
the
In
from
is Asinjo
with
in
depend
could
of Wanjiro
comrades-at-arms
Wanjiro
desertion
before
says
of
believes Wanjiro
plight
relationship
Dedan Kimathi.
of
liberate
eventual
As she
that
superficial
a reality,
workers'
portrayal
Her
object.
and not
wants
Wanjiro's
wash
as a sex
very
Woman, Girl
make it
on the
:n Ngugi's
point
like
to
and struggles
is
awareness
Where,
improvement an
that
The weakest ation
Girl.
of
change
political
the
the workers'
Trial
of
Dedan
characters
playwright
about
conviction
about
her the
crucial
play.
imperialism
is
symbolic
of
the
227
country's that
the
rape
with
his
local
objective
is
carried
middleman.
Hence
exploitation. Notice
as rape. through
the
the
the
the
is
Nyathira:
Sing
masses
of
the
of clearly
raped
Which
by
caused
the
of of
leaders
for
with and the
Nyathira
struggles
in
of
while
Nyathira plays,
follows
respectively.
her
this
for
you
that
the
ideas However,
Woman is
symbolizes
by the
Woman symbolizes to
the
in
rtigugi's on similar the
significant
loss
creation
of
of
level,
the
rape
burdens
extra
of their
by virtue
carry
participation
behind
the
made to
collaboration
On another
created
a stick
Woman's miscarriage
of
baby
Me indicates
Woman is
raise
unborn
women have
Sing
symbol
daughter of the8geople fat imperialist.
caused
women's
to
Here,
class
Dedan Kimathi.
Trial
two
Mother
such
voice and said: daughter! sister! mother! bride!
imperialists.
of
symbol
.
laws.
of
The representation
against
of the
significance
courage
with
miscarriage
working
oppression
and struggle
labour
independence
foreign
the
with
and provocative
the
balanced
while
act
and contemptuous
had
imperialist
country,
hopes
masses'
local
rape
oppressive
represent
the
of
to
raped me ... his raised She is our She is our She is our She is our
one of you and say:
is
conjunction
Me was produced
the
If you so much as touch You will taste my wrath The symbol
in
notice
woman:
provocative
When KanDru ... Which one of you Leave her alone: Leave her alone: Leave her alone: Leave her alone:
for
Kenya
of
and local;
exploiter
a terrible
of
amplification
singing
Nyathira
foreign
Mother
use
foreign
powers,
by the
out
inspiring
of
imperial
by
exploitation
sex.
revolutionary
indebte=ess
to
lines
Woman -to
of
differences
Girl
in are
The
the
22 ß
in
apparent
the
Woman in
portrayal
Mother
as does
Woman in
Woman in
Mother
Sing
for
The Trial
of
Sing
by
giving
this
role
of
Woman cannot in
significance
was performed this
whom he would Icg gi's
the
to
Sing
too
operates feel
In
the
where
Through
between
the
of on his
to
ceremony. his
struggle; they
also
nurture
seen
contributing
Woman in
Mother
Perhaps
on both
metaphysical
female the
Sing the
case
character of
is
that
in
the
for
portrayal
of
Nyathira
women are
on a Me Ngugi
play; -right ar,
The Tr amsof
presented
as
did
physical
since
he had a woman as a co-author. the
Mother
only
contributes
play
in
Dedan Kimathi
of
is
Woman in
of
portrayal
a complex
own unlike
society
Me shows
revolutionary
level.
operate
such
the
former of
In
t-e
son to
fighters,
birth
initiation.
for
for
of
support.
play
the
portrayal
enough
the
of
an awareness
circumcision
Sing
The Trial
latter
implication
The second
ensuing
Mother
She
struggle.
without
away the
psychological
in woman
portrayal
he was writing
Kirnathi
the
the
gave
of
much on a metaphysical
confident in
levels time
the
level.
symbolic
in
mother,
context.
freedom
the
in Woman of
character
fighting,
in
of
difference
Me and that
the
actual
mothers
As a revolutionary
The full
the
two plays. mother
into
fu. ly
the
revolutionary
youths
after
ritual
by providing
striking
for
while
not
only
not
serve
of
Gikuyu
symbolically
this
role
birth'.
cultural
women as mothers
of
revolution The
original
mother
reference
are
second
be understood
henceforth
acknowledgement women
its
the
Kariuki
as a way of preparing the
ritual,
him
in
characters
Dedan Kimathi.
'the
this
its
Me plays
Me initiates
for
does
female
these
of
this Dedan
229
psychological the
supporters
way in
It
is
of
the
also
light
her
the
workers'
struggle is
There
is
portrayed
efforts at
times
It
is
making
only
in
inferior an
The Trial
of
than
in
way
to
in
on Kariuki
of
Nyathira:
But
you,
Kariuki:
Yes,
is
struggles
and the
Chattering women's
similar
participation
nevertheless
believe
help
you
I how me
Song. in in
that
eyes
of
While
is
the
is
Nyathira
counterpart). black,
Notice, following
people's
for
example,
excerpt:
follow.
to
easy
Woman's
to
me. and I will
you
in
participation Osofisan the
two
revolutionary male
of
make a gun?
can help
on women's to
that
Where Girl
doubts
even
themselves.
The language can you,
portrayal
(Boy's
Nyathira
which
Kariuki:
position
one
this
note
mother,
Kariuki
of
the
the
revolutionary
But can you make a gun? Can black people make guns?
Ngugi's
In
oppression.
Boy and as responsive
liberate
and dependence
Tell
enemy.
Kanoru,
Dedan Kimathi.
Nyathira:
Nyathira:
the
an optimistic
of
supporter
if
distract
one who kills
between
a future
and potential
scepticism
symbol
difference
into
the
the
metaphorically
courageous
her
to
Notice
succeed.
Girl
of
disappointing
capabilities her
will
as more
of
is
a significant
and that
is
fighters.
as actual
femininity
and the
Kanoru
of
her
Nyathira
her
who raped
killing
men as well
uses that
significant
people
Nyathira
Nyathira
which
the
of
superiority
in
help
and The
believe
playwrights
over
you.
revolutionary
Morontodoun
struggles
81
is
crucial,
this and women
that they in
turn
230
their
afects
portrayal
male of
playwrights have
them
Most
of
fore
find
male
playwrights
detach
these it
are
male
to
from
standpoint. portrayal
contrast examined
here
chapter.
as male
who are
between and
to
the that
is
the
empathize
This of
women
from with
portrayal by
their
is
them
characters. and thereIn
from
addition to an
counterparts
male
affects
significant
male
point
playwrights in
of
women, many
female
greatly
most
women by the
female
African
women can afford
which the
a good number
heroines.
their
drama.
political
standpoints
and examine
a factor
of
men's
towards
and
of
portraying
issues is
their
although
position
chauvinistic
women's
that
writers
write
playwrights
in
characters
chapter
sensitive
difficult
playwrights'
this
limitations
themselves
observer's
of in
Our observation
female
the
next
of
231
NOTES TO CHAPTER 1
J. P. Clark, 'Aspects in African Drama', Writers of Nigerian on (ed. ) by G. D. Killam, African Writing London, Heinemann, 1973, (pp. (Paper originally 19-32, 19-20). pp. read at Seminar on African Literature Nigeria, 1966). at Nsukka, 2
3
J. P. Clark, The Masquerade, in Three OUP, 1964, pp. 9-88. All references this edition. J. P. Clark, Song of a Goat, All references and quotations
4
is Ebiere's Tufa for details.
5
Op. cit.,
6
Ibid.,
7
Ama Ata
8
Op. cit.,
9
Op. cit.
and
Tonye's
in
Plays
by J. P. and quotations
Three Plays are from this
by
in
of
child
Song
J. P.
Clark, are
London, from
Clark,
ibid.
edition. a Goat.
See p. 189
66-7. pp. 69. p. Aidoo,
Anowa,
London,
Longmans,
1970.
p. 74.
10
in Perspectives 'Modern Drama in West Africa', Oyin Ogunba, on (ed. ) by Christopher African Literature Heywood, London, Heinemann, (92-3). 1971, pp. 81-105
11
Op. cit.,
12
Margaret Laurence, 1968, p. 81.
13
Op. cit",
14
Ibid.,
15
John with 120.
16
Ibid.,
}4. p.
Long Drums and Cannons,
London,
Macmillan,
p"9" p. 35"
in Covenant Black Mamba and Covenant Ruganda, Death, with Nairobi, 1973, pp"71Death, East African House, Publishing All references edition. and quotations are from this 86. p.
232
17
Ibid.,
87. p.
18
Ibid.,
pp. 102-3.
19
Op. cit.
20
Op. cit.
21
Ebrahim
22
Francis Imbuga, Betrayal Publishing 1976. House,
23
Ibrahim Salaam,
24
in Michezoya Ebrahim Hussein, Wakati Ukuta (Time is a wall), Kuigiza by Ebrahim Hussein, Nairobi, East African Publishing 1970. House, All references and quotations are from this edition.
25
Ebrahim ibid.
26
Wole
27
Op. cit.
28
Translations are
Hussein,
Kinjeketile, in
Ngozi, Machozi ya Tanzania Publishing
Hussein,
Soyinka,
the
City,
Mwanamke House,
and the
OUP, 1970.
Nairobi,
East
(A woman's 1977.
tears),
(She had it),
Alikiona
The Lion
Dar-es-Salaam,
Jewel,
in
Michezo
London,
African
Dar-es-
ya Kuigiza,
OUP, 1966.
12. p. , from
Kiswahili
into
English
in
this
and other
texts
mine.
29
Op. cit.,
30
Op. cit.
P. 17.
(Guilty), Hatia Muhando, For analysis, 1974. see
Nairobi, Chapter
East 5.
African
Publishing
31
Penina House,
32
Op. cit-
33
African Literature East Kairobi, Trial, Fourth The Imbuga, Francis from, All 1972, pp. 1-25. are Bureau, quotations and references this edition.
34
Bachelor, The Married Imbuga, Francis 1973. All House, Publishing references this edition.
35
Ibid.,
pp. 53-)4.
Nairobi,
East
and quotations
African are
from
233
36
Ibid.,
p. 53.
37
Ibid.,
p. 58.
38
Op. cit.
39
Ibid.,
40
Penina Muhando, Heshima Publishing House, 1974. 5. see Chapter
p. 9. Yangu (My Honour), Nairobi, East For a detailed analysis of this
African play,
41
Penina Muhando, Nguzo Mama (Mother Pillar), Dar-es-Salaam University 1982. Press, For 5. of this play, see Chapter
42
Femi
43
See,
'Wole Soyinka, for example, Ngugi wa Thiong'o T. E. Aluko in Satiric Voice', the Homecoming by Ngugi wa Thiong'o, and 1972. London, Heinemann, Reference from the American edition N. Y., 1973, by Laurence Hill & Co. Publishers Ltd., published 65-6. pp"55-66, particularly pp.
)1
interviewed Wole Soyinka by Biodun Six Plays by Wole Soyinka, London,
45
Homecoming,
46
Wole Soyinka, All references
interviewed
Osofisan
op. cit.,
Olu
Obafemi
Specialists,
and quotations
are
Methuen, London, from this edition.
A Dance of the Forests, Wole Soyinka, OUP, 19614, pp. 3-89. Soyinka, London,
48
Wole
49
Op. cit.,
pp. 27-8.
50
op. cit.,
68. p.
51
Eldred 1973,
Kongi's
D. Jones, 36-7. pp.
11,1978.
in 1983. Quoted in Jeyifo 1983, pp. xvii-xviii. Methuen,
47
Soyinka,
on November
p. xv.
Madmen and
by
Dar-es-Salaam, a detailed analysis
London,
Harvest,
The Writing
of
Wole
in
Five
Plays
1971.
by Wole
OUP, 1967.
Soginka,
London,
Heinemann,
64. p.
52
op. cit.,
53
Watene, Kenneth 197+. Ltd.,
Dedan Kimathi,
Nairobi,
Transafrica
Publishers
234
54
Ngugi wa Thiongto Mugo, The Trial and Micere Nairobi, 1976; 198+ reprint. Heinemann, For 5. see Chapter
55
Efua Sutherland, 1967.
56
0p. cit.
57 I
Op. cit.,
58
Oyin Ogunba, Movement of Transition, Soyinka, Ibadan, Ibadan University
59
Op. cit.,
60
Ibid.,
Cl
Op. cit.,
62
See KongiIs
63
'Maidens, B. Davies, Carole in Selected Soyinka Images (ed. Literature in African Africa New Jersey, Trenton,
op. cit.,
65
Op. cit.
67
68
Femi Ltd.
Accra,
Stale
Publishing
Corporation,
pp. 77-80. A Study of the P1ays 1975, p. 188. Press,
of
Wole
pp. 51-2. )45. p.
64
66
Foriwa,
of Dedan rimathi, detailed analysis,
,
pp. 77-80. Harvest,
p. 32. Feminine Matrons: Mistresses and in Ngambika, Studies Works', of Women ) by Carole B. Davies and Anne A. Graves, (82). 1986, pp-75-88 Press, World
4)4. p.
Osofisan, All 1982.
Morontodoun, references
The Chattering Femi Osofisan, All 1977. Press, University this edition.
24. p. ,
cit. .
69
Ibid.,
TO
212.
71
232.
72
Op. cit
73
Ibid.,
p. 70.
-
pp-53-4.
Ikeja,
Ibadan,
and quotations and the references
Longman Nigeria Owerri, edition. are from this
Ibadan Song, Ibadan, are and quotations
from
235
74
Ngugi 2360.
75
Ngugi wa Thiong'o, Thiong'o, Nairobi,
wa Thiong'o
references
interviewed
This
Time
in
West
Tomorrow,
original undated, and quotations are from
Africa,
in
November
Three
manuscript this edition.
p.
Plays by Ngugi 1967 (? ). All
76
Mother Sing for Me, unpublished Ngugi wa Thiong'o, from the Gikuyu by the author, translated undated,
77
Op. cit.
78
op. cit.
79
Op-cit.,
p-37.
80
Op. cit.,
p. 52.
81
Ibid.,
81. p.
1983,
working copy, (1982? ).
wa
23E
CHAPTER 5
THE PORTRAYAL OF ti1ON1EN BY llFJOR FEMALE PLAYWRIGHTS
This are
chapter
Ama Ata
(-lama) from
Aidoo
Ghana,
works Micere
'Zulu
five
of
Mugo
Sofola
from
Kenya,
Nigeria
from
These
women playwrights. Penina
Sutherland
Efua
and
Iuhando
Ghana. In
were
Chapters
examined
consciously
1,2
and
not
developed In
thinkers. female
major
Our
stands.
these
which
they
their
this
towards
concern
here,
female
'Zulu Liberation':
Development':
Efua
more
is
are to
or
from
are
writers the
of
female
one or two plays
written
the
as
political
and
definite
to
find
out
ideological
the
towards
extent
of
to and
women
image
a positive
the
that
premise
have
supportive
project
Most
women.
working
playwrights
female
all
writers
developed
writers
not
and 3 have
therefore,
how
women by
characters. into
divided
Sofola
that
creative
female
minor
fellow
we are
female
is
chapter
as
attempt
of
here
1,2
either
by
plays
their
Chapters
are
major
few
observed
chapter,
consciously
Tradition': Women's
was
writers
portrayal The
in
3a
and
supportive
examined
are
it
and
writers
much
from
Tanzania,
from
the
examines
three
and Ama .Ata
Penina
Sutherland
Muhando;
sections.
These
Aidoo;
'Women,
'Women
in
and Micere
Mugo.
Politics
are
Social and
'k
men and
Change and CJitural
237
Women and Tradition:
Ama Ata
'Zulu
(F)
Aidoo
Sofola
and Ama Ata
Ghana:
Anowa 1970 Dilemma
'Zulu
(F)
Sofola
Nigeria:
Sofola as the
cultures
importance
the
and Aidoo
from
writing
basis
Africa,
we must Referring the
believe
in
strongly
African had the
to
specifically
relevance
of
African
in
following
Aidoo to
cultures
African
drama.
cultures
form,
Gods 1972
the
African
contemporary
Sofola
the
of
to
how else anybody would want being aware of the tradition. the people we must deal with the roots thing. of the whole
see
1966
King Ernene 1974
traditional
of
I don't see life without it, if with
about
of
a Ghost
of
Wedlock Both
Aidoo
traditional
Interviewed
modern
about
creative
say:
to
treat an African Whether we agree and their problems
makes
a similar
modern
African
observation drama.
She
says: in order I believe it that for African drama to be valid, ... its impetus, its to derive lots from traditional of strength, African dramatic forms, however these forms, one conceives is because they What do to find exist. we 5ust out what they are, and how we can use them. Aidoo,
taps in
however,
African her
In practices Chapter sensitive problems
has
not
traditions
plays
is
Chapter
indebted
1 it
undermined 1 is to is
by male the from
in
limited
herself
to
for
her
drama.
The social
to
the
traditional
was discussed women's
in
of
a male
standpoint.
This
way
criticism
section
which
she
she makes
traditional
Most
many of
representation
in
heritage.
African
society.
and although
women, their
plight
the
cultural
how various
position
playwrights
form
has
of
these
the
drama
writers
of women's discusses
the
in are
238
representation female
and portrayal
playwrights, There
are
with
base
their in
women of
are
depiction
of
the
critical
difficult
for
social
strike
Watching
Aidoo's
of
a playwright
of
women.
African
to
is
portrayal
the
question is
This creative
in
destiny
freedom
an issue
of is
which
Women writers
it makes
tradition
for
of
two writers
of
writers.
conservatism her
and Sofola.
the
on which the
life.
determine
in
by
milieu
of Aidoo
works
points
women
which
traditional
herself
from
away
constraints.
differences
however,
the
in
roles
in way
and
the
women characters
many
a woman
scrutiny The
One of
on their to
the
as disparities
as well
of
concern
to
reference
and Aidoo.
deciding
great
of
similarities
women by Sofola
in women
the
between
the
audiences
of
is one
plays,
to
who wants
portrayal their
in
drama
use
Sofola
more
than
the
any doubt
that
these
plays
never
women by
of
as
a tool
similarities.
improve
to
and Aidoo,
are the
works plight
J
they
Sofola's
towards
woman's
example,
find
no difficulty
empathizing
that
getting
on the
they at.
leave
Ar
in
Wedlock choosing
the
are
Aidoo's
two
gender
women are
operate
on the Many
one another.
so antagonistic
often
wondering
audience of
about
do not with
contrary,
examination
plays
by
what
the
each
writer
and disparities.
similarities
Sofola's
freedom
for
characters,
ambivalent
even when they
these
'Zulu
seems
one another;
other
is
illustrates
of
women characters,
each
playwright
hand,
other
of
supportive
same plane of
on the
On portrayal
politics. often
Sofola,
of her
the
Gods3 deals
spouse
in
with
a traditional
the
problem African
of
a
239
Ogwoma is
community.
in
The events
the to
now expected
of
period
and gets
instead
her
of
sensitively have
arranged
marriages
their
Ogwoma is to
marry
necessary is
true
It but never is there
Notice
the
tradition during
to
and wanted
this
marry
the
of
to
of
seems to
playwright
show
that
two
are
the
tradition
whereby
The playwright
is one who
only
These
both
sees
of automatic-
traditions is,
that
traditions
is
a widow
commodities,
as
disregarding
beings.
to
choose
to
Uloko. of
expenses
there for
are him
that have
other to
marry
in way
her excuse
one
his
of
women are
Ogwoma into is
his
to is
the
liked
marry because
latter
the
he needs
that but,
as
one
of
his
open to
him;
it
is
not
sons
this
of source such an action 4 problem.
regarded
have
to
forced
off
alternatives
daughter
which
is she
His
force
She would
spouse.
instead
but
decides than
her
a man's our people supported the way to solve another
the
the
against
the
is
leviration
position
money
explains,
absolutely
that
divination
the
relatives
anti-women.
father
more
raise for
money
are
whom she loves,
Ogwoma's
can
be inherited
sex relations
whose plight intention
allowed
not
Uloko
Adigwu. he
to
human
as
Ogwoma is
Sofola's
by an in-law.
worth
having
man she loved
and about
and
women
relegating
is Ogwoma and
and then
Ogwoma rebels
heroines
marriage
inherited
man has died
period
against
a man she hates.
marry
husband.
stand.
with
a certain
by the
pregnant
portrayed
connected
for
taboo
Sofola's
a clear
ally
the
late
Among all
him
to
parents
when this
place
brother-in-law.
breaks
mourning,
take
play
mourn
by her
as a wife
by her
forced
marriage: wealth, when
as commodities
even
by
2)
their
own parents.
fact,
her
to
'sell'
is
critical
brother's
death.
piece
thief
inherited
friend
is
With
taboo
without
her
in
towards her
period,
her
her.
kind
Ogwoma's of
attitude
after
heartlessness
or
sex relations
during
against
as a psychological
reaction
of
pay
debt
her
act
idea
the
traditional
for her
to
as as
a
automatically
with
her
her
having
marriages as
late
of
It
a wife.
Her
husband.
thus:
African
traditional
for his
communities,
machines. in
position
not
husband's
guards has
is
This
His people want a child You are trat and wife him by you. °
4t many .
as reproductive of
is
to
to
situation
cj
consider-
her
after
be
now to
children
by you. no children wife. a woman who was his for can have that child where,
is
of African her
produce
her
Uloko,
lover,
She
for
to
order
property.
mother-in-law
This
order
the
husband's
attitude
fact,
playwright
as human beings.
had
this
a sign
marriages
as proponents
explains
regarded
understand not
for
a community
women are
daughters'
visit
Ogwoma to
for
Adigwu him by brother
their
brother-in-law.
but
suggested5,
female
This
comes
catered
obligatory
in
In
father
Hence the
tradition
mourning
to
bidder.
Ogwoma's
men misuse
community's
by her
needs
highest
the
for
in
that,
observation
an excuse
or welfare
property.
he
merely
Ogwoma becomes
her
of
when
have
her
During
is
this
which
happiness
marriage in
reflected
in way
from
appear
to
through
latters'
After
her
daughter
the
of
the
some
his
off
would
sickness
themselves
enrich in¬
It
mind the
the
therefore, death
promiscuity mourning;
of that it
a woman who sees
her
It
husband.
Ogwoma breaks should the
can
audience
is
the
be understood
threat
of
being
is
241
crushed
by yet
released
from
great
another the
strength been
always
traditional
unfair of
effects
respected
is
Her reaction
one.
that
considering
practice
also
of
a mark that
inferior
her
considering
she is
a tradition
she challenges
and also
immediately
has
status
as a
woman. Ogwoma is
As a woman, community's
friend
7
the
against
whole
dare
her
break
mother's
the
at
the
verge
taboo
analysis
of
of
As her
from
the
Ogwoma's
of
show
gossip,
disbelief
that
during
sex relations
against
sense
rebellion
malicious
in
madness
female
name and her
Ogwoma's
after
Apart
up.
her
the
and accept
her.
for
in
lies
community
is
she
be submissive
destiny
honour
the
of
is
her
weave
woman's
which
community
woman could Notice
'a
The reactions
force
the
her,
reminds
sham,e'.
to
prerogative
to
expected
a
mourning.
act:
deed is a Do you know that for this the punishment from everywhere? leaking swelling water of the body with fear for to treat Do you know that you will nobody agree know t}at Do they even you your curse? might also catch body? death forest your no will accept after ...
Ogwoma stubbornly laxity her
on her it
than
to
is this,
weave
something female settings. traditions
refuses
like
part
her
independent an it
her
is
Ogwoma shares
African It
creative is
the
and yearning
to
decision of
the
with
other
writers
freedom
of
her
love
This
of
which
her
the
are
based
choked
moral To
More
Uloko.
yearning
minded
of
community.
for
yearning
independent
being
indication as an
rest
of
whose works
same feeling for
prove extent
herself.
for
act
and the
mother
a reflection
own destiny
see her
to
for
for
freedom
freedom
is
heroines
of
on traditional
by anti-women
in Anowa makes
Aidoo's
Anowa9
242
have
a similar
objections
confrontation
Ogwoma's sympathies root
of
are
not
problems.
the
of of
characters great
animosity
deliberate
Ogoli,
the
it and
is
of
the
of
of
welcome
the
to
excuse her
to
Ogwoma is
animal
of
help
the
the
of
filthy
Odibei
One does not have dog when her this I protested man. took So we wife.
uses
towards for
younger the
the
the
female
is
author. and
mother-in-law,
some malicious than
woman rather
the the
taboo.
act
seems a
two
old
audience's Notice
following
women use shock
this
speech:
I him. to suspected smell see a skunk people were hawking her for any available enough but my husband saw her as Adigwu's her in and took upon us a curse-" to
from
she has always
some hatred
add to
men
women with
Ogwoma's
one another.
Ogwoma in
as the
abominable
The language
and can only
of
representation
from
mother-in-law, off
heroines
as conservative
her
arise
breaking
trigger
beastly be so women can imagery
seems to
daughter-in-law.
for
that
lover,
the
heroines
younger
of
Odibei,
form
other
These
this
weakness from
suffers
audience's
responsible
the
whether
clear
act
case
The older
and to
ideological
latter's
harboured attack
not
women towards
older
the
in
Particularly
her
Sofola's
that
are presented
other
raises
which
fellow-women.
their
each
the
traditions
and as equally
of
Ogwoma
mother
effect
most
to
hostility
the
jealousy
relate
due to
or
The
traditions
unhappiness
also
Emenelo
the
arouse
as Ogworna.
Gods and King
the
causing
the
latter
a husband.
death
unfortunate
as positively
anti-women
for
chosen
question
is
It
when the
mother
and untimely
make them
presented
agents
man she has
unhappiness
and also
her
Wedlock
in
the
against
her
with
from
the
243
Ogoli
sees
the
although his
Ogwoma as having latter
deep love
takes
for
imagery
to
herself
on the
Like
(bursting I
The hostility
complaint son
is
old
heroines
situation
than
widowed
two
by
and stands animal image
negative
we are
from
the
taboo
Ogwoma has
at
given
emotion
Ogwoma seems to
between
taking this.
It of
an early heroines
the
for
may be Gods
the
We are
age. have
sons'
Ogoli's
towards
the
then
lovers
has or
hostility end of
here
that
Emene
are
developed
spouses.
towards the
play.
the
all
widowed
with
presented
bringing
suffered
relationship
King
her
to
reference
observed and
Ogoli's
broken.
in
arise
and their
mothers
she has
that
all
and a possessive
down with
a
up their
sons
which
makes
This
is
the
Ogwoma when she She tells
Uloko:
hopes the father I of with your married am your mother. But husband to to live age. old with my every young wife I him away from me when you were only a baby. death snatched I because fingers by wanted off and worked my myself stayed in that had I be this life. to prayed somebody always you long so that God would make your life you could marry and give father. daughters denied death that the your and me sons and me brave be I had hoped that and strong you would grow up and a I
of
house
women towards
old
Wedlock
towards
the
rivalry
of
these
antagonistic
breaks
taboo,
filthy
a very
the
Sofola's
whereby
explanation
action
uses
of
indication in
single-handed them
the
Ogwoma is
a clear
been
Ogoli
the
Where unexpectedly) shameless goat that wants to take all from me? This dog has shameless ... into my son an abominable act, and I walk on the road.
that have
cliche
more
that
and have
of
age-old
lovers
his
way leaves
into
enticed cannot
sons'
break
audience:
is
that
for
Odibei,
Ogwoma and this
Ogoli:
from
son to
responsibility
Ogwoma.
attack
her
enticed
244
man like when in struggles
immediately
What
on the
sistency whose
I had always prayed to your father. my old age I would look back and feel 13 had not been in vain.
leviration.
having
of
inherit
of
women share
younger
woman's
between
them
here. to
a husband
towards
the
way which
end of
event
which
has she Nneobi
Nneobi
of
is
in
had
it
an evil
woman.
young
old
is
the in
always
hatred
the
or
taboo,
we are
And
Sofola
the
taboo before
play,
The tragedy
not it
that
if as
Odibei to
of
not
is
when
does
audience
in
enough
is is
quench
to
be the
indication any of
latter
so
provoking
Ogwoma
murders
this
in
event
a result taking
we have
kind
the
given
present
where
relationship
capable the
be her
cases
a mother-daughter
a way which
appears
second
automatic-
to
enough
and one of
of
in
believes
incomprehensible
most
is women
some time
Sofola's
the
the
the
breaking for
of
even
play,
Instead, the
Ogwoma is
mother-in-law.
the
the
in-law?
a rivalry
persuade
would
provocation. the
her
from
of
after
by being
study,
she has behaved
tradition
strongly
husband
incon-
a play
alone
this
Ogwoma breaks
Before
hatred
than
rather
show that
much
mother,
live
in
there
with the
of
to
which
her
of
examined
many plays
Ogoli
is a woman who
a woman towards In
14
lineage
hatred
revengeful
led
is
speech
dealing
effects
a community
ed by an appropriate
daughter. two
the
continue
Odibei's attitude
in
husband
tragic
have
this
We are
playwright.
would
from
audience
much on the
very
her
a widow
ally
the
of
What reason
death
early
part
depends
plot
the
strikes
God for the day that all my
of
extreme
advantage
some thirst
a
for
of blood
now. King in
Emene, the
play
is is
a replica based
of
Odibei.
on Nneobi's
245
murder
her
of
her
husband
this
murder,
inherit in
as king. the
the
the
to
is
It
tradition
kingdom
play
the
at
act
but
by
ing
the
other
her
then
characters
having
the the
of
has
in
play
succeed
tradition
by
son automatically but
Sofola
is
and
who throw
necessary to
to
her
of
or
solicit wicked join-
help
we cannot
words
nothing
tries
background
done
is
there
murder
play,
been
own son to
fighting
this
us the
damage
is
father,
the
by giving
her
first
that
end of
the
way for
Nneobi
audience
the
much
the
that
death
heroine
too
true
the
Towards for
pave
of
persuade
understandable. sympathies
son to
co-wife's
condemnation
at
her. Nneobi than
as
her
murders
a way
explanation
co-wife's
fighting
of
the
out
of
selfish
tradition.
an unfair
for
she gives
son
her
The
did not fall from the ceiling rat without in suffered my childhood with a poor mother I saw my mother children. cry bitterly night her hungry for I she had no food children. this, for so I started praying very early a Your father prayers were answered. married I promised and that of my children changed. to those days. return miserable It
happened
me very brother
Ambition
per
satisfied
at
that
much. of the
is se the
negative,
not
expense
ambition
comes before
And this
is
children
implied as
personal
the
human life
of life
ambition, in
the
the
last
type
part
ambition of
the
iTplied
by
the
king:
son,
ambition
welfare for
of the
above
the
This worried be king than
which
be condoned.
cannot
and general not
of
rather
I a cause ... of twelve and dad- when not bear could better life. My My fortune me. to myself never
you were born the second son. it was bet er to I decided that 5 So I did the deed. king.
but
is
This
She tells
murder.
amTition
thoEe
future
speech.
is
Nneobi's around of
her.
her
;; neobi
puts
24b
her
own personal her.
around her
prestige
Her attitude
on the
tradition
a community
the
community
for
this
queen
to
in
ushering
ritual
can
ceremony
her
that be
should
The
of the
the
solemn
out,
of
Peace
Week
usher
very
still
in
the
aware
new for
as a the
of the
of
oracle
Mkpitime
goddess
be revealed
very
is
cleanliness
requirements
family
cleanse
experience
be well
the
when
her
to
important
as behavioural
the
royal is
of
of no
the
helping
in son her
the
for
sends
before
that
excited
Nneobi
is
the
the
in
only
its
pomp and majesty; cope with
community to
significance
when she hears
excitement
Yet
the
is
should
meet
Nneobi
see her
to
function
year
crime
it
reveals
go on.
a chance
is
to
and to
those
of
The play
ceremony
age and with
Nneobi
her.
around
year play,
her
failure
in
those
as well
At
welfare
Week celebrations
an annual
the
new year.
carried
importance
her
coming
in
and now as Queen Mother,
message
Peace
passing
physical
succeed.
and general
to
the
responds
to
ritual
before
and
of
observe
consequences
gives
ills
oracle
drastic
the
the
Peace Week,
of
the
of
As the
year.
towards
life
and irresponsibility
selfishness
built
the
above
her.
horn
Notice
blower
this
praise
the
way
practical in
life attitude
the
it
king,
the from
her
son:
This is My God, I hear it! I hear the horn player. him the His for day see at must subjects son. my a great for how God, I Oh his height waited pomp and greatness. of (To the altar) day Oh goddess of mercy, make this this day! My God, the know no end. that the beginning shall of a reign instrument is Ogugua the It horn speaks loudly and clearly. is is he It the Oligbo. Ogugua, It King the of my praises. is is It herald. trees the It he the storm and wind greets. 16 King, that the comes! my son, Oh God,
Nneobi
is
intoxicated
with
the
prestige
of
occupying
the
position
247
of
Queen Mother.
her
causing
law.
This
rivalry
rivalry to
In in
now not
her
two
hostilities
and
is
Although law
not
for
rivalry
which
nuclear
family
traditional
would
the
often
than
not,
mother-in-law the
in
exists systems
sharp
different
side
mothers-in-law
perfect
in
to
The
of
viewing
their
of
mother
culture
the
and that
a Ghost17. from
Although her
in
sons' and
her
sons
initially
on the
and
communal
and mothers
was
Notice, Sofola's in
built
between
for
example,
mothers-in-law Ama Ata
comes from difficult
which More
as rivals.
Kom and Eulalie
is own and
in
system
daughter
daughter-in-law
women.
the
built
extent
wives
of
who
and daughters-in-
great
between
relationships of
between
societies
respectively.
Esi
a playwright
communities,
family
extended
and daughter-in-law, between
African
a very
attachment
of
the
with and
relationships
between
curbed
type
fascination
attitude
of
since
be interested
mothers-in-law
relationships
a relationship
contrast
of
these
into
latter
and daughters-in-law Dilemma
been
were
the
between
negative
setting.
prevented
lead
have
Her
the
kingdom
community
to
seems not
Africa.
reflect
the
queen
daughter-in-
the
of
of
manner.
Sofola
jealousies
the
to
African
cohesion
women
relationships
be said
could
of
and her
against
murder
the
of
running
prescribed
in
up the
cover
her
smooth
here,
example,
in
all
between
goddess
the
discussed
malicious
interested
only
in
handled
image
daughters-in-law,
the
of
to
need
responsibilities
the
with
anger
plays
the
correcting
assume the
and antagonism
the
are
her
with
interferes
and contributes matters
coupled
son makes her
co-wife's
thereby
This
to
Aidoo's a
understand,
2Li8
Esi
Kom has
a very
end of
Dilemma
helping
Eulalie
as her
American
motherly a Ghost,
of
Esi
Kom takes
in home a
find
is one
to
towards
attitude
Esi
this
her.
Indeed,
an admirable
culture
Kom at the
beginning
to
as strange their
of
the
in
stride
is
which
towards
her
relation-
ship. A second is
disturbing
Her
aspect her
portrayal
in
Nneobi
Kimathi18 two
interesting
to her
of
pomp at
Nneobi's
opposite
of
Sofola's
play.
The portrayal from
that
the on in
of
'Zulu
traditional
Aidoo's
plays
approach
of
to
the
African indicate
although setting. this
of
position
both
The major
playwright's
expecta-
the
leadership
in
women writers critical
sensitivity
is
and concrete
real
differs
Aidoo
the
The
It
own.
quite
This
19
ceremonial
usual
is
Dedan
Foriwa. their
emphasize
exhibitionism.
Ata Ama by women
Sofola
to
female
portrayal
of
upsets
the
women
other
the
The Trial
Mother
observe
she wants
empty
of
Queen to
by
Sutherland's
societies
above
about
between
before
negative.
ambition
shared
contrast
Efua
which
refusing
because
instead
development
way by
community
in
not
very
responsibility.
very
statement
Mugo and Ngugi's in
of
is
example,
general
the
their
of
positions
is
is
women which
and personal
it
Queen Mother
the
festival
the
Sofola's
Woman in
welfare
note
for
prestige
instance,
for
of
the
Emene,
responsibility,
of
and that
women put
tions
social
and that
is
of
women in
of
places
this
Notice,
playwrights.
of
If
of
portrayal
King
Nneobi
above,
positions
in
Nneobi
welfare.
communal
of
representation
of
As discussed
Sofola's
significantly base
their
views to
the
works expressed plight
2
of
in women In
her
the
Dilemma
depends
world
in
that
family
In
but
centres
around
African
entire
choice
of
in
a
censors
social
a
styles
freedom
on the
role
life
community
from
is women
her
spent
The use
not
as well
Aidoo
enables
culture
and hence
ively.
In
traditional experiences
the
examine
addition
to
culture
is
and those
the
use
alien, of
the
American in from
herself
plight
of
as
of
a character
Aidoo
draws
deliberate
that
on the who
character
a Western-oriented the
to
lived
African
traditional
this
culture
whom the between
parallels
women who have
a traditional
be noted
female
in women
of
a Ghost
of
should is
Yawson,
adulthood
distance
to
it
But
a black
of
Dilemma
whom expectations
alien.
and early
childhood
culture
to
Eulalie
character,
part.
in of women
plight
character
this
of
the
a female
community
playwright's has
their
way the
is
This
their
shows women's
by the
traditional
one another.
determine
shows
level. The discussion
the
for
to
a way which
an antagonistic
support
Aidoo
curtailed
behaviour
in
survival
play,
in women
presents
no freedom
this
setting
their
their
women have
themselves.
only
Aidoo
much on their
very
which
traditional
context.
a Ghost
of
belief
strong
world
for
traditional
in
this
object-
African Eulalie's culture
all
Eulalie
is
along. Having
been
brought
independent
and organizes
considering
the
drinks
in
a world
attitudes where
in up her of such
Western-type a life
her
with husband's
habits
are
of
culture, freedom
tremendous community. taboo
for
without
She smokes and
women and where
it
is
250
the
whole
herself.
A-idoo's her
or
condemn
of
women in
for
intention
female
in
Dilemma
have
is
a Ghost
of
behaviour
they
where
how a woman conducts
scrutinize
but
no freedom
to
to
not
condone
discuss
to
the
plight
their
organize
lives
themselves.
in
revolves
issue
in
her
worth
a woman does her.
cizes in
Chapter
be
detected
the
male
Chapter
this
the
1 are
by
male
with
indignation
the
greets and
Even Esi
can admire
contravene
communal
too
of has
position, milieu
the
only
that
against
communal
a significant
approach
and
characters
will
have
not
sense
protest
to
Esi is
freedom
Kom's
the
against too
is
of
assumed she
somewhat of
in
to
which
unheard
is
protesting.
barrenness
immersed
fact
the
the
the of.
admirthat
It
she of her
traditional
possibility is
in
to
nature
African
for
ready
envious
restrictive
long
Where
and strength
indication an
a generation
expectations
of
capable
until
can
communal
who has been
mother-in-law
discussed
Aidoo.
of
her
children
ostra-
difference
that
for
therapy
she has lived
belongs she and
has been
and
when
community
as
expectations.
to
whole
issue
this
procreation.
and that
children
women
a woman
female
Eulalie's
potential
role Africa
her
of
in
vi_s-ä-vi_s
independence
Eulalie's
women's
traditional
which
traditional
she
position
women as helpless
Kom, Eulalie's
tradition,
ation
in
writers'
her
portrays
on the
and rearing
playwrights
present
of
expectation
plays
these
playwrights
Eulalie
in
fulfill of
Thus
1 that
bearing
Most
Aidoo
that
through
between
pressure,
them.
not
is
a Ghost
of
ideas
Aidoo's
on which
Dilemma
was discussed
proves
going
to
characters'
a world
The major
It
business
community's
of
significant
251
that
Esi
the
latter
his
failure
Kom can now side is to
bridge
The fact belong is
not
that
Aidoo
and
Eulalie
image
in as
Sofola's
Aidoo's is
one
even
another
Woman who has with
empathize Having tion
been is
ship
reason
death
if
they
support in up
as a most
Eulalie's
she must
undergo
in
with a culture
for
correctEsi
Kom
conflicts
are
not
daughter-in-law the
problems
the
older
woman
home she was
the
mother. for
one another
her
characters
on a personal is she
childless
African for
culture
women,
which
deeply, does
Dilemma
empathize First
not
level
can Eulalie.
like where
procrea-
barrenness.
envisaging give
the
women the
of
with
Woman can only
First from
as resulting Eulalie
in
relationship.
social
a traditional
childlessness
she sympathizes
younger
which
duty
which
cross-cultural
the
because
crucial
in
two
initially
that
clear
resolved,
no close
her
as a tool
their
are
met Eulalie
actually
never and
have
of
generations
a Ghost
that
but
roots
support
in way
different
of
drama
quite
her
of
to
the
while
a woman and her
their
and offers
Eulalie
true
other,
differences
by the
brought
taken
visualize this
Kom have
on women's
emphasis reflected
each
it makes
early
is
because
them.
Dilemma
It
own son and see that
conflicts
also
who uses
society.
status
by the
of
elements
Aidoo
Once these
deprived
in
between
and Esi
a maternal
a Ghost
the
jealousy
plays.
differences.
but
cultures
understand
on stereotyped
assumes
different
cannot
earlier
gap between
cultural
women in
of
Eulalie
their
as a playwright
based
between
for
her
against
Kom can now understand
as one of
distinguish the
blame
the
Esi
to
only
remarkable
ing
to
partly
Eulalie
with
For hard-
252
freedom
to
choose
to
whether
have
children
or
If it is real barrenness, Then, oh stranger-girl, Whom I do not know, I weep for you. For I know what it is To start a marriage with barrenness For my world Which you have run to enter ýý Is most unkind to the barren. Aidoo's
and those
children male
treatment
childless
ones
Odanga's
in
the
loss
of
out
of
her
Dilemma
being
the
while
childless
jealous
experiences
of
friendship
a Ghost
of
witchcraft
of
or
find and
in
ill
by
22,
children
Asari her
sees
regard
are
take
feelings.
one of
by
Odhiambo's
and they
wife
and
a Ghost,
spite
other
on the
her
Similarly,
Amansa's
co-wives for
as responsible
but
between of
their
has too
antagonistic consolation
hand,
other
between
relationships
by antagonism,
sincere
king's
children
Aloys
who have
that
child.
that
demonstrate
to
is
cousin's
In
women
Goddess
the in
Dilemma
Aidoo's
the
from
significantly
hostility.
and
women who have
women who have
as motivated
of
engaging
differs
childless
children
be characterized There
the
between
writers,
example,
Children
her
In
is
their
Henshaw's
accuses
for
towards
interest
male
suspicion
21,
...
relationship
childless
by
plays
with
Flower
antagonistic
in
who are
In
writers.
the
of
She says:
not.
can be the
women need not of
sharing
differing
Instead
each
listening
other, to
each
they
always
experiences. Woman in The one is
situations.
many children.
in
playwright
Woman and Second
First
towards
the
of the share
other's
women their
problems.
253
These but
women share their
also Aidoo
Anowa the question
of
not
so
the
Old
freedom
of
of
the
she in
has
hates
the to
of
in
independently
by
represented
the
around
through
situation
Woman,
Old
younger comment
those
generation life
on the
women.
example
younger
women and
against
independand
freedom
women who exercise
For
of the
style
prejudices
in men
the
women who outdo of
they
women that
of
position
the
are
women whose
conservative
traditional
Woman uses
a tone
Badua
of
cannot traditional
of
she that Old stand
is
spite
Man it her Africa
her
is
Old
that
She strong,
criticism
which
makes
generation.
Woman who
strength.
it
varying
of
generations
other
against
denied
in
jealousy
condemns
expresses independent
degrees,
Her
herself.
than
and
merely
was
in
because, Anowa and
independent
more
are
that
strength
instead
examined
the
at
more
thought.
women
suspect
the
These
of
Old
Old Woman hates
women
in
reason
women,
indiscriminately
two
Africa
own lives
their
women
of
experiences
a Ghost,
of
is
looks
a generation
changes.
Man uses
generation
ence
Dilemma
organizing
generations
entrenched
welcome
curtailing where
three
women in
Africa
The playwright
personal
general.
of
As in
traditional
in women
Woman represents
are
would
of
position
23
Anowa.
in of women
in women
of the
on their
and Anowa. Old
lives
to
communities.
attitudes
Badua
herself play,
freedom
of
plight
later
plight
their
from the
her
based
anxieties
on the
views
addresses
in
overtly
only
not
is
It
women
audience acquiring
significant
Anowa the
these
of the
as
a witch
conservative
women
are
these
unnatural
that because attitude when
254
she
says: She is a witch, She is a devil, is evil She is everything that ... I wonder what a woman eats to produce like Anowa. a child I am sure that by normal such children are not begotten Ah they issue from cancerous natural processes growths, ... 2 tumours that dreams. grow from evil With
it
women,
kind
this
is
not
traditionalism of
and the
Woman would
voice
her
the
tragedy
for
their
insight, from
she
the is
the
Thus
is
while
the
Old
and those
societies,
that
is she
of
and
Anowa's
Anowa for
the
situation
too
are
to
daring
Notice
the
as
advanced have
moral
difference
observations:
Old
Man:
Anowa here that They used to say around in heroine though behaved a she were a as happier been had Some she of us wish story. the had had. life her that of so much not and in it. to She true familiar was scent to25 to come back here She refused herself. judgements. Yebi, to our gossiping and our
Old
Woman:
She for
not
Old this
of
nature
insights
tragedy
Anowa.
conservatism
Man sees
a mere woman.
the lb
blame
conservative
whose
Old Woman condemns
the
all
conservative for
as responsible
embodiment
very
thinks her to
upbraided them what
It
or
society
clairvoyants
forgetting their
society
independent
strong
Old Man sees
while
Old Woman assigns
community.
of
towards
attitude
that
entire
Ako, blame
not
because of
negative
surprising
Anowa and Kofi
society
of
accidental
Eats-Salt-and-Pepper'.
that
Old
have forefathers waited should our have that be born could she so their them for and sYýown misdeeds 26 of men are virtuous. actions
Woman is
An important
given
the
question
to
'The-Mouth-thatname ask
in
connection
255
the
with
portrayal
character cause
of
in
in
her
women.
Having
African
culture, in
position
the
rigid
the
two
they
on an equal
are
a level
which
for
leads
which
Eulalie
to
a great
grandchild
the
of
The point show that
this
nature
are
no longer
underprivileged
for
the
into
old
imprisons
womanhood
in
Old Man and also
woman.
To Nana as well
the
determine
Nana's
abortive
so that
to
is
It
clan.
those
and they
age,
women and men alike.
dominates
her
making
They are
their
men of
younger
traditional
prestigious
as women.
times
Dilemma
play,
quo which
therapy
freedom
a woman's
of
in
Aidoo
dwell are
to
only
among men.
be found
victims
the
of
position
plans
latter
her
to
force
can produce as to
life
Old Woman, is
style
not
Many of
oppression,
forget
the
women as such
old
undermine
which
couched
and become
two
these
deeply
the
elements
among women who, how it
even more
feels
to
than
severe
of
position
dangerous
is
of
when
they
be in
an
the
in men
freedom. immediately
generation
Old Woman, is
presenting elements
fellow-women's
curtailing
unlike
clan
conservative
women do not
In
all
the
inconceivable.
absolutely
to
of
other
a very
the
men and women of
the
of
regarded with
that
traditional
undergo
question
footing
to
so supportive
status
attained
female
a negative
Aidoo's
stages
how Old Woman at
example,
how Nana commands both adamance
the
such
who is
the
of
no longer
above
role
Nana of
women have
who are
Notice,
like
all
are
is
what
a writer
support
elders at
of
through
gone
which
work
Woman is
Old
women.
a Ghost
of
of
plays
Woman is
Old
a stereotype
below of
Old Woman's her
group
of
is
Badua who,
women.
Besides
256
in
lacking
the
independent,
submissiveness
and on one level,
traditional not
but
a stone,
The problem operates
only
on a selfish
personal
ends
rather
That
general. a priestess it
welfare; Badua
of
is
because
Badua's
in
sense
the
relationship
of
independence
of
the
children.
freedom
which
explains
between
mother
not
of
and freedom,
freedom,
of
freedom
to
freedom
of
'a
into rank
of
the
daughter
selfish
paradoxical both
deny
would
a grandmother the
since
as a
nature
of
that
situation whom have
of
by such
be characterized
as
daughter's
priesthood
is
It
she
in women
her
her
of
and daughter,
should
the
satisfy
for
apprenticing
initiation
climb
in
oppression
when she says,
sense
consideration
into
sensitive,
27 her
idea
have
would
awareness
dimension
the
Anowa's
women's
of personal
in way any
to
chance
Anowa
priestess
to
in
that
on the
she objects not
the
is plane
than
is
this
a human being'.
Badua
with
of
is
Badua
of women,
conscious
She expresses
setting.
is woman
required
a sense
intense an
conflict. In Badua
her
up behaving
ends
consciousness shocking,
for
statement
that
not to
have her
in
women are or
a manner
hear
to
which in
the
is the
her
views
as a mother, to
contradictory traditional
her
arguing
when she wants
'a
that to
is
It
context. the
same woman who articulates
human beings
a brain'28
to
Anowa submit
oppression
women's
example,
a mouth
strong
does woman good
subjugate
her
daughter
rule.
From the Old
of
have
to
attempts
Woman in
foregoing, her
approach
it
would to
the
appear position
is
that
Badua
of
in women
no better the
traditional
than
257
Her
setting. that
attempts is
she too
below
her
likely
as Old
Old Woman nor
built
breaks
this
both
is
the
is
the
latter's
broken,
hope
she is
that
Neither
tendency
to
allowed
women
status.
psychological
is
woman suggest
independent
towards
them as a way of
their
continue,
the
the
of
releasing
for
is
a chain
liberation
becomes
sacrificial
the
independence
and freedom
Her
and who to
accept
of
act
independence. of
concern
not
independent
strong
against
marry
causes
which her
victim
her
community
problems
are
she lives
is
is
her
who
immediate
family,
but
too sense
also
of
and her when
extent
of
in
rooted
decided
1, a woman's
is
marriage
has
but
rejection
her
between
shows the
sanctions
her
It
she
until
Chapter
delays who woman a and
of
which
in
drama,
problems
antagonism
parents'
one's
Aidoo's
women.
marriage
As discussed only
in
setting
delaying
most Anowa's
levels.
traditional
in
character
who experiences
societal
and
that
female
character
conservative
the
is
strongest
to
Anowa's
chain
tragedy
the
on familial
mother.
below tendency
the
also
fact
the
resisted
a submissive
chain.
Anowa is she
be as ruthless
When this
Anowa's .
grim.
to
those
up and unless
very
the
has
oppress
frustrations.
make Anowa into
Woman when she attains
Badua
to
oppressed
to
of is
marriage her
entire
a rebel
considered
and a misfit. is
Anowa ness al of
of
needs,
a very injustice
social but
oppression
sensitive
it in
is
towards
an awareness
society.
Like
individual. is women which Abraha
Badua,
Unlike not
opens Poukou
limited her in
mind
to to
Zegoua
her her
consciousown person-
see other Nokan's
forms
Abraha
25ö
Poukou the
oppression
Africaine29
your
her
As a character
dimension days of
Aidoo
trade
slave
this
from
symbol
they
the
Anowa's
to
symbol
discusses to
is
of
the
the
other
suffering
contemporary account
by people
difference
her
of
a woman?
any 30
oppression,
in
the
of
black
people
Notice
the
period.
who are
between
people's
Africa
between
relationship
men and I'm
are
sensitive
an appropriate
where
of
is who
that
the
experienced
'What
husband,
Except
men and me?
Anowa becomes
Anowa sees
women by men and that
of
She asks
enslaved. of
Grande
ou une
play's
political from
the
intensity
dream:
That
I woke up screaming hot; night, my body burning and from a horrible I dreamt dream. I was a big, that sweating big And from my insides woman. were huge holes out of which And the hot poured men, women and children. sea was boiling it it And boiled, threw and steaming. out many, many giant as it into lobsters, boiled fell lobsters, turned each of whom as its And but keeping head and claws. lobster a man or a woman, they the men and women as to where I sat and seized rushed they them apart, tore and dashed poured out of me, and they And from their huge them to the ground upon them. and stamped the women ground on courtyards, my men and women an" children But there was never a cry or a3Turmur; mountains of stone. tomato pod. or a swollen only a bursting, as a ripe A woman the
is
here
continent
mothers
they
Michael
Etherton
slavery
selves level
by
the
brunt
has rightly to
include whereby
exploiting
their
thrive is
further
women
that
playwright's
on the fellow
of
as a symbol
are
abhorrence
comment
or the
people
of
as
and
children
Anowa's
level
personal
serve
when people
suffering
suggested the
bearers
the
are
the
of
to
character
appropriate
situation
nations Anowa
most because
carry
extends
political
the
oppressed. of
contemporary
enrich
them-
international and on an
citizens
32 on capitalistic used
by the
exploitation author
to
of
comment
other
nations.
on contemporary
259
moral
sterility
one level,
Kofi's
Aidoo
gets
her
dared
to
of
women have have of
heroine
to
words;
a couple
to
is
much emphasis
a deliberate
voice
produce
reversal
the
Anowa challenges
blame
Kofi
to
of
roles
whereby
have
societies
never
for
the
As mentioned
in
Chapter
when a couple
is
unable
he is
that
prove
On
wealth.
be responsible
men could
children.
carry
on material
traditional
what is,
that
had to
always
children.
their
too
impotence
into
put
failure
from
arising
1, to
the
not
cause
childlessness:
(Pause) Kofi, dead? is your manhood gone? Kofi, are you I mean, you are like (Pause) is not Kofi, there a woman. (Pause: ) is there? hope any more, is Kofi tell that me, ... That y have exhausted why I must leave you? your masculinity But
on
the
contemporary
image
Kofi,
strength.
his is
what
on the
while
material to
unable
for
example,
progress
(notice
because
strong
Anowa would been African
what
her
cope with
'It
have
been
'3 we are?
societies
he
is
his
of
moral his
in
offer to
unable to
concern
about
order
compromise
use
of
worship African
contemporary
to
sterility
Anowa
her
of man would
boost
to
his
her
with
as a symbol
but
dressing)
of
he
strength. society
is
unwilling
As Old Man observes, is
a better
to
woman, portrayal
their
negative
a better of
person
Anowa is
treatment
change
in
order
is
to
blame
society
men who make men mad.
Aidoo's
about
the
out
like
would
her
women.
because,
death
her
hand
other
the
women have
strong
is
arises
hand
one
for
Anowa dies accommodate
man which
On the
exploit
impotence
Kofi's
African
wealth.
to
slaves?
level,
a symbolic
material
like
acquiring
Who knows if
to
if
we had not
indictment an
and rejection
on of
women
260
who distinguish
themselves
independence the
captures Anowa's
or
strength
general
position
of
such
intelligence,
through
either
of
Michael
character.
women very
sense
of
Etherton
when he analyses
clearly
thus:
rejection
is All her society do her as a priestess can understand or a Indeed, how many women have been branded witch by a witch. intelligence to cope with their society unable and Anowa is able to comprehend the absolute rationalism? evil in a way that her husbands the of slavery within contained is She social system, cannot. also able to comprehend the true between a man and a significance of the relationship 35 woman, a husband and a wife.
Women, Social
Penina
Change
and Women's
(F)
Muhando
Liberation:
(Guilty)
Hatia
Tanzania:
Penina
Muhando
1974
197+ Heshima Yangu (My honour) (I divorce Mke Wangu Talaka you) si 1976 1982 Nguzo Mama (The mother pillar) The
women
transition the
development
her
of tool;
movement
outlines
her
her
the
country sees
she
from
of
her
them
role find
stand
I think when I do my writing in the people is troubling
in
as a writer to
solutions into
the
cultural
drama
examines
Western-oriented
state.
a modern
have Her
problems
and also
into
(Mlama)
background.
assimilation
traditionalism
ideological
Muhando
social
communities
helping and
society
their
to
African
traditional
a didactic
as their
related
problers
of
characters Africa
of
Penina
related
to
Muhando
sees
terms
problems
modernity.
values
of
the drama as
educating
emanating
The playwright
as follows: I want Tanzania
to at
by
any problem pick time. the present
which
from
261
Because
I
see myself as having a duty to try to help the in society either showing where the problems are or trying to suggest to problems to make people solutions or at least the sources aware that in of this this and that problem are I strongly believe in or that thing that Tanzania we ... to have art for art's can't afford time sake at this present We have got so many problems deve as a oping country and ... 3 is no place there for art for art's sake. It
instead
is
to
of
English.
and,
besides
tions,
it
stood
only
this
a significant Tanzania
idealize
for
severely, their
Unlike
in
Muhando some male
When she voices the her her
sensitive characters.
in
unlike
Tanzania
of
institu-
educational
English
her from
and male writers,
it;
is
which
under-
Muhando
she leaves
the
in
social
or
(though
not
in
have
difference
mere
cynicism.
identification
of
not
the
she makes her
is
This
context.
condoning)
that
on
effects
adverse
women.
economic
where
very
towards
is women
no doubt
she does not
a fundamental
the
this
about
sometimes
critical
goes beyond
situations
audience
is
of
criticism
its
them,
contemporary
note
characters
who are
playwrights
into
female
there
to
plight
she gives
plays,
by women in
make which
However,
her
point
criticizes
they
her
of
most
the
to
sensitive
experiences
of
she
explaining
Secondly,
In
portrayal
a problem, it
particularly
One important
general.
society.
way of
is
problems
contributions
and puts
problem
on women,
in Far
the
position
between
in
that
women.
of
teaching
period.
the
to
and Africa
playwright
language
majority
Muhando
transitional
space
is
national
Kiswahili
literate.
As a woman writer, of
in
Muhando writes
the
medium
by the
understood
by the
in women
is
as the
use
that
objective
Kiswahili
its
is
this
meet
of
actions
severe
intention
attacks is
to
G`ý
women to
provoke
in
position
has written
those
with
issues.
In
mother in
the
their
the
rural
are
confronted
is
of
of
we are
the
with
context
you)
of
the
play-
cultural
Nguzo
and
concerne-
women's
(My honour)
Yangu38
°
Mama
(The
development
national
into
in
and
of
victim
the
the
modern
city
as unscrupulous. that
for
the
new social
girl
who has
city
and falls
urban
way of
unless
the
role
of
women
have
to
leave they
where
city
had
to
prey is
areas. between
traditional
the
leave
to
the
through
problems
Cheja
innocence
at
in
urban-
corrupt
presented
area
rural
approaches as an towards
attitudes
life.
as overwhelmingly Right
Daughters
family
the
the
conflict
Cheja's
traditional
new terms.
of
advent
problems.
the
with
the
during The
Tanzania.
a young
as a housemaid
Cheja
in
discusses
Cheja,
To emphasize
warns
study
relationship
divorce
women
of
money
earn
playwright
the and women
presents
this
in of women
plight
by new social
men associated
innocent
(I
role
translated
to
areas
experiences
work
the economy
money
as commodities
to
on the
examines
and
The
on their
own emancipation.
Hatia ization
in women
of
in
a direct
Mke Wangu39
si
but
Heshima and
problems
focus
pillar)
have
(Guilty)
Hatia37
Talaka
changes.
improve
to
an attempt
extensively which
plays
examines
Wright
wake up and act
society.
Nuhando only
in
the
and vulnerability, dangerous
beginning
she takes
the
great
of care
and Juma, the in
play, this
Cheja's
the city
playwright lover,
Fisherman she will
263
lose
her
issues
life.
her
alone
because
the
and
to in
work
the
having
to
she tried
to
because ideas
implied
are
regarded
by Cheja's
way
in
the
them
which beasts
as
The trated
It
is
the
Cheja
opportunity
matters attitude
towards
sure
that
forces
women where
to
directly
when she laments
her
note mother
village
that
the
them.
offer
assets
do not
of
matters
This
public
arises
an attitude wise
is
Hatia
see the
judgements
of
which that
pregnancy.
need to
consult
Women have
concern
out
illus-
best
Cheja's
deliberations.
their
end
a break.
discuss
elders
elders
during
women as stupid;
women do not
economic
in
of
they
whereby
have
to
only
the
treatment
society's
a situation
them if
work she
illustrates
daughter
into
them
the
to
contribute
affect
as
her
not gone to to sit while
women and the
of
women below
scene
to
go and
2MMwanangu asingekwenda ingekuwa tu ni yangu
towards
mother
burden
of
or
has to
as
tu.
ya umaskini zi mimi kazi
exploitation
those
significant
either
Cheja's
position
by
and also
much work:
of
up exploiting
manage
as an economic
mother
is due to poverty. this Had my child in Dar-es-Salaam, my work ould have been ) does all the work for me. of
man
her
not
roots Cheja
of women.
(All
attitude
she would
economic
as a woman she is
Kwanza hii yote shauri kazi Dalisalama saai kufanyiwa kila kazi.
The
is
pregnancy
him
the
pregnant
large.
position
do too
the
catch
underprivileged
city
is she
that
problems: as having
The two
asset.
if
her
Cheja's
sees
the
Juma that
He tells
even is
city
Muhando related
threats.
with
problem
informs
When Cheja
the is
even
if
no
these
chauvinistic
often
used
may contradict
to
make those
264
of
the
interested of
In
men. in
this
The
for
on his Her
lover's
the
asset
in
that
explain tion
the
of
ations
home,
becomes
that
of
girl
for
example,
as he would
to
is
in
asset
a hurry
to
of being
man accused spend
out
in
as an economic
by the like
not
can reap
and brother
the
be paid
should
pregnancy
and made her her
and
view
men are
they
gains
father
The brother,
attitude
suggestion
her
personal
Cheja's
they
the
pregnancy,
some of
the
own marriage.
brother's
raped
the
of
extent
a human being.
responsible
taby
attitude
how much material
calculate
in
but
what
Cheja's
with
welfare
show to than
rather
for
her
problem.
particular
goods
connection
she an
Cheja's young
she
is
explains
why Cheja
accuses
her
employer
falsely
false
is she
If
likely
economic
woman's
Cheja
her
pregnant.
to
be
cast
of
accusation moral
regarded
vacuity
but
unmarried
employer it
having
of
as a mere economic
is
the
expectant
she is
playwright
her
her
accepts
immediately
out
The
liability.
deprived
an economically
forgiveness
towards
is
at
to
pains
not
indicaan
maternal
consider-
mother.
Pleading
says:
baada kunisamehe kwenu ya yote yalitokea. vigumu Lakini rý'zee Sembuli. kosa kubwa kumsingizia kama kufanya kwa matunzo mtoto wangu atapata vile nilidhani kama Mimi wengi e. matunzo mwenyewe ningepata watoto wengine. 3 halali. hayangekuwa hayo kuwa ya Lakini matunzo sikukumbuka Najua ni Nilifanya
that forgive to for all difficult after me know you Sambuli i1lzee by I erred has happened. accusing greatly by so doing that would But I had thought my child falsely. I too, And like would be looked me children. other after did I But like not remember have been looked others. after ) honest been have kind one. this an that not would of welfare (I
To dismiss
it
is
Cheja
'deviant' as a
Jesse
a
gets
Mollel
does
is
265
to
the
misunderstand 44
Like
character. he hears
minute yardstick
judging when
survival to
be
a young
subsequent
ization
and
the
homes.
severe
girls
of
ujamaa
collective necessarily
of
the
Tanzania's
level
of these
are of
It
should
a male-chauvinistic
the
of
Cheja's
position
having
strict
offenders
of
village
Declaration
community
operate
exploitation
among
very the
by another. on the on the
of
his
basis
practical
and subjugation
sleeps
trust
to
rejection
urbanfrom
away
corrupt
men
code and the
type.
shows Muhando's 1967'
of
structure.
political
established
live
moral
her
from
arising
girls
by the
is
for
influence
the
This
Cheja
Cheja's
that
young
woman can be
children.
only
of
'Arusha
socio-economic
pregnancy;
a new phenomenon
an ujamaa45
resources,
her
husband
be noted
setting
the
innocent an
is
one human being villages
ownership erase
the
socio-economic
and
future
socialist
villages
exploitation
logical
join
a sense
encouraging
her
against
to
of
is
was curbed
levelled
ideals
beginning
on which
the
of
he
root
traditional
decision the
this
of
immorality
using
where
herself
for
very
question
the
punishment
support
of
whole
In
Cheja's
the
predicament
Juma on young
like
the
is
a world
on men that
fend
rejection.
and her
their
to
that
with
portrayal of
deprived
in
so dependent ends
believing
greeted
is
Mollel
women's
woman caught
is women
dependence
Juma
with
her her
who accuses
pregnant,
considers
in
actions.
desperate
economic
father
is she
never
is
of
driven
Cheja's
their
Cheja
playwright's
that
which
intention
which The
policy
as a way
appropriate
and preventing
citizens
Although of
marks
on the
communal level
this
ideo-
work
and
does not
of women by men.
266
Chauvinistic tackled
Muhando wrote
ideals
her
of
Mzee
this
play
Mzee
Isa,
Isa
she
women's
her
Salum
I's
is
to
and dignity father
is
nor
abuse by uncle
liberate
women;
if
their
of
his
of
against
Cheja
claiming
to
the
threat
begins, that
the
kill
he would
with
are
relationship
of this
product
boast
Isa
in
officials
is
on the
one hand
is she young
and Mama
presented
by Mzee Isa.
of what
discovers he when
of.
is
symbolises
emptiness
that
presented
Rukia
Hatia,
world
a low-grade
with
any worth
the
reaction
daughter
play
of
Mama Salum complies
Salum,
Mzee
of
Like
His
with
one
the
pregnancy
their
of
a male-dominated
pitted
associating
this
male-chauvinistic
other.
relationship
daughter.
Isa's
_-zee
her
welfare,
between
before
years
rejected
embers
the
and Mama Salum,
for
son's
portrayal
dignity. and
honour
Salum
victim
and
the
of
on the
innocence
her
marriage
contrasting
and Rukia
Rukia's
the
criticize
through
official,
responsible
However,
criticism
innocent as an
need that
confronted
examined
are
pregnant
and Rukia,
Muhando's through
be
.
cannot be
to
Twenty-five
area.
for
intended
relationship,
to
not
need to
46
(My honour)
alone
women need
village
he was
that
demand.
by the
raked
his
consideration
Mzee Isa's
meet this
is
ujamaa
problems
an ujamaa
in
revealed
In
her.
towards
to
Yangu
intention
show that
Mama Salum
made
Heshima
is
and these
improve.
to
women living
the
to
it
Perhaps
play,
attitudes
situation
between
but
ujamaa
is
In
next
thrive
women still
Yangu Muhando's
Heshima
chauvinistic
if
issues.
as specific
In
towards
attitudes
"_zee Isa
that
lowering
terms
Rukie. loves his
honour
has neither who man
Mzee Isa's
talk
of honour
267
and dignity
to
proves
be mere for
one who was responsible is
Mama Salum Isa's
selfishness
share
and the
because line
Mzee Isa's
of
itAneither
that
threat.
But
the
cowardice
nor
a sense
to
agree
false
accusation
of
her
child
Deflating
Salum
which
Mzee
Isa
to
employer, for
accounts of
his
empty
it
child
of
in
victim
the
for
Mzee
of
bear
the
so long to
careful
under-
self-preservation Like
consideration
Mama Salum's honour
is
demand.
is
be the
147 birth.
playwright
Mzee Isa's
to
She has had to
ego.
up a fatherless
Mama Salum
her
inflated
discovered
as an innocent
bringing
leads
of
'illegitimate
portrayed
and empty of
when he is
air
Salum's
similarly
task
hot
Cheja for
twenty-five presence
which in
the
her future
years' of
Rukia
silence. and
she now declares: Wasema
juju
Mimi Heshima ya heshima weave. saa hizi. unaijua hata kwenye aibu Miaka hii siijui siku moja. yote nimeishi Heshima ya kuwa na mtoto wewe asiye na baba. yangu uliivunja Zamani basi kuniua nikanyamaza zamani sana ... ulinitishia Salum kuwa nikifa nikiogopa nani atanitunzia mwanangu, ... Kwa hiyo Kama ni heshima unayoililia siifahamu. wewe mimi kusema. Kama kudanganya wengine ndiyo siogopi watu na kutesa tayari heshima wewe basi unayoidhamiri mimi leo niko Salum kuivunjilia mimi sikupendi ningekuwa mwanangu mbali ... huo huo kufikia lakini ni upendo umri ulio nao usingeishi kwa haki lakini huzuni kuletea sababu ya ya muda utakao Huwezi itakuponya hi. heshima kukupa kutoka balaa ya na Baba yako huyu hapa - Mzee Isa. kumwoa Rukia. (This
Have you ever about you are dignity known I have dignity known what even never means. the have lived I All these day. for shame of with years a long dignity You broke fatherless ago ... having my child. a that fearing I to kill You threatened silent remained me so Salum. look be if to there I died child, my after would no one it. I know for dignity, I do an not If not you are crying time
talking
dignity.
this If deceiving time. and causing people speak afraid I is then dignity, to am ready suffering others and pain ... if it Salum my son, I did not love you you, to destroy ... love The lived have to same age. your not present would to
268
will now bring but you temporary sorrow, from distress dignity. and give you true Rukia. This is your father, Mzee Isa. ) The above the
scores of
speech
difference
Mzee Isa.
Whereas
Mzee Isa
a solid
foundation
own
it
difference,
is
importance
The theme
Mama Salum's in
practice
may use his woman's
Muhando
almost
a decade Talaka This
important rearing
role is
to
sense
than
that
of
principle
to
to in
based
a fundamental
even
means
giving
view
the
at
children
this
of
playwright's
viewpoint
up their
given
more attention
children
in
in
Talaka
basis
and
her
the
Mama5° (The mother
and to
courage
he
perhaps
beginning
The importance by men is
essence
that
fearing
marks
in
this
of
of women's
one of
the
major
written
pillar)
Yangu.
on the the
her
oppression
Nguzo
of
is
dignity
NN`zee Isa
politics.
their
Heshima
play
as a
environment.
bring
without
victimize
Mke Wangu Muhando is
play
is
her
gender
discusses
si
to
and that
of maturity
In
the
that
of
in
after
it
under-
you).
power
consciousness
issues
tool.
child-rearing
consciousness
political
In
of
meaningful
official
honour
prestige
existence.
duty
parents'
him as a matter
challenge
level
Mama Salum
future
awareness
more
to
of
divorce
to
approach
superficial
it
First,
reasons.
Mama Salurn who represents
9 (I Wangu
re
means
life, their
will save you You cannot marry
and male-chauvinistic
honour
child's for
two
shows Mama Salem's
to
his
properly.
it
for
Mama Salum's
a male-dominated
of
si
between
in
expense
the
important
Secondly,
woman living
about
is
it
playwright's
upbringing of
drama directly
uses
children's
of
belief children
as an educative that
women have
because
psychological
childhealth
and
a.
269
in
turn
the
structure
is
that
they
ought
to
themselves
allowing of
of
looking
after
poor
in
Kona's
Kona is
why she should is
Muhando
those
critical
who have
allowed by
Mama Kona,
who
put
progress
Kona
disagrees that
thing a hurry
as
of
if
to
she has missed. been has she husband's
the is
not
women
without
responsibilities
the
such
Baba Kona
great
the
grab
Her
viewing
parting
message
as a ladder
marriage
failure
to
provide
things
her
with
performing
of
an
her
and not
and who Mama
over
some-
fashionable
shows that
things
in
she leaves
divorced
material
these
not
nouveaux-riches
clothes.
husband
for
though
others
those
and wear
to
from
fashionable
When she is
opportunity
as examples
of
welfare
material
importance.
them
the
of
values
as
over
child.
a woman who,
as
social
superficialities
see
new values.
warped
the
before
and gets
woman's
another uses
to
who does not
a step-mother
portrayed
the
man who owing
father
be distracted of
is
his
women and
to
mother,
of
a young
a criminal
with
after
two
Kona,
things is
proof
clothes
all
along her
and to
he
that
a man.
Muhando's family
looking
assimilation
things
with
mercy
time
assimilated
by
is
family
into
and then
themselves
Kona's
material
judge
their
disagrees
the
of
their
has
herself,
rich
message to
circumstances
Nke Wangu is
si
child
at
her
waste
task
social
from
mother
left
very
important
Tal aka
a delinquent
upbringing.
divorced.
changing
be derailed
to
Muhando's
nation.
children.
into
turned
to
adapt
The protagonist has
a healthy
welfare
sharpest
attack
comes through
on women who put Mama Kona's
attitude
material towards
things her
before child
as
270
she leaves her
her
husband
only
the
of
plight him
remembers
leaving.
home.
marital
During
Kona is
to
see her
time
whole
far
very
from
him,
is she
she quarrels
her
when she has
as an afterthought
And when she remembers
nearby
the
In
mind. already that
grateful
with fact,
she
started he is
not
leave:
(Achukua
Afikapo yake na kuanza kuondoka. mizigo mlangoni kama amekumbuka kitu-) asimama ghafla (Aita), 'Kona! Kona! Laaa! Maskini mwanangu ninamwacha. Si jui Lakini atatunzwa vizuri maskini. nifanyete sasa? Konaa! Konaaa! Sijui kenda wapi? Lakini tena afadhali jinsi hayupo kwani ningeshindwa ?:a ya kumwambia kwaheri. kurudi tena kwa huyu bwana. mimi leo nimeamua kwenda sitaki 51 (Atoka) Mwanangu si kitu. Atatunzwa. Atatunzwa! ((She
her luggage takes leaving. When she reaches and starts if the door she has remembered she stands as something) (She calls) 'Kona! Kona! Nooo! TN: I am leaving y poor child; he will But him. be well I don't know whether looked after. has Konaaa! I know he I do? Konaa! don't what where can is it is have I would he because But not around gone. good it And today I have him goodbye. found difficult to tell My child I can't decided to leave; man. come back to this (She He will is nothing. leaves) be looked He will after. ) be looked after'. Mama Kona
who has
adult
see her ibility
evades
now become
Tabia,
Tabia sadistic after
mistakes.
the
husband's
until
Even then young second
a young
is she
not
prepared
but
shifts
son
man's
fate
wife,
blames now she whom
is
step-mother as a stereotyped portrayed StcP This character hernchildren. towards argues
Kona would
concern
jailbird. a
is
her
is
to
to
responsfor
Kona.
bewitched
having
her
duties
maternal
towards
contribution to
her
be to
urge
assume
Kona's
The playwright
father
other to
women's punish
shows women like
is who
very
that
looking Her only
responsibilities. the Tabia
boy
for
very
as products
trivial of
warped
ßr1
Like
values. of
things.
material
and hopes Baba
Mama Kona,
Kona's
money
Muhando
inhuman to
educate
issue
was
needs
brought
Tabia,
dying
of
out,
harder
Nguzo
This
work
discussed their
social
and not
to
areas
fill
of
itself
is
as citizens
is
directly is aim
as separate
of
their to
The playwright
issues.
towards
to
nation national sees their
her
portrayal
fa_. i-L,,, system
they by
should
the
is
the
social
women than
wirk
inspire
the
and subsequently
women's
role
liberation
numbers. to
recognize the
and to
in
date.
plays
women to
development
in
crisis
in
major
strive
disappearance
multiplying
Muhando's
to
the
of
responsibilities
prevent are
This
because
created
to
pillar)
contribution
struggle
being
told
extend
children.
In
and
are
should
extended
maternal
order
The playwright's
and their
the
children
more
which
own biologically;
in
mother
stories
system.
although
which
gap
where
emancipation.
are
setting
family
their
not
delinquent
their
share
as sad st*c
biological
evade their
system
addresses
problen
literature
oral
presented
traditional
that
not
are
(The
enjoyment
he does not
as mothers
their
not
extended
saying
the
Mama52
are These
the
family
importance
development
in
by the
who
on the
responsibilities
who are
is
above.
significance
their
women should
extended
urban
step-mothers
important
children
the
the
that
about
Tabia
of
step-children.
children
very
as an economic
so that
many years
portrayal
their
Muhando
towards even
her
where
women
those
for
Kona
sees
to
as a gateway
her.
with
bases
towards
towards
of
jailed
tradition
narrative
sees marriage
She therefore
he is
that
Tabia
national
as parallels
their
272
The events (the
pillar known
in
mother
as an initial
the
and are
illustrated
by
their
with 'mother
the
it
up rightly
of
the
Africa
contemporary belongs
to
tional
which
women
division to
order
evade
But
intention
recognize
their
be seen
in
symbol
through
the
a very
ancestors
and
their
the
the
to
common way
in
the
name
of
putting
playwright's
which
it when
Africa
continue
work
criticism
that
the the
men exploit
is
in
development
The excuse
women.
The
to
bears the
or
is
pillar.
beds
pillar
therefore
are
exploitation the
of
begin-
and as the
Patata
This
to
is
This
at the
for
convenient
pillar
tradi-
them
in
responsibilities.
in
in
national
there
pillar
types
and,
based
inspire
to
development
in of women
First,
mother
As mentioned
portrayed? Nguzo Mama is
writing
context.
character
people's
women of
nation-building
The portrayal
the
a
village
right
arrival
argue,
53
of
in
importance
this of
task
the
women
women themselves
liberation.
their
to
women.
labour
their
Muhando's
the
is
erecting
as a commentator
go back
they
has been left
of
how are
the
underlined
us that
at and
all,
to
by the
as human beings.
reaction
belongs
belongs
way in
is
to
regarded
After it
of
a fictional
donated
who acts
about-turn
pillar',
at
task
development.
men's
sleep.
title)
has been
explains
not
a dramatic
men make
the
The narrator
mouthpiece
exploited
the
women of Patata
of
play.
playwright's
in as
towards
step
around
revolve
The pillar
The position of
play
pillar
as Patata.
ning
the
is
the
their
secondly,
on women from
women to
and to play
atove,
work
should
representation there various
is
their social
for
therefore through depiction strata.
1.5
The portrayal
women through
of
importance
their
types
character
they
problems to
task
aims
national
development
frustrations
showing
women
through
contributions
the
at
representation
see their
of
in
own role
pillar
to
the
and specifically
they
for
experience
emancipation.
healthy
tie
the
society
voice
pillar,
wisdom
that
following
their
have
decided
will
to
it
Without
used
Patata
of
Unity
of
is
for
towards
play
behave
with
the
in
various
erection
The character prestige
of
women
use
mother
women in
to
disunity
is
nation.
act
their is
this
as
setbacks
liberation. emphasized
and hence
in
this
interfere
pillar. women leaders
she occupies
than
is in
interested more the
j
various
The women characters lead
stood
in aim
which
one element
the
pillar
from
and to
which
a healthy
women which
development
asks
the
Muhando's in
ancestors
has ever
of
characters
flattering.
is
house
by
community
The voice
gender
of
weaknesses
ways which
position
feminine
the
a
Patata
of
people
another
it.
for
articulated
pillar,
to
'Which
liberation.
representing the
of
through
one another
the
give
importance
national
women's
of
the
from
far
to
support
The
show the
to
contribution
as crucial
'
54
the
mother it
question:
denote
to
is
and
to
is
point
informs the
erect
and
a rhetorical
society
representation
to it
representation
of
their
failure
backbone
as a solid This
progress.
and make a proper
deliberately
sections
portrayed
(La Mgambo) when it
MOTHER PILLAR?
the
The
social
confiscate
appreciate
people
women are
for
and
of
the
the
mother their
while
on them to
in
their
Through
to
society
calls face
recognize
their
in
the
responsibilities
in
274
this
position
for.
calls
any woman who has which
are
more
antagonism many useful fearing
to
be a better of
liberation
is
interfere
because
And when the both
which
their
has
wife
of
of
them
is
to
commenting and
rule
Bi
accepted,
from
their
on the
tasks
might
and to
through let
a fight
women's
characters
their
personal
tasks.
The
on the
is who
customer
breaks
at by.
between
out
Here,
fall to
obstacle
task
passing
responsibilities.
a major
prove
the
public
way women easily
is
indiscriminate-
Nane
concentrate
public
has
her.
to
this
Nne's
The latter
them Bi
shown to
cannot
that
be seen.
are
a potential
which
light
discussed
man notices
abandon
this
contributions
chase
the
suggestions
developmental
characters
see as a threat
or who may have
Nne rejects
chair
is
to
Bi
The women are
with
divide
of
the to
in
her
Nane should
but
offer
area
among the
playwright
Bi
commitment
she
is
It
suggestions
Nguzo Mama.
type
prostitute
leadership
and usurp
another
interests
tactics
to
leads
attitude
academic
these
strong
in
the
hers.
leader
presented
and
than the
if
that
Lack
them
of
suggestions
ly
hand
qualities
valid
against
This
prey
to
men's
women's
liberation. in
Although
oppression ution
to
of this
ment at
status
and
home.
on the
women's
Besides
in way Bi
which
Pili's is
children,
not
more
The portrayal
liberation
rearing
does
is
playwright
quo.
by men.
exploitation in
Mama Muhando
women the
view
playwright's to
Nguzo
condone
critical Bi
of
illustrates
women make themselves
hindered Pili
in
by her is
their
of women's
Pili
participation
Bi
men for
the
national
contribthe
vulnerable develop-
many responsibilities sole
breadwinner
for
275,
the
family
but
The money is and batter But Pili
Bi the
clown
Fiji
to
not
by her
husband
her
ensure
Sudi
is
to
The observations
the
men.
Pili's
attitude
themselves is
Pili
be doing
to
the
money she earns.
whose
job
is
to
drunk
get
when her
playwright's
to
refusal
husband
is
and Chizi
narrator
by men.
her
by Bi
women represented of the
be exploited about
work
the
the
contain
satirized the
all
to
over
subservience.
message
on Bi
Bi
to
any control
playwright's
women who allow narrator,
have
not
controlled
and not
the
she does
to
message
Through
the
see that
she ought
as able-bodied
as
herself. The comments the
playwright's
importance to
be
needle
of
treated
wright
uses
appeals
to
of
Chizi
being as
song
the
about
aware
the
emotions
that
they by
are
men.
following
more
Pili's
subservience
women to
piercing
commodities for
Bi
than
It
words
the
sensitize
human beings is from
use of
them
Chizi;
straight
(That
me ...
the
about
who should
refuse
that
play-
significant
Huyo Bi Pili rohoni anasikitisha Atakufa hohehahe kama mie ... maskini Lakini yule wake mume kamlisha Sijui nini Bi Pili Kazi yote afanye Matunda yote ale bwana Sudi ... bwana Sudi Siku moja nitamuuliza Bi Pili Dawa gani aliyompa Ili na mie Nikibahatika Pili Bi kama Mke Kujipatia awe Ambaye taabu yote atakubali Watoto anizalie na pia anilelee Chakula na pia anipikie anilimie 55 Nguo anifulie na pombe anipatie ... troubles my heart woman Bi Pili just like terrible death die She will a
are
indeed
this
the
technique
speech:
276
But that husband of hers I don't know what medicine he gave her Bi Pili does all the work But all the fruits are eaten by Mr Sudi ... One day I'll ask Mr Sudi What witchcraft he used on Bi Pili if I too am lucky So that I get a wife who is like Bi Pili Who will carry all my problems She bears children them for me and rears She cultivates and cooks food for me Washes my clothes and gives me beer ... ) The difference
between
towards
attitude
writers
towards
pessimistic women
can
be
of
they
if
Nguzo Mama represents women's
in
positi'n
The symbolism women cannot out
the
calling
liberation national greater
are
of
a very
stand
the
important
without
support on women
to
development. in
their
emancipation forward
puts
so
society
next
final
their
towards
them-
African
in of women
Africa.
Muhando's
cannot the and work
view
Just
as
progress
for
contribute
meaningfully
role
i):', national
development
that a house withis
playwright
cannot
section.
African
about
society.
analysis,
importance
is
Where Ngozi
stand
pillar,
Women's
male
liberation.
any
they
the
to
to
the
of
attitude
foundation
recognize
which
without
attention
pillar
In
women.
a positive
ideological
and the
a mother
of
have
Muhando's
mother
that
Muhando has hope that
committed
society
and
be appreciated.
must
they
fully
are
liberation
liberation,
women's
of women and her
portrayal
women's
Ngozi56
emancipated
if and
selves
issue
the
as Ibrahim
such
Muhando's
their
to is
given
rý -ý --ý L
Women in
Politics
Cultural
and
Development:
Efua
Sutherland
and Micere
Mugo
Efua
I1icere
The
it
whose in
the
in
involvement
1960s
in
the
of
president
use
she
could
she
initiated
Centre' cultural
served
drama
the
which
was
as
head
of
Ghana.
University
of
children's
literature.
literature
for
for
children
the This It
School
is
was her
which
interest
spurred
her
as the
example,
'Actors and
Sutherland
and Dance
at
in
developing
on the
road
to
the in
interested much
very
which
political
years,
Drama
in For
the
of Music,
early
first
projects
towards many
one way
dramatists.
the
known
play-
Nkrumah
the
theatre
For
playwright
in
engage
cultural
country.
during
women
female
as the
development.
contributing
her
of
to
a chance
back
of
countries.
women
Nkrumah,
with
open air
at
aimed
Ghana
of
in
respective
as far
dates
days
experimental
emancipation
as the
a tool
The two
best-known
association
her
gave
their
of
matters
close
Ghana,
1975
portrayal
involved,
been
Africa's
of
independence
Sutherland's
regime.
one
cultural
early
have
development is
Sutherland
Anansewa
the
development.
here
examined
cultural
of
discusses
chapter
and cultural
is
work
Edufa 1967 Foriwa 1967 The Marriage
Disillusioned 1976 The Long Illness Kiti of Ex-Chief 1976 (coThe Trial Dedan Kimathi of by Ngugi wa Thiong'o) authored 1976
this
of
leadership
Efua
Her
Ghana:
Kenya:
section
political
another,
(F)
Mugo
last
wrights
(F)
Sutherland
relevant writing.
or
2(t),
Rý the`Present:
for
her
*ini; after
issues
Mugo of
both
supporters
1960s
late
involved
university
in
develop--ng
theatre
new literature
arlc cultural
to
secondary
and
a politicall
material
in
the
? iterature
decolonizing
at
the
in Kenya
syllabus
was aimed
relevant
political
She was one c
and a writer.
1970s which
culturally
in
and
students. is
Mugo
She is
very
a strong
stand
both
militant
supporter
of
of
situation
ownership
control
or
harder
than
to
on this
the
a writer
rights
man.
In
one
liberation
women's
clear
interviews. and
essays
unfortunate
as
the is
issues
on women's
poetry,
say
involved
has been
the
of
and early
introducing and
Her
Kenya
as an educationist
staunchest
the
she
is
children. Micere
her
retirement,
from
the
thinker.
movement
Kenyan
over
property
interview,
woman whereby
and yet
over
concern has
she
had
she has had to Mugo has
Professor
in
she exT resses
views
She shows particular
the
in Africa.
no
work
following
the
issue:
the where patriarchal were societies of our This boss the and owner of property. unquestionable man was the thing by worst and colonialism was accentuated position is the acceptance by women of the happened has ever that 77 imposed them. have that on men stereotypes traditional
Most
Like irrelevant -which This Trial
is is of
Sutherland, in geared explicit Dedan
Mugo believes Africa.
contemporary towards from Kimathi.
influencing the 58
sentiments
that
for
art
She views society
art's
serious to
expressed
establish in
the
is sake dram
as that
justice. preface
to
The
279
The Marriage interest
in
the
known
ances
Ananse
as
stories into
story modern
the
It
in
the
and the
a reworking
of
Ghanaian
one
folk
the
of
perform-
trickster
the
it make
to
culture
Sutherland's
Ghanaian
has relocated
playwright
contemporary
drama
for
but
appealing, play very
disappointing, in
in The
whereby
for
original to
relevant
from
the
Atangana
out
possible do not
the
view
of
of
the
consider
on the
his
to as
play
is Edufa60
with
marriage.
welfare
the
father-in-law As
but
make In
from
happiness
future
that
not
Ananse
cases, of
of Like
burden.
of
as much
both
in
commodities,
also
as beasts
as
discussed
One Husband62, to
daughter's
tradition
bride-price
women to
them
tradition
or
this
the
of women and their
a wife.
fathers
their
Suitors
Three
particular,
future
reduces
regard
bride-price his
based
practice
Oyono-Mbia's
of
advantage
of
in
representation
daughter
who henceforth
husbands in
his
women,
very
issues
on cultural
of
some material
taking
point
author
is
Anansewa
impression. is
Anansewa
of
of
when one compares
positive
bride-price
1, the
the
a striking
pays
a suitor
Chapter
the
which
Marriage
compensation
their
especially
leave
society
of
Marriage
The portrayal
weak.
extremely
and Foriwa61
The
entertainment,
as a statement
is
only
is
Mboguo.
in
creation
tradition
story-telling
which
its
finds
audiences.
As
role
of Anansewa59
wealth the
takes as fathers
their
daughters. But situation
whereas and
Oyono- Iia
actually
goes
criticizes
beyond the
the
in way
mere presentation which
the
practice
of
the reduces
280
a woman to the
give
we are
the
the
young
being
to
her
view
girl
In
Juliette
against
with
be manipulated
by her
a matter
freedom
exercise
Oyono-Mbia's the
and who offers object.
of of
play,
tradition conscious
resistance
Anansewa father
on the
and her
other
eventual
rather
than
a result
as
is
case
with
is
very
chance
choice
to
even attempt
woman who is
as a strong
tradition
is man
right
tradition.
portrayed the
does not
as a commercial to
s to
effort.
sides
behind
the
this
of
is
treated
Sutherland
object,
take
herself
allows
marriage of
to
unfairness
against hand
her
audience
persuaded
because of
a commercial
the
Juliette. The
writing
Ghanaian
does
Marriage
culture In
not
and also
this
play to
attempt
in
the
the
her
relate
to
of
in
stand
traditional
work
surprising
development
her
considering taps
she
Anansewa
of
interest
Sutherland's
considering
women.
The
of
the
art
of
a relevant
position
but
story-telling
ideological
her
of
stand
a
as
writer. There The
two
are
Marriage
of
Anansewa
The first
other.
for
relevant
Although
written
Anansewa
may have
Yet,
even
short
with
later been stories
this
it
than
the
written written
possibility
was her
which
only
made
two
other
with
earlier
in
mind,
Edufa
and
to
related
above,
children
hand,
one
is
explanation
literature
poetry
on the
Sutherland's
for
explanations
As mentioned
as a writer.
and
possible
the
to
Foriwa
and
in
Sutherland
creating
start
The Marriage
idea serve
one cannot
of
on the
concerns
playwright's
interest
plays, the
approach
writing.
of
supplementing
children's
help
in
her
readership.
wondering
why
281
the of
playwright the
have
to
differing
the
of
during
type
touch
with
of
its
infancy
idealism
on the Edufa
Although performances
association
with
there
and
was
may, to
due
were
Nkrumah deal
a great At
build.
to
wanted
Sutherland partly
based
were
first
Ghanaians
nation
content
forward
puts is
their
the
about
written.
close
of Anansewa
this
are
1967,
Sutherland's in
it
explanation
plays
until
was
The Marriage
of lost
have
published
the
about
the
think
ideas
the
The second which
to
necessary
influence
of
independence
Ghana's
writing
not
1960s
early
idealism
type
during
were
it
consider
on children.
periods
and Foriwa
when
not
and the
play
bound
in
did
like
the
else,
everyone
disillusionment
with
independence. Sutherland's respect
great
development
who
on people
for play
of
the
Sony
of
who
of
to
offers
uses the
examines
and respect
for
the
Edufa
political
the
playwright
sees
as dependent
themselves,
sacrifice
and
is
which
human life.
myth
not
based her
for
herself
sacrifice
eroded
used
aicestis ,
Euripides'
Greek in
way
is
and
culture
social
Sutherland
have
on materialism
Lawino63,
of
mankind.
she merely
works
her
shows
in
this
forefront.
a transposition
wrongs
Edufa
altruism
is
to
enough
committed
the
cultural
a relevant
establishing
are
Alcestis
but
emphasis
of
Foriwa
and
both
In
Africa.
contemporary
Edufa in
contribution
women's
sees women at
she Edufa
myth
of hope
Africa's
task
for
women
of
portrayal
in
reproducing
Greek
on the
husband
and
Euripides'
as a background. Western
distorted
Africa Like
symbolically
of
humanistic
Ocol to
in
Okot
represent
education
and
values
such
p'Bitek's the
as
poem, educated
2ö2
African humanistic if
him
him.
is
love
in
demand that interprets
Edufa
terms;
materialistic to
order
it
and for
a commodity
into
life,
him
is
It
vitality.
makes
loves
To him
her
cultural
which
be translated
has,
of
values
she truly
terms. to
loss
man's
demonstrate
the
Edufa's
loss
of
his
wife
love
in
materialistic
have
a meaning
to
poma die
it
Ampoma has to
lose
all
her
love
for
extent
of
for
has she
Eduf a. is
Ampoma
portrayed
symcolizes
those
themselves
for
Africa. for
into
daughters the
good
of
comments
ness The
as
death
characteristic
and
decision
use
importance
of
character.
prepared
to
what
from her
shows
of
dying
her
for
Edufa
cultural
sick-
in
general.
culture awareness the
saving
a trick
disintegration.
husband's
in
urgency
as
spiritual
African
in
cultures
starts act
She
sacrifice
meaningful
her
contemporary example,
symbolic
of
to
save mankind
the for
statement,
wrong
establishment
she understands of
the
who are
She transforms
to
that
reveal
following
gone
and
mankind.
a sacrificial
Her
Africa
a personal
all
dignified
a very
of
revival
She makes
the
as
of
what
has
situation:
from beating the heart We spend most of our days preventing lie The things we would rather encourage out its greatness. And before the restrictions. of our we weeds choking among is know it, time has eluded ere not much time allotted us. we sleep. of that us, and half
One of taken ings to
western
world
view.
major
is
This
face
among and
egoistic
is
with
problems at
values those
towards others
the
the
value
whom they is
educated is live.
calculated
in way
their
which
loss
of
The
way
fit
in
to
Edufa
relates
Edufa
like
people
humanity
in
which
with
to
their
his
who have
and feelthey
relate
distorted
wife
AmpoTMa
283
is
and there
in
Okot
Okot
in
Song of
as
a statement
and Lawino Like metaphorically
tior
through
token
to
the
beads his
as a fuse
uses
that
pleads
in
gesture the
have
In African women
fire
their
lost
and their towards prepared
to
into
Ocol the
this
death
as a
which
lead
Ampoma uses
the
her
and
husband
through
selves
mater-
Ampoma
culture.
Lawino
what
articulate
Notice
as Edufa.
disease
actions
Western
husband
her
for
do
her
vitality.
of the
emascula-
In
before
spiritual
token
loss
cultural
human warmth
of
a love
giving
is
who use
of
from
suffering
symbolism
phallic
her
of
portrayal lo
that
depicted
as contrasted narrow their to
with
they for
their
in
Okot
his
husbands They regard
shows portrayal with
concerned
who are
their
on life.
husbands; work
by
people
views
hard
Ampoma, Sutherland
shown
as
trust
5
earthworm.
women
others
of manhood
Ocoy
song:
the
are
the
sacrificial
cultural
Give blood to your ancestors Ask for a spear that you will One that does not bgnd easily Like
between
values.
Edufa
gives
aspects
ancestors
same cultural Lawino's
the
uses
Western
of
Jmpoma
superficial of
and that
Africans'
on educated
Africa's
of
who
and other
Sutherland
representing
ignite
contemporaries
the
Lawino,
symbol
to
relationship
poem.
which
re-establishment
ialism
the
:a
this
assimilation
waistbeads
love
of
p'Bitek's
superficial
the
regard,
between
a parallel
have even
them
return
to
about
a maternal
as prodigal the
welfare
think
who only
right
Both
Lawino.
of the
for
respect
similar
sons cultural
of
themselves
attitude and they path.
are
284
Sutherland's is
ution
illustrated
through
her
female
against
is
in
an attempt
It
that
she rebels
try
and break The
music
and
Edufa's
trick
Edufa's
'murder'
it
is
of
a culture.
the
Edufa's
dance
She is
to
women
for
the
play
cultural
Seguwa is
as a wise
disregards
unlike
old
life
as a
woman who,
and human feel-
heartlessness
orders
cor_trib-
Seguwa as well
old
women.
Edufa's
of
of
the is
This
They
that
Ampoma is .
than
more
play.
demanding
indicative
of
presented
latter's
women's
neutralized
and allows
his
theatrical
role
father
to
coldness.
of
of
of
which
have
of
portrayal
chorus
a culture
against
chorus
the
servant.
is
ings.
by her
of
Ampoma,
importance
the
further
presentation
stereotyped like
in
belief
not
the
understand
Ampoma die
impending
just
for
an act
death
implication
the
the
of of
him. of
providing
implications
To the
of
chorus, indi-. an rdual;
murdering
a whole their
deep
of
the
society,
murder
words:
Crying the death day of another Is crying your own death day. While we mourn for another We mourn for ourselves. is the One's death death Comfort! Comfort to us
purging
die
for
which
the
town
to
command greater and her
evil,
the
chorus
so that of
her
to
attempt
life,
throttle The portrayal
Mother
of
they
mankind;
indebtedness
all
mankind.
oo
Comfort. In
of all,
power daughter
Ampoma's
in women
Fante than
clean
Foriwa
up the act
the are
Foriwa
cultural patrilineal very
city
can find
Sutherland's
matrilineal in
compliments
strong
Ampoma's of
choice
distorted
to
values
meaning. shows the
background societies.
playwright's
where Both
women Queen
women and have tremendous
285
influence the
on the Sintim's
old
based
on general
readily
accept
winning
the
Their
African
communities
to
between
al
is
Western
with
royalty
Western
criticism
playwright's
Queen Mother's real
personal
meaningless
customary
jargon
way which
initiates as a leader
ri nation
their
topples help
being
comings
at
in
the
African
expectations
festival
feel
at
shame after
building
their
of
instead
conduct
Her
Kyerefaso. her
risk the
her
community;
people's But
festival. convincing they
educated
have
traditionthe
women.
cotment
to
as opposed
to
dedication
this
usual the
in
ceremony
and deter-
rebellion
when she
people
to
and
props
strength
her
is
and what
attitude,
is
the
disregard
a synthesis
Sintim's
community
It
the
her
by her
her
for
about
combines
by
threatened
distinguished
and
moved to
women's
culture
from
Notice,
makes her
at
in
viz.,
Queen Mother
progress
make her
their
leadership.
idea
traditional
is
new life
to
advancement
Sutherland's
pomp and exhibitionism. which
progress
meaningful
the
problems,
men who
cultural
to
play
two women in
only
belief
strong
is
TMendo not
the
their
of
cultural
education.
leadership
down-to-earth
nature
of
culture.
of
the
conservative of
from
observed
aggrandizement.
the
from
be
can
due not
dedicated
transitional
the
is
citizens
an embodiment
vital
which
The success
is
personal
to
as
Queen Mother,
Sutherland's
than is
in
selfless
which
from
relevant
the
leadership
Africa's
what
to
also
Queen Mother
towards
male
illustrates
rather
answer
the
But,
work.
leadership.
of
but
in
society
attitude
respect
portrayal
potential
hostile
women's
determination
whom they
men with
cannot
outline
of
their
short-
engaged
in
words
rather
a
-v
2C',
than
deeds.
tells
the
Queen Mother people
the
at
this
attacks
superficial
progress
when she
festival:
Sitting here, Kyerefaso die, I am no longer seeing to able bear the mockery fine, brave of the words of this ceremony of Our fathers the right our festival. to utter them by earned their deeds. They found it, us the land, protected gave us a Praise to them. Yes. system But is this of living. the way to praise them? Watching their walls crumbling around us? Unwilling to it because demands open new paths ourselves, ... No, we have turned of us thought and goodwill and action? into Kyerefaso bed from which a death our young people run the promise failed away to seek elg where, to of life we've them here. give Queen
they
so that her
wins
Mother's
can
is
ship.
It
Foriwa
decide
the
tion
of
who
leave
projects
Queen Mother,
Foriwa
of
is Foriwa
for
down-to-earth
into
entering Edufa
in
the
of
play
the
progress. marriage discussed
with
the
above,
of
than
future
is
in
this
wealthy represents
people
of
which
the
leadermakes join
and
of genera-
younger
development
started
a representative, culture.
progressive progress
meaningful
It
Kyerefaso
a woman's
the
work
''ore
the
at
as an embodiment
represents
generation.
her
Kyerefaso
from
away
with
continue
to
festival
the
of
representative
opposed
at
out
progress
the
portrayed
Foriwa
as a symbol
exhibitionist
superficial rejects
is
to
her and
presented
is
progress.
women who have
been
job
teaching
her
meaningful
impact
Mother's
idleness
shakes
Sintir_,
old have
here.
idea
she
in
the
of hitherto
Queen
by Queen Mother
Foriwa
like
males
to
Sutherland's
off
support
development Like
engage
also
as
themselves
the
even
conservative
confidence
rather
spirit
Anipare. the
than
that
the
she
The latter, nouveaux-riche-z
in
287
whose
values
life
about
human relationships his
is
wealth
in
meaningful
a rejection
Anipare
of
On a superficial
But
as far
coT-- . tted
to
beneficial of
to
_oriwa
as
The
and
of
of
women
and that
country
of
of
male
relationship, case
with,
Soyinka's
light,
of
the
future
and
of him
and
choice
of
to
the
of of
example, Harvest.
68
the
to
potential he is
addition,
generation
that male
are counterpart
on whose
Sutherland's
represents
post-independence the
to
crucial
the
of men
co-opertLtion development
her
of
states.
by female women and men
the
Kyerefaso.
at of
projects
he_is
Africa's
writers expense
presentation In
Labaran
between between
difference
the
a wealth
as
lies.
relationship
the
offer
a foreigner
symbolizes
as
to
and in
Foriwa
and
African
other
at
Kongi's
this
views
little
development
marriage
sometimes for
dedication
also
In
Labaran
The male
counterparts.
her
of
not,
progress
This
illustration an
co-operation
is
in men and women
The presentation offers
for
Africa's
Sutherland
which
and her
he has
Anipare
education
between
role
rejection
values
has very
concerned,
where
development.
cultural
is
a representative
task
extent
is he and
poor
community.
marriage
the
of
this
the
the
shoulders
idea
he is
educated use
these
of
Labaran
as development
He is
offer.
Foriwa's
shows the
level,
to Anipare;
human beings
development.
and selfless
compared
judge
they
terms.
material
therefore
instead
Labaran
distorted;
are
to
of
Sutherland's
the
by their sexual
ideological.
Segi
and Daodu
play,
there
the
of
and that
emphasize
the
of
depiction
the
playwrights
tend
and Foriwa
This in is
is
Wole no
the
288
emphasis
on a sexual is
characters
clearly
co-operation
will
Micere
is
heroines
against
a direct
her
result
as a writer
as symbolic
are
the
of
future
this
by their
characterized injustice. and
oppression
of
playwright's
As mentioned
environment.
female
presented
of the
marriage
their
which
produce.
Mugo's
and militancy
imminent
and the
relationship
view
Micere
thinker;
in
her
her
mouthpieces
to
question
as
and is
Mugo
and a political
characters
is
This
world
above,
sense
plays
a trait
which towards
attitude
very
both
militant
she often any
freedom
of
her
uses
oppressive
status
Ex-Chief
Kiti69
quo. One of is
that
the
of
cultural
brought
in
up
in
girl,
scope
want such of
the
of
but
character, from
to
into
growing to
as respect
thought That wrong,
glimpse the
for
and sense is
the
one's of
elders justice.
the
the
of her
antagonism
are
used
to
taught
development
and unquestioning against
who were to
a mere teenage
indicates
the
mothers
introduced
new values
for
allow
we have
She is
in way deny
that
between at
a girl
the
school.
of Pesa's is she
woman her which
new
school-
far
parents
traditions independence
She says:
does When home. this person one with included At school are we else gets ...
trouble
everyone
not
is
is she of
between
co-wives,
Pesa
aware
of
gap
latter's
home and the
submissive
into.
her
mould
does
Illness
generation
Although
is and at
girl's
the
the
Long
environment,
school.
play
The
and the
mother
sharp
very
taught
culture rre
Western
is
Pesa
her
and
a traditional
the
in
examined
conflict
Unlike
daughters.
values
themes
and
289
taught to question everything we don't in this home, one is one says anything 7° one's elders. Pesa's
for
search
Anowa in
audience
of
conflict
with
independence and
freedom
those
Aidoo's
play is
her
around
examined that
thought
of
she has
argue
with
the
reminds
Anowa's
above.
if
But
understand. told not to
a great
major
sense
of
independence.
Pesa
Sister
Immaculate,
in
search
her
decision
to
the
which
for
leave
in
quo in
her
Immaculate
the
freedom.
Sisters
towards is
nunnery
home.
the
She refuses
their
the
hypocrisy, to
her
as militant
be dissuaded
seen
the
order
in
Africa.
from
her behind
Her and lack
of
Pesa towards
to
leave
the
as
hypocrisy
discrimination
that
decision
to
is
has
she
built
similar
Explaining
tells
Disillusioned
because
have
attitude
freedom
Mugo's
EQºveqt
the
White
questioning
in
71
the
nunnery
of
status Sister
bishop:
is Your Lordship, in a lot of the hypocrisy my main objection that I. am required things to just accept without questioning. For instance, by the amount of freedom that I was astounded the nuns have. in France Right here in our own country and ... it in the white this seems that nuns have very convent, even is in Africans the Where than love this more privileges ... instance? in Going for for the out social convent, work but bad about the nothing speaking villages and on return is This loud love African life? that condescension way of 72 it. is empty and poisonous. be part I can no longer of fighting
The
of
portrayal is the
authors
struggle
with
spirit
Woman and Girl
the on
based
in
Kenyan
have the
war
broadened struggle
Mugo's in of the
women finds
The Trial liberation scope
against
of
meaning
Dedan Kimathi.
from to
greater
knit
contemporary
colonial their
73
in
the
This
play but
oppression,
examination neocolonial
of
this
problems.
290
On both
levels,
is and
of
the
women's the
in
characters their
generation
in
objects
of
Watene's
for
male
of
and not
inferior as
two
generations
ii women of
colonial
through
women freedom
the
are
these
7
supporters
who are
the
female
as fighters
presented
of
two
Unlike
struggles.
fighters,
is
have towards
authors
Dedan Kimathi
Woman
figý, ters
of women through
freedom
Dedan Kimathi
merely
fighters.
freedom
revolutionary
Kenneth the
the
discussed
respect
in
recognition
present
is
tremendous
significant
The role
The representation
The Trial
own right
of
struggles
as participants
sex
given
Mugo and Ngugi
Dedan Kimathi.
the
characters as
the
Foriwa
Girl.
potential
presented
success
future
illustrates
female
for
of
the
of
through
characters
is
revolutionary
role
discussed
in
The Trial
neocolonial
w'hi'le
contribution
be crucial
Sutherland
women in
and
to
shown
Like
women's
the
in
male
guerrillas. The
concern Notce
meticulous
about this
portrayal
in way
the
image
a positive
projecting from
of
Woman indicates
which
is now proper It daylight. She is between thirty and but face, strongly youthful
is she
of
the
the
playwrights'
women she represents.
introduced:
A woman walks the stage. across forty years of age, with a sture Goodlooking. built. She wears
is barefoot. Though app=gently and a peasant woman's clothes is the obviously world-wise, a: --d woman a simple peasant, Throughout, her actions of behaviour and society. perceptive her body and mind are fully alert. are under control: is Fearless daring her determination of and a spirit in is her She full of enema versatile and character. to different A mother, a roles responses and situations. in fighter, all one. y
As a fighter, and
fully
committed
Woman is to
the
shown to struggle.
be fearless, Her
tactful,
consciousness
determined of the
aims
of
291
the
struggle
women in the
contrasts
Watene's
colonial
Where
these
in
stances
is
them
into
they
the the
should
words
The Trial
enemy and to
Woman's
influence
to
of
beauty
workers
and charm to
the
win to
and subsequently her
of
are
good looks
and
changing
circum-
adapt
to
the
role
of
a revolutionary
in
Kimathi
the
move to of
the
behind
as revolutionary is
but
generation, side
of
struggle;
the
only
not
aimed,
the
also
at
at
In
the
through view
of
repetition
illustrating
of her
the
mobilising
Woman's words
fighters.
Woman is
struggle
fighter.
drama,
and attitudes that
significant
Boy as a freedom
mind
younger
ideology
the
tactics
various
is
It
fight.
the
initiate
Boy's
them the
mother.
She initiates
Boy and Girl.
with
and teaches
to
the
relationship
towards
Dedan
creed
powerful
manifestations
the
which
Woman uses
Woman plays
her
struggle
on the
audience
level,
she uses
words
the
of
the
of
struggle.
who articulates
of
and pettiness
fighters
the
assume
character
freedom
male
distract
basis
the
women use their
struggle,
the
the
against
the
On a symbolic This
aware
men from
to
versatility
the
of
naivety
deeply
forces
Watene's
attention
distract
She is
play.
the
with
and neocolonial
fighting. sexual
sharply
are
a
Boy:
she tells
the day died: father you The day you will your why understand the day to die it him for so; was right whether ask yourself be that 'What I do not shall another so can you ask yourself: ' day, that ly die to my circumstances? under such gri made 70 become a man. you'll son, It
can be noted
relationships She is
with
from other
is a woman who
Woman's workers
dedicated
emphasis beyond go
to
the
here the
protection
that
her
expectations.
general of
maternal
life
on a social
292
than
rather
in women in
on a narrow
Sutherland's in
joining to
order
is
The Trial
impression.
Woman of This
only
operates Kimathi
on
carrying
actually
out
her
Sing
Mother
where
is
Dedan Kimathi to both for
herself
put
latter's
the Ngugi
is
revolutionary remarkable becomes
Me is
the
the
own
in
in
From a relationship
Sing
of
in
own right; of
for
war
striking
Sing
for
Me,
The
Trial
of
fighters
other the
her
the
who Dedan The
levels.
physical
and
same time
by the
she
fact
The
own,
plays
that
Trial
of
a woman, Mugo was able latter
and project
play
a way which
was difficult
Me.
fighter
Woman as a future
portrayed
After her
revolutionary
on his
Being
Woman of
of
version
determination.
of
and existence
She is
at
Ngugi
by a woman.
Mother
the
while
work
position
younger
mother.
a fighter
the
co-authored
essence
on his
Girl
Boy.
in
for
and the
to
as symbols
used
can be explained
difference
This
role.
mingling
a guerrilla
of
Mother
with
of Woman
wa Thiong'o's
a more
Woman in
the
metaphysical
see her
duties
Woman in
level,
the
role
leaves
play
unlike
a metaphysical
can
symbolic
former
because
on both
operates
audience
is
the
in
in
deaths.
portrayal
are
of
objective
established
Ngugi
characters
on women's
views
the
Woman in
both
Although
is
and unnecessary between
and the
chorus
Her major
justice
see that
difference
playwrights'
the
struggles,
her
Me.
77
to
Seguwa and the
anti-death.
exploitation
Dedan Kimathi
for
the
represent
from
a significant of
Sing
Mother
is
struggle
Like
Woman is
Edufa,
workers
protect
There in
the
level.
personal
and full
as fearless into
initiation and not
and hatred
inferior an with
Boy,
the
and of
struggle, complement
Girl
becomes
she to the
293 i
younger
It
of
him not
urging Boy
version
and Girl, would
to the
the
in
independent
and has
the
a great (Boy's
inferior as an
Apart
by -en
of
from men's
which
her
role
Girl
leads
struggle.
revolutionary
of
the of
oppression into
in Woman and in
courageous. to
playwrights
in the
women. becoming She talks
Mother the
two
where
Mother
portrayal Sin
Me is
for
respect-
plays,
She is
Nyathira
Sing
of
for
is
often
Me) and
latter. struggle,
revolutionary It
the
Nyathira.
than
confidence
counterpart
supporter in
of
more
by the
above between
character
deal
Between
waver.
and the
attempt
and Nyathira,
a much stronger
on Kariuki
dependent
criticize
case
Girl
to
and
and cowardice.
was observed Kimathi
him
challenging
stronger
a deliberate inferiority
Dedan
of
the
overtly
Boy,
when he tends
struggle
is
female
which
the is
Girl
emerges
is
The Trial
noticeable ively.
latter
of
myth
The contrast Woman in
up the
this
to
mother
give
that
appear
demolish
revolutionary
is
militant about
history
her
Girl of
and eventually this
oppression
is
used
victimization joining when she
says:
On the On the been road. run. All my life running. A daughter. dutiful nice I Men molesting was once a me. I in the It ran away home. area ... Christian settled was things do to headmaster the wicked because wanted from school to the You take behind. wood Always : you remain with me. Then the to books take this office. You and chalk my house. breasts. touch to he my he would follow wanted was me and all teach home to I myself and I left So. stay wanted school. father But life. do my how to sew or with my something idler it. He sent me and have an me called of nothing would he How Jones. Mr for that settler, to pick tea leaves cruel home, from to had I away to run us! and punish abuse used boys it the the In from Mr Jones was father, city from m;,, . ... I to did And yet I starve! not want Always harrassing me ... it. losing from to trying run away while lost virginity my I
have
to
Lam
How else could they sometimes The scope for
the
fore
it
is
wrights
touched
emphasize This
in on
of
has
women playwrights.
ical
stand
has
literature her
about
on either
a bearing
social
gender
Aidoo's
in
female
Muhando's
inequalities.
economic
Tanzania
contemporary her
times faction
female
with
She depicts her
of
search
the
emancipation.
African
type
of
the
playwright
struggle. by
ideologon her
and
very
are
weak as
seems unclear
take
not
play-
characters
writes
Sofola
does
the
a writer's
'Zulu
staunch
revolves
a specific
are
The author
are
contribution
the
stand
societies
them
the
victims to
the
woman as contributing
the
of
the
of
strong
live.
social
and
in
elements women.
playwright's
attainment to
of
criticize
position
of
they
of female
strong
which
victims
to
cause
between
conflict
in
sometimes
the
by very
populated
uses
undermine
of
supporters
around
and the
characters
which
that she
somehow
liberation
female
of
saw a
have
would
the
of
drama
of
drama is
freedom
characters
women's
are
their drama
playwrights
politics.
writers light
it
was observed
Sofola
or
characters.
portrayal
because
ideology
this
the
criticism a writer.
in women and
success
allow
on women and there-
the
theme;
the
The plays
as
four
Perhaps
does not
of men and women which
It on the
however,
oppression
on this
to
concerns
The other
heroines
deal
characters.
for
male
passing.
discussed
major
of
of
co-operation
five
portrayal
theme
as crucial
chapter
Dedan Kimathi,
of
a great
theme
the
money was so miserable. And78 me afterwards, calling me a child.
beat
the
of
dwelling the
Yet
The Trial
of
only
undermined
live?
would
development
in
danger
I
their
probleüs
At
other
dissatisemancipation. which
hinder
9 rý
Mugo and Sutherland characters potential
are in
The major male
female
difficult
are
able for
symbols
political
and
difference discussed
playwrights
portray they
often
write
characters to their
empathize male
socialist these
of
in more with
ideas
playwrights' development
cultural between
theatre.
realist
the
Chapter
five
female
4 is
that
realistically these
counterparts.
of
Africa.
contemporary
the
former
the in
female
on women's
and the
playwrights
than
characters
Their
latter
authors because
a way which
is
276
NOTES TO CHAPTER 5
1
interviewed, 'Zulu in Conversations Sofola Writers with African (ed. ) by Lee Nichols, (p. 268). Washington, 1981, pp. 266-77;
2
Ama Ata Duerden
3
'Zulu 1972.
interviewed, and Cosmo Pieterse,
in African Writers London, Heinemann,
Aidoo
Sofola, Wedlock All references
of the Gods, and quotations
5
See, for Nairobi,
in Ndeti his example, East African Publishing
6
Op. cit.,
p. 22.
7
Ibid.,
8. p.
8
Ibid.,
p. 20.
9
Ama Ata
are
Sofola,
King
quotations
are
'Zulu
book, Elements House, 1972.
Op. cit.,
12
Ibid.,
pp. 22-3.
13
Ibid.,
41. p.
11+
the attitude for example, Consider, Amansa in Henshaw's Asari towards 3. in Chapter examined
15
Op. cit.,
16
Ibid.,
18
All
1974.
and
references
All
references
p. 16.
of the Children
king's of the
wife chief Goddess, as
)414. p. p. 2.
Dilemma of Aidoo, and quotations references
Ama Ata
Ngugi
Ltd.,
of Akamba Life,
1970.
Heinemann, Emene, London, from this edition.
11
17
London, Evans Brothers edition. are from this
Longmans, Anowa, London, from this edition.
Aidoo,
quotations
and
by Dennis p. 22.
p. 28.
Ibid.,
10
Talking 1972,
wa Thiong'o
a Ghost, from are
and Micere
Mugo,
Longmans, Accra, this edition. The Trial
of
1966.
All
Dedan Kirathi,
297
Nairobi, quotations
1976; 1984 reprint. this edition.
Heinemann, are from
All
references
and
19
Foriwa, Efua Sutherland, Accra, State Publishing Corporation, 1967. All references and quotations edition. are from this
2C
Op. cit.,
21
Odanga's Aloys Odhiambo, For detailed o analysis
22
J. E. Henshaw, London Press,
23
Op. cit.
24
Ibid.,
L0. p.
25
Ibid.,
614. p.
2c
Ibid.,
)41. p.
27
Ibid.,
p. 10.
2c
Ibid.,
p. 33.
Zegoua Paris, of this
(Charles) Paris-Honfleur: see play,
Op. cit.,
p. 36.
29
30 31
33
Ibid.,
pp. 35-6.
Children 1964.
Flower, unpublished play, 3. this see Chapter play,
of
University
of
Africaine, Grande Une Poukou Abraha ou For detailed 1972. analysis J. P. Oswald, 3. Chapter
example, London,
Op. cit.,
61. p.
The Development Etherton, Michael 1982, Press, Anchor p. 237.
of
African
61. p.
Ibid.,
35
Op. cit.,
36
interviewed Muhando, Penina 140. p. pp-138-49; op. cit.,
3&
London,
Nokan,
3-
37
Goddess,
l6. p.
for See, Theatre,
Penina House.
the
1982.
Nairobi,
p. 234.
Hatia Muhando, All references
Muhando, Heshima Penina 1974. House, Publishing this edition.
in
(Guilty), and
Conversations
Nairobi,
quotations
East African this from are
(My honour)
Yangu All references
with
African
Writers,
Publishing edition.
East African Iairobi, , from are and quotations
298
39
Penina Muhando, Talaka Si Mke Wangu (I divorce in 'I,ichezo you), (ed. ) Kuigiza by J. M. Mbonde, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania ya Publishing 1976. House, All references and quotations are from this edition.
40
Penina Muhando, Nguzo Mama (The Dar-es-Salaam University Press, quotations are from this edition.
41
Op. cit.,
42
Translations are
mother 1982.
Dar-es-Salaam, pillar), All references and
p. 10. from
Kiswahili
into
English
on this
and other
texts
mine.
13
Op--cit.,
44
Jesse Mollel, University of
45
Ujamaa villages are communal units Tanzania's after move to the left 1967.
46
Op. cit.
L
the term Africa Although traditional of peoples among many born 'illegitimate' does not exist, out of wedlock child a male discrimfather is his biological by experiences who not adopted he is referred to as a 'fatherless ination. In some cultures have terms These his 'the mother'. who came with child or child'
p-38'The Drama of Penina 1979. Alberta,
negative
connotations.
48
Op. cit.,
P-19.
49
op. cit.
50
Qp. cit.
51
op. cit.,
52
op. cit.
53 54
55 56
Muhando',
which were the 'Arusha
M. A.
Thesis,
established Declaration'
with of
p"99"
Ibid.,
6. p.
Ibid.,
)45. p.
Ibid.,
148-9. pp.
See, for example, Chapter 4.
his
Machozi
(A Mwanamke woman's ya
tears)
in
29
57
'A Talk with Daily Nation
58
Op. cit.
59
Efua Sutherland, All references
60
Efua
is a Woman Professor who (Nairobi, April 2,1982),
The Marriage
of .Anansewa, are from this
and quotations
Sutherland,
Edufa, are from
and quotations
London, Longmans, this edition.
61
01). cit.
62
Guillaume Oyono Mbia, Three Suitors Notice, London, Methuen, 1968.
63
Okot p'Bitek, House, 1966.
64
OP-cit.!,
P. 53.
65
O. cit.,
pp. 212-3.
66
Op. cit.,
p. 25.
67
Op. cit.,
pp-50-1.
68
Wole
69
Micere Mugo, The Long Illness Literature 1976. Bureau, All this edition.
Soyinka,
70
Ibid.,
pp. 26-7.
71
Micere
Mugo,
op. cit., edition.
Song of Lawino,
Kongi's
Disillusioned, 62-82. All pp.
Everyone's p. 15.
references
edition. 1967.
All
references
and Until
Further
Publishing
OUP, 1967.
of Ex-Chief references
The
The
Longmans, 1975.
East African
London,
in
London,
One Husband
Nairobi,
Harvest,
Choice',
Kiti,
Nairobi,
and quotations
Long
Illness
and
quotations
of
Kenya are from
Ex-Chief are from
69. p.
72
Ibid.,
73
Op. cit.
74
Watene, Kenneth 1974. Ltd.,
75
Op.cit.,
76
Ibid.,
8. p. pp. 19-l1.
Dedan
Kimathi,
Nairobi,
Transafrica
Publishers
Kiti, this
30J
77
Ngugi wa Thiong'o, by the author from
78
Op. cit.,
p. 41.
Mother Sing the original,
for
Me, a working Maitu Njugira,
copy translated (? 1982). undated
3C1
CONCLUSION
In
last
deal
great and
the
an
drama
general
wave
selection
to
There women's
in
positive
of
position are
country's Where
the
in
are
inspiring
seven plays
fellow
number
the years'
highlighting freedom
the
Algerian
the
fighters
of
to
Where
women's
against
the of
African
cultural and
the
develop-
contemporary
projecting
are
the
example,
a to
contributions
pre-colonial
role
in
For
plays
political
war against the
is
areas
independence
times?
pre-colonial
the
at
amount
drama
Africa's
to
political
woman's
the
with
A look
ignored.
have
Where are
African
abreast
a significant if
whether
women.
contribution for
keep
an
woman,
is
study
important
of
African
women.
plays
of African
negligible.
the
relevant
playwrights
celebrating
fierce
of
women during
African
plays
that
women's
the
of in
history
reveals
struggles
is
image
the
to
general,
struggles
here
this to
managed
of
a considerable
given
has
is
there
the
of
from
arises
position
writing
which
position
a
concern
disciplines,
on the
emancipation
experience
recognition
African
the
the
are
which
examined
in
the
genre
attention
plays
needed
contribute
class
of
as a political
academic
studying
a literary
as
of
is
ment
in
women has generated
of both
various
The question
African
work
In
enthusiasm
particular.
position
internationally,
issue.
academic
so the
or
interest
of
increasing in
decade
on the
plays
Where
slave-raids? important French
their
colonialists?
women like apartheid
role
in
Winnie in
South
Mandela Africa?
302
is
Where of
the
drama
depicting Africa?
post-independence in women
market
e
traditional
unity
African position is
there
in
forums
the
women at
of
position
0,30ºinS,.
ties
are
and
general
to
in and
handle of
the
about
the
Most which
women
in
of
arises
areas
in and
plays
the
which
examined
whether theatre
key
excuse
the
level
that
drama
African
is
influence
in
circle is
ov\
are
opportuni-
not
educated These
boosted. help
the
discriminQU
positions
educational
could
of
about
concern
is
is
making
percentage
women are
why
in
as there
responsibilities
propagate
women.
in
women are
reasons
policy
governmental
second
on
Africa?
national
a vicious
for
of
ideals
major
the
at
of
As long
for
of African
position
the is
in
the
minimal
lack of
creation
women
public
certain
to
leads
the
turn,
appropriate
underprivileged
3% and The
of
performers
on the
heard
below
society.
consider
not
women parliamentarians
is
the
role
propagating
the
women
ministers.
to
era
One of
voices
of
level
hence
African
tendency
to
some
ideas
cabinet
political
of
ideals
national
post-independence
Africa.
example,
policy-making
continues,
enough
about
women when appointments
the
made,
women
issues
women's
complacent
women's
the
role
in
in
The percentage for
the
women)
against
few
the
Nkrumah's
development
contemporary
Africa, for
too
very
Africa.
lower
of whom are
discrimination
are
independent even
in
women
so much
because
is
is
What about
and national theatre
of
there
(most
dances
national
Ghana during
theatre?
to
commitment
instance,
For
independent
African
for
material
women's
this not
specifically.
study interested There
by men.
are
in is
The question
creative a significant
writing
in
number
303
of
by women writers
plays
interested
in
although
small
compared
is
a genre
can explain
much
more
for
too
plays
than,
say,
besides
Africa
has
they
can
in
publication
not
their
affects
The
are
not for
support examined
in
correct chauvinistic
of
works
clear their of
attitudes.
and
gender
politics
In
comparison,
amateur
characters
image
of
the
these theatrical
time
and
space
on women's
views
whose works male
their
position
use
because
of
in
have
turn
female
indicate
they
they
that
no overt
women playwrights in
the
art
of
drama as a tool
of African
shows their African
portrayal
and hence
discussed
imitation
playwrights
the
are
writers
This
experienced stands
on the
be ready
of women in
on the
female
of
female
distorted
women
most
views
to
than
position
imitate
to
ideological
men.
plays.
playwrights
more
as
and time,
place
on its
a limitation
of
5 who are
drama
of
a play
checked
playwriting.
towards
Chapter
forward
the
art
cause.
putting
portrayal
of
women's
and have
their
the
conscious
writing
to
a tendency
attitudes
characters.
they
in
confident
lead
of
process
The social
The minor
3 have
terms
a longer be
play-
as much as the
For
to
needs
The nature
poetry.
and
women are
by female
by women means a limitation
on plays
position.
in
that
works
written
space
merit.
for
1 to
it
since
of
by men.
not
go through
which
Chapters
are
to
constraints
their
those
more
literary
A limitation about
has
its
afford
number
fiction
prose
genres
appeal
to
requires
it
literary
the
indicate
to
study
why women have
of
publication,
other
this
theatre
wrights
The writing
in
playfor
women.
conscious
woman projected
Secondly,
effort through
to
3014
It drama
be a misrepresentation
would to
argue
in women
Africa.
in
this
that
study
are
those in
women's
position
comment
on the
wcmen's
experiences.
the
it
find women
more
feres
African to and
the
which
social
to
to
a-tendency
the
justice
is
It
is
always
high
time
more
in
development.
seriously
women form
able
backbone Drama is
of
over
50% of
African
a very
these
male
Having the
than
is
sympathetic
and this
viewpoint
their
towards
it and
has to
adapt
The theme
inter-
a very
central
liberation part
particularly population
of
in
of
the
the
role
important
themes
liberation
of
one
its
African
African of
of
considering
and are
communicating
woman
literature
indispensan
nations.
effective
that
problems.
the
tool
to
playwrights
characters
society.
Africa's
is
study
female
a man's
women's
is
this
not
about
undergoing
integral as an This
writing
envisage
from
that
be an oversight
to
writer
aimed
undermine
experiences.
a male
been
literature
women's
with
of
examined
about
functional
has
position
which
throughout
confronted,
contemporary
was taken
that
playwrights
male
would
African
women and they of
cultures
the
are
of
body
it
write
presentation
the
However,
chance
when
of African
to
empathize
Even
of
literature.
social
women
literature
needs
the
the
of male playwrights
African
writing
or
difficult
his
with
of
in
situation
towards
plight
Our observation
counterparts.
women he has
in
society.
problems
with
the
elements
experiences
experiences
number
contribute
limitations
have
writers had
nc-
to
actual
sympathetic
to
sensitive effort
criticising
male
not
A considerable
make a conscious at
men are
the
of
ideas
and
305
influencing various does
senses not
drama
assumes
position
works It the
of for
which
is
playwrights
necessary,
genre
are
in women
are more
challenges
powerful
women,
overtly
above involved to
all, in
contribute
not
respond
African
play-writing to
their
is
It
gains
sensitive for
In Africa, majority
greater
information therefore,
of
the
the
socio-political
plight
and create of African
in women
particular
and take
advantage
emancipation.
people, therefore,
necessary
more positively to
to
appeals
disseminating
the
literate.
Africa to
in
word.
because
it
genres
role
written
relevance
greater
literary
Its
on the
solely
the
recognition,
other
simultaneously.
depend
particularly
as the
Unlike
thought.
to of
women. face this
306
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