TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION

Why Technology Should Be Integrated into the Curriculum As a Core Subject By Anthony

F. Gilberti

The

challenge of implementing the study of technology as a core subject will require bold leadership by educators and school administrators at all levels. Teachers and administrators must work together to include the study of technology. This knowledge will empower students to deal with the many technological issues and problems that will confront them in the future. the importance of science and technology and the need for individuals to be &dquo;literate,&dquo; Ernest L. Boyer (1983) wrote in High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America:

oting

!~~! N

We live in a complex, dangerous, and fascinating world. Science has played a role in creating the dangers, and one hopes that it will aid in creating ways of dealing with these dangers. But most of these problems cannot, and will not, be dealt with by scientists alone. We need all the help we can

get, and this help has got

to come

from

a

scientifically

liter-

general public. Ignorance of science and technology becoming the ultimate self-indulgent luxury (p. 24). ate

The report

is

recommend that &dquo;all students study technolhow science and technology are interrelated, and ogy&dquo; (p. 110), including should also include a study of the related ethical and social issues. went on to

The Task Force on Education for Economic Growth (1983) noted that education was vital for national survival. To maintain economic growth and increase personal and national prosperity, the Task Force stated that the educational system should be reformed:

Anthony F. Gilberti

([email protected]), president of the International

Education Association, is chairperson and Indiana State University, Terre Haute.

professor,

Industrial

Technology Technology Education Department,

1

global competition make it imperpublic schools with skills that go &dquo;basics.&dquo; For the productive participation in a society beyond that depends ever more heavily on technology, students will need more than minimum competence in reading, writing,

Technological change ative to

and

equip students

in

mathematics, science, reasoning, the other

areas

use

of computers, and

(p. 9).

in the and of basic understand physics future, including principles ability solutions to and technical the to basic scientific chemistry, ability apply problems, and the ability to operate and use computer technologies.

The Task Force listed

the

The

competencies that students will need

to

Importance of Science and Technology

During the past century, advances in science and technology have been translated into works of ever-increasing sophistication that reach beyond the ability of many individuals. Science and tech...competencies that nology exert a pervasive influence on modern students will need in society. The tools used today are more powerful than those of earlier The is not the

use

eras.

of tools

only defining

as

extensions of the

body

characteristic of technol-

ogy ; many scholars believe technology is a defining characteristic of our values, character, and destiny. Jacques Ellul (1964) and Emmanuel Mesthene

(1970) noted that technology shapes and reshapes

according to its own dictates. They believe technology creates a new view of reality. Technological development appears to human life

favor increased size, concentration, and centralization of systems. The lead time for the initial development, experimental introduction, and adoption of

new

technologies

diminishing quickening rate is

at an ever-

includ[e]

ability to

understand

principles of physics and chemistry, basic

the

ability to apply

basic scientific and technical solutions to

problems,

and the abil-

ity to operate and use computer technologies.

of adoption rate. This results in more extensive social and environmental effects that often act in a synergistic manner. While many of the negative consequences that have been experienced so far are reversible, the costs of undoing the harm are increasing, and future effects may be irreversible.

increasing

The Interconnectedness of

Society

(1969), Mendlovitz (1975), and Naisbitt (1982) wrote that people are dependent on each other by virtue of their use of the environment, Ferkiss

2

the

the future

resources, trade practices, and technical knowledge. These authors also maintain that this interconnectedness was established by the advent of the

computer and networking between nations, businesses, and individuals.

state

and local governments,

interconnectedness, stated that the an industrial society to an infor&dquo;megashift&dquo; mation society by the 1970s. Ramo (1983) concluded that science and technology have restructured the social, political, and economic arrangements of society. These changes, while a result of many centuries, were most attribNaisbitt

(1982), referring

United States had made

utable

to

this

from

a

the twentieth century. Ramo wrote:

to

might also be labeled the &dquo;century of technology&dquo; although obviously the twentieth will not stand out as the only century affected by technological advance. Technology Our century

has been with us since before the invention of the wheel, and the future society certainly will find itself under the spell of far more scientific discovery and technological development than we have so far known. But ours may go down as the century of technology because ... in the 1900s society did more than incorporate its share of technological advances-it became a technological civilization (p. 3).

(1969) noted there was a connection from the industrial society technological society. For Ferkiss, the technological civilization developed from the industrial society: Ferkiss

to

the

as the technology of industrial society has provided the jumping-off point for the technology of post-industrial society,

Just

as industrial man is both the elder brother and the father of emergent technological man, so the intellectual foundations of industrial civilization also provide part of the intellectual underpinnings of technological civilization (p. 42).

just

Ferkiss further noted that

changed

the industrial

society

to

although science and technology had technological society, the previously

the

established social and political ideals of the nineteenth century remained the dominant organizing elements of the twentieth century. These social and polit-

ical ideals

were

nationalism, liberalism, capitalism, and the right to life, liberty, happiness and welfare. These ideals, however,

property, and the pursuit of

being challenged through the new uses of science and technology, and changing value system in regard to personal and environmental welfare.

were a

Public Attention to

Technological Literacy

topic of technological literacy was brought Beginning to public attention by political activists, scientists, social scientists, and technologists (cf. Brungs 1987; and Miller 1987 for religious concerns for in the late

1960s the

3

scientific and

technological literacy). Miller noted that the concern about the public’s knowledge of various scientific or technological public policy issues began around 1968. Environmental groups, he noted, found some minimal level of scientific knowledge was necessary if citizens were to understand issues concerning the environment, nuclear power, and the use of such drugs as Laetrile. Other authors have maintained that

society had individuals suffering

from &dquo;future shock,&dquo;

Ramo concluded that

science and

technology

have restructured the

&dquo;technophobia,&dquo; &dquo;techno- social, political, and logical illiteracy&dquo; (viz., Snow 1959; Toffler 1970; Hellman 1976; Hersh 1983a, 1983b; Suzuki 1984). economic arrangements Toffler (1970) and Hellman (1976) wrote that of society. these individuals represent the illiterate sector of society-illiterate because they cannot cope with technological change. or

Leaders in the field of education and government have also maintained that the United States was becoming a society of technological illiterates. Bowden (1982) noted: &dquo;We are poorly prepared to make the political, economic, and social decisions that science and technology present and impose on us&dquo; (p. 5). Saxon (1983) stated: &dquo;The pervasive lack of understanding of science and technology throughout American society is, just about everyone agrees, a major problem. That our technological illiteracy extends even to those most educated of Americans-our college graduates-verges on a national scandal&dquo; (p. 12).

formerly of the United States Office of Science and Technology Policy emphasized the need for technological literacy. Press Frank Press,

(1978) noted:

greatly by public interests and an enlightened publicpublic pressures, urgently one capable of understanding our complex socio-technological relationship and of realizing what we can and cannot do, able to evaluate technological change in terms of its costs and benefits, its environmental and economic impact, and the social change it may bring. Our success in doing this could determine the degree to which our society controls its own destiny or is the victim of the circumstances it unknowingly creates (p. 51). More recently, the Technology for All American Project (1996) wrote: As

we enter an era

influenced

we

need

Indeed, technological literacy is vital to individual, community, and national economic prosperity. Beyond economic

vitality is the realization that how people develop and apply technology has become critical to future generations, society, and even the Earth’s continued ability to sustain life (p. 6).

4

Statements such

these and the need to reform public education science and technology have led to a focus on the need as

include more for scientific or technological literacy in education. While it is unclear what standards of educational learning are needed to bring about this literacy, there are common components that have been included in almost every definition of science, technology, or technological literacy. These components involved the study of science, technology, and problem-solving skills. Before illustrating these components, a differentiation of science and technology is provide along with a description of the term literacy. to

The

Meaning

of Science

It has been noted

by a number of individuals (e.g., Layton 1971; Friedman Branscomb 1980; 1981; Gies 1982; Shamos 1982; Cutcliffe 1985; Bybee 1986; DeVore 1987; Weaver 1987) that although science and technology

have

a

noting

distinct

relationship

with each

other, they

the differences between science and

are

different. Gies (1982)

technology wrote:

is not to be confused with science. Science is what the universe, macrocosm, and microcosm, consists ofstars, planets, galaxies, cells, atoms, particles. Technology is tools, machines, power, instrumentation, processes, techniques. Science is knowledge discovered, and being discovered, by man. Technology is knowledge creLeaders in ated, and being created by man (p. 17).

Technology

the field of

Hurd (1984) also illustrated the differences between science and technology. For Hurd, the pur-

education and govern-

pose of science was to discover new knowledge, while technology applied knowledge for a social need. Hurd described these differences:

ment have

...

main-

tained that the United

States [i]s becoming a Though science and technology act as an are not integrated system, they synonymous society of technologiin meaning. Science is a way of knowing; it is a breeder of new knowledge. Scientists who cal illiterates. pursue knowledge for its own sake are motivated by their curiosity to learn how and why nature behaves as it does. Their satisfaction arises from discovering new facts, formulating new theories, and developing predictive laws that their peers consider significant in advancing a science discipline. The results of scientific research are judged the basis of their cal ways.... on

integrity,

not

their usefulness in

practi-

Technology, on the other hand, is a process that seeks uses of knowledge. Technologists work with a definite

new

pur-

5

mind, such as designing a more fuel-efficient airintelligent robot, improved cancer therapy, safer roads for travel, synthetic insulin, and communication satelpose in

plane,

an

lites in outer space. The work of the technologist responds to industrial and social needs and whatever product or process people might find useful (pp. 6-7).

Cutcliffe (1985) noted that science is viewed as that body of theoretical knowledge that is concerned with natural phenomena. Individuals involved with scientific research attempt to provide a coherent account of physical and biological objects and events by way of observation and experimentation.

The

Meaning

of

Technology

The term technology, like science, has also been defined in different ways. Cutcliffe (1985) noted that defining technology is &dquo;somewhat more complex&dquo; than defining science (p. 11): Scholars of the social impact of &dquo;technology&dquo; have taken the refer to the complex of social, value-based processes through which the work of the engineer is channeled into society through society’s financial, legal, and political institutions, and as a general rule with little input from engineers themselves. Thus, technology is different from engineering; a term that refers to the specific activity that generates particular artifacts and technologies. It is also much more than applied science, although it certainly draws upon scientific knowledge and methodology (p. 11). term to

_

f’

., &dquo;

’°

.,.

The different perceptions of technology largely depend on a perbackground, the amount one studies and reflects on technology, and the personal experiences one has had with it. Viewpoints of technology range from technology as a tool, to technology as a major component of the human adaptive system. It has been defined as skill, craftsmanship, hardware, artifacts, technique, work or a system of means, an effect, and other similar constructs (DeVore 1980). The following definitions illustrate the variety of interpretations of technology. Bugliarello (1982) wrote that technology was: .

son’s

The enhancement of our biological reach through artifacts, both tangible and intangible-is an exquisitely human phenomenon. It extends the power of our muscles, our senses, and our brain, it lessens our dependence on the environment, and it makes it increasingly possible for us to modify the biological processes within our own body and to influence evolution (p. 1).

6

_

&dquo;

DeVore

(1980) indicated that:

As a discipline technology is used to denote a field of study in the same way that biology, psychology, or anthropology is used. Technology: the study of the creation and utilization of adaptive systems including tools, machines, materials, techmeans and the relation of the behavior of these elements and systems to human beings, society and the civilization process (p. 4).

niques and technical

By reviewing definitions of technology and the changes in meaning that took place through succeeding editions of Webster’s dictionary, Winner (1977) concluded that through time, technology became more important, yet, the meaning of the word became less precise. Winner stated: &dquo;It [technology] is now used in ordinary and academic speech to talk about an unbelievably diverse collection of phenomena-tools, instruments, machines, organizations, methods, techniques, systems and the totality of all these and similar things in an experience&dquo; (p. 8). concluded there was nothing unusual in the dislacks precision in meaning; what was important important was an understanding of its concepts and uses within society. Having noted that there were a variety of definitions of technology, for the purpose of this study the following has been adopted by Wright, Israel, and Lauda (1993): Winner

covery that

additionally

term

an

body of knowledge and action. It is used by people apply resources in developing, producing, using, and assessing products, structures and systems. It extends the human potential for controlling and modifying the natural and human-made (modified) environment (p. 2).

Technology

is

a

to

The

Meaning

of

Literacy

Like science and technology, literacy as a concept has different According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English

meanings. Language (1975), literacy is defined as &dquo;the ability to read and write&dquo; (p. 762). A secondary definition for literacy is &dquo;a well-informed educated person&dquo; (p. 762). Implicitly interwoven with reading and writing is comprehension. Since reading and writing includes composites of punctuation, sentence structure, spelling ability, and other dimensions, literacy is a multi-dimensional concept. Having made these basic premises (i.e., literacy is a multi-dimensional concept; science and technology are different, with each maintaining their own knowledge base, methodologies of inquiry, and purposes), it is now possible to address the question: What type of learning would bring about a technologically literate person? Further, what type of education structure

would best

bring about

this type of

learning?

7

Technology Education

in the United States

In the United

States, the study of technology is of the school curriculum. To many,

stood

quite likely the least under-

area technology means the tools by technicians; some equate technology as a method of instructioninstructional technology; and still others think of it as a study of computers. Unfortunately, none of these perceptions are correct. It would be correct to note that the study of technology has largely been ignored in schools. The curriculum area that has traditionally attempted to make students aware of the influencing aspects of technology

used

has been that of industrial a

state

shift

arts

education. This curriculum

area

has been in

of reform since the late 1970s. The reforms have resulted in

conceptual approach educating students discipline is now called technology education. to a

to

to

technology,

a

major

and the

Where industrial arts once had an emphasis on the teaching of material and tool skills related to industry, technology education helps citizens become technologically literate and take an active role in solving societal problems. The conceptual approach used by technology education relies on the examination of technical means that humans have used throughout recorded history. These technical means may include the study of communication, energy and power, production, transportation, and bio-related technologies. In this study, technology educators often rely on how these various technologies are often applied as a system.

Technology Currently,

the

Education

study

most states. It is

of

as

technology

missing from

General Education

is not tied to

most

graduation requirements in elementary education and college

preparatory programs, despite the numerous references in national reports include this type of education. This has resulted in students failing to

to

learn about technology or develop the necessary problem-solving skills to deal with technical problems. While this situation is slowing changing, I believe the study of technology must become a core subject to foster a technologically literate citizenry. The task for educators is to implement the study of technology into the curriculum. The

development of effective technology education programs will major challenge for school personnel. This effort will require educators to realize they can correct a fundamental flaw in our educational system. Western culture has consistently treated the study of technology in a condescending manner. Mathematics has always been part of the general education curriculum. Physics, for example, was studied in the form of astronomy and music. The study of science has been part of the general be

8

a

education core for quite some time, but teachers and school administrator have consistently dismissed the study of technology as unimportant. Teachers and school administrators at all levels must realize that students need to develop skills in three basic areas: the humanities, science, and technology. The study of technology is a discipline with its own distinct

character, history, and research methodologies. Technology

from that of the and humanities

physical

science

the other. A

on

the

one

unique

of

technology is, in many respects, knowledge of civilization. The technical accomplishments of the early human civilizations are a link to the technologies that are used today. on

knowledge

is

hand and the social sciences

As the American Association for the Advancement of Science

(1993) noted:

The task ahead is to build technology education into the curriculum, as well as use technology to promote learning, so that all students become well informed about the nature, powers, and limitations of technology. As a human enterprise, technology has its own history and identity, quite apart from those of science and mathematics. In history, it preceded science and only gradually has come to draw on science-knowledge of how the natural world works-to help in controlling what happens in the world (p. 42).

Technology will play an important role in the future of human development. This role provides teachers and school administrators with both an opportunity and a responsibility to prepare students education that empowers them to understand and participate in their technological society.

with

an

What type of would

bring

learning

about

a

The skills needed in a technological society can be summed up in the following points. First, stutechnologically literate dents must become skilled as responsible decisionperson? Further, what makers. In a democratic society, educators must pretype of education pare students to participate in the concerns of society. Since many of the public policy issues involve techstructure would best nology, it is reasonable to expect all students to gain an understanding of technological development and bring about this type between humans and their environits relationship of learning? ment. This might include the problems associated with genetic engineering, extracting natural resources, reducing pollution, or the management of a technological infrastructure.

Second, students should learn how technology has been used in conjunction with science to find new knowledge. The knowledge gained in this pursuit would help students to interact with science and technology in more useful ways of thinking about problems. Young people should have the opportunity to examine facts and distinguish between truth and conjecture. 9

This type of experience would further help students to understand the limitations of science and technology in solving the problems of society.

Third, students need the opportunity to examine, question, and develop their own values associated with technological development. There are unique relationships that exist between society, culture, and the envi-

relationships that are often affected by the introduction of new or already implemented technologies. The opportunity and responsibility for educators is to prepare citizens who understand technology well enough to ronment,

participate in the decision making about technological matters. Fourth, educators must provide students with an authentic view of technology. This study of technology must model life; it cannot be learned solely from books or lectures. Students need to experiment, research, design, and work with various tools and materials in

laboratory

based environment. To

study

a

technol-

ogy in its full social and environmental context, students must move from designing and making

The

development

effective

of

technology

education

programs simple objects to designing, constructing, and a operating technological enterprise. In such a will be a major learning environment, students would learn the challenge for school importance of planning, coordination, and assessment of technological innovation and implemenpersonnel. tation. This type of education would provide students with knowledge of waste management issues, including safety, degradability of materials, costs, and the political and environmental issues associated with modern production processes. Finally, school administrators and educators have a responsibility to students examine the relationship of technology to environmentally help sound development. Technology has been used in numerous instances for economic development. This development, however, is often counter to the ecological concepts of sustainability. By having students involved in laboratory-based experiences, educators have numerous opportunities to examine how technology can be used to improve economic conditions while promoting sustainable development and protection of species and the environment.

-

Technology

as a

Core

Subject

If educators and school administrators are serious about educational reform and implementing technology into the curriculum, it is essential that partnerships be developed with educators from the sciences, the humanities,

and the discipline of technology education. Innovative teaching methods and integration practices must be developed to bring about interdisciplinary perspectives in the teaching of science, mathematics, social studies, lan-

10

guage arts, fine arts, and

technology.

Perhaps equally important, these interdisciplinary perspectives

must

be brought about without technology becoming an applied science or any other applied subject. The study of technology is too important to be restricted to an applied subject matter course. Further, technology education needs to be implemented at all grade levels to bring about a technologically literate populace.

Technology Education at the Middle School/Junior High School subject at the middle level should help students understand how technology has altered the living patterns of humans. They should learn about the various technological systems on which humans depend to provide food, clothing, shelter, and an economic livelihood. Students need to examine how technology has provided the advances that have aided humans in their survival. Technology has influenced history with numerous advances in methods IThe

study of technology

as a core

of communications, energy and power

utilization,

production techniques, transportation, and biorelated technologies. Students need to study these advances to discover how technology cannot always

...students need the

opportunity to examine, question,

and

develop

fulfill every human need or want. their own values assoAt the middle level, most students are beginciated with technological ning to think seriously about a career path. Technology education programs allow them to development. explore various occupational choices by examining the roles of scientists, researchers, technicians, and technologists related to technological pursuits. In this exploration, many middle level programs have initiated at least one basic course dealing with technological systems. This course often provides opportunities for student designing, experimenting, and working in a variety of laboratory based activities related to technology. This basic course also introduces students to a broad exposure of fundamental concepts of technology. These concepts may include: ~

~

Technology Introducing

human-adaptive system to meet needs and wants technological system and evaluating its influence on

as a a

soci-

ety, culture, and the environment ~

The

~

An

procedures

to

conduct both basic and

investigation of the promises and

technological networks design, construction, and

applied research problems associated with global

or

universal ~

Product

evaluation. 11

After completing an introductory course in technology, students may elect to enroll in second-level courses that further explore more specific areas

of

technology.

Teaching Strategies

at the Middle Level

participate in a wide variety of laboratory study of technology. These activities may include the design of a new product or service. In this hands-on approach, students may identify a problem that is of personal interest. They would then be asked to write a design brief, which helps them clarify the problem under study by examining such issues as the purpose, the need, and specifications for the design. The specifications help the students generate some of the expectations and limitations for their particular research project by examining simiStudents

at

the middle level often

experiences

lar

in the

products. Having

written the

design brief,

the

stu-

The

study of technol-

ogy

as a core

dents would then research their

project by gathering important information about its construction, costs, aesthetics, use, and impact. They would then

subject

the middle level should

the product in the form of help students undera prototype to determine its feasibility in meeting its desired need. In the construction phase, stustand how technology dents may find alternative solutions or designs for has altered the living their intended product. In determining alternative solutions or designs, they may use computer patterns of humans. models or destructive testing to evaluate overall effectiveness. Finally, the students would develop a functional model and may be asked to develop a marketing strategy or risk assessment plan for the

construct

product.

Students should have an opportunity to investigate the use of technology in a holistic manner. They can learn about scientific laws, engineering principles, properties of materials, and production techniques used by

technologists. Perhaps equally important, they have taken a more direct role in their education.

Conclusions The

challenge of implementing the study of technology as a core subject will

require bold leadership by educators and school administrators at all levels. The greatest mistake would be to fail to provide real opportunities for students to acquire the knowledge that is essential in a contemporary society. Teachers and administrators will have

12

to

work

at

together to

revise the present

include the study of technology. This inclusion should occur in the form of a series of required courses to help foster scientific and technological literacy. Further, to make this learning effective, standards should be developed that link the knowledge to be learned to graduation requirements. By providing this knowledge, students will become empowered to deal with the many technological issues and problems that will confront them in their future roles as consumers and decision makers.-B school

offerings

to

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15