Volume 29 Number 2 2000

Volume 29 Number 2 November 2000

LINDQVIST, U., The Restructured Media Field Sets New Demands on Technical Research

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OITTINEN, P., OJALA, M., Modelling of Media Processes from an Information Perspective – Watching TV News as an Example

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Published by

Graafisen teollisuuden tutkimussäätiö (Graphic Industry Research Foundation)

Address

Tekniikantie 3 A FIN-02150 Espoo Finland

Telephone Telefax

358-09-4513341 358-09-4513356

Editor

Pirkko Oittinen [email protected]

Assistant Editor

Tiina Hartikainen [email protected]

Graphic Arts in Finland publishes articles on research and development in graphic arts and media technology. Volume 29 (three issues) is published in print and web. Volume 30 will only be available on the web site: http://www.media.hut.fi/GTTS/

2 Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2

Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2, 3–5

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The Restructured Media Field Sets New Demands on Technical Research Lindqvist, U.*

Tekniset tutkimustarpeet muuttuvat uudessa mediakentässä.

ABSTRACT During the late Nineties a restructuring of the media branch started as an international phenomenon and is obvious in Finland, often seen as the test laboratory of the new ICT age. The initiator was the integration of printed and electronic media, which resulted in new product brands enabled by new publication processes, channels and information carriers. However, the technical development is just one part of the revolution. At least four megatrends can be seen in the restructuring of the media field: 1) Concentration of the production to a small number of "media giants", 2) Small media companies in the surroundings loose their independence and signal weak or strong belonging to one of the giants, 3) New players, such as telecommunication operators and new media companies, occur on the market, and 4) A globalisation of the media sector. In these fields technical research can hardly be performed successfully without a strong connection to the strategic goals of the leading media companies. In addition exploitation of new innovative inventions is carried out in dynamic, fast growing, spin-off enterprises. TIIVISTELMÄ Viime vuosina tapahtunut ja yhä jatkuva mediakentän uusjako on maailmanlaajuinen ilmiö, joka näkyy vahvasti myös Suomessa – uuden ICT-ajan (Information and Communication Technology) koelaboratoriossa. Taustalla on luonnollisesti sähköisen ja painetun viestinnän osittainen integroituminen toisiinsa ja sen kautta uusien prosessien, julkaisukanavien ja julkaisualustojen luomat uudet tuotekonseptit. Teknologian kehitys on kuitenkin vain osasyy mullistuksiin. Kehityksessä näkyy selvästi neljä megatrendiä: 1) Keskittyminen muutaman ison mediajätin ympärille, 2) Muiden media* VTT Information Technology, Media. Address: P.O. Box 1204, FIN-02044 VTT, yhtiöiden riippumattomuuden hämärtymiFinland. nen ja selvä liputus jonkun leirin Internet e-mail: [email protected] puolesta, 3) Uusien pelureiden ilmaantu-

minen mediakenttään, kuten teleoperaattorit ja uusmediatalot, sekä 4) Globalisaatio. Tässä sektorissa teknistieteellistä tutkimusta voi harrastaa menestyksekkäästi ainoastaan liittämällä se tiiviisti johtavien mediayhtiöiden strategisiin päämääriin. Tämän lisäksi uusi innovatiivinen tuotekehitys tapahtuu dynaamisissa, nopeasti kasvavissa spinoff yrityksissä. FROM TECHNOLOGY PUSH TO MARKET PULL In the traditional media company technology was the core competence. The investment costs for a printing press were significant, but the press granted the publisher independence and an open channel for the distribution of his media. The electronic media was different, and especially the public broadcasting company, which had an extraordinary position. The introduction of cable television and regional broadcasting gave the media company the first touch to electronic media, which at that time still was seen as a competitor. In the modern media company content has become the key factor, whereas technology has been degraded to a tool for • storing the content in a generic form, • processing and handling the content in a form suitable for different media, • delivery of the content via different channels, and • displaying the content for the end user on different information carriers The traditional media companies were not strong enough to manage the entire value chain alone from creating of content to the delivery to the end user, including the processing technologies and distribution channels needed. Alliances between media companies and possessors of distribution channels represent a logic way of integrating media and creating resources for multiple media usage of the content. Meanwhile the traditionally domestic media market has become a part of the global entertainment industry. The recent decision of one big media company in

4 Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2 Finland to cancel their press order in favour of investment in new media is a strong strategic orientation towards integrated media. POLARISATION OF THE MEDIA FIELD The fusion between media is an international phenomenon. In a small country like Finland it always results in a polarisation between two dominating giants. Both of them search to offer a complete and all-round multiple media service, covering both printed media, electronic media and new media. A prerequisite is that the giant possesses distribution chains with enough capacity. Another goal is to reach a geographical coverage which is strong enough. This means in practice conquering of leading regional newspapers. In Finland the two leading media companies – MC1 and MC2 – in fact hold shares between 20 and 50 per cent in a number of leading regional newspapers. However, on an international scale the two Finnish media companies are small players. On a Nordic scale they rank number 2 and number 5. One of them is a "national" company, whereas the other one has a Nordic publisher as a minor share holder. Figure 1 gives a schematic presentation of the first steps in the restructuring of the media field. The competitors outside the two blocks are usually rather weak. One of them has in fact chosen a strategy of fast growth with a versatile brand of printed media services. Many other media companies have clearly chosen to approach one of the two main blocks. At this stage the approach can contain strategic co-operation. The polarisation process does not show any sign of stagnation, and the map of ownership is continuously changing. NEW PLAYERS APPEAR ON THE SCENE Another important trend in the restructuring of the media field is the appearance of new players among the traditional media companies. In this category we find the telecommunication operators, who create new service plazas, but also new media companies offering new information services and games over the Internet. For the telecommunication operators the content service has become a must, if they want to increase their volume and market value. A part of this strategy is also to

integrate amusement service. Also this trend is international: recently the world's leading portal AOL took over the world's leading media company Time Warner /1/. Also the leading manufacturers of mobile phones, like Nokia and Ericsson, show an increasing interest for the content market, since the performance of the new generations of mobile phones is not

needed for real-time voice applications but for distribution of multimedia content. The available European content is so far limited, and a significant increase of the supply is becoming a prerequisite for the further technical development. The polarisation described earlier may continue in searching for alliance partners, although this is not necessarily the case.

p1

NP1 N ew spaper Com pany

MC1

p2 p3

BP1 Book P u b lis h e r

.. . pn

EM1 E le c tr o n ic M e d ia B ro a d C a s tin g Com pany

MC2

s m a ll e r p r in tin g p la n ts

Fig. 1

B ig M e d ia Com pany A ll s e r v ic e in M u ltip le M e d ia

A scheme for the first step in restructuring the media field: A big newspaper (NP1) company merges a big book publisher (BP1), and buy up a number of smaller printing shops (p1... pn) in order to offer their customers full service in printed media. After merging a big electronic media company (EM1) a new "media giant" (MC1) is established, which can offer a complete variety of media. In the same way the "media giant" (MC2) is created.

MC1 B ig M e d ia C om pany A ll s e rv ic e in P rin te d M e d ia E l e c t r o n ic M e d i a M u lt i p l e M e d ia W e b - s e r v ic e

PT1 B ig P o r t a l

IM C 1

BG1

In t e g r a t e d s e r v ic e c e n t e r :

B a n k G ro u p

M e d ia s e rv ic e

IC 1

e -C o m m e rc e

In s u r a n c e C o m p a n y

MC2 B ig M e d ia C om pany A ll s e rv ic e in P rin te d M e d ia E l e c t r o n ic M e d i a M u lt i p l e M e d ia W e b - s e r v ic e

Fig. 2

B ig M e d i a Com pany A ll s e r v i c e i n M u ltip le M e d ia

e - In s u r a n c e , e t c .

IM C 2 In te g ra te d s e rv ic e c e n te r : M e d ia s e r v ic e e -C o m m e rc e e -In s u r a n c e , e tc .

A scheme for the last step in restructuring the media field: The media giants (MC1 and MC2) merge or form alliances with big portal owners (PT1 and PT2) in order to offer complete service in both media and e-commerce. The alliance attract other service providers like banks, insurance companies, advertising agencies, etc. At the end Integrated Service Centres (IMC1 and IMC2) are created. Polarisation may remain.

5 Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2 In the next step the media giants obviously will form alliances with leading telecommunication operators - i.e. possessors of leading market place portals /2,3/. This alliance can also include significant providers of other services, such as a leading bank group, a leading insurance company, a leading marketing group, etc. In a polarised world this automatically leads to the formation of also another alliance, which hardly can contain any component in common with the first one. This second stage of restructuring is described in Figure 2. GLOBALISATION, THE FINAL CHALLENGE The traditionally national media markets become global in the Internet era. Content transfer over the (Inter)net and printing close to the customers, or delivery on another information carrier, is convenient and enable production close to the customer. At the same time the content provider can penetrate new market places and offer his services, e.g. via a national media. This also makes it possible for big international media giants – like Bonnier, Egmont, Schibstedt, Bertelsmann – to penetrate national media markets, e.g. in Finland. This may change the polarisation position dramatically and rapidly. On the other hand, globalisation also means new opportunities for national media companies on the international market. THE CONSEQUENCES FOR RESEARCH In the restructured media field technical research can no longer be seen as a charitable service performed by a neutral organisation to the benefit of all parties. Each media giant will have their own technology strategy, which is a part of the company's strategy. Every research project of importance will obviously be

linked closed to the technology strategy of at least one main player in the media field. On the other hand, exploitation of new innovative inventions is carried out in dynamic, fast growing, spin-off enterprises. Research organisations will have to accept ever shorter time periods from invention to market and to rethink the long evolution process from basic research over applied research to product development. According to forecasts /5/ the number of Internet users world wide will increase to 1,7 billion in the year 2005. Most of them – i.e. more than 1,0 billion – will be mobile users. This will obviously finally bring down the barriers between different media, so all news and contents should be available in all forms: text, image, audio, video, animations, new graphics, design, etc. At the same time the whole content should be available in all channels: traditional newspapers, free newspapers, supplements, books, CD-ROMs, videos, WAP, web, live radio and television, studio programmes, etc. The development of the ICT sector is now in a net intensive phase, whereas the content intensive phase has just been entered. The content based services will grow steeply after the middle of this decade. At the same time the media, information technology and telecommunication branches will be united to a new information industry. Important research areas within this sector will be at least multiple media publishing, new information carriers, colour management and virtual colour in publication networks. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Soramäki, M., Markkinointi (2000)8. (In Finnish) Suninen, A., Kirjatyö (2000). (In Finnish) Korhonen, R., Talouselämä (2000)23, p. 20–23. (In Finnish) Soramäki, M., Nordicom, Gothenburg 2000. 82 p. Jonason, N., IFRA Seminar. Amsterdam, 2000.

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Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2, 6–12

Modelling of Media Processes from an Information Perspective – Watching TV News as an Example Oittinen, P.*, Ojala, M.

Mediaprosessien informaatiotekninen mallinnus – esimerkkinä TV-uutisten katselu.

ABSTRACT The argument underlying this paper is the following: With more channels available for distribution of media content and with more end user interfaces to retrieve it, systematic approaches will be needed to analyse process alternatives. The article discusses modelling of media communication processes in general and end use modelling in particular. The aim is to define the modelling field and to test whether an engineering process modelling approach is applicable to modelling the process of watching TV news. The research showed that the selected visual IDEF approach is applicable to a certain degree. Future work will focus on finding and developing more expressive modelling frameworks. TIIVISTELMÄ Lähtökohtana tarkastelulle tutkimukselle on käsitys, että mediasisältöjen välityskanavien ja loppukäyttäjien päätelaitevalikoiman kasvaessa kehitystoiminta edellyttää systemaattista lähestymistapaa. Artikkelissa käsitellään mediaviestintäprosessien mallinnusta yleisesti ja loppukäyttäjän mallinnusta erityisesti. Tarkoituksena on aikaansaada hahmotelma mallinnukselle ja testata soveltuuko insinöörilähtöinen metodiikka loppukäyttäjämallinnukseen, esimerkkinä TV-uutiset. Tutkimus osoitti, että valittu visuaalinen IDEF-standardiin pohjautuva mallinnustapa toimii käyttötilanteeseen vaikuttavien tekijöiden jäsentäjänä, mutta on ilmaisuvoimaltaan riittämätön. Tuleva tutkimus kohdistuu ilmaisuvoimaisempien mallinnustapojen löytämiseen ja kehittämiseen. INTRODUCTION * Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Media Technology, P.O.Box 6400, FIN-02015 HUT, Finland. Internet e-mail: [email protected]

The media industry's core process extends from content creation and packaging to end use. End users retrieve products and services and use them interactively or non-interactively. The lat-

ter, in particular, integrates the end-use phase with the process as a whole. Content is information and the processes are information processes. The term process is understood to mean a chain of activities for producing an outcome; here the outcome is information at the user end. The term information has different meanings in different contexts. In addition to formal meanings, as defined in information theories, informal meanings are abundant /1/. Simplified, data is engineering information – syntactic information. Data processed to express meaning is semantic information (or information for short), and semantic information associated with some mental framework to produce practical value is pragmatic information. Channels through which media products and services are offered to end users are rapidly increasing in number. In addition to print, broadcast and cable TV, and wired Internet, the increasing bandwidth of wireless channels is making them interesting for media applications. The range of peripherals used as user interfaces is also expanding with off-line or one-line wireless information appliances such as PDA's, web pads, electronic books and smart phones. Cleary, the evolving information ecology – manifested in more channels and more user interfaces – makes the operational environment for media companies increasingly complex. This is true of technology, processes, products and services, and the ultimate end, communication. One approach to handle and counteract complexity is to bring it under systematic scrutiny by modelling it. Modelling, generally speaking, is an activity by which descriptions of existing or imaginary systems, objects, processes and phenomena can be made. Modelling may use different perspectives and granularity. A large part of the research work in different disciplines is concerned with some kind of modelling. The end result may be for instance verbal, conceptual, algorithmic, visual, statistical or mathematical. Expressed simply, within tech-

7 Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2 nical sciences modelling often strives to produce quantitative descriptions and within humanistic sciences qualitative descriptions of concepts, and theories about causes and effects. The overall focus of the research discussed here is modelling of media processes and modelling methodologies. It is driven by an interest in finding and developing methodology which is applicable to end-to-end considerations. It is believed that end-to-end models have value in finding bottlenecks in existing process chains and in conceptualisation of new processes in cross-media environments. The approach discussed in the experimental part of the paper is consistent with the flow chart tradition common in engineering process modelling. The approach was selected because the concepts have proved to be applicable to the content creation and packaging steps in newspaper and television news rooms /2/. After an introductory discussion and presentation of the modelling field, modelling of watching TV news is discussed. The case study is based on data found in the literature /3,4,5,6,7,8/ especially reference /3/.

level. By association and comparison of the information with previous knowledge and constructs, the transformation is given a more pragmatic form. In other words, the transformation of an information species into another takes place along the process in a manner which is symmetrical between the two ends. Expressed in a simplified way, basic technologically oriented modelling of information processes deals with syntactic information, process- and productoriented modelling with semantic information and communication science approaches with pragmatic information. Table 1 names some commonly used approaches on the different levels. Technology is understood here as the infrastructure consisting of devices and programs. Information-related basic issues are concerned with the level of parameters for instance in image sampling, coding and rendering, and display of information for human perception. Modelling makes it easier to select

the parameters in a manner which optimises information flow with respect to the capability of human perception. The principles by which human perception can be quantified in data units were laid down in the 1970s /cf. 18/. Current more advanced issues are related for instance to contentbased text, audio and image selection, retrieval and filtering. These fall on the semantic level and are listed on that level in Table 1. Clearly, the borders between the levels are diffuse. Modelling approaches are also becoming more multivalent. Usability modelling, is classified in Table 1 as syntactic level modelling. It refers to modelling of the user-technology interface, and technology acceptance modelling to user acceptance of new devices /15,16/. End use modelling – on the semantic level – has been approached in a variety of ways. Cognitive architectures refer to task-independent representations, cognitive models to representations of tasks

MEDIA PR OCESS MODELLING – GENERAL On the most general level, information flows in media processes as shown in Figure 1. The first step, content creation, is initiated by some "event"; the term is used in a very general sense. The event may have information value to a big audience or only to some particular end user group. The information is pragmatic information. It is given semantic form by formulating it verbally or pointing a camera at it. Verbal information is recorded in digital code by keystrokes or by audio recording. Imagery is digitalised at detection or at storing on a memory medium. In the content packaging step, the information is assembled into pages, a hypermedia presentation or a television or audio program. Dissemination – with the exception of centralised print production – takes increasingly place in digital form. At the end-use interface, the digital codes are converted into signals suitable for human perception. Selection of the signal for processing is generally speaking a prerequisite to allow transformation into semantic form. The extent to which selections are made depends on the attention

Fig. 1

Media process.

Table 1. Overview of modelling approaches to media processes. Domain areas

Information level

Content creation

Content packaging

Dissemination

Retrieval and use

Pragmatic information; communication

Mass communication theories Modelling of information needs and behaviour User modelling

Semantic information; processes and products

Process modelling; IDEF, UML Product modelling; image modelling, document modelling, web site modelling End use modelling: cognitive architectures, cognitive models, task models

Syntactic information; technology

Imaging and coding Perceptual modelling Usability modelling Technology acceptance modelling (TAM)

8 Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2 using such architectures, and task models to activity-based descriptions of human endeavour /10,11,12/. Cognitive resources constitute a boundary condition in all tasks. Process modelling methodologies include a multitude of standardised and non-standardised approaches. The IDEF (ICAM Definition: Integrated ComputerAided Manufacturing) method /22/ and UML (unified modelling language) /23/ belong to the former category. UML in particular is being actively developed. Both allow processes to be examined from several viewpoints. In this study, the function model diagram of the IDEF method is used. So far, the UML method has been mainly used to model information systems, because of the possibility of converting the diagrams directly into object-oriented code for system implementation. Current development activity,

Fig. 2

however, also includes business process viewpoints. Modelling of information products and services is also currently undergoing an active development phase. This is exemplified for instance by structured descriptions of documents using XML (eXtensible Mark-up Language) principles and application-specific vocabularies /24/. The interest arises from to the fact that – as with UML – the models support automation of tasks such as content selection, retrieval and filtering, as mentioned above. On the level of pragmatic information, it is common to speak about theories instead of models. This tradition is a reflection of the fact that the number of concepts and variables is large and many-faceted and that verification of the theories is difficult. Mass communication theories /20/ which deal with media use are an example.

News end-use process

Table 2. Literature-based modelling of TV news watching. Domain areas

Information level Communication Process Technology

Content creation

Content packaging

Dissemination

Retrieval and use

Information sciences focus on issues such as information needs, utilisation and behaviour /9,11,14,19/. User modelling /21, 17/ is an example of a fairly new area. The interest lies mainly in modelling the user and possibly the context of use for the purpose of adapting content to meet individual preferences and needs. WATCHING TV NEWS A review of the literature concerned with TV news watching showed that modelling with the chosen IDEF method would be possible, assuming that the level of information were set in the borderline area between communication science and cognitive perception /cf. Table 2/. This means that the modelling is directed at the processes which the person uses to select the news source, which are used to define the news subject and which are used for processing the information. The issue is whether the processes can be sufficiently matched with the concepts of the IDEF methodology. In the IDEF method, sequential functions are described at different hierarchical levels. Concepts include, in addition to functions, inputs and outputs, resources and controls. The hierarchical structure means that the description becomes more accurate when functions are described in terms of part functions and sub-functions of these. The IDEF model can be characterised as a flow chart. Seen from an informationbased viewpoint, the inputs and outputs are information. The end use of news was defined as a process in which a certain combination of news is selected for use from the media news flow. The output of the end-use process is internalised, pragmatic, information called here integrated information. At the topmost level, two different kinds of control can be discerned – social and personal – i.e. both impacts from the environment and the user's personal, internal characteristics. The entire end-use process is enabled by the person's mental activity and cognitive resources. Figure 2 shows the end-use process at the so-called zero level of the model's hierachy. In the following, the end-use process is examined in terms of three hierarchy levels, in addition to the zero level. Selection of News Source Social impacts and personal characteristics affect both the selection of the news

9 Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2 source and the viewing process /Figure 3/. Personal and social factors were identified as factors guiding the selection of the news source, as viewed by communication science. Personal factors, such as viewing habits, are comparatively unvariable and stable. From the viewpoint of the individual, social factors are often random, such as the news events during each day. Among personal factors, daily routine refers to the every-day habits of the news user, which often influence the selection of the news source more than any other factor. The routine determines at which time of day the news user is within reach of a news source, and above all, at which time he is ready to receive news. On the other hand, news also often has the effect of structuring the daily schedule of the news user. User habits are also significantly affected by the user's conception of the media as news sources. The user may choose his news source for example on the basis of its usefulness, speed or ease of access. If a person has had a hint about a news story, he may "want" to see the news on television. Examples of visually interesting news include catastrophes and sports news. The presence of other people naturally also affects the choice of news source. For example, some people prefer to watch the news at home when they are alone, whereas others only watch the news if their partner is present. The Viewing Process When the news source has been selected, the next stages are viewing and processing /Figure 4/. During the news viewing process, the viewer processes the news raw material, making choices and processing the news information. The result is integrated information based on the news. The resources of the viewing process are the person's cognitive resources, which refer to the functions that allow data processing: senses, memories and mental characteristics. Roughly presented, the news viewing process is guided, except by the media content, i.e. the news information, also by social factors and personal factors. Selection of news refers to a process /Figure 5/, in which the viewer selects one news item or story from the news flow for processing – i.e. the viewer performs a kind of pre-screening. The selection process results in news data selected for cognitive processing. The selection of news is guided by hints contained in the

media content, personal factors – current needs for information and personal experience – and social hints. According to research findings, the viewer forgets most of the news that he or she has seen, which is generally due to the fact that the viewer has not paid any attention to the news in the first place. The

viewer's concentration on a news item is a process in itself, in which two phases can be distinguished: the arousal of attention and the actual selection of information. As the viewer is watching the news, different hints draw his attention to individual news items and stories. Hints in the media content originate from the news

Fig. 3

Selection of news source and news viewing process.

Fig. 4

News viewing process.

10 Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2 flow itself, and these include media hints and keywords. The media hints consist of hints given by the TV news concerning matters of importance. For example, a news story may be placed at the beginning of the broadcast, or it may be mentioned in the introduction, its length may reflect its

Fig. 5

Selection of news.

Fig. 6

News processing.

importance or it may be repeated, or it may be presented by well-known journalists. Keywords consist of individual words, which attract the viewer's attention. Well-known people's names are the most common keywords. In addition to these hints, the arousal of the viewer's

interest is also guided by the viewer's environment. If a certain subject has been brought up in the viewer's social environment, among friends or generally in public, he or she will be sensitised to the subject and when it is mentioned in the news, the viewer's attention will be aroused. When a news item has aroused the viewer's attention, the viewer proceeds to select the information for processing. The viewer's interest in different news subjects is highly individual, and it is affected by various controls depending on the viewing situation, and by the viewer's cognitive characteristics. The viewer's entire mental self, including his previous knowledge and life experience, serves as a resource for the process in which news information is selected for further processing. Socialisation here refers to the person's integration into a certain culture and his adoption of its values and beliefs. A human being is taught to reason, and to evaluate and process information, and he learns to identify what is important and what he should accept. In this way, the person's socialisation, in combination with his previous knowledge and experience, creates a basis for the viewer's selection of information. The viewer's personal experience of a message adds a more situational element of control to the information selection process. In selecting information, the viewer assesses the news item from his own viewpoint. If he finds it personally significant, straightforward and plausible, or if it appeals to his feelings, the viewer most probably selects the news item for processing. In most cases, a particular news item is remembered, because it was "interesting" – in which case the news has had personal significance for the viewer, it has satisfied a need or objective, which the viewer may have had when watching the news broadcast. However, an interesting or emotionally appealing news item may remain unprocessed, if the viewer finds it diffuse or implausible, for example a randomly presented news item whose background remains obscure to the viewer. News processing /Figure 6/ is an event during which selected news data are processed in the viewer's short-term memory, i.e. the working memory. The model described in the following is primarily based on the model presented by Graber /3/. The process begins by a search for and selection of schemas related to the news. The schemas consist of previous knowledge, models or representations related to

11 Graphic Arts in Finland 29(2000)2 a certain subject that are contained in the person's long-term memory. When processing news information, the viewer searches for the schema or schemas in his memory which are related to the subject of the news. In other words, the schemas offer a certain framework in the viewer's mind within which the news is interpreted or to which it is linked. Because the news processing event is a continuous process, the viewer's working memory is constantly processing schemas, and the previous schema influences the selection of a new schema. Other people may also provide hints of a suitable schema, which means that the social context affects the selection of the schema. The news content as such has great importance for the selection of a schema. The angle of a news story offers a specific schema, which makes it easier to examine the subject presented. The viewer does in fact often select the same angle as the journalist who presents the news. An important phase in the processing of news is the use of cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies are tools which make it easier for the viewer to process and understand news. They are used both for the schemas and for the selected news data. Comparison of the news content with previous information is an example of a cognitive strategy, using either direct comparison or formulating analogies between previous and new information. A complicated piece of news can also be broken down into smaller parts, making it easier to find suitable points of comparison with known facts. Also, certain parts of the news can be totally discarded, because they do not fit in with the viewer's previous knowledge or attitudes. In many cases, parts of news are discarded simply because this saves mental effort, or because the viewer wants to concentrate on the parts that he is personally interested in. On the other hand, the viewer may also "revise" the schema he has selected, i.e. supplement the schema that first came into his mind with some other better suited connections between existing and new information. Revision is a third cognitive strategy, which is used when looking for new interpretations and views of a certain news item. The third stage of news processing involves linking the news information to schemas. This means that processed schemas are linked with processed news data, so the news acquires a meaning and is stored in the viewer's memory linked to a selected schema. The entire news processing stage relies on the viewer's

cognitive characteristics, so the person's view of life, values and attitudes in combination with previous information have a decisive impact on how the news is interpreted, what meanings are assigned to it and how it is stored.

2.

3. 4.

CONCLUSIONS Media process modelling is an extensive field even after the scope is limited – in the paper – to information flow. The information species and the process steps examined define the dimensions of the analysis. Generally speaking, modelling as a means for describing the end use of news proved to be a workable option. In other words, modelling of the user's behaviour, which is typical of technical sciences, is possible even if the approach is communication science-oriented; in the field of cognitive science, the process modelling approach is quite common. The IDEF concepts and the limited number of links between concepts turned out to be a restriction to some extent. Because of the complexity of cognitive processing, modelling of it based on data found in the literature was also found to be problematic. On the other hand, the model can be assumed to function well as a tool for structuring the process. This kind of tool is useful, especially in the early stages of the research, as a basis for more advanced hypotheses. An obvious shortcoming of IDEF modelling is the lack of "status"-related concepts. Factors with a long-term impact, such as attitudes and daily routines affecting news processing, must be interpreted as controls, and the method does not offer means for separating them from day-to-day controls. The UML method, which is being used for modelling of news room processes in current communications technology research, offers a more versatile environment in terms of concepts and viewpoints. The next object of research in this area will be to examine the utilisation of this model for modelling new means of communication such as PDAs and similar user processes within different applications, in order to identify possibilities and bottlenecks.

5. 6.

7. 8.

9.

10. 11.

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14.

15.

16.

17. 18.

REFERENCES 1.

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ISSN 0359-2464 EDITA, Helsinki 2000