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Assoc. Prof. Dr. Orhan YILMAZ

He was born in 1962. He graduated from Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science in 1984. He completed his MSc degree at University of Aberdeen in 1997 and his PhD degree at Ankara University in 2007. He still works as a lecturer and researcher at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. Books Published

1. Kangal Köpeği (2003, 2004, 2005, 2008) 2. Her Yönüyle Tokat Zile Küçüközlü Köyü (2004) 3. Zile İsyanı (2005, 2014) 4. Şair Esi Köylü Ürfet Pehlivan (2005) 5. Turkish Kangal (Karabash) Shepherd Dog (2007) 6. Zileli Halil Yalçınkaya (2008) 7. Le Chien Karabash (2008) 8. Sıraçlar (Beydili Alevi Türkmenleri) (2009) 9. Sünni Gözüyle Alevilik-Kızılbaşlık-Bektaşilik (2009) 10. Kelleci Efo (2009) 11. Sezar ile Farnake’nin Zile Savaşı (2010) 12. Çakır (Bir Hain! Çerkez Ethem Analizi) (2010) 13. TürkischerKangal (Karabasch) Hirtenhund (2010) 14. Kangal (Karabash) Cane Da Pastore Turco (2011) 15. At, Eşek, Katır Terimleri Sözlüğü (2011) 16. 100 Soruda Köpek Yetiştiriciliği (2011) 17. Domesticated Donkey (2012) 18. Güvercin Yetiştiriciliği (2012) 19. Atçılık (Irk, Don, Nişane ve Yürüyüş Çeşitleri) (2012) 20. Güvercin Terimleri Sözlüğü (2012) 21. Zileliyiz Dediler (2013) 22. Kafesteki Çocuk (2013)

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Veni Vidi Vici Publications: 10 Domesticated Donkey Assoc. Prof. Dr. Orhan YILMAZ [email protected] - KEY CONSEPTS 1. breed, 2. type, 3. morphological trait

All rights reserved by Veni Vidi Vici Publications. 1st Edition: 2012

ISBN : 978-605-89397-9-0

Cover Photo: An Anatolian Donkey from Camardi, Nigde (Dr. Orhan YILMAZ) Printed in Konak Kırtasiye, Ankara. Veni Vidi Vici Publications

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Domesticated Donkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Orhan YILMAZ Veni Vidi Vici PuBlications

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to Prof. Dr. Mehmet ERTUGRUL who is my PhD supervisor

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CONTENTS 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.1. Scientific classification ................................................................................... 8 2. Origin ................................................................................................................................................................................. 9 3. Terms ................................................................................................................................................................................. 11 4. Ecology .......................................................................................................................................................................... 15 5. Form ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 6. Lifespan ........................................................................................................................................................................ 19 7. Behaviour ................................................................................................................................................................ 21 8. Vocal expression ...................................................................................................................................... 25 9. Colour ............................................................................................................................................................................... 27 10. Markings ............................................................................................................................................................... 29 11. Relationships with other species ................................................................ 31 11.1. Donkeys and horses ............................................................................................ 31 11.2. Donkeys and cattle ................................................................................................ 35 12. Religion and myth ........................................................................................................................... 37 13. Types and Breeds ............................................................................................................................. 39 13.1. Wild donkeys ...................................................................................................................... 39 13.2. Domestic Breeds ........................................................................................................ 45 14. Economic importance ........................................................................................................... 49 15. Uncommon Usage of Donkeys ........................................................................... 57 16. Reproduction ............................................................................................................................................. 63 17. Genetics .................................................................................................................................................................. 67 18. Feed and water requirements ........................................................................... 69 19. Health and care .................................................................................................................................... 73 References ....................................................................................................................................................................... 81 Index ................................................................................................................................................................................. ....... 85 6

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Volume 1. Introduction1

Donkey or ass is a domestic animal falling under equine family. In this family there are the horse, mule and zebra. Donkeys are used by human for draught, pack, and ridden work, milking, breeding, and sometimes eating.Donkeys have some advantages and disadvantages. They are generally voluntary to work and friendly towards human. Donkeys can be trained easily and need little supervision during work. They are easy to be fed and consume poor food well. They are comparatively cheaper to buy than other draught animals. On the other hand they generally suffer from being alone and can be noisy when frustrated and alone. They are breed and mature slowly.

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1 This book created by unifying articles of “Yılmaz, O., Boztepe, S. ve Ertugrul, M. 2012. The Domesticated Donkey: I – Economic Importance, Uncommon Usages, Reproduction Traits, Genetics, Nutrition And Health Care. Canadian Journal of Applied Science. 4(2): 339-353.”, “Yılmaz, O., Boztepe, S. ve Ertugrul, M. 2012. Domesticated Donkeys – Part II: Types and Breeds. Canadian Journal of Applied Science. 2(2): 260-266.” and “Yılmaz, O., Boztepe, S. ve Ertugrul, M. 2012. The Domesticated Donkey: III – Economic Importance, Uncommon Usages, Reproduction Traits, Genetics, Nutrition And Health Care. Canadian Journal of Applied Science. 3(2): 320-338.” publised in Canadian Journal of Applied Science.

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1.1. Scientific classification Table 1. Scientific classification of the donkey. Kingdom

Animale

Order

Perissodactyla

Phylum Class

Family Genus

Subgenus Species

Chordata

Mammalia Equidae Equus

Asinus

E. asinus

Figure 1. Browsing (www.donkeypower. donkecology.com)

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Volume 2. Origin

The name of Equus asinus was determined by Linnaeus in 1758. The type locale was in Manisa, Turkey. The donkey may have been domesticated in the Sahara Desert region 6,000 years ago, perhaps earlier in Egypt, and afterwards spread to most countries of the world. In historical times, donkeys became the chief means of transport over the Asian Silk Road between China and Europe for many centuries. Groves has suggested that original donkey domestication might have been in the Middle East, not long after the beginning of agriculture. Despite the importance of the domesticated donkey, faunal remains and rock art representations of donkeys are extremely rare. This can possibly be explained by the fact that donkeys have mostly been important for poor households and have consequently had low prestige.

Figure 2. Donkeys grazing

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Figures 3. Same donkey, Lupenyo, at 2 weeks (above), 6 months (right) and 2 years of age (opposite page) (www. donkeypower. donkecology.com)

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Volume 3. Terms

In English, the proper word for a donkey is ‘ass’. The word ‘donkey’ is an etymologically obscure word. The first written attestation of it dates to 1785, and it seems to have been introduced in the 19th century, possibly derived from the Flemish ‘dunnetjie’, meaning small and dun-coloured. In Flemish and Dutch the word for ass is also ‘esel’, which, like the French word ‘âne’, clearly derives from the Latin ‘asinus’, signifying that the donkey was introduced to most of Europe by the Romans.

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The word ‘ass’ was made problematic by American usage, in which the British word ‘arse,’ spelled and pronounced that way but an offensive term for the part of the human body that is sat on, became pronounced and even spelled ‘ass’ in American English. This has done the animal no service, so the word ‘donkey’ is now preferred to ‘ass’. Positive associations as embodied in the English phrases ‘donkey’s years’ and ‘donkey work’ – reflecting the longevity of the animal and its capacity for hard work – presumably originated in the 19th century.

Ass: The classic English word for Equus asinus. Used in the King James version of the Christian Bible, where donkeys often play an important role, mainly in the Old Testament. Donkey: Slang and now preferred alternative word for ‘ass’.

Jack Stock (Jackstock): A group term for the American Mammoth Jack and Jennet, because the male version was used in breeding mules.

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Figure 4. Coat length and colouring emerged in a perfectly ordinary, unbred African herd (Dr. Peta Jones)

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Figure 5. Calf training (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

Jack or jackass: A male donkey. The term stallion may also be used instead of jack or jackass, especially where an uncastrated male is indicated.

Jennet or jenny: A female donkey. The word ‘mare’ is often also used instead of jennet or jenny, especially where breeding is referred to. Colt: Male offspring ≤ 1 year old of a donkey (or horse).

Filly: Female offspring ≤ 1 year old of a donkey (or horse).

Burro: In Latin America or the Spanish-influenced Western United States, also in Lusophone Africa, word for donkey. Cuddy: Colloquial Scottish name for donkey.

Moke: Welsh gypsy name for donkey or mule.

Mule: Offspring of jackass (male donkey) and mare (female horse)

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Hinny: Offspring of jennet/jenny (female donkey) and stallion (male horse).

Gelding: The proper term for a gelded (castrated or altered) male donkey (or horse). Mule Jack: Not necessarily a mule, but a jackass used to breed to horse mares to obtain mules.

Jennet Jack: A jackass used to breed to jennets (female donkeys) to produce more donkeys (www.lovelongears.com, 2011).

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Figure 6. Horse& donkey skeletons donkeypower.donkecology.com)

superposed

(www.

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Volume 4. Ecology

Donkeys tolerate hot, dry conditions, often in areas with low-quality forage. They have a higher threshold for thirst than other equine species in terms of water intake and latency to drink when fluid deficits develop. They do not thrive in damp areas, but easily live in marginal desert lands and are adapted to areas that are arid at least seasonally.

Figure 7.Hoof underside (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

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Figure 8. Donkey skeleton (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

Figure 9. A 22 years old age donkey (Dr. Peta Jones)

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Volume 5. Form

Equus asinus individuals typically have narrow, concave and slightly flexible hoofs which are suitable for rocky areas rather than flat desert or sand dunes. ‘Chestnuts’ (vestigial remains of a ‘thumb’ or dewclaw) are located only on the forelimbs.

The dental array is: incissium 3/3, canine 1/1, premolar 3-4/3, molar 3/3, giving a total of 40 or 42 teeth. The incisors are used to seize plants and break off portions, or sometimes to uproot the whole plant while foraging, in which hoofs may also be employed. Donkeys breathe 22 times per minute.

Their ears are proportionally much bigger than those of most other animals and enable them to hear the distant calls of fellow donkeys. The long ears also help to cool the donkey’s blood. Donkeys’ tough digestive system can break down nearinedible vegetation and extract moisture from food more efficiently.

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Figure 10. Grazing (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

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Volume 6. Lifespan

The normal lifespan of a donkey in good health can exceed 50 years, but their lives are often shortened by poor management and parasite infestation. 12 In Ethiopia a donkey life span is about 9 years, but they can live up to 25 years under adequate health care and improved nutrition. 10 Their average lifespan is about 15 years in Mexico. In some countries Jennies are not kept by donkey owners, who believe that, “Jennies cause problems and do not work well”. Thus in such areas the ratio of males to females is about 4:1 which causes lowered donkey production. Abandoned Jennies are mostly killed by predators. 20 Where jacks are left uncastrated, this can also cause problems, as intact jacks can be aggressive towards younger males and even kill them.

Figure 11. Mystery location (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

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Figure 12. Milking (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

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Volume 7. Behaviour

In the wild, donkeys graze from dawn till late morning and again in the late afternoon; they rest in the heat of the day and around midnight, when they will actually lie down to sleep, leaving one or more of their number standing on guard. Much of their behaviour is governed by their herdanimal nature.Some wild male donkeys are territorial, inhabiting and defending specific areas for several weeks.

When not sexually excited – sometimes a problem in intact males of any species – or being aggressive towards carnivores, donkeys are very friendly, calm, quite, patient, intelligent, cautious, playful, and eager to learn and enjoy the company of humans. They have great endurance. They are very cautious and agile on poor tracks. They are notorious for stubbornness, but this is due to some handlers’ misinterpretation of their highly-developed sense of self preservation. It is difficult to force or frighten a donkey into doing something it sees as contrary to its own best interest.

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Donkey is self-preserving in nature, but it is often wrongly called ‘stubborn’ by humans. This almost certainly reflects the handlers’ shortcomings rather than thedonkeys’. They prefer to do what is good for themselves, which is not always what the human thinks is best, especially when it comes to getting their feet wet. They dislike stepping in water or on wet areas, and even dislike bridges over dry gullies. Donkeys can perform all the gaits that horses or mules do, but prefer

Figure 13. Donkey showing donkeypower.donkecology

stripes

(www.

Figure 14. Mule logging (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

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a four-footed gait.

Donkeys can defend themselves with a powerful kick of their hind legs, but they can also chop down with their front legs from a rearing position, or even with one foreleg on the ground, and have been known to kill dogs in this way. A donkey’s eyes are placed such that it can see all four feet at any one time, and they are notable careful about where they put their feet, even when they are moving fast.

Territorial males are dominant over individuals of their own species. Adults of both sexes are dominant over juveniles. No regular leadership is observed in large groups. Territorial stallions chase or escort intruding males away from the mares. A territorial donkey stallion shows dominance by posture: holding their head upright, forward facing ears, ritual chasing of other stallions and examination of other individuals’ scents. As seen in all equids and mammals generally, donkey foals engage in many play behaviours. They frolic, run, chase, buck, jump and leap. They toy with interesting objects in their environment. They pick up, carry, sniff, chew, shake, pull or paw items. Foals mount other young and also adults. They engage in ‘King of the Mountain’ competitions, block passageways to exclude others, and engage in play fighting. At the age of one year, a donkey foal still spends most of its time no more than m away from mother, and may not be weaned until the next foal is born to its mother, sometimes not even then.

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Donkeys are herd animals and, while preferring their own species, can adapt to live in groups of a different species such as horses, sheep and goats.

Figure 15. Some possible markings around a donkey s head (www. donkeypower. donkecology.com)

Figure 16. Skeleton at Onderstepoort (www.donkeypower. donkecology.com)

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Volume 8. Vocal expression

Donkeys tend to express themselves vocally only when they know they can be heard, and that attention will be paid to their needs.

Braying: Donkeys have developed very loud voices, really raspy and brassy. The bray is the characteristic ‘hee-haw’ as “aw-ee, aw-ee” and can be heard for over 3 kilometres. This enables donkeys to keep in touch with other members of their herd over the wide spaces of the desert, and is often an expression of frustration or loneliness. Jacks especially seem to enjoy braying and will ‘sound off’ at any opportunity. Donkeys are adapted to living in arid or semi-arid areas and so need to separate somewhat for grazing and browsing; therefore braying is significantly important in their life in case of danger. The bray is produced during both the air intake for the “ee” and air outflow for the “aw”. Typically, braying consists of a series of brays, primarily by males. They are mechanically produced with some variation and terminated when the animal becomes short of breath. The acoustic character, duration and sequence, some “ee-aw, while others “aw-ee”, are unique to each animal.

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Other sounds: Donkeys have a considerable vocal range. Even within the bray, experienced listeners can detect differences in emphasis and intent. A donkey facing danger can make a sound very like the roar of a lion, and in more intimate situations, as when a donkey is expecting food or meeting a friend after an absence, there are various grunts and whines that can convey its feelings.

Figure 17. Preventing while mother milked (Photo by David Smith)

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Volume 9. Colour

Colours in the donkey range from the gray shades of graydun to brown, black, light-faced roan (both red and gray), variants of sorrel, the blue-eyed ivory, frosted/spotted white, bay and spotted pattern. Real horse Pinto, Horse aging gray, horse Appaloosa, Palomino and buckskin colours do not occur in the donkey (www.lovelongears.com, 2011).

Although most donkeys are of the familiar gray-dun colour, theycan have lots of colour shades. Most donkeys have dorsal stripes and shoulder crosses, leg barring (garters), dark ear marks as well as light points, white muzzle and eye rings, white belly and inner legs. Unless white all over, they do not haveany white colour on their rump.

Figure 18. Browsing on dry twigs and bark (www.donkeypower. donkecology.com)

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Figure 19. Donkeys in a herd (Photo by Wolfgang Bayer)

Figure 20. Thriving on dry grass (Dr. Peta Jones)

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Volume 10. Markings

Cross: This refers to a line of darker hair starting with the mane and running to the end of the tail, called ‘dorsal stripe’or ‘eelstripe’. This is usually crossed at the withers by another darker line of hair, or ‘shoulder stripe’, forming a cross. The shoulder stripe may be long, very short, thin, wide, fading or dashed. Shorter crosses, or intersections along the dorsal stripe, can also occur starting back of the shoulder stripe and diminishing towards the tail. Crosses are not seen on all donkeys, but can even be discernible sometimes on black donkeys. There are commonly light areas or ‘points’ around the eyes (eye rings), muzzle and belly and on the insides of the legs. When these areas are light, so, also, is the inside of the ears. Many donkeys also have dark markings on the ears, and as ‘garters’(or zebra marks) around the legs or as ‘zippers’down the inside of the forelegs. Smaller dark markings can often be found on the side of the neck (collar buttons), and above and below the eyes – see Fig. 15.

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Figure 21. Jenny and foal (Photo by Shaun Farmer)

Figure 22. Very little equipment is needed for controlling a donkey ! (Photo by Mashudu Maroge)

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Volume 11. Relationships with other species

11.1. Donkeys and horses Both belong to the Equidae family, but there are some morphological differences, which can make a difference to the equipment which each can use. For instance, points nine, 10 and 11 below mean that donkeys cannot be efficiently or comfortably saddled and hitched in the same way as horses.

1. The donkey only has chestnuts (epidermal callosities) on the inner surfaces only of its forelegs, whereas the horse has them on all four legs. 2. The donkey has a long head with a big nasal cavity compared to the horse’s short and wide head.

3. The ears of donkeys are longer than 20 cm, and hairy, but the ears of horses are shorter than 15 cm in adults in length and less hairy.

4. Donkey hoofs are higher, smaller, narrower, longer and more flexible than horse hoofs, whereas horse hooves are lower, bigger, rounder and broader and more of a unit. 5. Pasterns are more upright in a donkey than in a horse, i.e. the angle between the donkey’s hoof and the ground is steeper.

6. A forehead blaze is rare and nose blaze and white socks

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Figure 23. Jenny and foal, foal with no white points. (Photo by Shaun Farmer)

Figure 24. Jenny and foal (Photo by Shaun Farmer)

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virtually unknown on donkeys, whereas horses often have these. 7. The donkey tail is terminally tufted, a ‘broom tail’, with long hair confined to the distal half, but the horse’s whole tail is long-haired, long hairs growing from its base. 8. A donkey neck is straighter than a horse’s neck.

9. The donkey has virtually no withers, and it is not prominent as in horses – in other words, the donkey scapulae are on a level with its anterior spine. 10. A donkey’s crupper and rump are also not as pronounced as those of horses, it pelvis having a slightly different angle compared to that of a horse.

11. A donkey generally has a straight back and a dipped loin, with the spine pitched slightly above the ribs, whereas a horse commonly has a slightly swayed back and is level across the spine and rib joins and over the pelvis. 12. The donkey mane is usually coarse, stiff and upright, but all horse manes are long-haired.

13. A forelock is generally absent on donkeys, but all horses have forelocks.

14. In an emergency situation donkeys behave purposefully and calmly, regrouping if they can and facing the danger, but horses can bolt for long distances.

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15. The gestation period for a donkey can vary between 10 and 14 months, but the gestation of a horse is about 11 months or 336 days.

Figures 25. Easy to ride and with children (above and belowe) (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

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11.2. Donkeys and cattle When a donkey is compared to an ox, there are some advantages and disadvantages to be considered (Table 2): Table 2: Comparison of donkeys with cattle. ADVANTAGES of donkeys cf cattle

Process food more efficiently

Can work almost twice as hard

DISADVANTAGES of donkeys cf cattle

With only one stomach, must eat frequently, particularly before working Young must drink mother’s milk frequently

Will eat only about 1/5th total No breed produces milk surplus to food what is needed by young Will eat only about 1/12th high Only work well with friends, so value food they need to be bought in pairs Will drink only about 1/4 water

Kilogram for kilogram, donkeys thus produce more work for less food

Can live up to 50 years and thus produce around 50.000 hours of work in a lifetime No slower faster

than

oxen,

often

Socially acceptable for women and children to use

Range long distances to find food, so exhaust less of environment Very easy to train

Manage heat better

Suffer from fewer diseases

Do not suffer from Foot and Mouth Disease

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Can go far, and quickly, so they need supervision.

Figure 26. Donkey defying dog (Dr. Peta Jones)

Figure 27. Foal circa 6 months (Dr. Peta Jones)

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Volume 12. Religion and myth

The donkey may have been the manifestation of the Egyptian God of Seth, and is also the animal associated with the Greek god Dionysus. In the Christian Gospels, Jesus rides a donkey into Jerusalem. As this donkey is also a colt, a deeper symbolism is probably represented, but certainly the association between Hebrew kings and donkeys is intended. Outside of the scriptures, there are other myths associating donkeys with Jesus. In Hindu mythology a donkey (in Sanskrit) gardbha is the vahana (vehicle) of the god Kalaratr. In parts of India the ritual marriage of two donkeys is supposed to usher in good monsoon rains.

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Donkeys are favourable for human life for centuries. Some studies showed that a couple of donkey can produce a draught force of 15-20% of their combined body weight for three hours a day. In this way a couple of donkeys is enough to do all tillage work in light soil and can do secondary tillage and inter culture in other soil types. The speed of working donkeys is generally higher than oxen. Each year fossil fuels lessen and one day will be finished. Other energy sources are either too expensive or not developed enough yet to use. Power of donkey should not be ignored and humanity will need it in the future. Donkey is a potential of world’s livestock heritage. They will be an important actor of the world’s domestic livestock genetic resources and biodiversity. All of those reasons donkey will have a significant role in the future. All breeds should be conserved as a genetic material in donkey genetic pool.

Figure 28. A donkey is nearly fainted because of hot weather

Figure 29. A foal suckling

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Volume 13. Types and Breeds

13.1. Wild donkeys Within the natural range of the donkey, wild donkeys inhabit arid and rocky regions dotted with hillocks which they use as observation posts. Temperatures often exceed 50°C in the daytime in summer.

Donkeys will browse or graze on any available forage and can roam 4-6 km from a water source. In the wild, donkeys consume 61% browse, 30% forbs, 4% grass, and 5% other, which can be bark or twigs or even roots. Buffer strip vegetation, i.e. what grows on the border between woodland and grassland, is important forage for donkeys during the summer or dry season.

In the wild, donkey social organization ranges from solitary individuals, small or large groups, to herds. One research undertaking found that 5% of the population was solitary, 28% occurred in groups of 2-6 individuals, 30% in groups of 7-20 individuals, and 36% in herds of 21-60 individuals. Small groups usually consist of a single male with a few females or are all male or all female adults. Large groups have 1 or more males and up to 10 females. Some large groups consist solely of females. Herds tend to consist of 25% males and the rest females and their young (Grinder et al, 2006).

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Figure 30. A shepherd dog and a donkey near Ankara, Turkey.

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In the world there are or were several types of wild donkey:

Kiang (Equus asinus kiang): Found in India and Nepal. There is a well-marked black dorsal stripe. The under-parts are pure white, and this colour extends in wedges almost to the dorsal stripe, separating the coloured areas into shoulder, flank and haunch blocks. The white also extends on to the legs, where it is infused with the red of the body colour; on to the throat and sides of the neck, restricting the body-colour to a narrow strip on either side of the mane; and on to the muzzle, the insides of the ears, and as rings round the eyes (Groves, 1974). Onager (Equus onager): Found in Iran, Syria and North Saudi Arabia. Onagers were used in warfare in ancient Mesopotamia (Jones, 2008). Kulan (Equus hemionus): They live in Central Asia (Yarkin, 1962).

There is also some feral donkey in some part of world such as the Mohave Desert, in the South-west USA.

Sahara Ass (Equus asinus atlanticus): It is already extinct. It is appears on frescoes and rock art in El Ghichaw, a small village south-east of Laghouat in Algeria (Grinder et al, 2006; Anonymous, 2011).

Somali Ass (Equus asinus somaliensis): Somali asses may actually be the only surviving African Wild Ass, and seem to be closely related to domestic donkeys (Anon, 2011). They are found in Somalia, Ethiopia and parts of Kenya (Grinder et al, 2006).

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Figure 31. Goat guard (www.donkeypower.donkecology.com)

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Nubian Ass (Equus asinus africanus): These live or lived in Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and part of Ethiopia. Their coat is slightly redder than that of the Somali ass (Grinder et al, 2006). They may have been equal contributors to gene pool of the domesticated donkey (Beja-Pereira et al, 2004).

Beside wild donkeys, feral donkeys are found in different parts of the world where donkeys were once intensively used but have now been replaced by machines. Donkeys survive very well in the wild, and stories are told in South Africa (Jones pers. com.) of donkeys being introduced on game farms to reduce the predation of carnivores on the antelopes, only for the donkeys to increase in numbers while the antelope continued to decrease. Large feral populations in Western Australia were estimated at 1.5 million in 1983. Another population is in Death Valley (California and Nevada, USA). In 10 western United States there are about 36,000 feral horses and burros (Beja-Pereira et al, 2004).

Figure 32. A suckling foal and its family, showing colour variations

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Figure 33. A white colour donkey originally imported from Iraq

Figure 34. Hoof care at Onderstepoort (Dr. Peta Jones)

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13.2. Domestic Breeds As with the breeding of all animals, donkey breeding tended to be with a purpose: to develop an animal suited to its particular work and environment. This naturally resulted in much variation. With changing times, the work of donkeys has changed, and even often the environment, as donkeys are used now in environments where they had not been used earlier (Blench, 2004). Many of the earlier breeds are therefore disappearing, especially in Europe where they were well recorded (see Table 2 below). This does not mean that donkeys themselves are disappearing; in many parts of the world, there is much evidence for the increase in demand for donkeys (Jones, 2004). If new breeds emerge, it will be because new characteristics have become important in donkeys (Table 2).

Figure 35. Rolling donkeys (www.donkeypower.donkecology. com)

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Figure 36. Browsing avocado tree (Dr. Peta Jones)

Figure 37. A young donkey rider from Kars, Turkey.

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Donkey is generally raised in developing countries. They are used as beasts of burden and draught animal in those countries. Donkeys are used by human for draught, pack, and ridden work, milking, breeding, and eating. Donkeys have many advantages. They can be raised in poor climate, management and environment conditions. Donkeys are tough and can survive in arid areas and on poor quality of food. They are obedient, docile, and easy to manage. They can be handled even by women and children. They are cheap to buy and economical to use by small-scale farmers. The objective of this compilation was to provide information of economic importance, uncommon usages, reproduction traits, genetics, nutrition and health care of donkey.

Figure 38. Carrying water with donkeys Digor, Kars, Turkey.

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Figure 39. Donkey measuring by Dr. Yilmaz

Figure 40. Donkey, mule and horses altogether in Sanliurfa.

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Volume 14. Economic importance

Animals have many advantages over machinery, chiefly in terms of the environment, but also economically. Traction capability differs from animal to animal, mainly depending on their body weight. For different species, however, the power proportion can vary: for bullocks it is 12% of body weight, for buffaloes also 12%, for camels 18%, whereas donkeys provide a traction capability of 24% of their body weight. The draught ability of donkeys is therefore superior to that of other draught animals.2 An earlier study showed that a pair of donkeys can generate a draught force equivalent to 15-20% of their body weight with no abnormal sign of fatigue. The average weight of a pair of donkeys is about 250 kg and they can produce adequate force to do all tillage work in light soil.

For these and other reasons, donkeys remain of crucial economic importance in many undeveloped and developing countries. From before the dawn of recorded history, donkeys have been used in Africa, Asia and Europe to carry loads and riders and to pull carts. They have also been used for farm tillage, threshing, raising water, and milling. Though not as fast as a horse, they are cheaper to possess and maintain than are horses. In South Africa, calculations have been made to assess the economic importance of donkeys (Table 3).

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Figures 41. Donkeys eating something (above) and looking around more (belowe) from a village of Igdir Province.

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Table 3: Comparisons of costs and savings in S. Africa. Transport (a day’s) – To carry Cost in SA Rands Savings 500kg 30 km

Humans with head loads

Tractor & trailer or pickup

Donkeys with cart

Donkeys backloaded

340.00

75.50

25.40 23.67

if

donkeys used *

315.00

50.50

* using round figure of R25 for donkey power Cultivation (one season) doing 100ha in Cost in 10 days/two weeks

SA Rands

Savings if

donkeys used*

Human labour plus hoes (figures could 41 000

39 360

Tractor with six-share plough

3 660

vary considerably according to speed worked and daily rate paid)

Oxen with double-furrow plough

Donkeys with single mouldboard plough

5 300

4 910

1 640

3 300 _

* using round figure of R1,640 for donkey power

Although a donkey may be known as ‘the poor man’s horse’, it can survive in many places where the keeping of horses is difficult, such as in Africa, where African Horse Sickness is endemic. Even in countries where environments allow the keeping of horses, donkeys are still popular, such as

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Figure 42. Donkeys in tourism (Dr. Peta Jones)

Figure 43. Donkeys in a hut

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in Swaziland, Turkey and Mexico. A donkey of 250 kg live weight can carry a maximum load of 80 kg, but is often required to carry more, and does so. As a general rule, pack loads should be 25% of the animal’s bodyweight. A fit animal can be expected to carry this load for 7 hours a day. Thus a donkey could be expected to carry 60 kg over 40 km daily,9 although it will not do it unless habituated. Animaldrawn carts allow more goods to be transported, although they add to the expense. One study showed that animaldrawn carts increased the amount of goods transported at in a given time by threefold, and reduced the time spent in transporting these goods by half.10 However, if the animals are not hitched and harnessed properly, the damage and discomfort caused can reduce their efficiency, as can the nature and condition of the vehicle used.

The vast majority of donkey owners keep their animals for work rather than meat or milk, so the animal’s most important characteristic is its adaptation, and it is difficult to agree on what else best suits a donkey for a work.No animal empowers rural people, and thus their communities, more than the donkey does. Donkeys do not usually provide meat, milk or have any ritual significance, so it can be argued that the works they do, and the variety of tasks involved, have a much greater value than mere food or tradition. For example, in Ethiopia donkeys are cheap to buy and they are able to survive heat and dehydration and can obtain nutrients and energy from poor quality foods in severe conditions. In city of Mekele, Tigray Region of Ethiopia, a donkey costs about 240 Birr (€ 11). Many households cut and transport firewood from surrounding areas to Mekele.

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Figure 44. Donkeys in three different colours near Ardahan.

Figure 45. Two young riders from Tuzluca, Igdir, Turkey.

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Each family transports on average nine donkey loads per week, and can earn about 1404 Birr (€ 62) per year. This income is the family’s sole source of revenue. Many families leave their donkeys to scavenge on what plant matter is available.

At the beginning of 20th century, donkeys began to be kept as pets in USA and some other developed countries, while remaining an important work animal in many poorer countries. In some developed countries donkey breeds have become less important than they were in the past, but in other countries prize donkeys serve as indicators of wealth or status. In China, which has the most crowded population in the world, including donkeys, all draught animals have played a significant part in its economic growth. In the Republic of Yemen, 53% of householders keep donkeys. “The jack and jenny” is a common pub name in Britain.

Donkeys have a high economic importance in many African countries, including Namibia and South Africa. In Namibia donkeys are involved in 25% of fatal road traffic accidents caused by fast driving, although cattle are involved in more and wild animals to about the same degree as donkeys. Animals lie down on the tarmac because it is warm and comfortable at night. To protect the donkeys, the Namibian Government provided some luminescent reflective ear tags so that they could be seen from 500 metres away. In South Africa in two widely-separated towns, donkey statues have been erected commemorating the importance of donkeys in the industrial development of South Africa.

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Figure 46. Scars caused by a wolf from Gole, Ardahan, Turkey.

Figure 47. Manda w cross visible (Dr. Peta Jones)

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Volume 15. Uncommon Usage of Donkeys

Donkeys generally are used as pack animals (beasts of burden) but they can also be used under saddle and in harness. In fact, they need very little equipment for controlling them, as they are easily trained and respond readily to verbal instructions and gestures. Because of their straight spines, pitched above the level of their ribs, what they mainly need is good padding or lifting over the spine, and back and front support for any load to prevent it sliding on gradients.

Although in most parts of the world donkeys are still used as they have been for millennia, as transport animals, their intelligence and ease of training has made them useful in a number of unexpected roles, including the old one of transport but with tourists involved. In France, Belgium and Switzerland there are about 300 professional donkey hirers. Donkeys serve as pack and/or riding animals in forested and hilly areas; they have also over the centuries proved useful in the smuggling of contraband goods, as they can travel unaccompanied and not lose their loads.

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The transport role has also become useful in education extension, in providing library outreach to isolated communities in countries such as Colombia and Zimbabwe. Donkeys are even used for police patrols in Still Bay, South Africa. Sergeant Theo Kluits says his patrol vehicle is “all-

Figures 48. Garbage collector donkey ready to work (above) and Garbage collector donkeys stuff (belowe) which belong to Municipality of Mardin, Turkey.

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terrain, voice-activated, twin-engined and twin-exhaust”. It is hardier, more reliable and infinitely more people-friendly than any patrol car. A set of handcuffs is attached to the back of the cart, but that does not mean that a criminal gets a free ride: handcuffed suspects must walk behind the cart to the police station.

Aside from their role in transport, donkeys are increasingly used in soil preparation. Partly this is due to the growing recognition of the ease and efficiency with which they can do this, but also because they have a lighter impact on soils than the larger animals used hitherto, and of course they are more practical than tractors. The recognition of the economic as well as environmental advantages of

Figure 49. Garbage collector donkeys in hut in Mardin, Turkey.

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Figure 50. Queing up to urinate (Dr. Peta Jones)

Figure 51. A donkey and a lady.

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‘conservation agriculture’ or ‘ecological agriculture’ has introduced planting implements designed to disturb soils and ground cover as little as possible, and these are easily and much more appropriately drawn by donkeys.

In the US, Canada, Australia and South Africa donkeys have become popular guard animals for sheep and goats, being protective of smaller species but capable of aggression towards carnivores. In Turkey, shepherds use donkeys to carry, among other things, lambs that are still too young to keep up with the flock when it is on the move. Anywhere where motor transport is awkward or impossible, donkeys are still useful: in Castelbuono, a small town in Italy, 6 donkeys have replaced 4 rubbish collection trucks. According to the mayor of the town, not only money is saved, but also fuel.

With the increasing recognition of the special help that animals can contribute in promoting the healing of humans, donkeys have proven to be of great value in helping physically and mentally disabled children and adults to connect their minds with their bodies, and donkeys are also used to cheer up immobilized elderly people. The special properties of donkey milk are making it a high-value a commercial proposition in Europe and China, although there is as yet no breed of donkey that will produce milk surplus to the needs of its own young. In Canada an investor produces different kinds of beauty supplies such as soap, cream, body milk from donkey milk. Donkey meat is consumed by people in China and in some African countries.

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Figure 52. Donkeys in a breeding farm outside (above) and inside (belowe) in Kirklareli Province of Turkey (Dr. Ufuk Usta).

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Volume 16. Reproduction

Female donkeys reach sexual maturity at 1.5 years of age but mostly they do not breed until they are 2-3 years old, but can continue for another 15 years or more. The most fecund age class of females is 4 years. Some 9-month-old males can produce sperm, but all males are sexually mature by 2 years of age. Donkeys are polyestrous and mate at all times of the year.39 Females bray to call mates during oestrus.15 Mating activity gradually increases up to 2 days before females ovulate. Females in oestrus frequently adopt a copulatory stance, with their legs apart, and their tail held at a 45° angle, while making characteristic movements with their mouth. Males approach from behind and sniff the female genitals. Often the stallion vocalizes to initiate precopulatory interaction. The female kicks at the male in a ritualized manner and moves away from him in a slow canter. The male follows the female for 20 m. Both individuals stop and the female pushes back against the male. He mounts her and they move a few steps in a circle. Penetration occurs immediately, if rather clumsily, and the ejaculation occurs after several pelvic thrusts. If copulation is completed, the male dismounts and the female sheds a secretion from her vulva. The male sniffs at the secretion, displays flehmen (a rising of the upper lip with a simultaneous rising of the head), and urinates on it. They both then return to grazing or browsing. Gestation takes on average 365-370 days, and anything between 300 and 420 days – what causes such

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Figure 53. Donkeys in a breeding farm in Kirklareli (Dr. Ufuk Usta).

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variation is not known. Females commonly give birth to one foal; 39 only 1.7% of donkey pregnancies result in twins, but both twins survive in only about 14% of cases.40 The average birth weight of a foal is about 25 kg.15 Foals begin nibbling on vegetation at 5 days of age, but weaning does not occur naturally until 12-14 months,39 and should not be attempted before a foal has reached 6 months.

Figure 54. A side way rider going to highland.

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Figure 55. A donkey which has skeloton problem from Pakistan

Figure 56. A donkey in cart

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Volume 17. Genetics

Donkeys have 62 chromosomes, whereas horses have 64. Despite this, donkeys and horse can mate and produce hybrid offspring, see above for definitions of ‘mule’ and ‘hinny’. Such offspring have 63 chromosomes and are almost invariably sterile. Neither male nor female mule nor hinny can theoretically have progeny, but very rarely a female mule can give birth to a foal.15 All equine species can interbreed, but it does not normally happen in the wild and requires some training of the animals. Besides the donkey x horse crosses, donkeys can give breed with zebras. A male zebra and female donkey cross makes a zonkey, zebroid, zebras or zedonk. A rare female zebra and male donkey (jack) cross makes a zebra hinny, zebret and zebrinny.

Figure 57. A donkey with a flock of sheep near Bingol, Turkey.

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Figure 58. A donkey with a young lady in Camardi, Nigde, Turkey.

Figure 59. Donkey carrying load near Igdir city center of Turkey.

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Volume 18. Feed and water requirements

Donkeys have more endurance and tolerate reduced food and water better than other equid species. Donkeys are hardy and will live longer than other species in the same conditions. They can resist water deprivation, having a lower water requirement per unit of weight than other domesticated animals, except the camel.

Donkeys are browsing and grazing ungulates. Left to their own devices, donkeys consume dry grass, bark, leaves, twigs and roots of preferred species of plants, even creosote bushes in desert areas – not because they are hungry, but because they like them. In conditions of food scarcity they can usually therefore find enough to eat. They characteristically get by on less food than a horse of similar size, and need less protein in their diet. Good grass hay and pasture is usually all that a confined donkey needs. If the feed contains grain, the protein content should preferably be lower than 12%. Donkeys can become ill on rich food such as alfalfa/lucerne and lush spring grass, and may develop the painful hoof inflammation known as ‘laminitis’ or ‘founder’. Donkeys should not be over fed.

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Donkeys in high-density populations eat lower-quality forage, with a higher crude fibre content, than do animals in low-density populations, so calculations of ‘carrying capacity’ for ‘livestock units’ are not simple where donkeys

Figure 60. A donkey from Pakistan

Figure 61. A pair of donkey with their happy friend.

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are concerned. In the wild, donkeys graze from dawn till late morning and again in the late afternoon; they rest in the heat of the day and around midnight.

Donkeys can survive with little water and can even tolerate limited amounts of salty water. Normally a fully-grown adult donkey requires water in the range of 10 to 25 litres per day, but they are amazingly able to withstand up to 30% dehydration and recover this loss when water becomes available, without over-drinking. In the wild they sometimes go for 2-3 days without water. However, young foals and nursing females need to be near water for daily intake. Foals can begin nibbling plants at 5 days when their incisor teeth erupt, and they regularly browse on vegetation by the age of 2 weeks, but depend on their mother’s milk for fluid.

Figure 62. A donkey in shadow.

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Figure 63. A pair of donkey vs a shepherd dog, in Ilica, Erzurum, Turkey

Figure 64. Donkeys and young riders near Igdir, Turkey.

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Volume 19. Health and care Donkeys should not be used for heavy work until their long bones have formed properly, i.e. after the epiphyses have knitted, at around 3 years of age. This is just about at the stage when all of a donkey’s second-growth incisor teeth are beginning to show signs of wear.

Donkeys need the same hoof care, worming and most of the vaccinations that horses need. Donkeys suffer from many of the same illnesses and pathologies as horses, although with some important exceptions. Donkey owners should be careful that regular horse medicines, dewormers and vaccinations are effective for donkeys, because sometimes they are species-specific. Also, antihelminths and tick remedies suitable for cattle can sometimes be fatal to equids. A study carried out in Ethiopia found that deworming increased the life span of donkeys by an average of 5 years. Official studies have shown that parasites (helminths) are the major cause of death in donkeys in Ethiopia. Many farriers are nervous about working on donkeys. They think that they are too stubborn and will kick, even though it is known that they are much less given to nervous behaviour than are horses. Most donkeys do not need shoes unless they commonly carry heavy loads and work on particularly hard surfaces. Their hoofs can grow fast, and will need trimming unless they are used on surfaces that will provide wear.

Usually donkeys are kept by poor people who do not have enough income to deal with donkey illnesses, let alone their own; it is estimated that 96% of the donkey population

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Figure 65. A donkey with a flock of sheep near Aralik, Igdir, Turkey.

Figure 66. A donkey in loaded cart

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is found in developing countries, and is the basis for recommending ‘alternative medicine’ for donkeys. This may be why donkeys seem to have evolved with so few serious illnesses; often they are carriers rather than sufferers. Owners and even veterinarians sometimes say, “I have never seen an ill donkey”. It is not true; of course donkeys can be ill, although their powers of recovery can be impressive. Vaccinations are effective and important aspects of good care. In developed countries donkey owners are much more careful about their donkeys. For example, in the UK a total of 86% of the donkeys have a dental examination at least every 12 months and at least 45% have at least one dental problem. Most donkey health problems, however, have their origin in the way donkeys are managed. Much of the pathology seen in donkeys, in modern times and from the archaeological record, comes from their use in carrying loads and transporting people. For example, evidence of significant skeletal damage caused by excess weight borne by donkeys was discovered on individual animals buried in an Egyptian tomb. Donkeys may suffer from a number of parasites acquired from other animals, and may become an intermediate host for tapeworms, the cysts of which develop in the donkey lung or liver. Gas, blockages, foreign bodies, twisting or muscle spasms can affect the large intestines of donkeys that have eaten what they should not and at the very least this can cause colic. Colic is extremely painful for donkeys and it left untreated can be fatal.

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Figure 67. A pair of donkey on duty

Figure 68. A donkey with a flock of sheep near Bingol, Turkey.

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Donkey power is a one technology but this compilation showed that it can be good opportunity especially for smallscale farmers in developing countries. Donkeys are proper and important in rural farming system. They are ridden and sometimes eaten by human or some other farm animals such as dogs. They also provide milk and manure. They pull carts and other farming tools. They carry different kinds of stuff personal belongings, water, wood, tools etc. They are raised by nomadic, agro pastoralists, settled farmers, and even town residents. Further researches should be carried out into donkey usage. In spite of increased usage of motorised transport and agricultural machines and tools, donkeys are able to be an important actor of in human life again.

Figure 69. A couple on way of highland in Camardi, Nigde, Turkey.

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Figure 70. Donkey carrying load

Figure 71. A group of donkey in a village street

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Figure 72. A group of donkey with their master

Figure 73. Donkey and shepherd dog

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Figure 74. A mule carrying log

Figure 75. A pair of lady on way of highland

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REFERENCES

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Anonymous, 2011. ‘Taxonomy and nomenclature of donkey’ (comprised of Beja-Pereira et al, 2004, Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 2003, Churcher 1982, CluttonBrock 1999, Forstén 1988 and 1989, Froehlich 2002, Groves 1986, 1995 and 2002, Groves & Ryder 2000, Grubb 2005, Hooker 2008, Moehlman 2002, Rosselet al, 2008, Weinstock et al, 2005). http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/ donkey/donkey.htm (accessed on 13.02.2011). Anonymous, 2011. Sahara Ass. www.googleearth.com, (accessed on 12.02.2011) Beja-Pereira, A., England, P. R., Ferrand, N., Jordan, S., Bakhiet, A. O., Abdalla, M. A., Mashkour, M., Jordana, J., Taberlet, P., Luikart, G. (2004), ‘African origins of the domestic donkey’. Science, No 304, pp 1781-1781.

Bekele, Z., Geza, M., Sisaye, A., Ibro, A. and Bullo, T. 2001. Draught Characteristics of a Pair of Working Donkeys in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Draught Animal News, 35:2-5. Blench, R. M. 2004 This history and spread of donkeys in Africa, D. Fielding & P. Starkey (eds), Donkeys, people and development. A resource book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA). Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), Wageningen, The Netherlands. ISBN 92-9081-219-2

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Browning, D. G. and Scheifele, P. M.(2004)‘Vocalization

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of Equus asinus: The hees and haws of donkey’, Journal of Acoustical Society of America, Volume 115, No 5, pp 2485. Camac, R. O. (1997a), The Poitou: a breed threatened and saved, In E.D. Svendsen (ed). The professional handbook of the donkey (3rdedn). London, UK: Whittet Books. ISBN 1-873580-37-1 Camac, R. O.(1997b)‘Introduction and origins of the donkey’, In E.D. Svendsen (ed). The professional handbook of the donkey (3rdedn). London, UK: Whittet Books. ISBN 1-873580-37-1. Ebangi, A. L. and Vall, E.(2004), ‘The donkey of the Sudano-Sahel region of Cameroon during the dry season’, Draught Animal News, No 41, pp 2-7. Fielding, D., & Krause, P. (1998), Donkeys. (Tropical Agriculturalist Series). London, UK: CTA/Macmillan. ISBN 0-33-62750-4.

Grinder, M. I., Krausman, P. R. and Hofmann, R. S. (2006), ‘Equus asinus’, Mammalian Species, No 794, pp 1-9. Groves, C. P. (1974), Horses, asses and zebras in thewild. London: David & Charles. ISBN 0 7153 6345 X. Groves, C. P.(1986),‘The taxonomy, distribution, and adaptations of recent equids’, In: R. H. Meadow & H.-P. Uerpmann (eds). Equids in the ancient world. - Wiesbaden, Germany: Ludwig Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany.

Halliday, T.(2010),‘The use of domesticated donkeys as work animals in Ethiopia and the consequences for humans and donkeys’. Review prepared as part of a BSc. at Melbourne University, Australia.

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Hutchins, B., Hutchins, P. & Patton, L.(1999), The definitive donkey (2nd edn). Texas, USA: Hee-Haw Book Service. ISBN 0-9659312-0-X.

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Jones, P. A.(1997),‘Determination of optimal sex for working donkeys: experience from Zimbabwe’, in P.H. Starkey & P.J. Mueller (eds), Donkey power benefits, reader, Volume 2, Reading: Animal Traction Development/ATNESA. Jones, P. A.(2001),‘Must castration be selection? – The case of donkeys’, Newsletter South Africa Network of Animal Traction, Volume 9, No 1, pp 12-17. Jones, P. A. (2004), ‘The increasing importance of donkeys’, In: T.E. Simalenga & A.B.D. Joubert (eds) Animal traction in development: issues, challenges and the way forward. Workshop Proceedings South African Network of Animal Traction (SANAT), University of Fort Hare, South Africa. ISBN 1-86810-046-4

Jones, P. A. (2005), Donkeys for Development. Louis Trichardt: Donkey Power/Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA) and Agricultural Research Council of South Africa. ISBN 0-620-22177-1. Jones, P. A.(2008), ‘Animal tolerance’, Draught Animal News, Volume 46, No 1, pp 17-19.

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Squance, M. (1997), ‘Breeds in Europe’, In: E.D. Svendsen (ed), The professional handbook of the donkey (3rd edn). London, UK: Whittet Books. ISBN 1-873580-37-1. Starkey, P.(2003),‘Donkey wedding in Bangalore in July’,Draught Animal News, No 35, No 35.

Yanez, B. L., Burgue, J. M.(2001),‘An approach to determinate the status of the donkey in Central Veracruz, Mexico’, Draught Animal News, No 35, pp 15-21. Yarkın, İ. (1962), Atçılık, Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, No 40, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, Ankara. www.en.wikipedia.org_Donkey, (accessed on 2011) www.lovelongears.com, (accessed on 2011)

www.nationmaster.com, (accessed on 2011)

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DİZİN

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American Mammoth Jack 12 ane 11 arşe 12 asinus 11 ass7, 12 back 33 bay color 27 behaviour 21 birth 65 black color 27 blaze 31 bray 25 breath 17 breeds 39 Brown color 27 burro 13 care 73 chestnuts 17, 31 chromosomes 67 classification 8 colt 13 color 27 crupper 33 cuddy 13 dental array 17 digestive system 17 domestic breeds 45 donkey 7, 12 donkeys and horses 31 donkeys and cattle 35 dorsal stripe 27

dunnetjie 11 ears 17, 31 ecology 15 economic importance 49 eelstripe 29 epidermal callosities 31 Equus asinus 8 Equus asinus africanus 41 Equus asinus atlanticus 41 Equus asinus kiang 41 Equus asinus somaliensis 41 Equus hemionus 41 Equus onager 41 Esel 11 Ethiopia 19 Ethiopia donkeys 53 fecund age 63 feed 69 filly 13 flehmen 63 forelock 33 form 17 frosted white color 27 garters 27 gelding 14 genetics 67 gestation 33, 63 gestation period 33 head 31 health 73 hinny 14, 67

hoof 15, 31 horse 7 introduction 7 ivory color 27 jack 13 jackass 13 jackstock 12 jennet 13 jennet jack 14 jenny 13 Jesus 37 kiang 41 kulan 41 leg barring 27 lifespan 19 light-faced roan color 27 loin 33 mane 33 markings 29 mating activity 63 Mexico 19, 53 moke 13 mule 7, 13, 67 mule jack 14 myth 37 neck 33 Nubian ass 41 oestrus 63 Onager 41 origin 9 pasterns 31 religion 37 reproduction 63 rump 33

Sahara ass 41 sexual maturity 63 shoulder cross 27 shoulder stripe 29 Silk Road 9 skeletons 14 Somali ass 41 sorrel color 27 spotted white color 27 spotted pattern 27 Swaziland 53 tail 33 terms 11 tooth 17 types 39 Turkey 53 uncommon usages 57 vocal expression 25 water requirements 69 wild donkeys 39 withers 33 Yemen 55 zebra 7 zebrz hinny 67 zebra marks 29 zebras 67 zebret 67 zebrinny 67 zebroid 67 zedonk 67 zonkey 67

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